Tribology International 147 (2020) 106284

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tribology International
journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint

Deformation of hadfield steel single crystals by dry sliding friction with the
normal load/friction force orientations ½110�/½110� and ½110�/[001]
D.V. Lychagin a, A.V. Filippov b, *, O.S. Novitskaya b, Y.I. Chumlyakov a, E.A. Kolubaev b, L.
L. Lychagina c, d
a
National Research Tomsk State University, 36, Lenin Ave., Tomsk, 634050, Russia
b
Institute of Strength Physics and Material Science of SB RAS, 2/4 Akademichesky Ave., Tomsk, 634055, Russia
c
Tomsk State University of Architecture and Building, 2, Solyanaya Sq., Tomsk, 634003, Russia
d
Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics, 40, Lenin Ave., Tomsk, 634050, Russia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper studies the friction and wear of Hadfield steel single crystals with the normal load/friction force
Hadfield steel orientations ½110�/½110� and ½110�/[001]. Due to the different friction force orientation, deformation occurs by
Sliding friction
twinning in the first case and by slip in the second case. The shear stresses were estimated and correlated with the
Wear
observed slip band systems. Changes in the orientation of the worn surface were examined by EBSD analysis.
Deformation
TEM studies were performed to investigate the dislocation structure evolution near the worn surface.

1. Introduction
Iron-manganese steels are very attractive for industrial applications
due to their mechanical characteristics. Hadfield steel, known for its
excellent wear resistance under high loading conditions, is widely used
in mining, railway industry, in the manufacture of caterpillar tracks and
excavator buckets [1,2]. Owing to its high strength characteristics,
Hadfield steel is a very popular material for tribological applications.
The boundary between contacting bodies is the place where various
processes occur simultaneously, such as deformation, heating, wear, and
so on. All of them influence the deformation structure evolution in the
contact zone.
Analysis of a large body of literature data on austenitic steels with
high manganese content shows that slip and twinning induced plasticity
are the main deformation mechanisms in this type of steels [3–10]. The
dominant deformation mechanism and possible types of interaction
between structural defects can be determined by such parameters as
crystallographic orientation [4–7], stacking fault energy [12], strain
rate [13–17], and temperature [3,11,18,19]. The high degree of work
hardening of Hadfield steel is associated with the formation of defor­
mation micro- and nanotwins [12]. Deformation twins can also be
formed due to loading rate increase [13]. It was clearly demonstrated in
impact load tests that a higher strain rate leads to a higher activity of
twins [14,20].
It was found that the hardening of Hadfield steel involves a whole
range of mechanisms, but the role of each mechanism depends on the
specific deformation conditions [3]. The types of dislocation structure
determine the stress-strain curve stages and the work hardening coeffi­
cient [21]. Depending on the dominant deformation mechanism, the
role of substructural hardening [22] and hardening due to internal stress
fields [23,24] is different. In Hadfield steel, a change in the type of
dislocation structure leads to a change in the work hardening coefficient
and determines the stress-strain curve shape for single crystals with
different orientations [5]. The hardening characteristics of Hadfield
steel largely depend on the crystallographic orientation for single crys­
tals and texture for polycrystal due to the anisotropy of slip systems for
slip and twinning, as well as on the stress sign in the slip plane during
twinning (tension or compression). Non-textured polycrystals provide
averaged information because of the statistical scatter of grain orienta­
tions in a polycrystal and heterogeneous stress fields in the deformed
material at different scale levels.
According to Ref. [25], while interacting with dislocations, carbon
atoms in C–Mn clusters produce a high dislocation density in tangles,
giving rise to short-range stress fields. The authors of Ref. [26] proposed
a model to describe the work hardening of Hadfield steel. The model is
based on the assessment of the interaction between carbon atoms in
interstitial sites and nearest neighboring metal atoms. The stress for the
motion of subsequent dislocations is lower than that required to trigger

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: avf@ispms.ru (A.V. Filippov).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2020.106284
Received 7 December 2019; Received in revised form 31 January 2020; Accepted 27 February 2020
Available online 2 March 2020
0301-679X/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D.V. Lychagin et al. Tribology International 147 (2020) 106284

dislocation climbing or glide in less stressed slip planes. In Hadfield steel

of conventional composition, the order will be restored during defor­
mation, suppressing planar glide. In Ref. [27,28], an elasto-viscoplastic
polycrystalline model was proposed which includes slip and twinning in
the form of deformation modes. The model was applied to describe the
behavior of Fe–Mn–C austenitic steel with low stacking fault energy. It
was suggested that work hardening results from the competition be­
tween hardening and softening associated with twinning.
Earlier, the strain hardening and wear mechanisms under various
friction conditions were studied for polycrystalline Hadfield steel
[29–38] and other high manganese steels [39], including those alloyed
with N, Cr [40], Al [41,42] and reinforced by TiC [43] and V2C particles
[44]. These studies were carried out in order to clarify the influence of
Fig. 1. Test configuration and position of ½110�/[001] (a) and ½110�/½110�
friction conditions and its intensity on the main wear mechanisms. In
Hadfield steel single crystals (b) in dry sliding friction.
most cases, the main wear mechanism of materials not reinforced by
particles at low loads is the oxidative wear; as the load increases, other
determining the average wear rate for the entire test period. The test
types of wear become more pronounced, such as microcutting, lamina­
termination criterion was met when the wear volume reached 3 mm3.
tion, and plastic deformation. The addition of particles (their incorpo­
This criterion was selected on the basis of a large number of experi­
ration into the austenitic matrix) changes the wear resistance and wear
mental studies, because upon reaching this value the wear rate of the
mechanisms, but a clear dependence of the wear (mechanisms and wear
samples stabilizes regardless of the considered crystallographic
rate) on the loading (deformation) conditions of the material remains.
orientation.
In Ref. [29], the authors observed a relationship between the crys­
The orientation of microregions was determined on a TESCAN VEGA
tallographic orientation of grains in polycrystalline Hadfield steel and
II LMU scanning electron microscope equipped with an EBSD detector.
the deformation behavior of the material when scratched by a single
The minimum size of misoriented regions was 1 μm. The deformation
fixed abrasive. The degree of damage to the surface of grains depended
structure of surface and subsurface layers was examined in cross section
on their orientation. The wear mechanisms and coefficient of friction
after tribological tests by transmission electron microscopy (JEOL JEM-
also varied depending on the grain orientation. The main wear mecha­
2100F).
nism of grains with the (001) surface was microploughing, and for grains
with the (111) surface it was microcutting. The results of Ref. [29]
clearly show that by comprehensively examining the crystallographic 3. Results
orientation effect it is possible to simulate a texture in a polycrystalline
material that would be most suitable for the required friction conditions. 3.1. Analysis of the friction process: wear and coefficient of friction
Hadfield steel single crystals under sliding friction are insufficiently
investigated. Earlier, we studied the deformation relief evolution during For the ½110�/½110� sample, the values of the coefficient of friction
sliding friction of Hadfield steel single crystals with the normal pressure (CoF) vary in the range 0.41–0.53 within the first 48 h of friction, after
axis ½118� and the friction axis ½441� [45]. The main deformation which they sharply increase to 0.63–0.69 (Fig. 2a). For the ½110�/[001]
mechanism for the selected orientations was sliding. It was found that sample, the friction coefficient values are also low (0.48–0.58) within
during wear the deformation relief on the sample faces evolves with the the first 39 h of friction, but later they increase to 0.58–0.67.
sequential involvement of different slip systems depending on the cur­ The sample wear is nonuniform. The ½110�/½110� single crystal wears
rent stress. Then, we performed experimental studies for single crystals out slightly within the first 48 h of friction, while within 48–56 h the
with the normal pressure axis orientation ½1071� and the friction axis wear increases significantly (Fig. 2b). The wear of the ½110�/[001] single
directed along ½342� [46]. In this case, possible deformation mechanisms crystal from the start of friction is much greater than that of ½110�/½110�.
with regard to the crystallographic orientation were both slip and The next time interval (27–31 h) is characterized by a sharp increase in
twinning. In addition to analyzing the deformation relief evolution and the wear rate. In both cases, the wear rate first reaches its maximum,
the stress-strain state, we established a correlation between the wear and then decreases and stabilizes at a level of ~0.03–0.04 mm3/h. The ob­
the parameters of acoustic emission signals. tained data indicate that the average wear rate of ½110�/½110� single
This paper is aimed to consider the deformation near the worn sur­ crystals is 0.021 mm3/h, while for ½110�/[001] samples it is 0.07 mm3/h.
face of Hadfield steel single crystals and to correlate it with the calcu­
lated slip and twin stresses induced by different orientations of the
friction force at a constant normal load. The reorientation behavior of 3.2. Stress-strain analysis
the worn surface will be studied for regions with different orientations of
the principal stresses. Changes in the dislocation structure with distance 3.2.1. Sample with ½110�/½110� orientations
from the worn surface will be analyzed. In the considered case, the normal load is oriented along the ½110�
direction, and the friction force acts along ½110�. The normal load di­
2. Materials and methods rection is perpendicular to the ð111Þ and ð111Þ planes; the friction force
direction is normal to the (111) and ð111Þ planes. This means that
In the present paper, the deformation behavior during friction was deformation in these planes under these forces is impossible and the
studied using Hadfield steel single crystals. The preparation technique nominal stresses are zero. The close-packed direction ½110� in the (111)
and properties of the samples are described in previous works [46,47].
and ð111Þ planes is perpendicular to the applied normal load. The close-
The size of single crystal samples was 3.6 � 3.6 � 10 mm3. A disc made
packed direction ½110� in the ð111Þ and ð111Þ planes is normal to the
of 105WCr6 steel was used as a counterbody. Friction tests (Fig. 1) were
applied friction force. Therefore, the nominal stresses will be zero in
conducted by dry sliding at a load of 21 N on samples with the normal
these directions under the action of the applied forces. The nominal
load/friction force orientations ½110�/½110� and ½110�/[001]. Friction
twinning stresses in the ð111Þ and ð111Þ planes will also be zero under
was carried out at a slip velocity of 0.1 m/s.
The wear resistance of the studied samples was compared by the normal load, while in the (111) and ð111Þ planes the nominal
stresses will be zero under the friction force.

2
D.V. Lychagin et al. Tribology International 147 (2020) 106284

Fig. 2. Time variation of the friction coefficient (a) and wear rate (b) for Hadfield steel single crystals with the friction force orientation ½110� and [001].

The same maximum values of nominal slip stresses (0.66 MPa) were dislocation glide and mechanical twinning. However, the acting forces
determined for four slip systems: (111)½101�, (111)½011�, ð111Þ½011�, and are oriented perpendicular to the close-packed direction ½110�. The
ð111Þ½101�. The only acting force in all these systems is the normal vector of the friction force is also perpendicular to the close-packed
pressure force. The maximum nominal stresses under the friction force direction [110].
in the ð111Þ and ð111Þ planes are much lower (0.37 MPa) than those Hence the stresses in these directions are zero. Unlike the ½110�/½110�
under the normal load in the (111) and ð111Þ planes. Consequently, the single crystal, the normal pressure and friction forces in the (111) plane
normal pressure force governs shear deformation in the single crystal for act in two common directions ½101� and ½011�, yielding a larger total
the selected friction force direction. nominal stress (1.03 MPa). The opposite situation is observed in the
The estimated twinning stresses in the considered case exceed the ð111Þ plane: the forces are directed in opposite directions. They suppress
nominal slip stresses. The maximum total values of 0.76 MPa are ach­ each other and reduce the total nominal stress to low values (0.29 MPa).
ieved in the systems (111)½112� and ð111Þ½112�. For other systems they Thus, we have two possible slip systems (111)½101� and (111)½011� with
are lower: 0.43, 0.38, and 0.21. Note that the stress caused by the normal the same stress level. The activity of these slip systems should result in
pressure force activates one pair of octahedral slip planes, and the the appearance of non-intersecting slip bands on the (001) face of single
friction force activates the other one. With the chosen calculation crystals (Figs. 3 and 4).
method, the nominal twinning stress due to the friction force is lower The twinning directions are not perpendicular to the applied forces,
because it is proportional to the friction coefficient value. The friction which is favorable for mechanical twinning during sample deformation.
force value decreases exponentially with distance from the worn surface. For the considered active slip systems, preferred are the following
It can be assumed that using the coefficient of friction we can derive twinning directions: ½112� and ½121� for the ½011� direction in the (111)
information only about an averaged value for the subsurface region. plane, ½112� and ½211� for the ½101� direction in the (111) plane (Fig. 3).
A comparison of the nominal twinning and slip stresses shows the The nominal twinning stresses in this case exceed the nominal slip
probability of one or the other mechanism in competing twinning and stresses. The maximum value (1.19 MPa) is achieved in the system
slip systems. The comparison results are given in the form of ratios in (111)½112�. The ratio τtw/τsl ¼ 1.05 (Table 2) indicates that slip and
Table 1. The ratio τtw/τsl ¼ 1.15 in the considered case indicates that slip mechanical twinning may occur simultaneously in the given case.
and mechanical twinning probably occur simultaneously. However, the value of τtw/τsl ¼ 1.05 is much lower than that for the
½110�/½110� sample (τtw/τsl ¼ 1.15, Table 2). Hence the probability of
3.2.2. Sample with ½110�/½001� orientations
mechanical twinning in the ½110�/[001] crystal is lower.
Unlike the ½110�/½110� sample, the friction force vector in ½110�/½001� The theoretically calculated nominal shear stresses should activate
is not perpendicular to the slip planes. Therefore, the friction force can particular slip systems and give a surface deformation pattern consisting
affect the deformation processes in all four planes by the mechanism of of sets of slip bands, as shown in Fig. 3. The verification of the theoretical
shear pattern analysis will be done in the next section.
Since the nominal acting stresses in the (111) and ð111Þ planes are
Table 1
equal, shear can occur in both planes, which should be observed
Maximum nominal stresses for the normal load/friction force orientations
experimentally on the side faces of single crystals (Figs. 3 and 4). Thus,
½110�/½110�
for the considered active slip systems, preferred are the following
Slip Close- Total Partial Total Twinning-
twinning directions: ½112� and ½121� for the ½011� direction in the (111)
plane packed nominal dislocation nominal to-slip
direction slip stress Burgers twinning stress ratio plane, ½112� and ½211� for the ½101� direction in the (111) plane, ½112�
(τsl, MPa) vector stress (τtw, (τtw/τsl) and ½121� for the ½011� direction in the ð111Þ plane, ½112� and ½211� for
MPa)
the ½101� direction in the ð111Þ plane (Fig. 5).
(111) ½101�½011� 0.66 ½112� 0.76 1.15
0.66
ð111Þ ½011�½101� 0.66 ½112� 0.76 1.15
0.66

3
D.V. Lychagin et al. Tribology International 147 (2020) 106284

Fig. 3. Schematic view of shear directions and slip planes in Hadfield steel single crystals with different crystallographic orientations of the normal load/friction
force ½110�/½110� and ½110�/½001�

Table 2
Maximum nominal stresses for the normal load/friction force orientations
½110�/½001�
Slip Close- Total Partial Total Twinning-
plane packed nominal dislocation nominal to-slip
direction slip stress Burgers twinning stress ratio
(τsl, MPa) vector stress (τtw, (τtw/τsl)
MPa)

(111) ½011�½101� 1.03 ½112� 1.19 1.05

Fig. 4. Schematic view of slip band patterns. Fig. 5. Shear directions in slip and twinning systems with the normal load/
friction force orientations ½110�/½110� and ½110�/½001�

4
D.V. Lychagin et al.
3.3. Surface deformation pattern
An experimental study of the revealed sets of slip bands on the faces
of single crystals is shown in Figs. 6 and 7. The ½110�/½110� sample has
two intersecting sets of slip bands on the ½110� face and one set (parallel
to the plane of friction) on the ½001� and [001] faces (Fig. 6). According
to the theoretical analysis (see Section 3.2.1), these bands belong to the
(111) and ð111Þ planes. They are induced by the normal pressure force.
The ½110�/½001� sample exhibits one system of slip bands on the
[001] and ½110� faces and two systems on the ½110� face (Fig. 7). Ac­
cording to the theoretical analysis (see Section 3.2.1), these bands
belong to the (111) plane. They are formed due to the combined action
of normal load and friction force.
3.4. EBSD analysis of reorientations on the worn surface of ½110�/½110�
and ½110�/[001] samples
Friction is accompanied by inhomogeneous stress distribution in the
friction zone [48,49]. The leading face of the test body (the pin in the
pin-on-disk configuration) is subjected to nonuniform multiaxial
compression. The region near the trailing face is under compressive/­
tensile stresses. A similar pattern is observed near the side faces, but
with different principal stress components. The nominal stress caused by
the friction force rapidly decreases with distance from the worn surface.
Therefore, we may say that the component of the nominal
friction-induced stress dominates in the immediate vicinity of the worn
surface, while that of the nominal normal pressure stress is dominant far
away from it. The intermediate region is under the conditions presented
in the main calculations by the combined action of normal load and
friction force.
The consideration for the contact friction force and its interaction
with the sliding friction force in different parts of the contact surface
[49] may contribute to a more rigorous validation of nonuniform wear
lip formation in the sample. The occurrence of one or the other defor­
mation mechanism depends on the crystallographic orientation and
stress in slip systems and differs for compression and tension. Conse­
quently, deformation on the worn surface will occur by different
mechanisms depending on the principal stress orientation in local re­
gions of the crystal and will produce different nominal stress levels.
The above assumption was verified for both investigated crystallo­
graphic orientations of single crystals. The orientation of microregions
was determined by EBSD scanning of the local areas shown in Fig. 8 with
different orientation of the principal stresses.
Figs. 9–12 show the reorientation after friction in the scan area.
According to the presented results, the ½110�/[001] samples have a
greater resistance to reorientation compared with the ½110�/½110� sam­
ples. In the second case, the reorientation in the scan area is most
intensive at the trailing face (relative to the friction force direction). This
Fig. 6. Slip bands on the faces ½001� (a), ½110� (b), and [001] (c) of Hadfield steel single crystals with the friction force orientation.½110�
5
Tribology International 147 (2020) 106284
area is under nominal compressive/tensile stresses. The orientation here
changes from <110> to <211>. This agrees well with the knowledge
about FCC crystal reorientation. The orientation of tensile FCC single
crystals changes similarly [50]. A similar friction-induced change in the
orientation of copper single crystals was observed in a detailed study of
reorientation in the wear lip zone [49].
EBSD analysis revealed a simultaneous rotation of both the friction
and normal load axes. In so doing, individual microregions rotate in two
different directions towards ½321� and ½521�. The left side of the EBSD
pattern is subjected to normal pressure and is rotated by 20� towards
½321�. Microregions in the center and on the right side are rotated by
25.4� towards ½521�. The reorientation of these areas indicates that the
normal load axis rotates together with the friction axis (Table 3).
Changes in the crystallographic orientation of microregions on the
worn surface make the sample deformation nonuniform. Thus, the
reorientation of local microregions can change the stress-strain state
near the worn surface. This will affect the ability to implement one or the
other deformation mechanism (slip or twining). Changes in the stress-
strain state were assessed by determining acting stresses in slip sys­
tems with account for the reorientation of the considered microregions.
In the case when the axes of the applied forces rotate towards the
friction force/normal load directions ½103�/½321�, shear can occur only
in the (111) plane by slip in the ½101� direction. Twinning is suppressed
because the nominal twinning stress is lower than the nominal slip
stress. When the axes of the applied forces rotate towards the friction
force/normal load directions ½104�/½521�, shear can occur in two ð111Þ
and (111) planes by slip in the [101] and ½101� directions, respectively.
In this case, twinning is suppressed because the twinning stress is lower
than the slip stress (Table 4).
EBSD analysis shows the simultaneous rotation of both the friction
and normal load axes. Unlike the previous case, here we observe a well-
defined macroshear due to which the normal load axis rotates by 30�
towards the ½211� direction. According to the worn surface reorientation
analysis, the friction axis rotates by 18.5� towards the ½120� direction
(Table 5).
In the given case, the reorientation close to the worn surface is more
significant and affects a large part of the sample surface. The change in
the single crystal orientation strongly affects the nominal shear stress
redistribution in active slip systems in the friction contact zone. In the
case when the applied force axes rotate towards the friction force/
normal load directions ½120�/½211�, shear can occur in two (111) and
ð111Þ planes by slip in the ½101� and ½101� directions, respectively.
Analysis of nominal stresses in slip and twinning systems (Table 6) in­
dicates that the priority of the active slip system changes compared to
the initial orientation. Twinning in this case is suppressed because the
nominal twinning stress is either lower or slightly exceeds the nominal
slip stress.
The obtained results suggest that the conditions for slip and twinning
D.V. Lychagin et al. Tribology International 147 (2020) 106284

Fig. 7. Slip bands on the faces ½110� (a), ½001� (b), and ½110� (c) of Hadfield steel single crystals with the friction force orientation [001].

Fig. 8. Schematic illustration for EBSD scanning of the worn surface showing the reorientation of single crystals depending on the friction force direction: ½110� – a,
[001] – b.

Fig. 9. Orientation maps and inverse pole figures of the worn surface of ½110�/[001] Hadfield steel single crystal. Orientation of crystallographic axes relative to the
sample and the scan areas on the end face (the images highlight boundaries with a misorientation angle of more than 2� ).

deformation immediately under the worn surface and in the friction
contact area are noticeably different due to different stress tensors. The
reorientation of local micro- and macroregions near the worn surface
mechanically suppresses twinning in both samples.
3.5. TEM study of subsurface deformation
While discussing the deformation mechanisms, we should consider
structural changes in the vicinity of the worn surface. The dislocation
structure of the sample with the normal load/friction force orientation
½110�/½110� is represented by successive images of the worn face to a
depth of 20 μm (Fig. 13a). Its fragments were also studied at a greater
distance from the surface.
The substructures in Fig. 13 demonstrate a set of morphological
features that allow them to be distinguished as separate layers and
interpreted as separate types of dislocation substructures. The main
types of substructures formed during severe plastic deformation are
discussed, e.g., in Ref. [51,52].
The observation will be performed in the direction towards the worn
surface. The substructure evolution will be similar to its evolution with
increasing strain, when the material is deformed with a constant rate.
We will determine the stages of dislocation substructure evolution
which take place in the immediate vicinity of the surface during the
initial stage of friction.
The dislocation density far from the worn surface is low. The sub­
structure is represented by single and intersecting dislocations. Inter­
secting dislocations quickly form dislocation pile-ups. Closer to the worn
surface, the average dislocation density increases and dislocation cells

6
D.V. Lychagin et al. Tribology International 147 (2020) 106284

Fig. 10. Schematic illustration for the reorientation of microregions of Hadfield

steel single crystal near the worn surface after friction for the normal load/
friction force orientations ½110�/[001]. Fig. 12. Schematic illustration for the reorientation of a macroregion of Had­
field steel single crystal near the worn surface after friction for the normal load/
friction force orientations ½110�/½110�
are formed (Fig. 13b). Then their size decreases, and the dislocation
density in the cell walls increases. These changes in the formed cellular
dislocation substructure upon approaching the worn surface are Table 3
consistent with its changes with increasing plastic strain [53], indicating To the reorientation analysis of ½110�/[001] single crystal.
that deformation develops in the direction towards the surface. Acting force Initial direction After rotation Rotation angle
Upon further approaching the worn surface, the cellular substructure
exhibits single elongated deformation twins and then twin systems of Rotation towards the ½321� direction

small width. This layer with a thickness of approximately 9 μm can be Normal load ½110� ½321� 20�

called a layer of inactive twinning (Fig. 13a). The considered layers or Friction [001] ½103� 18.4�
zones characterize the slip and twinning deformation. Their occurrence Rotation towards the ½521� direction
in the direction from the worn surface, as follows from the results given Normal load ½110� ½521� 25.4�
above and obtained for other single crystal orientations [45,46], de­ Friction [001] ½104� 14�
pends on the crystallographic orientation of the compression and fric­
tion axes, the local stress tensor, and the test time. The latter indicates
the cyclic development of the hardening and wear processes. of size 0.2 μm, which are destroyed by newly formed subboundaries. The
The next layer of thickness 4 μm is represented first by one and then next substructure is represented by groups of microband systems with
by two intersecting twin systems against the background of the cellular broken and closed subboundaries, as well as by a substructure with a
dislocation substructure. A 3 μm thick layer of two twin systems is chaotic subboundary distribution and bending extinction contours. The
bounded by bundles of one twin system 1 μm wide (Fig. 13c). It can be thickness of the layer occupied by the given substructure is approxi­
assumed that the number of twin systems is determined by the orien­ mately 1.5 μm. The subboundaries in this layer are oriented at angles of
tation and reorientation of the considered local region. 15, 30, and 60� to the worn surface (Fig. 13d). The penultimate sub­
Then, the substructure of deformation microtwins changes for the surface layer is a layer of nanobands and nanotwins (Fig. 13d). It has the
microbanded substructure. It is represented mainly by one system of minimum width of 0.25 μm. The microdiffraction pattern from the
microbands 1.5 … 2.0 μm wide, which are oriented at a small angle to substructure with more ordered subboundaries differs from that with
the friction surface. The distance between the subboundaries in this chaotic discrete subboundaries and bending extinction contours. In the
substructure is 0.2 … 0.4 μm. The microbands contain dislocation cells first case, reflections in the diffraction patterns are split. In the second,

Fig. 11. Orientation maps and inverse pole figures of the worn surface of ½110�/½110� Hadfield steel single crystal. Orientation of crystallographic axes relative to the
sample and the scan areas on the end face (the images highlight boundaries with a misorientation angle of more than 2� ).

7
D.V. Lychagin et al. Tribology International 147 (2020) 106284

Table 4
the reflection is extended (inserts in Fig. 13d).
Maximum nominal stresses after reorientation towards the ½321� and ½521�
The identified bending extinction contours point to the presence of
directions. long-range stress fields and the insignificant role of relaxation processes.
A small fraction of closed subboundaries and the absence of sub­
Slip Close- Total Partial Total Twinning-
plane packed nominal dislocation nominal to-slip stress
boundaries with a characteristic banded contrast indicate that there is
direction slip stress Burgers twinning ratio (τtw/ no dynamic recrystallization. A similar structure was observed in a
(τsl, MPa) vector stress (τtw, τsl) Fe–Ni alloy compressed by 60 … 70% (1.0 … 1.2 logarithmic strain)
MPa) [52]. The dislocation structure between dislocation walls is represented
Friction force/normal load orientations ½103�/½321� by an inhomogeneous cellular or mesh-cellular substructure, which is
(111) ½101� 0.9 ½112� 0.84 0.93 formed as a result of failure of the cellular dislocation substructure.
Friction force/normal load orientations ½104�/½521�
In the layer with the microbanded substructure, twinning occurs
½101� 1.16 0.56 0.48
within bands. They can be defined as deformation nanotwins by their
ð111Þ ½121�
size. This process is most intense in a layer of thickness 0.2 … 0.4 μm
(111) ½101� 1.07 ½112� 0.92 0.86
consisting of one or two deformation microbands. The width of nano­
twins is 10 … 15 nm. The inclination angle with respect to the sub­
boundary is 30–45� .
Table 5 In the vicinity of the surface, there is a 0.5 μm thick layer consisting
To the reorientation analysis of ½110�/½110� single crystal. of 10–20 nm nanograins. The nanograins comprise parallel nanotwins
spaced at several nanometers (Fig. 13e). The microdiffraction pattern
Acting force Initial direction After rotation Rotation angle
from the nanograins is almost circular (inserts in Fig. 13e).
Normal load ½110� ½211� 30� The surface exhibits the zone of interaction between the sample
Friction ½110� ½120� 18.5� material and the disk (mixing zone).

4. Discussion

The study of dry sliding friction of Hadfield steel single crystals

Table 6
showed that the values of the coefficient of friction (CoF) for the
Maximum nominal stresses for the friction force/normal load orientations
considered samples are on average close. However, the coefficient
½120�/½211�
changes in two stages. At the beginning of friction, the average CoF
Slip Close- Total Partial Total Twinning-
values for the ½110�/½110� and ½110�/[001] samples are equal to ~
plane packed nominal dislocation nominal to-slip stress
direction slip stress Burgers twinning ratio (τtw/
0.42–0.53. Then they increase to ~0.63–0.67 in both cases. The increase
(τsl, MPa) vector stress (τtw, τsl) in CoF may be due to sample hardening during deformation as well as
MPa) due to reorientation in the subsurface region.
(111) ½110� 0.7 ½211� 0.71 1.01 Higher hardening at the second stage of friction (after the CoF in­
0.75 0.71 0.95
crease) is caused by the accumulation of defects, achievement of the
ð111Þ ½101� ½211�
maximum density of dislocations and twins due to intense plastic
deformation, fragmentation, and subsurface region reorientation.
Higher CoF values (0.67 versus 0.63 for the ½110�/[001] sample) for the

Fig. 13. Dislocation structure changes from the worn surface. General view (a). Dislocation cell structure (b). Microtwin system and dislocation cell structure (c).
Microbands and nanobands with nanotwins (d). Nanograins with nanotwins (e).

8
D.V. Lychagin et al.
½110�/½110� sample at the second stage of friction are consistent with our
assumption that its work hardening is more intense due to slip in the
(111) and ð111Þ planes as well as twinning. Twinning in the ½110�/½110�
sample occurs mainly at the initial stage of friction, though it may also
occur after reorientation of the subsurface region, as evidenced by the
analysis of the τtw/τsl ratio (see Sections 3.2 and 3.4.). Another indica­
tion of its higher work hardening is the higher wear resistance as
compared with the ½110�/[001] sample.
The wear rate stabilization at the level of ~ (0.03–0.04) mm3/h at
the second stage of friction (after the CoF increase) is related to the
combined action of two factors. Firstly by the formation of a nano­
crystalline surface layer, which is a mechanical mixture of metal and
oxide wear particles, and secondly by the single crystal reorientation
near the worn surface. This assumption is confirmed by EBSD data on
the reorientation of micro- and macroscopic subsurface regions of single
crystals under friction.
At the initial stage of friction, the ½110�/½110� sample is deformed by
slip along the (111) and ð111Þ planes. Four slip systems have the same
high slip stresses. The action of equally loaded slip systems in adjacent
planes highly promotes the formation of barriers and hence rapid
hardening, leading to an even higher critical twinning stress for systems
in these planes. In each plane, only one twinning system can be active.
Therefore, it is very probable that twin systems will interact with each
other and dislocations in slip systems will interact with the twin
boundaries. The ½110�/[001] sample has a high slip stress in two systems
in the (111) plane and an even higher twinning stress for one system in
this plane. The slip and twinning stresses in other systems are lower. As a
result, we should expect less hardening of this sample than for the
½110�/½110� sample.
There is a significant dislocation density gradient near the worn
surface (Figs. 13 and 14). Hardening due to subsurface layers reduces
the tendency of the subsurface layer to fatigue failure. Above the
nanograin layer there is a structure of deformation micro/nanobands
and twins which additionally contribute to hardening and prevent the
propagation of deformation deep into the material. At the same time,
deformation is quite intense only in a strongly deformed narrow sub­
surface region. At a sufficient stress level, cracks will initiate in this zone
Fig. 14. Schematic view of changes in the types and parameters of dislocation
substructures depending on the distance from the worn surface. The arrows
point to the regions with characteristic types of dislocation structure: I –
nanograins with nanotwins, II – nanobanded with nanotwins, III – fragmented
microbanded, IV – microbanded, V – two systems of microtwins, VI – one
system of microtwins, VII – cellular with twins, VIII – cellular, IX– mesh-
cellular. The dotted lines indicate arbitrary boundaries of regions with dislo­
cation structures.
9
Tribology International 147 (2020) 106284
and induce local fracture, leading to delamination of the material and
wear. EBSD data confirm the different nature of the principal stress
tensor in different parts of the surface. Consequently, there can arise
tensile stresses that will contribute to crack opening.
With further friction the gradient accumulation of deformation will
continue, leading to hardening. This explains the cyclic nature of wear
and hardening characteristic of the studied samples during friction. The
periodicity of the process depends on the number of active slip systems
present in single crystals with different crystallographic orientations.
After reorientation, the conditions for slip and twinning in the vi­
cinity of the worn surface and in the friction contact area differ
noticeably due to the change in the Schmid factor for these systems. In
both cases there will be two active slip systems. These are (111)½101� and
ð111Þ½101� for the ½110�/½110� sample, and (111)½110� and ð111Þ ½101�
for the ½110�/[001] sample. The reorientation of local micro- and mac­
roregions near the worn surface contributes to the suppression of
twinning in both samples. However, the conditions for twinning can be
favorable in a local layer. This is indirectly confirmed by TEM which
detects twins in the subsurface layer (Fig. 13).
The observed changes in the dislocation structure depending on the
distance to the worn surface indicate that the deformation substructure
parameters vary widely already at a 20 μm distance (Fig. 14). A com­
parison with severe plastic deformation [5,6] shows that upon
approaching the worn surface the types of substructures change simi­
larly to their evolution with increasing plastic strain. The principal stress
components under uniaxial compression change at 30–40% strain when
the sample height to width ratio is equal to 2. In this case, other stress
tensor components become nonzero (Fig. 15a).
The substructure refinement is promoted by the change in the stress
tensor during deformation. Such substructures are formed under com­
plex loading conditions, e.g., high-speed pounding [19]. Consequently,
the processes in the region near the worn surface are determined by all
nonzero principal stress components.
The next region is subjected to the compressive and frictional force
components acting in the direction from the worn surface. The influence
of the friction force decreases sharply with distance from the friction
contact area.
Later the role of the friction force decreases so much that the
deformation can be considered uniaxial. Fig. 15 schematically shows the
behavior of the stress and substructure parameters under compression
and friction. The figure bears witness to the fact that strong structural
changes can occur only if all principal stress components are different
from zero. Moreover, the stress tensor must have the maximum intensity
for the occurrence of misorientations in local regions. As follows from
the expression for this quantity, the greater is the difference in the values
of the principal stress components, the higher is the stress intensity. The
difference in the principal stress components is most pronounced in the
immediate vicinity of the worn surface.
According to the literature data [48] as well as our EBSD results for
the subsurface orientation, the stress tensor on the worn surface also
varies in different surface areas of Hadfield steel single crystals.
All data indicate that the stress tensor difference in different surface
and bulk regions will have a different effect on slip and twinning in
various local regions of samples with the same crystallographic orien­
tation. Consequently, the difference will have a different effect on the
orientation change in these areas.
To conclude, the change in the crystallographic orientation of the
side faces relative to the friction force led to shear stress redistribution.
As a result, the orientation of different surface areas changed in different
crystallographic directions and with different rate. According to our
calculations, the most active systems in the ½110�/½110� single crystals
were (111)½101� and ð111Þ½101�, while in the ½110�/[001] crystals these
were (111)½101� and ð111Þ½101�.
D.V. Lychagin et al.
Fig. 15. Deformation behavior of the material under quasi-static plastic deformation (a) and in friction (b): σi are the principal stress components, ρ is the scalar
dislocation density, d is the dislocation cell size, H is the distance from the worn surface.
5. Conclusions
We have studied the physical deformation mechanisms of Hadfield
steel single crystals under dry sliding friction by comparing the wear and
deformation behavior of samples with the same normal load direction
but different friction force directions. According to the obtained results:
1. The coefficient of friction changes nonmonotonically in both types of
single crystals. At the first stage of friction, the average CoF values
for the ½110�/½110� and ½110�/[001] samples are ~ 0.42–0.53. Then,
these values increase to ~0.63–0.67 in both cases.
2. The average wear rate of the ½110�/½110� single crystals is 0.021
mm3/h, while that for the ½110�/[001] samples is 0.07 mm3/h. The
higher wear resistance is due both to a lower slip stress in the
½110�/½110� sample and to a different reorientation of the subsurface
region.
3. The conditions for slip and twinning deformation in the vicinity of
the worn surface differ noticeably due to different values of the stress
tensor. The reorientation of local micro- and macroregions near the
worn surface promotes the mechanical suppression of twinning in
both samples.
4. Dislocation structure analysis showed that the dominant deforma­
tion mechanisms are slip and twinning. The priority of these mech­
anisms in the discussed gradient structure is determined by the
proximity of the considered deformation zones to the friction
surface.
5. A complex analysis of sample wear intensity and active deformation
mechanisms suggests that the combined action of slip and twinning
enhances the wear resistance of samples.
6. The substructural evolution indicates that the plastic strain increases
upon approaching the worn surface. The difference in local stresses
contributes to the misorientation of microregions and formation of
misoriented substructures.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
D.V. Lychagin: Conceptualization, Writing - review & editing. A.V.
Filippov: Investigation, Writing - review & editing. O.S. Novitskaya:
Investigation. Y.I. Chumlyakov: Conceptualization, Data curation. E.A.
10
Tribology International 147 (2020) 106284
Kolubaev: Writing - review & editing. L.L. Lychagina: Investigation,
Writing - review & editing.
Acknowledgements
EBSD investigations were performed using the equipment of the
Analytical Center of Geochemistry of Natural Systems of Tomsk State
University.
TEM studies were carried out using the equipment of the Nano-
Center of Tomsk Polytechnic University.
Friction tests were conducted with the financial support of the
Fundamental Research Program of the State Academies of Sciences for
2013–2020 (Project No. III.23.2).
References
[1] Ge S, Wang Q, Wang J. The impact wear-resistance enhancement mechanism of
medium manganese steel and its applications in mining machines. Wear 2017;
376–377:1097–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2017.01.015.
[2] Lencina R, Caletti C. Assessing wear performance of two high-carbon Hadfield
steels through field tests in the mining industry. Proc Mater Sci 2015;9:358–66.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mspro.2015.05.005.
[3] Chowdhury P, Canadinc D, Sehitoglu H. On deformation behavior of Fe-Mn based
structural alloys. Mater Sci Eng R 2017;122:1–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
mser.2017.09.002.
[4] Karaman I, Sehitoglu H, Gall K, Chumlyakov YI. On the deformation mechanisms in
single crystal Hadfield manganese steels. Scripta Mater 1998;38:1009–15. https://
doi.org/10.1016/S1359-6462(97)00581-2.
[5] Karaman I, Sehitoglu H, Gall K, Chumlyakov YI, Maier HJ. Deformation of single
crystal Hadfield steel by twinning and slip. Acta Mater 2000;48:1345–59. https://
doi.org/10.1016/S1359-6454(99)00383-3.
[6] Canadinc D, Sehitoglu H, Maier HJ, Niklasch D, Chumlyakov YI. Orientation
evolution in Hadfield steel single crystals under combined slip and twinning. Int J
Solid Struct 2007;44:34–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsolstr.2006.04.011.
[7] Astafurova EG, Chumlyakov YI. Strain hardening upon twinning of [-111].[-144]
and [011] single crystals of Hadfield steel. Phys Met Metallogr 2009;108:510–8.
https://doi.org/10.1134/S0031918X09110118.
[8] Astafurova EG, Tukeeva MS, Zakharova GG, Melnikov EV, Maier HJ. The role of
twinning on microstructure and mechanical response of severely deformed single
crystals of high-manganese austenitic steel. Mater Char 2011;62:588–92. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.matchar.2011.04.010.
[9] Efstathiou C, Sehitoglu H. Strain hardening and heterogeneous deformation during
twinning in Hadfield steel. Acta Mater 2010;58:1479–88. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.actamat.2009.10.054.
[10] Adler PH, Olson GB, OwenWS. Strain hardening of Hadfield manganese steel.
Metall Mat Trans A 1986;17(10):1725–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02817271.
[11] Niendorf T, Rüsing CJ, Frehn A, Chumlyakov YI, Maier HJ. Deformation
mechanisms in high-manganese steels showing twinning-induced plasticity: fine-
grained material and single crystals at ambient and cryogenic temperatures.
Scripta Mater 2012;67:875–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2012.08.011.
[12] Kim J, De Cooman BC. On the stacking fault energy of Fe-18 pct Mn-0.6 pct C-1.5
pct Al twinning-induced plasticity steel. Metatall Mater Trans A-Phys Metall Mater
Sci 2011;42A(4):932–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-011-0610-6.
[13] Lee W-S, Chen T-H. Plastic deformation and fracture characteristics of Hadfeld
steel subjected to high-velocity impact loading. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part C: J
D.V. Lychagin et al.
Mechanical Engineering Science 2002;216:971–82. https://doi.org/10.1243/
095440602760400940.
[14] Bal B, Gumus B, Gerstein G, Canadinc D, Maier HJ. On the micro-deformation
mechanisms active in high-manganese austenitic steels under impact loading.
Mater Sci Eng, A 2015;632:29–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2015.02.054.
[15] Gumus B, Bal B, Gerstein G, Canadinc D, Maier HJ, Guner F, et al. Twinning
activities in high-Mn austenitic steels under high-velocity compressive loading.
Mater Sci Eng A 2015;648:104–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2015.09.045.
[16] Berns H, Gavriljuk VG, Petrov YN, et al. Microstructural changes in the wear
surface of high strength stainless austenitic steels. Mater Werkst 2003;34(10–11):
960–5. https://doi.org/10.1002/mawe.200300686.
[17] Lindroos M, Laukkanen A, Cailletaud G, KuokkalaV -T. Microstructure based
modeling of the strain rate history effect in wear resistant Hadfield steels. Wear
2018;396–397:56–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2017.11.007.
[18] Korshunov LG, Sagaradze VV, ChernenkoNL. Structural and phase transformations
in Hadfield steel upon frictional loading in liquid nitrogen. Phys Met Metallogr
2016;117(8):828–33. https://doi.org/10.1134/S0031918X16080068.
[19] Feng XY, Zhang FC, Yang ZN, Zhang M. Wear behaviour of nanocrystallised
Hadfield steel. Wear 2013;305:299–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
wear.2012.11.038.
[20] Tukeeva MS, Melnikov EV, Maier HJ, Astafurova EG. Structural features and
mechanical properties of austenitic Hadfield steel after high-pressure torsion and
subsequent high-temperature annealing//the Physics of Metals and Metallography.
113, 6: 612-662, https://doi.org/10.1134/S0031918X12060129; 2012.
[21] Koneva NA, Kozlov EV. Physical nature of stages in plastic deformation. Russ Phys
J 1990;33(2):165–79. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00894514.
[22] Koneva NA, Kozlov EV. Nature of substructural hardening. Russ Phys J 1983;25(8):
681–91. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00895238.
[23] Kozlov EV, Koneva NA. Internal fields and other contribution to flow stress. Mater
Sci Eng 1997;234–236:982–5. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-5093(97)00381-X.
[24] Koneva NA, Kozlov EV, Trishkina LI. Internal field sources, their screening and the
flow stress. Mater Sci Eng A 2001;319–321:156–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0921-5093(01)00945-5.17.
[25] Dastur YN, Leslie WC. Mechanism of work hardening in Hadfield manganese steel.
Metall Trans A 1981;12:749–59. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02648339.
[26] Owen WS, Grujicic M. Strain aging of austenitic Hadfield manganese steel. Acta
Mater 1998;47:111–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-6454(98)00347-4.
[27] Shiekhelsouk MN, Favier V, Inal K, Cherkaoui M. Modelling the behaviour of
polycrystalline austenitic steel with twinning-induced plasticity effect. Int J Plast
2009;25:105–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijplas.2007.11.004.
[28] Ye DY, Matsuoka S, Nagashima N, Suzuki N. The low-cycle fatigue, deformation
and final fracture behaviour of an austenitic stainless steel. Mater Sci Eng, A 2006;
415(1–2):104–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2005.09.081.
[29] Machado PC, Pereira JI, Penagos JJ, Yonamine T, Sinatora A. The effect of in-
service work hardening and crystallographic orientation on the micro-scratch wear
of Hadfield steel. Wear; 2017. p. 376–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
wear.2016.12.057. 1064–1073.
[30] Dobrynin SA, Kolubaev EA, AYu Smolin, et al. Time-frequency analysis of acoustic
signals in the audio-frequency range generated during Hadfield’s steel friction.
Tech Phys Lett 2010;36(7):606–9. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1063785010070072.
[31] Aleshina EA, Ivanov YuF, Kolubaev AV, Konovalov SV, Gromov VE. Gradient
structure-phase states formed in Hadfield steel during dry sliding wear. Russ Phys J
2008;51(11):1168–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11182-009-9151-5.
[32] Kolubaev AV, Kolubaev EA, Sizova OV. Nanoindentation of the surface layer of
Hadfield’s steel after sliding friction. Tech Phys Lett 2007;33(12):1038–42.
https://doi.org/10.1134/S1063785007120164.
[33] Kolubaev AV, Ivanov YuF, Sizova OV, Kolubaev EA, Aleshina EA, Gromov VE.
Effect of elastic excitations on the surface structure of Hadfield steel under friction.
Tech Phys 2008;53(2):204–10. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1063784208020096.
[34] Yan W, Fang L, Sun K, Xu Y. Effect of surface work hardening on wear behaviour of
Hadfield steel. Mater Sci Eng, A 2007;460–461:542–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
msea.2007.02.094.
11
Tribology International 147 (2020) 106284
[35] Yan W, Fang L, Zheng Z, Sun K, Xu Y. Effect of surface nanocrystallization on
abrasive wear properties in Hadfield steel. Tribol Int 2009;42:634–41. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.triboint.2008.08.012.
[36] Gnyusov SF, Tarassov SY. Friction and the development of hard alloy surface
microstructures during wear. Conf J Mater Eng Perf 1996;6:737–42. https://doi.
org/10.1007/s11665-997-0075-3.
[37] Atabaki MM, Jafari S, Abdollah-pour H. Abrasive wear behavior of high chromium
cast iron and Hadfield steel-A comparison. J Iron Steel Res Int 2012;19(4):43–50.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1006-706X(12)60086-7.
[38] Abbasia M, Kheirandish S, Kharrazi Y, Hejazi J. On the comparison of the abrasive
wear behavior of aluminum alloyed and standard Hadfield steels. Wear 2010;268:
202–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2009.07.010.
[39] Dalai R, Das S, Das K. Effect of thermo-mechanical processing on the low impact
abrasion and low stress sliding wear resistance of austenitic high manganese steels.
Wear 2019;420–421:176–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2018.10.013.
[40] Chen C, Lv B, Ma H, Sun D, Zhang F. Wear behavior and the corresponding work
hardening characteristics of Hadfield steel. Tribol Int 2018;121:389–99. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2018.01.044.
[41] Feng Y, Song R, Peng S, Pei Z, Song R. Microstructures and impact wear behavior of
Al-alloyed high-Mn austenitic cast steel after aging treatment. J Mater Eng Perform
2019;28(8):4845–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11665-019-04265-y.
[42] Zambrano OA, Valdes J, Rodriguez LA, Reyes D, Snoeck E, Rodriguez SA,
Coronado JJ. Elucidating the role of κ-carbides in Fe-Mn-Al-C alloys on abrasion
wear. Tribol Int 2019;135:421–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
triboint.2019.03.002.
[43] Luo ZC, Ning JP, Wang J, Zheng KH. Microstructure and wear properties of TiC-
strengthened high-manganese steel matrix composites fabricated by hypereutectic
solidification. Wear 2019;432–433:202970. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
wear.2019.202970.
[44] Zhou Z, Shan Q, Jiang Y, Li Z, Zhang ZX. Effect of nanoscale V2C precipitates on
the three-body abrasive wear behavior of high-Mn austenitic steel. Wear 2019;
436–437:203009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wear.2019.203009.
[45] Lychagin DV, Filippov AV, Novitskaia OS, Chumlyakov YI, Kolubaev EA,
Sizova OV. Friction-induced slip band relief of -Hadfield steel single crystal
oriented for multiple slip deformation. Wear 2017:374–5. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.wear.2016.12.028.
[46] Lychagin DV, Filippov AV, Kolubaev EA, Novitskaia OS, Chumlyakov YI,
Kolubaev AV. Dry sliding of Hadfield steel single crystal oriented to deformation by
slip and twining: deformation, wear, and acoustic emission characterization. Tribol
Int 2018;119:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2017.10.027.
[47] Johnson KL. Contact mechanics. Cambridge University Press; 1985.
[48] Popov VL, Heß M. Method of dimensionality reduction in contact Mechanics and
friction, vol. 265. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg; 2015. https://doi.org/
10.1007/978-3-642-53876-6.
[49] Tarasov SYu, Chumaevskii AV, Lychagin DV, Nikonov AY, Dmitriev AI.
Inhomogeneous strain development and problem of wear lip formation on copper
single crystals in dry sliding. Wear 2018;410–411:210–21. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.wear.2018.07.004.
[50] Honeycombe RWK. The plastic deformation of metals. London: Edward Arnold &
American Society of Metals; 1984.
[51] Koneva NA, Lychagin DV, Trishkina LI, Kozlov EV. Types of dislocation
substructures and stages of stress-strain curves of FCC alloys. Int Conf Proc 1985;1:
21–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-031642-0.50011-8.
[52] Teplyakova LA, Koneva NA, Lychagin DV, Trishkina LI, Kozlov EV. Evolution of the
dislocation structure and the stage of work-hardening of Ni3Fe alloy with [001]
orientation. Russ Phys J 1988;31(2):99–103. https://doi.org/10.1007/
BF00896528.
[53] Koneva NA, Starenchenko VA, Lychagin DV, Trishkina LI, Popova NA, Kozlov EV.
Formation of dislocation cell substructure in face-centred cubic metallic solid
solutions. Mater Sci Eng, A 2008;483–484:179–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
msea.2006.08.140.