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Gupta Age, Post Gupta Age & Harsha Age, Early Medieval
Kingdoms
Background of Guptas

After the fall of the Mauryan empire, the Kushans in the North and Satavahanas in the south had
held power. Gupta empire replaced the Kushans in the North with its centre of power at Prayag
and gave political unity for more than a century (335AD-455AD). It was founded by Sri Gupta..
This period is referred to as the ‘Classical Age’ or the ‘Golden Age’.
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1. Chandragupta I (319-334 AD)

• He was the first great ruler of the Gupta Dynasty. He assumed the title
Maharajadhiraja. Married Licchhavi princess Kumaradevi.
• Started the Gupta Era by 319-20 AD
• The original type of Gold coins Dinaras was issued.
2. Samudragupta (335-380 AD)
• He followed a policy of violence and conquest which led to the enlargement of
the Gupta empire
• Harisena, his court poet, vividly mentions his military exploits in Allahabad
inscriptions
• He was a Vaishnavite.
• He reached Kanchi in the south which was ruled by Pallavas
• His titles were
1. Kaviraja, i.e. King of Poets (Prayaga Prasasti)
2. Param Bhagavat (Nalanda Copper Plate)
3. Ashwamedha-Prakrama (Coin)
4. Vikram (Coin)
5. Sarva-Raj-ochchetta, i.e. uprooter of all kings (Coin)
• Meghavarman, the ruler of Srilanka, sent a missionary for permission to build a
Buddhist temple at Gaya
• Samudragupta is called as Napoleon of India
3. Chandragupta II (380-414 AD)
• He adopted the title Vikramaditya.
• He conquered Malwa and Gujarat, which provided him access to the sea, which
enabled trade and commerce. Ujjain was made as the second capital.
• His court was adorned by the Navaratnas including Kalidasa (Poetry- Ritusamhar,
Meghdutam, Kumarsambhavam, Raghuvamshama; Drama- Malvikagnimitra,
Vikramorvashiyam, Abhijan-Shakuntalam), Amarasinh, Dhanvantri and
Varahmihira.
• His exploits are glorified in Iron Pillar at Qutub Minar
• Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hien (399-414AD) visited India during his period.
4. Kumargupta I (414-455 AD)
• He founded the Nalanda Mahavihara which developed into a great centre of
learning.
5. Skandgupta (455-467 AD)
• He was the last great ruler of the Gupta Dynasty.
• During his reign, the Empire was invaded by Huns, but he succeeded in defeating
them.
6. The last ruler of the Gupta Empire was Vishnugupta. His reign ended in 550 AD.

Trends in trade and agrarian economy

• Guptas issued a large number of Gold coins which were called as Dinars
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Taxes

1. Bhaga- King’s customary share, 1/6th of the produce paid by the

cultivators
2. Bhoga- Periodic supply of fruits, fire, wood, flowers etc. which the
villagers had to furnish to the king
3. Bali- Initially voluntary but later made permanent. It was some kind of
additional and oppressive tax
4. Uparikara- An extra tax levied on all subjects

• . The first example of Sati also appears in the Gupta period.

• Idol worship became a common feature of Hinduism
2. Art

• Gupta period is called the Golden age of ancient India. Art was mostly inspired by
Religions.
• Rock cut caves – Ajanta, Ellora and Bagh caves
• Structural temples – Dashavatar temple of Deogarh, Laxman temple of Sirpur, Vishnu
temple and Varah temple of Eran. The growth of Nagara style also enabled the
development of temple architecture in India
• Stupas – Dhammek stupa of Sarnath, Ratnagiri stupa of Orissa, Mirpur Khas in Sindh
developed in this period.
• Paintings – Ajanta paintings and Bagh caves paintings
• Sculpture – the Bronze image of Buddha near Sultanganj, Sarnath and Mathura school
flourished during this period which supports the growth of Mahayana Buddhism and
Idol worship.
• Images of Vishnu, Shiva and some other Hindu gods were also found.

1. Literature
• Religious
Ramayana, Mahabharata, Vayu Purana etc. were re-written. Dignaga and
Buddhagosha were certain Buddhist literature written in this period
• Secular
a. Mudrarakshasha by Vishakadatta
b. Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvashiyam, AbhijanaShakuntalam – Dramas
by Kalidasa
c. Ritusamhar, Megadoot, Raghuvamsam, Kumarasambhavam – Poetries
by Kalidasa
d. Mricchakatika by Sudraka
e. Kamasutra by Vatsyayana
f. Panchatantra by Vishnu Sharma
• Scientific
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a. Aryabhatiya and Surya Siddhanta by Aryabhatta

b. Romaka Siddhanta
c. Mahabhaskarya and Laghubhaskarya by Bhaskara
d. Pancha Siddhanta, Vrihat Jataka, Vrihat Samhita by Vrahamihira

Fall of the Empire

1. Hunas invasion during the reign of Skandagupta and his successors greatly weakened his
Empire
2. Rule of Yashodharman dealt a severe blow to the Gupta empire.
3. The rise of feudatories and Governors becoming independent led to the disintegration of
the Gupta empire. Loss of western India had crippled them economically.

Post Gupta Age and Harsha Age

After 468 AD, Gupta empire started declining and collapsed by the middle of 6th century AD.

Harshavardhana:
• After the decline of Gupta empire, many small kingdoms arose. One such kingdom was
near Thaneshwara, ruled by Vardhana dynasty whose founder was Prabhakar Vardhan
(580 – 605 B.C.E.).
• The greatest ruler of this dynasty was Harshavardhana. He made Kannauj his capital.
• Grahvarman Maukhari, king and husband of Rajya Sri (sister of Harshavardhan) was
murdered by Devgupta, ruler of Malwa in alliance with gaur king Shashanka.
• Chinese traveler Hiuen Tsang praised his rule who wrote Si-yu-ki.
• Harshavardhana had tried to cross river Narmada but was defeated by the Chalukyan
king, Pulakeshin II.
• He was a follower of Shiva and his administration was efficient.
• Harshavardhan wrote Ratnavali, Naganada and Priyadashika.
• He patronised Banbhatta who wrote Harsha Charitra and Kadambari Saurbham.
• The successor of Harshavardhan was Arunasva.
The struggle for domination among Palas, Pratiharas & Rashtrakutas was a tripartite struggle.
There was a common struggle between these kingdoms over the control of Kannauj which would
have enabled them to control the fertile upper Gangetic plains.

The Palas
• They dominated Eastern India.
• Founded by Gopala in 750 AD and succeeded by Dharam Pala. The Pala rulers were
defeated by the Prathiharas and Rashtrakutas in the North.
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• They were patrons of Buddhism.

• Dharmapala revived the Nalanda University by setting aside 200 villages for its expenses.
He also founded Vikramashila University and built many Viharas for Buddhist monks.
• They had trade contacts and cultural links with South-East Asia. Sailendra dynasty sent
many ambassadors and asked permission to build a monastery near Nalanda.

The Pratiharas
• They dominated Western India and Upper Gangetic valley
• The real founder and major ruler was Bhoja with title Adivaraha
• Al-Masudi, a Baghdad traveller, visited India during the times of Pratiharas in 915-16 AD
• Rajashekar, a great Sanskrit poet, and dramatist lived at the court of Mahipala.
• The attacks by Rashtrakuta rulers, Indra III and Krishna III led to the faster dissolution of
the empire.

The Rashtrakutas
• They dominated Deccan and certain territories in North and South India. The kingdom
was founded by Dandi Durga with capital at Malkhed.
• Amogavarsha was a great king. He was credited with writing the first poetics book in
Kannada. He also built the Capital city, Manyakhet.
• They were in the constant contest with the Pallavas, the Cholas and the Chalukyas in the
South.
• Krishna I built the rock-cut temple of Shiva at Ellora.
• They had a tolerant religious policy which favoured their foreign trade.
• Kotwal – responsibility to maintain law and order
• Nad-Gavundas/Desa-gramakutas – hereditary revenue officers in Deccan.

THE CHALUKYAS
Chalukyas were the Karnataka rulers and their History can be classified into three eras:

• The early western era (6th - 8th century), the era which belonged to Chalukyas of Badami
(Vatapi);
• The later western era (7th - 12th century), the era which belonged to Chalukyas of Kalyani;
• The eastern Chalukya era (7th - 12th century), the era which belonged to Chalukyas of
Vengi.
• Pulakeshin I (543-566) was the first independent ruler of Badami dynasty. The capital of
his kingdom was Vatapi in Bijapur.
• Pulakeshin I was succeeded by Kirthivarma I (566-596). After his untimely death, his
brother Mangalesha (597-610) was made the caretaker ruler as the son of Kirthivarma I,
Prince Pulakesin II was a baby. Mangalesha made several failed attempts to kill the prince
but was killed himself by the prince and his friends.
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• Pulakeshin II (610-642) was the son of Pulakeshin I. Pulakeshin II was a contemporary of

Harshavardhana. He defeated Harshavardhana on the banks of the Narmada ( Aihole
inscription of Ravikirti). His reign is remembered as the greatest period in the history of
Karnataka. He was defeated by Pallava king Narsimhavarman I.
• The rise of the Eastern Chalukyan Era was started by Pulakeshin II brother Kubja
Vishnuvardana after conquering the Kosalas and the Kalingas.
• By 631, the Chalukyan Empire was at its peak. It extended from sea to sea. Their fall began
when Pulkeshin II was defeated and killed by the Pallavas under the able leadership of
Narsimhavarma I. The Pallavas attacked their capital Badami & captured it.
• Under the leadership of Vikramaditya I (655-681) the Chalukyas rose to power once again.
Vikramaditya I defeated his contemporaries Pandya, Pallava, Cholas and Kerala rulers to
establish his supremacy over the Chalukyan Empire in the southern region.
• Vikramaditya I was succeeded by Vikramaditya II (733-745) who also defeated thePallava
king Nandivarma II to capture a major portion of the Pallava kingdom.
• The fall of the Chalukyan Empire started with Vikramaditya II‘s son, Kirtivarma II (745),
who was defeated by the Rashtrakuta ruler, Dhantidurga, who went on to establish the
Rashtrakuta dynasty.

PALLAVA DYNASTY
• After the decline of the Satavahana dynasty, the Pallava dynasty, founded by
Shivaskandavarman emerged in South India.
• Kanchi was the capital of the Pallava dynasty.
• Some of the leaders who are worth mentioning are Simhavarama I, Sivaskandavarma I,
Veerakurcha, Shandavarma II, Kumaravishnu I, Simhavarma II, and Vishnugopa.
• The decline of the Pallavas started after Samudragupta defeated Vishugopa.
• The Pallavas kingdom was re-established by Simhavishnu, the son of Simhavarma II, who
ended the Kalabhras‘ dominance in 575 AD and re-established his kingdom.
• Vikramaditya I was defeated by Parameshwaravarma I in 670 and restricted the advance
of the Chalukyan king. Eventually, Parameshwaravarma I was defeated by the combined
armies of the Chalukyas, the Pandyas (lead by their ruler Arikesari Maravarma) and
another prominent enemy of the Pallavas.
• Narasimhavarma II, a peace-loving ruler, succeeded Parameshwaravarma I after
he died in 695. The famous Kailashanatha temple at Kanchi is built by Narasimhavarma II.
After the accidental death of his elder sons in 722, Narasimhavarma II too died grieving.
• Parameshwaravarma II the youngest son of Narasimhavarma II, came to power in 722
after the death of his father. The Pallava kingdom was in a state of disarray after the death
of Parameshwaravarma II in 730 as he had no heirs to the throne.
• After some brief infighting for the throne among the family, Nandivarma II came to
power. Nandivarma then went on to marry the Rashtrakuta princess Reeta Devi and re-
established the Pallava kingdom.
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• Dantivarma (796-846) succeeded Nandivarma II who ruled for 54 long years. Rastrakuta
king Dantidurga defeated Dantivarma and was succeeded by Nandivarma III in 846.

The Chola Empire

• The Chola empire, which arose in the 9th century, brought a large part of the Peninsula
under their control. With a strong Navy, they conquered Sri Lanka, Maldives and had a
strong foreign trade.
• The empire was founded by Vijaylala, a feudatory of Pallavas, in 850 AD.
• Rajaraja (985-1014) and Rajendra I (1014-1044) were the greatest Chola kings. They
followed a policy of annexation which included annexing Sri Lanka, Maldives, Pandyas and
Cheras to control the prosperous trade with South-East Asian countries
• Rajarajeshwara temple was built in 1010 at Tanjore.
• Rajendra I assumed the title Gangaikondachola (the Chola conqueror of Ganga) and
instituted a new capital at the banks of Kaveri called “Gangaikondacholapuram”
• Rajendra I also undertook a naval expedition against revived Sri Vijaya Empire of Indo-
China
• The ruler of Sailendra dynasty had built a Buddhist monastery at Nagapattinam.
• The strong navy of Chola led to the conversion of Bay of Bengal into “Chola lake”
• The Cholas encouraged Local Self-Government in the villages under their administration.
Chola Government

• The King administered his territories with advice from his Council of Ministers
• Chola administration
• Mandalams – Provinces
• Valanadu – minor provinces
• Nadu – district
• Kurram – a group of villages
• Infrastructure: Royal roads were built, irrigation projects were undertaken
• Village assemblies: the Ur – general assembly of the village; the Mahasabha – the
gathering of adult men in Brahmana villages which were called Agraharas.
Cultural life

• They were great builders of Cities (Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram), large palaces,

banquet halls, spacious gardens, and terraces etc.
• Dravida style of temple architecture attained its climax. The temple had become so
elaborate like a mini city and enjoyed revenue-free grants of lands for its expenses
• Kailashnath temple in Kanchi, Brihadeswara temple in Tanjore are examples of Dravidian
architecture
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• After the fall of Cholas, the Hoysalas continued the tradition with building temples in
Halebid (Hoysaleshwara temple), an example of Chalukyan architecture.
• Sculpture art attained its heights with Gomateshwar statue in Sharvana Belagola and
Bronze Nataraja statue
• Along with Sanskrit literature, the local language literature also grew in this region
• Bhakti movement started with Alvars and Nayanars flourished in 6th to 9th Their writings
“Tirumurai” is seen as Fifth Veda. Kamban’s Ramayan is also considered as a classic in
Tamil literature.
• Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna are regarded as the three gems of Kannada Poetry
• Thus, this period had a flourishing trade and commerce, great temple building activities
and promising literary works.

Early Medieval Kingdoms

The Ghaznavids

• Mahmud (998-1030) ascended the throne of Ghazni

• Firdausi was a court-poet of Ghazni. His famous work “Shah Namah” was a watershed in
Iranian renaissance
• Mahmud was a plunderer and destroyer of temples. In 1025, he raided and plundered the
Somnath temple in Gujarat. He undertook 17 raids in India and constantly fought against
the Hindushahi rulers
• Seljuk Empire was established with the death of Mahmud.

The Rajput States

• The break-up of the Pratiharas empire led to the formation of Rajputana states.
• Few important of these were-
(a) Gahadavalas of Kannauj
(b) Paramaras of Malwa
(c) Chauhans of Ajmer
• Few other significant states were Kalachuris near Jabalpur, Chandellas in Bundelkhand,
Chalukyas of Gujarat, Tomars of Delhi etc.
• Rajputs patronized Hinduism and Jainism to certain extent.
• They also upheld the Varna system and the Privileges of Brahmanas.

Turkish Conquests

• While the Rajputs put a stout defence against the Turkish tribesmen, they allowed Muslim
traders which enhanced trade and commerce.
• The Seljuk empire was replaced by Khwarizmi empire in Iran and Ghurid empire in Ghur.
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• Muizzudin Muhammed ascended the throne at Ghazni while Chauhan’s powers were also
constantly rising. With the capture of Delhi, the Chauhans and Ghurids were in the direct
contest.
• 1st Battle of Tarain (1191) Muhammed Ghori Vs. Prithviraj Chauhan – Ghurids lost the
battle
• 2nd Battle of Tarain(1192) Muhammed Ghori Vs. Prithviraj Chauhan – Prithviraj Chauhan
lost the battle. This led to Delhi and Eastern Rajasthan passing under the Turkish rule.
• Muhammad Ghori entrusted the positions under Qutbuddin Aibak, who later found the
Slave dynasty and led to the foundations of Delhi Sultanate. Bakthiyar Khalji has entrusted
the positions east of Benares.

The Chauhans of Ajmer

● The Chauhans were the feudatories of Gurjara-Pratiharas

● Ajayaraj Chauhan, king of Sakhambari established a city called Ajayameru which was later
known as Ajmer
● His successor Vigraharaj captured Dhillika from Tomar Kings.
● After the defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan, the dynasty was weakened.
● Qutbuddin Aibak dealt the final blow by defeating the dynasty in 1197 AD.

The Tomars of Delhi

• The Tomars were the feudatories of the Pratiharas.

• They founded the city of Delhi in 736 A.D. During 9th-12th century, the Tomars of Delhi
ruled parts of the present-day Delhi and Haryana.
• Mahipala Tomar captured Thaneshwar, Hansi and Nagarkot in 1043 A.D.
• Chauhans captured Delhi in middle of the 12th century and the Tomars became their
feudatories.

Mewar

• Mewar is a region of south-central Rajasthan state in western India.

• It includes the present-day districts of Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Rajsamand, Udaipur, Pirawa
Tehsil of Jhalawar District of Rajasthan, Neemuch and Mandsaur of Madhya Pradesh and
some parts of Gujarat.
• The region was a part of the Rajput-ruled Mewar Kingdom or the Udaipur Kingdom. In
1568, Akbar captured Chittorgarh, the capital of Mewar.

Maha Rana Sanga (1508 - 1528)

• Rana Sanga of Mewar belonged to the Sisodiya clan who was a contemporary to Ibrahim
Lodhi and Babur.
• The Battle of Khanwa, 1527 took place between Babur and Rana Sanga in which Babur
won and established the Mughal’s rule firmly in North India.
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Maha Rana Pratap (1572 - 1597)

• Rana Pratap of Mewar belonged to the Sisodiya Rajputs as was Rana Sanga.
• He was a contemporary of Akbar.
• When Akbar sent a number of envoys in making Rana Pratap as a vassal and submitting
to Akbar, Rana refused and the Battle of Haldighati was fought on 1576 between Raja
Man Singh I of Amber and Maha Rana Pratap in which Maha Rana Pratap was defeated
by the Mughals.

Marwar

• In 1194, Mahmud of Ghori defeated Jaichand of Kannauj.

• His descendant, Sheoji, established themselves at Mandore city in Marwar.
• The Jodhpur state was founded in the 13th century by the Rathore clan of Rajputs, who
claim descent from the Gahadvala kings of Kannauj.
• The Rathore rulers of the Indian princely state of Jodhpur were of an ancient dynasty
established in the 8th century.
• However, the dynasty's fortunes were made by Rao Jodha, first of the rulers of the
Rathore dynasty in Jodhpur in 1459.

The Chandelas of Bundelkhand

• Established them in the 9th century. Harshadeva was the founder of this dynasty.
• Bundelkhand was also known as Jejakabhukti
• Mahoba was the capital of Chandela during the period of Chief Yasovarman
• Kalinjar was their important fort.
• The Chandelas built the most famous Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in 1050 A.D. and a
number of beautiful temples at Khajuraho. Vidyadhara is noted for having commissioned
the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.
• Paramal the last Chandela ruler was defeated by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1203 A.D.

The Paramaras of Malwa

• They were a part of Agnivanshi Rajput dynasty. Established in 9-10th Century, they were
vassals of Rashtrakutas
• They made Dhar as their capital. Bhoja was an important ruler in their period.
• The later Paramara rulers moved their capital to Mandu after Dhar was sacked multiple
times by their enemies.
• Mahalakadeva, the last known Paramara king, was defeated and killed by the forces of
Alauddin Khalji of Delhi in 1305 CE.

The Kalachuris of Tripuri

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• The Kalachuris of Chedi, ruled parts of central India during 7th to 13th centuries from their
capital Tripuri near Jabalpur.
• The kingdom reached its zenith during the reign of Lakshmikarna, who assumed the title
Chakravartin after military campaigns against several neighbouring kingdoms
• The Karan temple at Amarkantak was built by Lakshmikarna (1041 – 1173 CE).

Karkota Dynasty in Kashmir

• It was founded by Durlabhvardhana during the lifetime of Harshavardhana.

• Durlabhvardhana had a long reign and so had his son named Durlabahaka.
• Grandson of Durlabahaka named Lalitaditya Muktapida (724-760 AD) created an empire
based on Kashmir and covering most of Northern India and Central Asia including most
parts of Pakistan.
• Lalitaditya Muktapida defeated Yasovarman, the King of Kannauj.
• The Martand complex of temples in the Anantnag district of Kashmir perpetuate the
memory of King Lalitaditya.
• These details are described in the Rajtanagini of Kalhana.
Utpala Dynasty

• Avantivarman was the founder of Utpala dynasty in 855-883 AD.

• He built Avantipur.
• He was succeded by Shankarvarman, became unpopular due to heavy taxes.
• Kshemagupta, married Lohara dynasty princess, Didda.
Lohara Dynasty

• Queen Didda of Lohara (958-972 AD): She became queen in 980 AD after the death of her
husband Kshemagupta (950-958 AD) to protect the rights of her son Abhimanyu.
• Sangrama Raja – founder, Queen Didda’s nephew.
• Harsha was an important ruler. Kalhana was his court poet also called as Nero of Kashmir.
• Later, Uchchala (1001-11 AD), a descendant of Didda’s brother came to power.
• His Brother Sushala (1128 AD) and then his son (1155 AD) ruled Kashmir. But they were
always led down by their relatives.
• Jayasingh was the last king.
• In 11th century, Kshmendra wrote Brihatkathamanjari and Saritasagar.