Introduction To General Botany Agriculture

Botany Plants are at the base of all food chains

(producers). Most staple foods either comes
Branch of biology concerned with the scientific
directly from plants or from animals that
study of plants including their physiology,
consume plants (herbivores). Botanist study
structure, genetics, ecology, distribution,
how plants produce food and increase their
classification, and economic importance.
yield. • How to feed the world and provide food
security for future generations • Control of
plant pathogens in agriculture and natural
ecosystems.

Industry

Many plants are sources of clothes and shelter

(house hold furniture). Some plants are sources
of perfumes, spices, dyes, adhesives, digestible
surgical stitching fiber, food stabilizers,
beverages, and emulsifiers. • The basic
understanding of plants, their
characteristics/properties have led to discovery
of many of these products.

Medicines

Many plants produce secondary metabolites

(e.g. alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolic compounds
etc.) that are potential source of drugs.

Ecology

Plants contribute to ecological balance •

Described as a sustainable ecological
environment, where species coexist with one
another in an ecosystem in an organized way.

Botany provides relevant information regarding

plants which helps understand the environment
and also helps in the development of ecological
research for environmental protection and
conservation. Ex. How do plants mitigate the
effects of climate change? • Trees remove more
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they
release into the atmosphere. By removing
carbon dioxide, they reduce the greenhouse
effect and this would contribute to a reduction
in global temperature.
Microscopy in relation to anatomical studies
Microscopy - is the use of a microscopes to
view samples & objects that cannot be seen
with the naked eye
the specimen at a magnification 400 times
greater
Resolution – the smallest distance between two
points visible to the eye
Resolving power – the ability to distinguish two
points as separate – human eye can resolve
about 150 μm between two points – light
microscope has a resolving power of 0.2 μm

Microscope – an instrument that gives an Illumination – for visualization of the specimen

enlarged image of an object that is minute or – transmitted light or reflected light may be
not visible with the unaided eye used in light microscopy – source of light can be
white light or uv light
Compound light microscope
Contrast – refers to the ability to distinguish an
an instrument that uses visible light to produce
object from the surrounding medium – dyes
a magnified image of an object that is seen by
and stains such as carbol fuchsin, methylene
the eye. – two lenses: objective lens and
blue and safranin are used to increase contrast
eyepiece (or ocular), work together to produce
of the specimen
the final magnification of the image

Four parameters in microscopy:

• Magnification – the enlargement of the

appearance of an object – total magnification =
magnification of the objective x magnification of
the ocular(eyepiece) • ex. 10x eyepiece used
with a 40X objective lens, will produce a
magnification of 400X • the eye can now view
In light microscopy, oil immersion is a technique
used to increase the resolving power of a
microscope. Oil has high refractive index,
thereby increasing the numerical aperture of
the objective lens.
Drawing or illustration
Accuracy– Drawing looks similar to what was
observed - Details such as color, texture, shape,
etc. are included in diagram
Size- Drawing is of appropriate size to see
details, drawn to scale
Labeling- All parts of the diagram/drawings are
labeled as instructured in lab directions.
The Plant Body
Survey of the Plant Groups
Non vascular Plants (bryophytes) - Small
compact green plants , With chlorophyll a and
b, starch, cellulose cell walls and motile sperm
cells it has no true vascular system . water is
absorb by capillary action it reproduce by way
of spores - no true “roots” (rhizoids) and leaves
- Gametes develop within gametangia -
Male gametangium: antheridium – produce
flagellated sperms
Female gametangium: archegonium- produce
the egg . Egg is fertilized within the
archegonium - zygote develops in the protective
tissue of the archegonium
life cycle with dominant gametophyte
generation
Gametophyte (n) – plant body containing
gametangia
Sporophyte (2n) – plant body containing
sporangia . Short lived, produce haploid
spores by meiosis that germinates into
gametophytes ( alternation of generation) -
examples: mosses (Division Bryophyta),
liverworts (Division Hepatophyta), and
hornworts (Division Anthocerophyta)
II Vascular Plants - life cycle with dominant
sporophyte generation - with vascular tissues:
xylem and phloem - with true roots and leaves
A. Seedless Vascular Plants - microphylls and
megaphylls - reproduce by spore production in
specialized leaves called sporophylls
Classification of Seedless Vascular Plants
Division Psilophyta Genus Psilotum (whisk fern)
 Division Lycophyta Genus Lycopodium (club
mosses) Selaginella (spike moss)
Division Sphenophyta Genus Equisetum
(horsetail)
Division Pterophyta Genus Polypodium (ferns)
B. Seed Plants – with reduced gametophyte
tissue that are protected inside ovules and
pollen grains
a. Gymnosperms – bear “naked” seeds that are
not enclosed in ovaries but typically in cones
b. Angiosperms (flowering plants) – bear seeds
enclosed by the ovary (fruit)
Classification of Seed Plants
Gymnosperms
Division Ginkgophyta Genus Ginkgo
Division Cycadophyta Genus Cycas
Division Gnetophyta Genus Gnetum, Ephedra,
Welwitschia
Division Coniferophyta Genus Pinus
Angiosperms
Division Anthophyta Class Monocotyledones
(monocots) Dicotyledones (dicots)
Plant life span
Annuals are plants that germinate, grow,
reproduce and die in one growing season.
Biennials grow vegetatively in their first
growing season and reproduce and die in a
second growing season.
Perennials grow for several seasons.
polycarpic - reproduce year after year, once
reaching sexual maturity
monocarpic - grow vegetatively for a number of
seasons, then reproduce once and die.
Perennials can be herbaceous or woody. Some II. The Organs
woody perennials, such as the Bristle cone -Roots - Stems - Leaves - Flowers and fruits
pine, live for thousands of years.
III. The Tissues
Levels of Organization in the Plant Body
(Angiosperms) Dermal Tissues (Simple permanent tissues)
Ground Tissues (Simple permanent tissues)
I. The Organism Vascular Tissues (Complex permanent tissues)
A. The Shoot System - above ground Meristematic Tissues
(usually) ,elevates the plant above the soil ,
many functions including: photosynthesis, Angiosperm Classes: Monocots vs Dicots
reproduction & dispersal , food and water
conduction

B. The Root System - underground

(usually),anchor the plant in the soil , absorb
water and nutrients , conduct water and
nutrients , food storage

Methods in Stem Sectioning:

Tangential Section - a longitudinal section of a

stem where the section is perpendicular to the
tangent or radius of the stem
Radial Section - a longitudinal section of the
stem that follows the radius (diameter) of the
stem and is parallel to a vascular ray.
Cross/Transverse Section- a section formed by
a plane cutting at right angles to an axis

Eukaryotic cell
Membrane lipids
Plant Cell :Structure and Function
Phospholipids
◦ constitute 75% of the membrane lipids;
◦ occur as two layers (phospholipid bilayer)
◦ Composition: Head - glycerol and phosphate
unit hydrophilic; faces the fluid part of the cell
Tail - two fatty acid chains hydrophobic;
oriented away from the fluid environment
Cholesterol – constitute 20% of the membrane
lipids - it gives fluidity to the cell membrane

Cholesterol – constitute 20% of the membrane

lipids - it gives fluidity to the cell membrane
Glycolipids - constitute 5% of the membrane

Cell Membrane Importance: ◦ defines the

boundary of the cell ◦ controls the passage of
materials into and out of the cell ◦ govern the
interaction of the cell with other cells

lipids - 2 fatty acids + short carbohydrate chains

Membrane Protiens

a. Integral proteins –pass all the way through

the cell membrane
b. Peripheral proteins –adhere to the surface
of the cell membrane
glycoproteins ➢proteins + short carbohydrate
chains
Function of Membrane Protiens
Receptors
◦ bind to chemical messengers such as
hormones ◦ binding to receptor results to a
physiological change in the cell
◦ important for cell communication
Enzymes –act as catalyst for chemical reaction
to take place
➢Anchor proteins - physically link intracellular
structures with extracellular structures
Transport proteins
Channel proteins –allow the passage of water
and solutes to enter or exit the cell
Carrier proteins- transport substances into and
out of the cell the membrane protein changes
shape in transporting substances
Protein pumps- transport substances against its
concentration gradient.
Properties of Membranes
Fluidity of membranes
◦ permits movement of membrane pieces
◦ allow for vesicle formation and fusion
◦ important for 1. transport of materials by:
exocytosis – release materials to the outside
(secretion)
endocytosis – materials are taken inside the
cell
phagocytosis – solid substances
pinocytosis – liquid substances
Permeability of the membrane
◦ Selectively permeable - hydrophobic
substances, smaller molecules (ex. water) may
diffuse easily through the phospholipid bilayer
large hydrophilic substances (ex. Amino)and
ions pass through membrane proteins by Nucleus
facilitated diffusion or active transport
Spherical structure with double layered
membrane
◦ Outer membrane continuous with the rough
endoplasmic reticulum
◦ with nuclear pores for the passage of
substances between the nucleus and the
cytoplasm

Cytoplasm

the part between the cell membrane, nucleus,

and or the vacuole
◦ divided into two components: -
◦ Cytosol- fluid portion containing water and
dissolved solutes and suspended particles
◦Organelles -subcellular structure each having a
characteristic shape and specific function in
cellular growth, maintenance and reproduction

Two types of organelles

Membranous organelles
◦ surrounded by one or two bilayer lipid
membrane
◦ includes the endomembrane system - set of
membranes that form a single functional unit,
either being connected directly, or exchanging
material through vesicle transport. - works
together to modify, package, and transport
lipids and proteins.

Nonmembranous organelles
◦ lack membranes and is directly in contact with
the cytosol
Golgi Aparatus ( Dictyosomes)

Consist of flattened membrane sacs which

receive protein from ER or lipids from SER
◦ Form vesicles that process, sort and package
proteins/lipids for transport to different parts of
the cell (vacuole, lysosome, etc) or for secretion
◦ Parts:
◾cis face - “entry" side of dictyosome
amino acids
◾trans face - “exit" side of dictyosome
detoxify harmful substances in the cell ◦ ex.
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) H2O2 catalase H2O
+ Oxygen

Central Vacuole
Compose of a single membrane called
tonoplast
functions :
◦ Digestive - break down of macromolecules
◦ Storage - ions, sugars, amino acids, toxic
waste
◦ Maintain cell turgidity - high ionic
concentration generates high water potential
◦ Cell growth – as it expands, it forces the cell
to grow rapidly

Mitochondria
Site of aerobic cell respiration
◦ C6H12O6 + O2 - - > CO2 + H2O+ Energy (ATP)
-the process that breaks down organic
compounds in the presence of oxygen to yield
energy (as ATP)
- Energy is used for synthesis of new
compounds or for cell metabolism ➢ with DNA
and ribosomes distinct from those of the cell
o Capable of reproduction

Parts of Mitochondria

Types of Microbodies Smooth outer membrane

◦ give shape and rigidity
◦Glyoxysomes ◦ freely permeable
- Involved in converting stored fats into sugars Inner membrane
- Important during germination of fat-rich, oily ◦ arranged into folds called crista(e)
seeds ex. peanut, sunflower and coconut ◦ site of energy generation (ATP) during cell
Peroxisomes respiration
-contain enzymes that degrade fatty acids and ◦ selectively permeable
◦ with abundance of enzymes for ATP photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll
production molecules) - site of light reaction of
Matrix - fluid inner portion of the mitochondria photosynthesis (the conversion of light energy
to ATP)

Plastids

associated with pigments and storage products

with outer and inner membrane with distinct
ribosomes and circular DNA
◦ Capable of reproduction
Types:
1. Proplastid
2. Chloroplast
3. Etioplast
4. Chromoplast
5. Leucoplast: - Amyloplast - Proteinoplast –
Elaioplast

Proplastids
◦ small undifferentiated plastids
◦ in young developing cells ◦ may develop into
chloroplast when exposed to light

Chloroplast
◦ site of photosynthesis - conversion of solar
energy to chemical energy in the form sugars
sunlight
◦ CO2 + H2O ----------> C6H12O6 + O2

Parts of Chloroplast

-Outer Membrane and Inner Membrane

THYLOKOID is a third internal membrane

system - contain membrane-bound