MC Graw Hill Foundation NEET Biology Class 10

Foundation Course for
Class X
Prelims_Class 10.indd 1 3/7/2017 10:53:50 AM

Foundation Course for
Class X
Rachna Gupta
Vice Principal
Delhi Public School

McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited
Published by McGraw Hill Education (India) Private Limited,
444/1, Sri Ekambara Naicker Industrial Estate, Alapakkam, Porur, Chennai -600 116, Tamil Nadu, India
Foundation Course for NEET Biology, Class X
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Preface
The medical profession blends nobility and altruism with challenges and rigour. The journey of an
individual on this path is full of diligence and relentless research.
This book offers guidance for aspirants preparing for National Eligibility cum Entrance Test
(NEET), right from their initial years of schooling and helps them to set a step-wise preparation in a
planned manner. It equips the prospective medical students with accurate and in-depth understanding of
topics of the syllabus and also provides an overview of the questions for various examinations, be it at
the secondary level or at the competitive level. This is the first edition of the book and I look forward to
suggestions for improvement.
My sincere wishes are with all the readers for success and fulfilment in their chosen path of career.
Rachna Gupta

Acknowledgement
In the passionate process of developing this book I was ably supported by my colleagues, friends
and family. I wish to thank each of them and also every student of mine who have helped to mould me
into a teacher and inspired me to become what I am today .......... a passionate biology teacher.
Rachna Gupta

Contents
Prefacev
Chapter 1: Nutrition in Organisms 1.1–1.26
Introduction 1.1
Digestive System of Humans 1.2
Hormonal Control of Digestion in Humans 1.6
Absorption and Assimilation of Digested Products in Humans 1.6
Egestion 1.7
Nutritional Disorders 1.7
Photosynthesis 1.8
Level 1: Elementary Questions 1.14
Level 2: Conceptual Questions 1.19
Chapter 2: Respiratory System 2.1–2.14
Introduction 2.1
Human Respiratory System 2.1
Regulation of Respiration 2.4
Respiratory Disorders 2.5
Chapter 3: Circulatory System 3.1–3.12
Introduction 3.1
Open and Closed Systems 3.1
Blood Vascular System of Humans 3.2
Lymphatic System 3.5
Pacemaker 3.6
Disorders Related to The Circulatory System 3.6
Chapter 4: Excretory System 4.1–4.10
Introduction 4.1
Metabolic Waste Products 4.1

Excretory Organs 4.2
Osmoconformers and Osmoregulators 4.2
Elimination of Nitrogenous Wastes 4.2
Mechanism of Urine Formation 4.4
Regulation of Kidney Functions 4.6
Micturition 4.6
Constituencts of Urine 4.6
Haemodialysis 4.7
Kidney Transplantation 4.7
Role of Lungs in Excretion 4.7
Role of Skin in Excretion 4.7
Role of Liver in Excretion 4.8
Chapter 5: Nervous System 5.1–5.12
Introduction 5.1
Nervous System of Humans 5.1
Peripheral Nervous System 5.7
Autonomic Nervous system 5.8
Reflex Action: Rapid and Automatic Responses 5.9
Sensory Reception and Processing 5.9
Chapter 6: Chemical Co-ordination in O
rganisms 6.1–6.26
Indroduction 6.1
Human Endocrine System 6.1
Hypothalamus 6.1
Pituitary 6.2
Thyroid Gland and its Hormones 6.3
Parathyroid and its Hormones 6.4
Adrenal Glands and Their Hormones 6.4
Pancreas and its Hormones 6.5
Pineal Gland and its Hormones 6.6
Sex Organs and their Hormones 6.6
Characteristics of Growth 6.8

Conditions for Growth 6.8
Phases of Growth 6.8
Measurement of Growth 6.9
Dormancy and Seed Germination 6.9
Seed Dormancy 6.9
Growth Regulators 6.10
Photoperiodism 6.12
Vernalisation 6.14
Plant Movement 6.14
Chapter 7: Reproduction in Plants 7.1–7.18
Introduction 7.1
Major Types of Reproduction 7.1
Asexual Reproduction 7.1
Vegetative Reproduction 7.2
Sexual Reproduction 7.4
Deviations in The Reproductive Strategies 7.5
Incompatibility 7.10
Special Modes of Reproduction 7.10
Chapter 8: Reproduction in Human 8.1–8.26
Introduction 8.1
Deviations The Reproductive Strategies 8.2
Human-Reproductive Systems 8.2
The Events of Human Reproduction 8.5
Structure o f Human Ovum 8.9
Fertilisation 8.9
Embryonic Development 8.9
Reproductive Health - Problems and Strategies 8.11
Population Explosion and Birth Control 8.12
Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP) 8.14
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDS) 8.14

Infertility 8.16
Chapter 9: Heredity and Evolution 9.1–9.32
Glossary of Genetic Terms and Symbols 9.1
Inheritance: Heredity and Variation 9.2
Pre-mendelian Ideas Regarding Inheritance 9.2
Gregor Mendel 9.2
Monohybrid Cross 9.3
Dihybrid Cross 9.4
Rediscovery of Mendel’s Work 9.6
Post-Mendelian Era 9.7
Two Gene Interactions 9.8
Polygenic Traits 9.9
Pleitropy 9.9
Parallelism between Genes and Chromosomes 9.9
Crossing Over 9.10
Recombination 9.10
Mutation 9.11
Nucleic Acids 9.11
DNA and Its Structure 9.11
RNA and its Structure 9.12
Translation: Biosynthesis of Proteins 9.13
House-keeping Genes 9.13
Human Genome Project 9.13
Origin of Life 9.13
Evidence of Evolution 9.15
Theories of Evolution 9.16
Origin and Evolution of Man 9.18
Chapter 10: Organisms and the Environment 10.1–10.28
Introduction 10.1
Environmental Factors 10.2
Ecological Adaptations 10.4
Ecological Interdependence And Interaction 10.6
Succession 10.8

Ecosystem Components 10.8
Productivity 10.9
Decomposition 10.9
Energy Flow 10.9
Ecological Pyramids 10.10
Ecological Efficiencies 10.11
Major Biomes 10.11
Grassland and Savanna Biomes 10.12
Desert Biome 10.13
Nitrogen Cycle 10.13
Phosphorus Cycle 10.14
Forests and Wildlife Laws 10.15
Hot Spots of Biodiversity 10.16
International Efforts for Conserving Biodiversity 10.16
Biodiversity Conservation in India 10.17
Chapter 11: Pollution 11.1–11.16
Kinds of Pollution 11.1
Air Pollution 11.1
Water Pollution 11.4
Soil Pollution 11.6
Noise Pollution 11.7
Global Environmental Change 11.8
Mock Test Paper 1 1.1–1.4
Mock Test Paper 2 2.1–2.4

Chapter
Nutrition in
Organisms 1
Introduction of this relationship. Parasitic organisms include

Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, Taenia, and Ascaris.
Autotrophic nutrition. It is a type of nutrition in
which organisms synthesise their energy sources Symbiotic nutrition. The situation in which two
that are high-energy organic molecules (food), from organisms or animals might live in association and
low-energy inorganic raw materials available in their derive nutrition from each other. This is the case
surroundings. Chief sources of carbon and nitrogen with some symbionts whose nutrition is referred to
are carbon dioxide and nitrates, respectively. All as symbiotic nutrition or mutualism. For example,
green plants are autotrophs and use light as a source Escherichia coli that lives in the intestine of man
of energy for the synthesis of food. synthesises vitamin B12 which is used by man and
the E. coli receives, in return, simpler food from the
Heterotrophic nutrition. It is a type of nutrition in intestine of man.
which energy is derived from the intake and digestion
of organic substances, normally plant or animal Mutualism is a form of nutrition where there is a
tissues such as food. The break down products of close association between two species. Here both the
digestion are used to synthesise the organic material partners benefit. Examples are:
required for organism. All plant or an animal, either (i) Escherichia coli living in the intestine of man
in solid or in liquid state, is called animal-like or synthesise vitamin B12 which is utilised by man.
holozoic nutrition. Most of the free-living protozoans E. coli gets simpler food from the intestine of man.
and animals are holozoic.
(ii) Rhizobium bacteria living in the root nodules of
Saprozoic nutrition. A few animals do not ingest leguminous plants.
solid food. Instead, they secrete digestive enzymes
directly into their food, which is dead or decaying (iii) Lichens are made up of fungal cells and algal
matter, and then suck the food digested outside the cells. The fungal hyphae store water for the
body. This is called saprozoic nutrition. Saprozoic algal cells and in return get sugars from the
organisms include spiders, housefly, etc. photosynthetic alga.
Parasitic nutrition. Parasites thrive on liquid food Steps of Holozoic Nutrition

material obtained from the body of the host. and
their mode of nutrition is designated as parasitic Holozoic nutrition involves four steps. These are:
nutrition. The host may or may not suffer as a result ingestion, digestion, absorption, and egestion.
01_Nutrition in Organisms.indd 1 3/6/2017 4:58:23 PM

1.2 Foundation Course of NEET Biology
(i) Ingestion is the method of feeding. Animals are of salivary glands. viz. parotids, submaxillary
variously adapted, both internally and externally, (submandibular) and sublingual.
for ingestion of the specific type of food they take
The oral cavity leads through the pharynx
in. Depending upon the gross size of food, feeding
into the tube-like oesophagus (food tube), which
in animals may be classified into two categories:
runs downward through the throat and thorax. A
microphagy (feeding on microscopic organisms,
structure called the epiglottis guards the opening
e.g. Amoeba, Paramoecium) and macrophagy
of the trachea (windpipe) or nasal passages. The
(feeding on larger forms of organisms, e.g.
oesophagus invades the diaphragm, a muscular
majority of chordates and some non-chordates).
transverse partition that separates thorax from
(ii) Digestion is the process of breaking down of the abdomen, and leads into the stomach. A ring of
covalent bonds in the organic food molecules muscle, the oesophageal sphincter, controls the
(carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids) opening of oesophagus into the stomach.
by hydrolysis. It is catalysed by digestive enzymes.
The simpler and smaller molecules thus produced
can then get entry into the surrounding cells. Digestive System of Humans
(iii) Absorption is the process by which the digested Digestive system of man consists of alimentary
food is then absorbed within the cytoplasm of canal or gut and some accessory digestive organs.
cells or through the cells lining the alimentary
cavity. These absorbed food molecules are then Alimentary Canal
used for construction of their own molecules or
body substances. The alimentary canal is a coiled, muscular tube
extending from the mouth to the anus. It is about
(iv) Egestion is the removal of any undigested food
6–9 metres long and consists of many specialised
materials from the body of the organism.
sections. Arranged sequentially, these are mouth,
Digestion is of two types: intracellular and oral cavity, pharynx, oesophagus, stomach, small
extracellular. intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus. Some
1. Intracellular digestion. When digestion of accessory digestive organs such as salivary glands,
the food materials occurs within the cells, it pancreas, liver and gall bladder are connected to
is called intracellular digestion. This type of the main system by a series of ducts.
digestion occurs in protozoans and sponges. In The stomach is a large, distensible, C-shaped
coelenterates, the digestion is largely intracellular. sac and located on left side in the upper portion of
2. Extracellular digestion. When digestion of the abdominal cavity. The fundus (upper part), body
food materials occurs outside the cells in a (middle part), and pylorus or antrum (lower part)
cavity, it is called extracellular digestion. The are the three divisions of the stomach. In adults, the
digestive enzymes are secreted into the cavity stomach usually holds a volume of up to 1.0 to 1.5.
where digestion of food takes place. This type of
Pylorus is guarded by sphincter muscles and
digestion occurs in higher invertebrates and all
opens into the first section of the small intestine
vertebrates.
called the duodenum, which is U-shaped.
Dental Formula The duodenum is about 25 cm long. The name
duodenum, meaning “12 fingerbreadths”, refers fern
The full dental formula (arrangement of teeth)
to the short length of this intestinal division. The
of humans is represented as I1/2, C1/1, Pm 2/2 M3/3
common bile duct opens into the duodenum and
(one side only). The formula of milk teeth is I1/2, C
drains juices from pancreas and liver into it.
1/1, M 2/2 (one side only).
The duodenum leads into jejunum, which is
The oral cavity also receives saliva through the
also a bit coiled and longer (about 2.5 m). The last
ducts of the salivary glands. There are three pairs

Nutrition in O
rganisms 1.3
part of the small intestine, the ileum, is much longer palate closes off the nose, and the larynx rises,
(about 7 m long and 2–3 cm in diameter in adult so that the epiglottis closes off the trachea. As
man) and more coiled. It occupies the lower part of pharynx is also a part of the respiratory system,
the abdominal cavity. the openings of the nasal passage and trachea
(windpipe) are closed off by reflex action during
The small intestine leads into a much shorter
swallowing. However, the first (buccal) phase is
large intestine or colon. It is called `large’ because
voluntary. Food, thus, moves into the pharynx
of its larger diameter than that of the small intestine.
and passes downward into the oesophagus.
In length, however, it is much less being about 1.5 to
1.8 m. Its average diameter is approximately 6 cm (iii) When food enters the oesophagus, the rhythmic
but this decreases towards the lower end of the tube. contraction of the gut wall, peristalsis
begins. Peristalsis is produced by involuntary
At the juncture where small intestine opens contraction of circular muscles, which is
into the colon, a small and blind sac, the caecum, is preceded by a simultaneous contraction of
present. It is very small and plays no role in nutrient the longitudinal muscle, and relaxation of the
absorption. It is a vestigial organ. A small finger-like circular muscle lining the gut. When a peristaltic
projection emerges from the top of the caecum. It is wave reaches the end of the oesophagus, the
known as appendix. sphincter opens, allowing the passage of bolus
In humans, the large intestine ascends from the to the stomach.
caecum as the ascending colon then crosses to the The sphincter muscle, guarding the junction
left side as the transverse colon and descends again of the oesophagus and stomach, normally remains
as the descending colon. The colon empties into the closed and does not allow contents of the stomach
last part of the intestine, the rectum, which is the to move back.
storage chamber for faeces.
Gastrointestinal Secretions and
Mobility of Human Gut Digestion
The ability of the alimentary canal to contract is
Digestion of food in human is an extracellular
called mobility. For digestion, absorption, and
process. This proces is conducted with the aid of a
subsequent defecation, the food has to be moved
group of enzymes, called hydrolases, released from
sequentially along the entire length of the alimentary
the cells of the digestive system. The exocrine tissues
canal. In each of these sections the food is subjected
include the salivary glands, the secretory cells in the
to different kinds of actions and fates as outlined
stomach and intestinal epithelium, and the secretory
below:
cells of the liver and pancreas. Exocrine secretions
(i) The food is chewed in the oral cavity and mixed usually consist of aqueous mixtures of substances,
with saliva which is a mixture of water and such as water, ions, mucus and enzymes.
electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3) derived from the
blood plasma, mucus and serous fluids, salivary Enzymatic hydrolysis is initiated in the oral
amylase or ptyalin (enzyme) and lysozyme cavity by the action of starch–digesting enzyme,
(antibacterial agent), all secreted by the salivary ptyalin or a-amylase. This enzyme, secreted by
glands. the salivary glands, helps in the breakdown of
starch first to dextrins, shorter polysaccharide, and
(ii) After chewing, the food is formed into a bolus
then to the disaccharide maltose. The mucus of
by the action of the tongue. The bolus is then
saliva moistens and lubricates the food and makes
pushed inward through the pharynx into the
it easier to swallow.
oesophagus. This process is referred to as
swallowing. Swallowing involves coordinated Mucus of the saliva moistens and dissolves
activity of tongue, soft palate, pharynx, and some of the food and lubricates the oesophagus.
oesophagus. The tongue blocks the mouth, soft Bicarbonate ions in saliva neutralise the acids in food.

The thiocyanate ions of saliva act as antimicrobial bicarbonates from the pancreas and bile from the
agent, and prevent infection by the microbes that liver via gall bladder.
often enter along with food. About 30 percent of
The pancreas is an elongated gland that
starch is hydrolysed in the mouth. Carbohydrate
secretes both digestive enzymes and hormones that
digestion continues in the bolus as it passes to the
help to regulate the level of glucose in the blood.
stomach.
Pancreatic acinar cells (exocrine part of pancreas)
In the stomach, the food is exposed to the action produce pancreatic juices that contains protein-
of gastric juice, which is a mixture of hydrochloric digesting enzymes, namely trypsin, chymotrypsin,
acid, the enzyme pepsinogen and mucus. and carboxypeptidase, and carbohydrases
(carbohydrate digesting enzymes), such as
The mucous neck cells, or gobiet cells, present
pancreatic a-amylase and lipase. All these enzymes
in the mucous epithelium of stomach mainly secrete
enter the duodenum via the pancreatic duct.
mucus. The mucus acts as a lubricant and protects
the epithelial surface from excoriation by HCI and Trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase
digestion by pepsin. are secreted in their inactive forms as trypsinogen,
chymotrypsinogen, and procarboxypolypeptidase,
The parietal cells or oxyntic cells, in the gastric
respectively. Trypsinogen is activated by enterokinase
glands, secrete hydrochloric acid and a substance
secreted by the intestinal mucosa whereas
known as intrinsic factor, needed for adequate
chymotrypsinogen and procarboxypolypeptidase are
absorption of vitamin B12. Hydrochloric acid
activated by trypsin. Pancreatic juice also contains
inactivates the salivary amylase and prevents further
bicarbonate and water. Bicarbonate neutralises
breakdown of carbohydrate (disaccharides). The
hydrochloric acid of the chyme that enters the
acid also kills microorganisms and lowers the pH of
duodenum.
the stomach between 1.5 and 2.5.
Bile, the main exocrine secretion of liver, is
The peptic cells, or chief cells, or zymogenic
initially concentrated and stored in the gall bladder.
cells in gastric glands secrete pepsinogen. Both type
On stimulation, bile is squeezed into the duodenum
of cells are part of the oxyntic tubular glands of the
through the cystic and common bile duct. Bile
stomach epithelium. The pyloric tubular glands of
is a watery greenish fluid mixture containing bile
the stomach secrete mainly mucus, some pepsinogen,
salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, and lecithin (a
and the hormone gastrin.
phospholipid).
Pepsinogen has no proteolytic activity.
The bile salts play a very important role in the
Pepsinogen is the inactive precursor of pepsin and is
digestion of fats. As the fats are insoluble in water,
considered as proenzyme or zymogen and normally
they enter the intestine as drops within the watery
does not pose any threat to the stomach.
chyme. The bile salts, which are partly lipid-soluble
Hydrochloric acid brings about the conversion and partly water-soluble, emulsify the fat particles
of pepsinogen into pepsin, which is the principal and, as a result, the fat-drops acquire a greater surface
protease (proteolytic enzyme) of the stomach and area. The enzyme lipase then acts upon fat-drops and
digests proteins into peptides. It is inactivated when allows its digestion into glycerol and fatty acids.
it comes in contact with the mucus. Bicarbonate
Bile pigments are the products of blood pigment
ions reduce acidity near the cells lining the stomach.
haemoglobin that are excreted in bile. The two most
Partially digested broth of food then leaves the
important bile pigments are bilirubin and biliverdin.
stomach through its pyloric end and enters the
The liver, along with faeces, later excretes these
duodenum as chyme.
substances and excess of cholesterol.
Most enzymatic digestion takes place inside
In response to the action of stimuli received
the small intestine. The duodenum, the first part of
from the vagus (X cranial) nerve and secretin
the small intestine, receives digestive enzymes and

Nutrition in O
rganisms 1.5
(a gastrointestinal hormone), the Brunner’s Besides maltase, which hydrolyses maltose, the
gland (compound tubular glands of the duodenal intestinal juice contains at least two other enzymes.
epithelium) secretes, a large amount of viscous, Sucrase hydrolyses sucrose into glucose and fructose
enzyme-free, alkaline and watery mucoid fluid. and lactase breaks down lactose into glucose and
This secretion enables the duodenum to withstand galactose.
the acidic chyme entering from the stomach, until it
is neutralised by the alkaline pancreatic and biliary Digestion of Proteins in the
secretions. The mucus is secreted by the goblet cells,
whereas water and electrolytes are secreted by the
Alimentary Canal
enterocytes present on the intestinal crypts. Protein digestion begins in the stomach with the
action of pepsin. Pepsin hydrolysis many proteins
The mucus protects the duodenal wall from
into smaller molecules of peptones. Digestion of the
getting digested. The excess of bicarbonate ions
principal milk protein is initiated in the stomach with
present in the secretion of Brunner’s gland combines
its coagulation. Rennin hydrolyses soluble casein
with the bicarbonate ions of the pancreatic juice, and
into paracasein and whey protein. Paracasein is then
forms the intestinal juice, or succus entericus.
precipitated spontaneously as calcium paracaseinate
to form the solid curd (coagulation of milk).
Food Processing Begins in the Mouth
Coagulation of casein promotes its further digestion.
We chew our food before swallowing it. This chewing
As the food passes to the duodenum, pepsin
breaks the food down into smaller pieces and mixes
action is stopped by the alkalinity of the intestinal
it with the saliva produced by salivary glands. Saliva
content. Most protein digestion occurs in the small
contains two main substances:
intestine. The pancreatic juice enzymes trypsin,
(i) The enzyme amylase starts digestion of starch. chymotrypsin, and elastase cleave peptide bonds
This enzyme helps in the breakdown of starch within the interior of the polypeptide chains.
first to dextrins, shorter polysaccharide, and then These enzymes are thus grouped together as
to the disaccharide maltose. enteropeptidases. Enzymes that remove amino acids
(ii) The mucus of saliva moistens and lubricates the from the ends of the polypeptide chains, in contrast,
food and makes it easier to swallow. are exopeptidases. These include the pancreatic juice
enzyme carboxypeptidase, which remove amino
Digestion of Carbohydrates in the acid from carboxyl-terminal end of polypeptide
Alimentary Canal chains, and the aminopeptidase. Aminopeptidase
cleaves amino acids from the amino terminal end of
About 30 percent of the food starch is hydrolysed polypeptide chains. As a result of the action of these
in the mouth. The digestive action of salivary enzymes polypeptide chains are digested into free
amylase stops when the swallowed bolus enters the amino acids, dipeptides, and tripeptides.
stomach because this enzyme is inactivated at the
low pH of gastric juice. The gastric juice contains no
carbohydrate-digesting enzyme. The Digestion of Fats in the Small
Intestine
The carbohydrates of pancreatic and intestinal
juices digest carbohydrates in the small intestine. Fat is largely digested in the small intestine. The
Pancreatic juice contains a starch-digesting enzyme pancreatic juice contains a pancreatic lipase that is
called pancreatic amylase. Starch is hydrolysed the principal enzyme for digestion of fat. Bile salts
by it to maltose, isomaltose, and ‘limit dextrins’. are of prime importance in the digestion of fat. Bile
Enzymes isomaltase and maltase of intestinal juices salts are steroids secreted by the liver in the bile. In
further hydrolyse maltose, isomaltose, and ‘limit’ the intestinal lumen they reduce the surface tension
dextrins into glucose. of fat droplets, causing their breakdown into many

small ones. A fine emulsion of fat is thereby formed Absorption and Assimilation of
in the aqueous intestinal contents. This increases
lipase action on fats. Digested Products in Humans
The pancreatic lipase hydrolyses triglyceride Absorption is the process by which nutrient
fats, first into diglycerides and then into molecules are taken into the cells of living organisms.
monoglycerides, releasing a fatty acid at each step. Digested food is absorbed into the blood and lymph
About two-thirds of the food fat is usually digested to from the alimentary canal. Absorption of food mainly
monoglycerides in this way. Some of the food fat is occurs in the small intestine.
digested only up to diglycerides while small amounts Absorption of nutrients is primarily the job
are absorbed as triglycerides into the intestinal cells. of intestinal villi. To reach the blood (or lymph) a
The intestinal lipase hydrolysis diglycerides and nutrient molecule must pass through an epithelial
triglycerides into fatty acids and monoglycerides. cell of the intestinal lining. Absorption occurs by a
Fatty acids, monoglycerides, and glycerol are the combination of simple (passive) diffusion, facilitated
major end products of fat digestion. diffusion, and active transport.
Simple (passive) diffusion requires the nutrient
Hormonal Control of Digestion to be at higher concentration in the intestinal lumen
than inside the cell. Its molecules should also be
in Humans small and water–soluble. This kind of absorption
The activities of gastrointestinal (Gl) tract are does not need energy and is a very slow process.
coordinated by nervous and endocrine systems of
Water and water–soluble substances (alcohol)
the body. At least four hormones—gastrin, secretin,
are absorbed by osmosis into the intestinal cells and
cholecystokinin (CCK) and gastric inhibitory
thence, to blood. Water is absorbed partly in small
peptide (GIP)—help regulate the digestive system.
intestine and mostly in large intestine.
All of these hormones are polypeptides secreted by
endocrine cells in the mucosa of certain regions of Hydrophilic lipid–insoluble sugars such as
the digestive tract. fructose are carried down their concentration gradient
by facilitated diffusion, which is facilitated by
Gastrin is secreted from near the junction of
specific transporter proteins present in the absorptive
stomach and duodenum in response to the presence
cell membrane. This process is powered by coupling
of food in stomach. It stimulates secretion of gastric
sugar which transports to the electrochemical
juice and movements of the stomach.
gradient for Na- across the brush border.
Secretin is secreted from the duodenal mucosa
In active transport, entry of nutrients such
(duodenum) in response to the presence of HCl in it.
as amino acids, occurs via co-transport channels,
It stimulates the secretion of water and bicarbonates
which couple the movement of Na+ down a steep
in the pancreatic juice and the bile and inhibits the
electrochemical gradient. The energy required for
secretion and movements of stomach.
active transport is derived from hydrolysis of ATP by
Cholecystokinin is secreted from the duodenal the carrier protein acting as ATPase.
mucosa (duodenum) in response to the presence of
From the capillaries the nutrients enter the
food in it. It stimulates the contraction of gall bladder
circulation, and thus, the simple forms of food pass
and release of bile juice.
to different cells and tissues of the body.
Gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) is secreted
The products of fats such as fat-soluble but
from the duodenal mucosa (duodenum) in response
water-insoluble monoglyceride fatty acids and
to the presence of monosaccharides and fats (fatty
glycerol, are first incorporated into water-soluble
thyme) in it. It inhibits gastric secretion and motility
droplets, called micelles (a combination of fatty
(slowing food passage).
acids, monoacylglycerols and bile salts). From

Nutrition in O
rganisms 1.7
these micelles, fatty acids, glycerols, sterols, and than an year in age, where mother’s milk is replaced
fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed by facilitated too early by other foods, which are poor in both
diffusion through the brush border membrane, proteins and caloric value.
and are reconstructed within the absorptive cells
In Marasmus, protein deficiency impairs growth
into triglycerides. The remnant of the micelles is
and replacement of tissue proteins. Stored fats
left behind and combines with new fatty acids and
and tissue proteins are also catabolised for energy
monoacylglycerols. The intestinal absorptive cells
production. So this results into extreme emaciation
then collect the reconstructed triglycerides, combine
of the body and thinning of limbs. Ribs become
them with phospholipids and cholesterol, and
very prominent. The layer of fat beneath the skin
release into the lymph in the form of protein-coated
disappears; the skin becomes dry, thin, and wrinkled.
water-soluble fat globules or droplets called the
Growth rate and body weight decline considerably.
chylomicrons. These droplets are then transported to
Even growth and development of brain and mental
blood via the central lacteal of the lymphatic system
faculties are impaired. This results into atrophy of
for distribution throughout the body.
intestinal mucosa and digestive glands; digestion and
absorption of food fail, and diarrhoea. But hands,
Egestion feet, and other body parts do not show any fluid
accumulation (oedema) and swelling.
The process of defecation or removal of faeces
through the anus is called egestion. Faeces contain
about three-fourth water and one-fourth solid
Goitre
matter consisting of about 30 percent dead bacteria, Goitre is an enlargement of the thyroid gland, which
10 to 20 percent fat, 2 to 3 percent protein and is situated across the front of the neck just below the
30 percent undigested roughage and dry constituents Adam’s apple (larynx). The swelling of the gland
of digestive juices. may be only slight or may be so great as almost to
double the width of the neck.
Nutritional Disorders One cause of goitre is iodine deficiency. The

thyroid gland manufactures protein hormones for
Kwashiorkor which it needs iodine. If the diet doesn’t contain
enough iodine, the gland goes on trying to produce
Kwashiorkor is produced by protein deficiency the hormones and increases its activity. The result
unaccompanied by calorie deficiency. It results from is swelling of the gland. It reduces mental function,
the replacement of mother’s milk by a high calorie- increases risk of still-births, abortions, and infant
low protein diet in a child more than one year in age. deaths.
Kwashiorkor shows wasting of muscles, thinning
of limbs, failure of growth and brain development,
and diarrhoea. But unlike marasmus, some fat is still
Hypercholesterolemia
left under the skin; moreover, extensive oedema and Hypercholesterolemia is a condition in which levels
swelling of body parts are seen. of cholesterol in the blood are higher than normal. A
normal or desirable cholesterol level is less than 200
Kwashiorkor occurs, most commonly, in areas
mg of cholesterol per deciliter of blood. Elevated
of famine, limited food supply, and low levels of
cholesterol is a level over 240 and is considered
education, which can lead to inadequate knowledge
to be hypercholesterolemia. Too much cholesterol
of proper diet.
in the blood will cause plaque to form inside the
blood vessel walls which causes them to thicken and
Marasmus
narrow. This change can increase the risk of heart
Marasmus is produced by a simultaneous deficiency disease and heart attacks. Anyone with a diet high
of proteins and calories. It is found in infants less in saturated fat and cholesterol is overweight and

doesn’t get enough exercise is at a greater risk for In 1772, an English clergyman Joseph Priestley
developing hypercholesterolemia. (1733-1804) showed that plants have the ability to
take up CO2 from the atmosphere and release O2.
Obesity
In 1780, the Dutch physician Jan Ingenhousz
Obesity is the condition in which excess fat has (1730-1799) confirmed Priestley’s work. He further
accumulated in the body: usually considered to be 20 discovered that release of O2 by plants was possible
percent above the recommended weight for height only in sunlight and only by the green parts of the
and age. People gain weight when the body takes in plants.
more calories than it can burn off. Obesity increases
a person’s risk of illness and death due to diabetes, In 1782, Jean Senebier showed that as the
stroke, coronary artery disease, hypertension, high concentration of carbon dioxide is increased the rate
cholesterol, and kidney and gallbladder disorders. of oxygen evolution also increases.
In 1783, Lavoisier identified the purifying
Photosynthesis principle produced by green plants in sunlight as
oxygen and noxious air produced by burning of
The atmosphere contains only about 0.03% carbon
candle as carbon dioxide.
dioxide by volume. But this small percentage
represents about 2200 billion tonnes of it. This In 1804, Theodore de Saussure (1767-1845),
amount of carbon dioxide is adequate to support found that water is an essential requirement for
photosynthesis for a few hundred years even if no photosynthesis to occur.
further amount is added. The oceans of the earth
contain over 50 times the amount of atmospheric In 1845, Von Mayer recognised that green
carbon dioxide in the form of dissolved gas or plants convert solar energy into chemical energy
carbonates. From these two sources, about 70 billion of organic matter.
tonnes of carbon are fixed annually by photosynthesis. In 1845. Liebig pointed out that the sole source
The primary function of photosynthesis is to of carbon in plants was the carbon dioxide of the air.
capture light energy, convert some of this light energy
In 1862 Julius Von Sachs demonstrated that the
into chemical energy, and store this chemical energy
product of photosynthesis was starch.
in molecules of carbohydrates (such as glucose, or
starch). In 1888 Engelmann Plotted the action spectrum
of Photosynthesis.
Historical Perspective
In 1905, F.F. Blackmann enunciated the law of
Aristotle (320 BC) believed that plants absorb all limiting factors. He also proposed the occurrence of
materials, inorganic and organic, directly from the soil. a dark phase in photosynthesis.
In 1648, the Belgian physician, Jan Baptista In 1920, Warburg introduced the unicellular
van Helmont (1580-1644), in a famous five-year green algae Chlorella as a suitable material to study
experiment involving a growing willow plant, he photosynthesis.
“proved” that all of a tree’s increase in mass comes
from water. His hypothesis, though incorrect, led In 1931, Van Neil observed that certain type of
to better hypotheses and further advances in our photosynthetic bacteria fixed carbon dioxide in the
understanding of plant metabolism. presence of hydrogen sulphide. He gave a simplified
equation of photosynthesis.
1727, Stephen Hales recognised the importance
of air and light in the nourishment of plants. In 1932, Emerson and Arnold performed flashing
Stephen Hales is often referred to as `father of light experiment and showed the existence of light
plant physiology’. and dark reactions.

Nutrition in O
rganisms 1.9
In 1937, Robert Hill demonstrated photolysis semiautonomous. Ribosomes are of 70S type.
of water by isolated chloroplasts in the presence of With the help of ctDNA, RNA and ribosomes the
suitable electron acceptor. chloroplasts manufacture their own proteins and
enzymes.
In 1941, Ruben and Kamen used O18 to show
that in photosynthesis oxygen comes from water. Chlorophyll is the chief pigment involved in
photosynthesis. Chlorophyll consists of a porphyrin
In 1954, Arnon, Allen and White used 14CO2 to
ring and phytol chain. The porphyrin ring is made
show fixation of CO2 by isolated chloroplasts.
up of four small pyrrole rings. The skeleton of each
In 1954 Melvin Calvin traced the pathway pyrrole ring is made up of 5 atoms of carbon and one
of carbon fixation by using (14CO2) and gave C3 nitrogen. The latter holds a non-ionic magnesium
cycle, now known after him as Calvin cycle. He was atom at the centre of the porphyrin ring. The long
awarded Noble Prize for this in 1960. phytol side chain composed of insoluble carbon and
hydrogen atoms helps to anchor the chlorophyll
In 1965, Hatch and Slack reported the C4
molecules with the thylakoids in the chloroplasts.
pathway for CO2 fixation in certain tropical grasses.
In plants, mostly there are two kinds: chlorophyll
In 1988, Robert Huber along with Johann
a and chlorophyll b. Both chlorophyll a and b are
Deisenhofer and Hartmut Michel received the Nobel
very similar in their molecular structure, except that
Prize for Chemistry for their determination of the
the aldehyde group (–CHO) group in chlorophyll a
structure of a protein complex that is essential to
is replaced with the methyl group (–CH3) group in
photosynthesis in bacteria.
chlorophyll b.
Site For Photosynthesis Chlorophyll a is the major pigment involved
in trapping light energy and in converting it into
The chloroplast, basically, is the organelle responsible
electrical and chemical energy. Chlorophyll b acts as
for photosynthesis. Typical chloroplasts from higher
an accessory pigment and helps broaden the spectrum
plants are discoid or lens shaped. Such chloroplasts
of light absorbed during photosynthesis. Chlorophyll
measure 4-10 mm in diameter with a thickness of
b constitutes about one-fourth of the total chlorophyll
2-3 mm.
content and absorbs light of different wavelength
A chloroplast is an organelle with an outer than the chlorophyll a. On absorbing light, the
envelope consisting of double membrane each chlorophyll b molecule is excited and transfers its
of 9–10 nm thickness. They are separated by a energy to the chlorophyll a molecule. Finally, the
peripiastidal space of 10-20 nm. Stacks of thylakoids chlorophyll a molecule converts the light energy
(grana) are located in the stroma and are connected by into electrical energy by bringing about electrical
stroma lamellae. All the pigments are located in the charge separation. Hence, chlorophyll a molecules
thylakoid membranes. A pigment is a molecule that act as reaction centres. Molecular formulae of
absorbs light of a specific wavelength in the visible chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are C55H72O5N4Mg
region. The chloroplast pigments are fat-soluble and C55H70O6N4Mg respectively.
and are located in the lipid part of the membrane.
Carotenoids are usually red, orange, or yellow
Along with some enzymes, they participate in the
pigments, and include the familiar compound
conversion of solar energy into ATP and NADPH.
carotene, which gives carrots their colour. Like
The stroma contains enzymes; which are capable of
chlorophyll, they are also embedded in the thylakoid
utilising ATP and NADPH to produce carbohydrates.
membranes of chloroplasts. These accessory
The matrix contains DNA, RNA, ribosomes, pigments act as antenna complexes and harvest
enzymes for CO2 assimilation, proteins, starch light from different regions of the spectrum than the
grains and fat droplets. Chloroplast DNA or ctDNA chlorophyll. The light captured by these pigments is
is naked, circular or linear. It makes the chloroplasts funnelled into the reaction centres (chlorophyll a) for

conversion into the electrical energy. The accessory red and orange but also yellow pigments). The
pigments and the reaction centre, together form closely packed pigment molecules in photosystems
photosystem. serve as an “antenna” for gathering solar energy.
Phycohilins are water-soluble pigments, and are Two photosystems exist with different forms of
therefore found in the cytoplasm, or in the stroma chlorophyll a as the reaction centre. In photosystem
of the chloroplast. They occur only in Cyanobacteria I (PSI), chlorophyll a with maximum absorption
and Rhodophyta. at 700 nm (P700) and in photosystem II (PSII),
chlorophyll a with peak absorption at 680 nm (P680)
The curve showing the amount of different
acts as reaction centres. Here, P stands for pigments.
wavelengths of light absorbed by a substance is
The PS II is located in the appressed regions of gram
called, absorption spectrum. It is studied with the
thylakoids, and the PS I in the stroma thylakoids and
help of spectrophotometer. The absorption spectra of
non-appressed regions of grana.
chlorophylls a and b show that they absorb maximum
light in the blue-violet and red wavelengths. The primary function of the two photosystems,
which interact with each other, is to trap light energy
The curve depicting the relative rates of
and convert it to the chemical energy (ATP). Living
photosynthesis at different wavelengths of light is
cells use this chemical energy stored in the form of
called action spectrum. It shows that maximum
ATP
photosynthesis occurs in blue-violet and red parts of
the light.
Electron Transport Chain
Fluorescence is property of almost immediate
Robert Hill first formulated the light driven reactions
emission of long wave radiations by substances after
of photosynthesis, referred to as electron transport
attaining excited state on receipt of light energy, e.g.
chain, in 1939.
chlorophyll.
Photosynthetic unit is defined as the smallest Photophosptiorylation
group of pigment molecules necessary for The process of ATP formation from ADP in
photochemical reaction. Park and Biggins (1964) the presence of light in chloroplasts is called
called these photosynthetic units as quantasomes. photophosphorylation. Photophosphorylation
The quantasome contains about 230 chlorophyll. was discovered by Arnon et al (1954).
Photophosphorylation is accomplished through
The Photochemical Phase cyclic or non-cyclic electron transport system (ETS).
The light harvesting unit in photosynthesis is located Non-cyclic photophosphorylation is a result
on the thylakoid membrane of chloroplast and of an interaction of photosystem I and photosystem
consisting of the antenna complex of a few hundred II. When photosystem II (P600) absorbs light, it is
accessory pigment molecules and the reaction-centre excited and its electrons are transferred to an electron
chlorophyll a. Chlorophyll a acts as reaction centre. acceptor molecule. By doing so, P680 becomes a
A photosystem is an assemblage of 250 to strong oxidising agent and splits a molecule of water
400 pigment molecules. Plants use two types of to release oxygen. This light-dependent splitting of
photosystems for photosynthesis: photosystem I, the water molecule is called photolysis. Manganese,
and photosystem II. The photosystems are named calcium and chloride ions play important roles in the
for the order in which they were discovered and not photolysis of water.
for the order in which they occur in the thylakoid With the breakdown of water, electrons are
membrane. Each photosystem has a pigment generated, which are then passed to the oxidised P680.
complex composed of chlorophyll a and chlorophyll As a result, the electron-deficient P680 (because it
b molecules (green pigments) and accessory had transferred its electrons to an acceptor molecule
pigments, such as carotenoid molecules (primarily before) is able to restore its electrons from the water

Nutrition in O
rganisms 1.11
molecule. After accepting electrons from the excited P700 results in the formation of ATP from ADP, and
P680, the primary electron acceptor is reduced. The is termed as cyclic photophosphorylation, oxygen is
reduced acceptor (a strong reducing agent) now not released (as there is no photolysis of water) and
donates its electrons to the downstream components NADPH2 is also not produced.
of the electron transport chain. During this process,
energy is released and stored in the form of ATP from Red drop and Emerson effect
ADP.
Robert Emerson and his associates while determining
Like the photosystem II (P680), photosystem I the quantum yield of photosynthesis in Chlorella by
(P700) is excited on absorbing light and gets oxidised. using monochromatic light of different wavelength
It transfers its electrons to the primary electron noticed a sharp decrease in quantum yield at
acceptor, which, in turn, gets reduced. While the wavelength greater than 680 nm. Because this
oxidised P700 draws electrons from photosystem decrease in quantum yield took place- in the red part
II, the reduced electron acceptor of photosystem I, of the spectrum, the phenomenon was called as red
transfers electrons to ferredoxin and ferredoxin- drop.
NADP reductase to reduce NADP to NADPH2. So,
They later found that the insufficient red light
there is a continuous flow of electrons from water
beyond 680 nm could be made fully efficient if
to photosystem II to photosystem I, and finally, to
supplemented with light of shorter wavelength (Blue
NADP. As the electrons pass downhill in an electron
light). The quantum yield from the two combined
transport chain, ATP is formed from ADP. Since the
beams of light was found to be greater than the
electron flow from water to NADP is unidirectional,
sum effects of both beams used separately. This
the process of ATP formation is termed as non-cyclic
enhancement of photosynthesis is called as Emerson
photophosphorylation.
effect.
Cyclic photophosphorylation takes place in
gram (thylakoids) of mesophyll cells. When non- The Biosynthetic Phase
cyclic photophosphorylation is stopped under
Carbon fixation occurs in the stroma by a series of
certain conditions, cyclic photophosphorylation
enzyme-catalysed steps. These reactions are referred
occurs. The non-cyclic photophosphorylation can
to as carbon reactions (also cabled dark reactions),
be stopped by illuminating isolated chloroplasts
leading to the photosynthetic reduction of carbon to
with light of wavelengths greater than 680 nm. By
carbohydrates. Melvin Calvin worked out the cycle
this way, only photosystem I is activated, as it has a
in 1954. The cycle can be divided into three stages:
maximum absorption at 700nm, and photosystem Il,
(1) carboxylation, (2) reduction, and (3) regeneration.
which absorbs at 680 nm, remains inactivated. Due
to the inactivation of photosystem II, the electron Carboxylation: During this phase, CO2 is
flow from water to NADP is stopped, and also CO2 accepted by a 5-carbon molecule, ribulose-1,
fixation is retarded. When CO2 fixation is stopped, 5-bisphosphate (RuBP) and two molecules of
electrons will not be removed from the reduced 3-carbon compound, i.e. 3-phosphoglycerate (PGA)
NADPH. This means that NADPH will not be are formed. This 3-carbon molecule is the first
oxidised and NADP will no longer be available as an stable product of this pathway, and therefore it is
electron acceptor. Under these circumstances, cyclic called C3 pathway. The formation of PGA is called
photophosphorylation occurs. as carboxylation. This reaction is catalysed by an
enzyme called ribulose bisphosphate carboxgrlase
During cyclic photophosphorylation, electrons
(Rubisco).
from photosystem I are not passed to NADP from the
electron acceptor (as NADP is no longer available in Reduction: After the carboxylation reaction,
oxidised state to receive the electrons). Instead, the reduction of PGA occurs, where ATP and NADPH2
electrons are transferred back to P700. This downhill formed during the photochemical reactions are
movement of electrons from an electron acceptor to utilised. With the reduction of PGA, glyceraldehyde-

3-phosphate-a carbohydrate- is formed. These Glycine enters mitochondria where two glycine
3-carbon molecules, also called triose phosphates, molecules (4 carbons) give rise to one molecule of
are diverted from the Calvin cycle and act as serine (3 carbons) and one CO2 (one carbon). The
precursors for the synthesis of sucrose and starch. serine is taken up by the peroxisome, and through
a series of reactions, is converted to glycerate. The
Regeneration: To complete the cycle, and
glycerate leaves the peroxisome and enters the
for the cycle to continue on its own, regeneration
chloroplast, where it is phosphorylated to form
of the initial 5-carbon acceptor molecule, that is
PGA.
RuBP, takes place. The regeneration of RuBP from
glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate requires another ATP The PGA molecule enters the Calvin cycle to
molecule formed as a result of photophosphorylation make carbohydrates, but one CO2 molecule released
during the light reactions. in mitochondria during photorespiration has to be
re-fixed. In other words, 75 per cent of the carbon
This C3 pathway is also called Calvin cycle after
lost by the oxygenation of RuBP is recovered, and
its discoverer, Melvin Calvin, who received Nobel
25 per cent is lost as release of one molecule of CO2.
Prize in 1961 for discovering this pathway.
Photorespiration is also called photosynthetic
Photorespiration carbon oxidation cycle. The relative levels
of O2 and CO2 determine the occurrence of
Photorespiration is the process that consumes
photorespiration, since both gases compete for the
oxygen, releases carbon dioxide, generates no ATP,
same active site of Rubisco. Increased O2 level
and decrease photosynthetic output through the
increases photorespiration, whereas increased. CO2
degradation of Calvin cycle intermediates; generally
level decreases photorespiration (and increases C3
occurs on hot, dry, bright days, when stomata close
photosynthesis). Photorespiration is considered a loss
and the oxygen concentration in the leaf exceeds that
to C3 plants because photosynthetically fixed carbon
of carbon dioxide. Photorespiration involves three
is lost. It acts to undo the work of photosynthesis,
organelles: the chloroplast, the peroxisome, and the
as no energy rich compound is produced during this
mitochondria.
process.
In plants, Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase
Significance of photorespiration: Under
(Rubisco) catalyses the carboxylation reaction,
conditions of high light and limited CO2 supply,
where CO2 combines with RuBP for the Calvin
photorespiration has a useful role in protecting the
cycle to begin. But, this enzyme also has the ability
plants from photooxidative damage. This means that
to catalyse the combination of O2 with RuBP (at
if adequate CO2 is not available to utilise light energy
conditions of low CO2 concentration and high O2
for carboxylation to proceed, the excess energy
concentration) called oxygenation. This happens
causes damage to plants. However, photorespiration,
fundamentally because of the fact that the active site
that is oxygenation of RuBP, utilises part of the light
of enzyme Rubisco is the same for both carboxylation
energy and saves the plant from the photooxidative
and oxygenation. The oxygenation of RuBP in the
damage.
presence of O2 is the first reaction of photorespiration.
The oxygenation of RuBP in the presence of O2 is
C4 Pathway
the first reaction of photorespiration, which leads to
the formation of one molecule of phosphoglycolate, C4 pathway was worked out by Hatch and Slack
a two-carbon compound and one molecule of PGA. (1965–1967). They found it a regular mode of
While the PGA is used up in the Calvin cycle, the CO2 fixation in a number of tropical plants, both
phosphoglycolate is dephosphorylated to form monocots and dicots, e.g. Maize, Sugarcane,
glycolate in the chloroplast. From the chloroplast, Sorghum, Pennisetum, Atriplex, Amaranthus, etc.
the glycolate is diffused to peroxisome, where it These plants are called C4 plants because of the
is oxidised to glyoxylate. In the peroxisome, the first stable plotosynthetic product being a 4-carbon
glyoxylate is used to form the amino acid, glycine. compound. Other plants are C3 plants.

Nutrition in O
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This direct relationship is not seen at higher CO2 concentration (up to at least 500 ppm) when
light intensities. At higher light intensities, the rate other factors are not limiting. This increased rate of
of photosynthesis decreases. This is because of the photosynthesis in C3 plants is primarily due to two
following two reasons: (i) other factors required for factors:
photosynthesis become limiting, and (ii) destruction (i) high availability of substrate for the car
of chlorophyll occurs. boxylation reaction, and
When the intensity of light falling on leaf increases (ii) reduced photorespiration due to more available
beyond a point, chlorophyll is destroyed. This CO2 to Rubisco.
phenomenon occurs in the presence of O2 and is called
photooxidation. The quality of light also influences In C4 plants also, photosynthesis increases as
photosynthetic rate. For example, when light passes the concentration increases. However, the C4 plants
through a forest canopy there is preferential absorption attain saturation at much lower CO2 concentration
of blue and red regions of visible light (which are (around the present level of 360 ppm) than the C3
photosynthetically most effective) by the foliage. As plants, which become saturated at CO2 level of about
a result, the rate of photosynthesis in plants growing 500 ppm. This means that the existing availability
under the canopy markedly decreases. of CO2 in the atmosphere is a limiting factor for C3
plants.
Temperature Photosynthesis is also influenced by the existing
Changes in temperature do not affect the increase in the atmospheric CO2. It is likely that CO2
photochemical reactions of photosynthesis but concentration could reach to a level of about 600 ppm
profoundly influence the rate of enzyme-controlled by 2020. In such a case, the C3 plants are expected to
dark reactions. However, the effect of temperature on be benefited more than the C4 plants.
the rate of photosynthesis varies from plant to plant. The key effect of increased atmospheric CO2
Largely, the process of photosynthesis is levels on photosynthesis would be through an
sensitive to higher temperatures, mainly because of increase in the intercellular CO2 concentration by an
the fact that at higher temperatures enzymes become increased rate of diffusion of CO2 into the leaf.
inactive. Affinity of the enzyme Rubisco for CO2 is
also reduced at higher temperature. Low temperature Soil Water
also inactivates enzymes. Availability of water in soil has a major effect on
The sensitivity of C4 photosynthesis to low photosynthesis. If soil water becomes limiting, plants
temperature, as compared to C3 plants is due to the undergo water stress. Under conditions of water
low temperature sensitivity of a particular enzyme stress, the rate of photosynthesis declines because of
(Pyruvate phosphate dikanase) that is required in the the following two factors:
C4 pathway. (i) stomatal closure and the resultant decrease in
CO2 supply, and
On the whole, different habitats show different
response of photosynthesis to a given temperature. (ii) reduced leaf water potential.
For example, plants adapted to colder environments Low leaf water potential reduces leaf expansion,
show a higher photosynthetic rate at low temperatures which causes a significant reduction in the
than plants adapted to higher temperatures. photosynthetic surface area.
Carbon Dioxide Nutrient Supply

The photosynthetic response of C3 and C4 plants to the Since nitrogen is a basic constituent of chlorophyll
available CO2 concentration is variable. In C3 plants, and all enzymes involved in carbon reactions,
rate of photosynthesis increases with an increase in any reduction in nitrogen supply to plants has an

unfavourable effect on photosynthesis. The major H2S and other compounds are employed. Trap
enzyme of carbon metabolism in plants, that is, centre is usually B890 of bacteriochlorophyll a.
Rubisco, alone accounts for more than half of the It absorbs radiations between 870-890 nm of
total leaf nitrogen. Overall, all essential elements infrared range. Though both cyclic and noncylic
affect the rate of leaf photosynthesis. photophosphorylations occur there is only one
photosystem. Assimilatory power consists of ATP
Leaf Factors and NADH.
Leaf age has the major effect on photosynthesis.
Chemosynthesis
If leaf undergoes senescence (that means, it turns
yellow due to ageing), loss of chlorophyll occurs. The The process of carbohydrate synthesis in which
photosynthetic enzymes also get deactivated, resulting the organisms use chemical reactions to obtain
in reduced photosynthesis in a senescent leaf. energy from inorganic compounds, is called
chemosynthesis. For example, bacteria of the genus
Translocation of Photosynthates Nitrosonaonas oxidise ammonia to nitritz. The
bacteria use the energy released during oxidation,
The carbohydrates manufactured in the leaves of
in the same way as plants use energy from sunlight
higher plants are distributed to roots and storage
during photosynthesis, for converting carbon dioxide
organs (tubers, bulbs, roots, fruits, etc.) along the
to carbohydrates. These bacteria are also called
phloem. This long distance movement of organic
chemosynthetic autotrophs.
compounds is called translocation. Sucrose is
the principal form in which the carbohydrates
are translocated. It is a non-reducing sugar, and
hence, chemically stable. Because of this property, Multiple Choice Questions
sucrose does not react with other substances during Tick () the most appropriate answer(s) among the
translocation through phloem. Sieve elements, which following:
are living, are the channels of transport.
Significance of Photosynthesis Level 1: Elementary Questions

Photosynthesis is essential for life on planet earth. 1. Digestion within a digestive tract is
It is the only process that links the physical and the (a) incomplete
biological world. It helps conversion of the solar (b) extracellular
energy into organic matter, which makes bulk of the (c) the same as absorption
dry matter of any organism.
(d) intracellular
The biomass of plant supports the nutritional
2. Another term for digestion is
requirements of all heterotrophs including humans.
Evolution of O2 as by product of photosynthesis is (a) dehydration synthesis
helpful to living organisms in efficient utilisation (b) hydrolysis
of the energy rich molecules (carbohydrates formed (c) absorption
during photosynthesise through respiration, and (d) assimilation
allows formation of ozone layer of atmosphere which
prevents the highly destructive ultraviolet (UV) rays 3. Which of the following statement is correct?
from reaching the earth. (a) most digestive enzymes are oxidative
(b) all digestive enzymes are hydrolytic
Bacterial Photosynthesis (c) bile has enzymatic action on lipids
In bacteria, there is a unique type of photosynthesis (d) peristalsis is brought about by enzymatic
that does not use H2O or produce O2. Instead H2, action

Nutrition in O
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4. Where does digestion begin? 13. Pepsin differs from trypsin in that it digest
(a) mouth (b) stomach (a) protein in acidic medium in duodenum;
(c) small intestine (d) pharynx (b) protein in acidic medium in stomach;
5. When teeth are different in shape, size, and (c) protein in alkaline medium in duodenum;
function then these are called (d) protein in alkaline medium in stomach.
(a) acrodont (b) pleurodont
14. Germs entering the body through food are
(c) homodont (d) heterodont mainly killed in the region of alimentary canal
6. Number of teeth which are replaced in man are where pH may reach the level
(a) 20 (b) 28 (a) 2 (b) 7
(c) 32 (d) 12 (c) 10 (d) Zero
7. The layer of cells that secretes enamel of tooth 15. Curdling of milk in the stomach is due to the
is action of
(a) dentoblast (h) osteoblast (a) pepsin (b) rennin
(c) ameloblasts (d) odontoblast (c) HCI (d) renin
8. Dentine is the 16. Which of the following animals has no need for
(a) hardest part of the tooth; a gall bladder?
(b) part of the tooth between enamel and pulp; (a) Horse (b) Lion
(c) softest part of the tooth; (c) Dog (d) Human
(d) part of the tooth that decay first.
17. Largest gland in human body is
9. The incisor tooth is meant for (a) liver (b) pancreas
(a) biting and cutting (c) pituitary (d) thyroid
(b) chewing
18. Where is bile produced?
(c) munching and chewing
(a) in gall bladder (b) in blood
(d) munching
(c) in liver (d) in spleen
10. Among mammals, a herbivore has
(a) more teeth than a carnivore 19. Chief function of bile is
(b) flatter teeth than a carnivore (a) to digest fat by enzymatic action;
(c) teeth that are more pointed than carnivore (b) to emulsify fat for digestion;
(d) lesser teeth than a carnivore (c) to eliminate waste product;
11. If pH of a protein is 1.6 which enzyme will (d) to regulate process of digestion.
digest this? 20. Emulsification of fats in the intestine will not
(a) Trypsin (b) Pepsin take place in the absence of
(c) Amylase (d) Erypsin (a) peristalsis (b) bile salts
12. Pepsin digests (c) lipase (d) bile pigments
(a) proteins in stomach 21. Digestive juice lacking enzyme but helping in
(b) carbohydrates in duodenum digestion is
(c) proteins in duodenum (a) chyle (b) chyme
(d) fats in ileum (c) bile (d) succus entericus

22. Bile salts play an important role in the absorption (a) jaundice (b) elephantiasis
of (c) diabetes insipidus (d) diabetes mellitus
(a) fat soluble vitamins
30. The number of projections on the wall of the
(b) undigested fats small intestine function to
(c) sugars (a) secrete digestive enzymes;
(d) proteins (b) increase the surface area for absorption;
23. Amylase digest starch (c) hold products of digestion, so they do not
(a) in duodenum in alkaline medium enter the large intestine;
(b) in duodenum in acidic medium (d) hold mucus, so ulcers do not form.
(c) in stomach in alkaline medium 31. Absorption of food mainly takes place in the
(d) in stomach in acidic medium (a) stomach (b) small intestine
24. Find out the correct sequence of enzymes, (c) large intestine (d) caecum
substrate & end product 32. In intestine pH value is
(a) peptidases - proteins - amino acids (a) 7.00 (b) 8.00
(b) peptidases - peptides - amino acids (c) 8.5 to 9.00 (d) 2.5 to 4.5
(c) trypsin - fats - amino acids
33. Intestinal villi are more numerous and larger in
(d) maltase - maltose - glucose & galactose
the posterior part of small intestine than in the
25. Which one of the following is the matching pair anterior part because
of digestive enzyme and its substrate? (a) digestion is faster in posterior part;
(a) amylase - lactose (b) blood supply is poor in posterior part;
(b) trypsin - starch (c) there is more digested food in posterior part;
(c) invertase - sucrose (d) blood supply is poor in anterior part.
(b) rennin - lipid
34. The functional units for absorption of digested
26. Pancreatic juice takes part in the digestion of food is
(a) proteins and fats (a) villi
(b) carbohydrates and proteins (b) Peyer’s patches
(c) carbohydrates and fats (c) Brunner’s glands
(d) proteins, fat and carbohydrates (d) crypts of Lieberkuhn
27. Which of the following cells of pancreas 35. What is common among amylase, rennin. and
produce insulin? trypsin?
(a) a cells (b) B cells (a) these are all protein;
(c) b cells (d) T cells (b) these are produced in stomach;
28. Hormone insulin mainly controls (c) these act at a pH lower than 7;
(a) carbohydrate metabolism (d) these are all proteolytic enzymes.
(b) synthesis of some organic substances 36. After absorption fats firstly go to
(c) protein metabolism (a) skin (b) lungs
(d) lipid metabolism (c) liver (d) heart
29. A disease caused by insufficient amounts of 37. A gram of butter prop ides more energy that a
insulin is gram of sugar because

Nutrition in O
rganisms 1.17
(a) butter is an animal product; 46. Vitamin A is produced from carotene in

(b) butter has more carbon-hydrogen bonds; (a) blood (b) skin
(c) butter is more completely absorbed; (c) intestinal tract (d) liver
(d) butter contains more ATP.
47. Cod liver oil is the source of
38. The food that gives more calories per unit mass (a) vitamin B (b) vitamin C
of food is
(c) iodine (d) UK vitamin A
(a) protein (b) fat
(c) water (d) carbohydrate 48. Deficiency of vitamin B1 leads to
(a) beriberi (b) night blindness
39. Major requirement of protein in the body is for
(c) rickets (d) scurvy
(a) energy
(b) growth 49. Prolonged thiamine deficiency in diet leads to
(c) repair (a) anaemia
(d) proper nourishment (b) loss of muscle tone and damaged to nerves
40. How many of the 20 amino acids are essential (c) haemorrhage
amino acids for an adult human? (d) pellagra
(a) 6 (b) 8 50. Vitamin B2 is related to
(c) 11 (d) 14 (a) FMN/FAD (b) NAD
41. Calcium deficiency occurs in the absence of (c) NADH (d) ATP
vitamin
51. Lack of nicotinamide in man results in
(a) D (b) E
(a) muscular dystrophy
(c) C (d) B
(b) pellagra
42. Which one of the following vitamins does not (c) night-blindness
have coenzyme activity?
(d) beriberi
(a) folic acid (b) biotin
(c) tocopherol (d) riboflavin 52. A person suffering from bleeding gum needs in
his/her food
43. Vitamin K is used for
(c) Citrus (b) Carotene
(a) formation of prathrombin
(c) Cod liver oil (d) Vitamin K
(b) activation of prothrombin
(c) formation of fibrinogen 53. Ascorbic acid is a
(d) formation of thrombioplastin (a) vitamin (b) hormone
(c) enzyme (d) amino acid
44. Night blindness is caused due to
(a) excessive drinking of alcohol 54. The vitamin which is generally excreted in
(b) excess secretion of adrenals urine by humans is
(c) vitamin A deficiency (a) vitamin C (b) vitamin K
(d) inheritance by X-chromosome (c) vitamin A (d) vitamin E
45. A deficiency of vitamin A results in 55. Vitamin that is destroyed on heating is

(a) pernicious anaemia (a) vitamin D (b) vitamin C
(b) short-sightedness (c) vitamin A (d) vitamin K
(c) xerophthalmia 56. A person decides to live exclusively on a diet of
(d) colour blindness milk, egg and bread. He/She would suffer from

(a) scurvy (b) night blindness (a) CO2 + H2O + Light → CH2O + O2
(c) beriberi (d) rickets (b) C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O
57. Chronic alcoholics are always short of vitamin (c) 6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2
(a) B (b) C (d) 6CO2 + 12H2O + Light → C6H12O2 + 6O2
(c) D (d) E + 6H2O
58. Deficiency of vitamin C causes 66. Which one of the following crop plant is very
efficient converter of solar energy and whose
(a) rickets (b) beriberi
net productive value ranges from 2 kg to 4 kg/
(c) scurvy (d) night blindness m2 or even higher?
59. Antiscurvy vitamin is (a) sugarcane (b) wheat
(a) A (b) B12 (c) bajra (d) rice
(c) D (d) C 67. Nine-tenth of all photosynthesis of the world is
60. Dark reaction of photosynthesis occurs is the carried out by
(a) stroma of the chloroplast outside the (a) herbs
laurellae; (b) algae of oceans
(b) space between the two membranes of the (c) trees with large branches
chloroplast; (d) shrubs
(c) membranes of the stroma lamellae; 68. The maximum evolution of oxygen is by
(d) thylakoid membrane of the grana. (a) crops
61. During dark reactions of photosynthesis (b) phytoplanktons of the sea
(a) CO2 is reduced to organic compounds; (c) forests
(b) Chlorophyll is activated; (d) great land area
(c) 6C sugar is broken down into 3C sugar; 69. During photosynthesis the oxygen in glucose
(d) photolysis. comes from
(a) water
62. CO2 and O2 balance in atmosphere is due to (b) oxygen in air
(a) photorespiration (b) photosynthesis (c) both from water and carbon dioxide
(c) respiration (d) leaf anatomy (d) carbon dioxide
63. Photosynthesis is 70. Photosynthesis consists of essentially two
(a) exothermic process biological reaction systems, one followed by
(b) anabolic process the other. The second of these systems does
(c) catabolic process which of the following?
(d) exergonic process (a) fixes carbon dioxide
(b) traps light energy
64. For photosynthesis the green plant need (c) synthesises starch
(a) chlorophyll (d) works only in the presence of light
(b) CO2 and water
71. Two chief functions of leaves are
(c) light
(a) transpiration and respiration
(d) all of these
(b) photosynthesis and respiration
65. Which of the following equation most (c) photosynthesis and transpiration
adequately sums up the photosynthetic reaction? (d) respiration and guttation

Nutrition in O
rganisms 1.19
72. The chief constituents of Hill reaction are 3. Photosystem II occurs in

(a) ATP and NADPH, in chloroplast (a) stroma
(b) ATP and NADPH, in mitochondria (b) grana
(c) reduced substance and O2 in chloroplast (c) on surface of mitochondria
(d) only oxygen (d) on cytochrome
73. Dark reaction in photosynthesis is called so 4. Where do the energy-capturing reactions of
because photosynthesis occur?
(a) it does not require light energy;
(a) Plasma membrane (b) Cytoplasm
(b) cannot occur during daytime;
(c) Stroma (d) Thylakoids
(c) occurs more rapidly at night;
(d) it can also occur in darkness. 5. The process in which water is split during
photosynthesis and essential for photosynthesis
74. Algae used by Calvin and his co-workers in
(a) hydrolysis (b) plasmolysis
their experiments on photosynthesis is
(c) hemolysis (d) photolysis
(a) Chlamydomonas (b) Chlorella
(c) Chara (d) Spirogyra 6. The first step in photosynthesis is
75. Calvin cycle occurs in (a) joining of 3-carbon atoms to form glucose
(a) chloroplast (b) mitochondria (b) ionisation of water
(c) glyoxysomes (d) cytoplasm (c) excitement of an electron of chlorophyll
by a photon of light
76. A pigment that absorbs yellow and green light
(d) formation of ATP
and reflects blue or purple light is
(a) Carotenoids (b) Melanin 7. All plastids have essentially same structure
(c) Xanthophyll (d) Phycocyanin because
(a) they are localised in aerial part of plant
77. The final acceptor of electrons during non-
cyclic electron pathway is (b) all plastids store starch, lipid and proteins
(a) PS I (b) PS II (c) one type of plastid can be differentiated
(c) ATP (d) NADP* into another type of plastid depending on
cell requirements
Level 2: Conceptual Questions (d) they have to perform same function
1. There are two light reactions in photosynthesis. 8. Which one of the following is the precursor of
The one sensitive to longer wavelengths of light chlorophyll?
is known is (a) Bacteriochlorophyll
(a) phosphorylation (b) Bacterioviridin
(b) photosystem II (c) Tryptophan
(c) photosystem I (d) Protochlorophyll
(d) photolysis of water
9. Photosynthetic pigments in chtoroplast are
2. Photo-oxidation of water in photosynthesis is in embedded in membrane of
association of (a) thylakoids
(a) Pigment system I (b) Pigment system II (b) photaglobin
(c) Plastocyanin (d) Cytochrome b6 (c) matrix
(d) envelope of chloroplast

10. Grana refers to (a) red light (b) blue light

(a) glycolysis of glucose (c) green light (d) yellow light
(b) by product of photosynthesis 19. Which of the following is the least effective in
(c) stacks of thylakoids photosynthesis?
(d) stacks of quantasomes (a) red light (b) blue light
(c) green light (d) violet
11. Chlorophyll ‘a’ is found in
20. Which wavelength of light carries out
(a) all O2 releasing photosynthetic forms
photosynthesis in bacteria?
(b) all plants except fungi
(a) blue (b) red
(c) all higher plants that photosynthesise (c) far red (d) ultraviolet
(d) all photosynthetic prokaryotes and
eukaryotes 21. The assimilatory power in photosynthesis is
(a) ATP
12. The basic structure of all chlorophylls comprises
(b) ATP and NADPH2
(a) porphyrin system (c) NADPH
(b) cytochrome system (d) ATP, NADPH and CO2
(c) flavoprotein only
22. Synthesis of ATP in mitochondria requires
(d) plastocyanin system
(a) NADP (b) FMN
13. Chemical formula for chlorophyll ‘a’ is (c) oxygen (d) pyruvic acid
(a) C55H72O5N4Mg (b) C55H70O6N4Mg 23. The atom within each cytochrome molecule
(c) C55H70O5N4Mg (d) C55H72O6N4Mg that actually accepts and releases electrons is
14. The empirical formula chlorophyll ‘b’ is (a) iron (b) oxygen
(a) C35H72O5N4Mg (b) C55H70O6N4Mg (c) zinc (d) carbon
(c) C55H77O6N4Mg (d) C35H70O5N4Mg 24. To a living organism which of the following
has the greater amount of available energy per
15. Where does the primary photochemical reaction
molecule?
occurs in the chloroplast?
(a) NAD (b) ATP
(a) stroma
(c) ADP (d) CO2
(b) periplast cavity
(c) quantasome 25. Which one of the following is the universal
(d) inner membrane of chloroplast hydrogen acceptor?
(a) ATP (b) FMN
16. The number of chlorophyll molecules in a
(c) CoA (d) NAD
quantasome is
(a) 50–100 (b) 200–250 26. Phosphorus is a structural element in
(c) 500–600 (d) 300–450 (a) proteins (b) cytochrome
(c) carbohydrates (d DNA
17. Which of the following pigment is soluble in
water? 27. Which of the following essential mineral
(a) carotene (b) anthocyanin element is NOT a constituent of any enzyme but
(c) xanthophyll (d) chlorophyll stimulates the activity of many enzymes?
(a) Zn (b) Mg
18. Which of the following wavelength of light is
(c) K (d) Mn
absorbed maximum for photosynthesis?

Nutrition in O
rganisms 1.21
28. The possible resources of phosphorus ions and 35. On the basis of symptoms of chlorosis in leaves
nitrogen ions in soil generally get depleted a student inferred that this was due to deficiency
because they are usually found as of nitrogen. This inference could be correct only
(a) negatively charged ions if we assume that yellowing of leaves occurred
first in
(b) a disproportionate mixture of negatively
and positively charged ions (a) young leaves
(c) particles carrying no charge (b) old leaves
(d) positively charged ions (c) young leaves followed by old leaves
(d) old leaves followed by young leaves
29. The most important use of potassium is that
(a) regulates many plant processes 36. Which of the following is a component of
(b) it provides red colour to the fruit middle lamella in plant cells?
(c) it helps in photosynthesis (a) Mg (b) Ca
(d) it influences enzyme activity, which (c) K (d) Fe
regulates many plant processes 37. A crop plant that can grow well in nitrogen
30. A trace element essential for plant-growth and deficient soils without addition of manure is
radioisotope, which is used in cancer therapy is (a) Cajanus cajan
know as (b) Gossypium herbaceum
(a) cobalt (b) calcium (c) Allium sativum
(c) sodium (d) iron
(d) Solanum nigrum
31. Deficiency of molybdenum causes
38. Conversion of organic nitrogenous compound
(a) bending of leaf tip into ammonium compound is called
(b) mowing (chlorosis) of leaves (a) nitrification (b) ammonification
(c) mottling and necrosis of leaves
(c) denitrification (d) gluconeogenesis
(d) poor development of vasculature
39. The Orobanche plant is
32. Which of the following element is necessary for
(a) partial parasite (b) total root parasite
translocation of sugars in plants?
a) Boron (b) Molybdenum (c) symbiont (d) total stem parasite
(c) Manganese (d) Iron 40. In Orobanche, which is a root parasite,
germination of seed is dependent on
33. Which one of the following micronutrients can
be absorbed by foliage? (a) auxins released by roots of host
(a) Zinc (b) Iron (b) exudates from roots of host
(c) Phosphorous (d) None of the above (c) gibberellins released by the parasitic roots
34. Chlorosis in nitrogen deficient plants appears (d) exudates released from partite
(a) in the young leaves 41. The largest sized flower in the world is produced
(b) in the mature leaves by a plant that is a
(c) first in young leaves and then in mature (a) total root parasite
leaves (b) epiphyte
(d) First in mature leaves and then in young (c) conifer
leaves
(d) partial stem parasite

42. The example of a saprophyte is (a) Fe and Mg

(a) Nepenthes (b) Utricularia (b) copper and calcium
(c) Santalum (d) Monotropa (c) calcium and potassium
(d) Mg and Ca
43. Obligate saprophytes are plants, which can live
(a) on living hosts only 51. Which root tissue primarily contributes to the
formation of nodules, particularly in the legume
(b) only on dead and decaying organic matter family?
(c) on dead material as well as living hosts (a) Epidermis (b) Xylem
(d) on living hosts as well as dead and deriving (c) Cortex (d) Endodermis
material
52. Which one of the following statements is
44. The polysaccharide having nitrogen correct?
incorporated in its structure is (a) Legumes are incapable of fixing nitrogen
(a) glycogen (b) starch (b) Legumes fix nitrogen only through the
(c) cellulose (d) chitin specialised bacteria that live in their roots
(c) Legumes fix nitrogen independently of the
45. Root hairs do not play a role in
specialised bacteria that live in their roots
(a) oxygen uptake
(d) Legumes fix nitrogen only through
(b) mineral uptake specialised bacteria that live in their leaves
(c) water uptake
53. The symbiotic fixation of atmospheric nitrogen
(d) carbon dioxide uptake in root nodules of pulse crops is brought about
46. Death of stem and root tips occur due to of by
deficiency of (a) Rhizobium (b) Rhizopus
(a) calcium (b) nitrogen (c) Mucor (d) Mycoplasma
(c) carbon (d) phosphorus 54. In nitrogen cycle nitrite is converted to nitrate
by
47. Which element forms part of structure of
(a) Azotobacter (b) Rhizobium
chlorophyll molecule?
(c) Nitrobacter (d) Nitrosomonas
(a) Mg (b) K
(c) Mn (d) Fe 55. The enzyme responsible for the reduction of
molecular nitrogen to the level of ammonia in
48. If chlorophyll is burnt which element will be leguminous root nodules is
left (a) nitrogenase (b) nitrate reductase
(a) Na (b) Mg (c) nitrite reductase (d) hexokinase
(c) Mn (d) Fe
56. If you found a plant that you thought was a
49. Deficiency of iron causes legume and you wanted to see if it had Nitrogen
(a) decrease in protein synthesis fixing bacteria, what would you look for?
(a) Absence of root hairs
(b) interveinal chlorosis first on young leaves
(b) An enlarged taproot
(c) bending of stem tip
(c) Nodules present on root
(d) reduced leaves and stunted growth
(d) An extensive fibrous root system
50. Plants require two metallic compounds for
57. Organisms that fix nitrogen in aquatic habitats
chlorophyll synthesis, they are
are

Nutrition in O
rganisms 1.23
(a) green algae (b) cyanobacteria 68. Which of the following elements has NOT been
(c) protozoa (d) diatoms proved to be essential for plants?
58. Which of the following contain copper? (a) Carbon (b) Sodium
(a) Plastiquinone (b) Plastocyanin (c) Zinc (d) Potassium
(c) Quinone (d) None of the above 69. All the following contributes to the availability
59. Plastocyanin is a protein, containing of N2 compounds in the soil except
(a) Zn (b) Fe (a) Azotobacter
(c) Cu (d) Mn (b) bacterial decay of animal refuge
60. Which pigment is essential for nitrogen fixation (c) thunders from clouds
by leguminous plants? (d) addition of lime
(a) Phycocyanin (b) Leghaemoglobin
70. In plants a common symptom caused by
(c) Phycoerythrin (d) Myoglobin
deficiencies of P, K, Ca and Mg is the
61. Leaves can absorb (a) formation of anthocyanin
(a) Fe (b) Mg (b) bending of leaf tip
(c) Zn (d) N
(c) poor development of vasculature
62. Which of the following is an example of (d) appearance of dead necrotic areas
insectivorous plants?
(a) Cuscuta (b) Nepenthes 71. Absence of Mg from plant tissue results in
(c) Rafflesia (d) Orobanche (a) hydrolysis (b) necrosis
63. Dionaea muscipula is commonly known as (c) chlorosis (d) plasmolysis
(a) butterwort (b) venus flytrap 72. Iron is mainly absorbed in
(c) bladderwort (d) sundew
(a) ferrous form (b) ferric form
64. Which of the following is an insectivorous (c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of the above
plant?
(a) Cuscuta (b) Orobanche 73. Which one of the following is a sulphur
(c) Drosera (d) Balanophora containing amino acid?
(a) aspargin (b) proline
65. Biological nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium was
discovered by (c) methionine (d) serine
(a) Louis Pasteur (b) Lister 74. Which of the following is NOT an essential
(c) Beijerinck (d) M. Calvin i micronutrient?
66. Which of the following element is essential in (a) nickel (b) manganese
nitrogen metabolism in reduction of nitrates? (c) cobalt (d) boron
(a) Zn (b) Mn 75. Which one of the following elements is NOT
(c) Mo (d) B required by plants for their normal healthy
67. At times of heavy rains the transfer of minerals growth?
from topsoil to subsoil through soil water is (a) magnesium (b) lead
called (c) iron (d) boron
(a) conduction (b) percolation
(c) leaching (d) transpiration

76. Hydroponics is 78. Why are plants NOT able to use N2 directly as
(a) growing of plant in water; the nutrient?
(b) growing of floating aquatic plants; (a) plants lack the enzymes necessary to
(c) growing of aquatic plants; convert N2 into NO3 and NH4;
(d) soils less cultivation of plants. (b) plant hormones are not capable of carrying
out nitrogen fixation;
77. Which of these is NOT is nutrient for plants? (c) the N2 molecule is too large to enter the
(a) water (b) mineral ions root hairs;
(c) carbon dioxide (d) nitrogen gas (d) most soils are depleted of N2 as a nutrient.
A NSW E RS
Level 1: Elementary Questions
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (a) 5. (d)
6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (a) 15. (b)
16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (b) 20. (b)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (b) 25. (c)
26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (b)
31. (b) 32. (c) 33. (c) 34. (a) 35. (a)
36. (c) 37. (b) 38. (b) 39. (b) 40. (b)
41. (a) 42. (c) 43. (a) 44. (c) 45. (c)
46. (c) 47. (d) 48. (a) 49. (b) 50. (a)
51. (b) 52. (a) 53. (a) 54. (b) 55. (b)
56. (a) 57. (b) 58. (c) 59. (d) 60. (a)
61. (a) 62. (b) 63. (b) 64. (d) 65. (d)
66. (a) 67. (b) 68. (b) 69. (d) 70. (a)
71. (c) 72. (c) 73. (a) 74. (b) 75. (a)
76. (d) 77. (d)
Level 2: Conceptual Questions

1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (b) 4. (d) 5. (d)
6. (c) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (c)
16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (c)
21. (b) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (b) 25. (d)
26. (d) 27. (c) 28. (a) 29. (d) 30. (a)
31. (c) 32. (a) 33. (a) 34. (d) 35. (d)
36. (b) 37. (b) 38. (b) 39. (b) 40. (b)
41. (a) 42. (d) 43. (b) 44. (d) 45. (d)

Nutrition in O
rganisms 1.25
46. (a) 47.

(a) 48.
(b) 49. (b) 50.
(a)
51. (c) 52.
(b) 53.
(a) 54. (c) 55.
(a)
56. (c) 57.
(b) 58.
(b) 59. (c) 60.
(b)
61. (c) 62.
(b) 63.
(b) 64. (c) 65.
(c)
66. (c) 67.
(c) 68.
(b) 69. (d) 70.
(d)
71. (c) 72.
(b) 73.
(c) 74. (a) 75.
(b)
76. (d) 77.
(d) 78.
(a)

Chapter
Respiratory System 2
Introduction Tracheal respiration is met only among the

arthropods. It is found both in aquatic and terrestrial
Animals need to inhale oxygen for the breakdown of arthropods.
food to produce energy. This process results in the
release of carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is harmful The most efficient aquatic respiratory organ
for animals. Hence, it is required to be exhaled. is the gill of fishes & prawns. Fishes take water in
This entire process is called respiration. Respiration through their mouths, move it past their gills, and
involving oxygen is called aerobic respiration, and pass it out of their bodies. This one-way flow is the
that without it, is designated as anaerobic respiration. secret to high respiratory efficiency since it permits
fishes to establish a counter-current flow of blood.
Internal (cellular) respiration is primarily Blood vessels are located in the gills in such a way
a chemical process in which molecules are broken that blood flows in a direction opposite to that of
down and their energy captured. water. The exchange of gases in the gills is called
External (organismic) respiration is primarily branchial respiration.
a physical process of gas exchange between a The lungs are the chief respiratory structures
complex animal and its environment. among the terrestrial vertebrates. Amphibians,
In unicellular organisms such as aerobic bacteria reptiles, birds, and mammals respire through lungs.
and protists (e.g., Amoeba), respiratory gases diffuse The exchange of gases in lungs is called pulmonary
between the surrounding medium and the cell across respiration.
the plasma membrane.
Even in some multicellular animals such as
Hydra gases are exchanged by diffusion between
Human Respiratory System
individual cells and the surrounding water. The human respiratory system consists of external
nares or nostrils, nasal cavity, nasopharynx, larynx,
In earthworms and leeches and to some extent
trachea, bronchi, bronchiole, and lungs.
in toads and frogs, gaseous exchange takes place
through the skin over the entire body surface. When The external opening of the respiratory system
exchange of gases occurs through skin it is called is a pair of external nares or nostrils. Air enters
cutaneous respiration. into the nasal cavity through the nostrils. The nasal
cavity opens into the posterior part of pharynx.
02_Respiratory System.indd 1 3/6/2017 5:06:41 PM

The uppermost part of the pharyngeal cavity is These muscles are, therefore, called inspiratory
termed nasopharynx. Pharyngeal areas behind the muscles. The abdominal muscle play a passive
buccal cavity and larynx are called oropharynx and role in this process. Inspiration happens when the
laryngopharynx, respectively. external intercostal muscles contract and pull the
ribcage upwards and outwards away from the spinal
Larynx is a small box and it forms the
column. At the same time, the diaphragm contracts
connection between pharynx and the windpipe or
and flattens, pushing down on the abdominal organs.
trachea. Because larynx contains the vocal cords it is
These movements increase the volume and therefore
also referred to as the voice box.
lower the pressure in the thorax. As the pressure in
During swallowing a flap of tissue, called the the thorax falls below that of the atmosphere, air
epiglottis, automatically closes off the larynx so that is forced into the lungs to equalise the pressure.
food and liquid enters the oesophagus rather than the Abdominal muscles relax and allow compression of
lower airway. abdominal organs by the diaphragm.
Trachea is a tubular structure of about 12 cm in Expiration: Expiration is normally a passive
length and 2.5 cm in diameter; it starts posterior to process as it simply involves relaxation of inspiratory
larynx and extends up to the middle of the thoracic muscles. It is brought about by the relaxation of muscles
cavity where it divides into right and left primary of diaphragm and external intercostal muscles. The
bronchi (sing. bronchus) that enter into the lungs. ribs falls back to their resting position and the elastic
The tracheal tubule is supported by incomplete recoil of the intestine pushes the diaphragm upwards.
(C-shaped) ring of cartilage at regular intervals to Aided by its own elasticity, the volume of the lungs is
prevent collapsing of the tubule. decreased, squeezing the air inside them.
In each lung the bronchus divides and redivides During forced exhalation; abdominal muscles and
to form secondary bronchi, tertiary bronchi, internal intercostal muscles contract and decrease the
bronchiole and, ultimately the terminal bronchioles thoracic cavity further. The abdominal and internal
that further subdivide into many alveolar ducts that intercostal muscles are called expiratory muscles.
lead into the alveoli or air sac. Each human lung
contains more than 300 million alveoli with an Pulmonary Air Volumes
internal surface area the approximate size of a tennis
Tidal volume (TV): The volume of air inspired and
court. An extremely thin single layer of epithelial
expired with every normal breath during effortless
cells lines each alveolus. Gases diffuse freely through
respiration; it is about 500 ml of air.
the wall of the alveolus and into the capillaries that
surround it. Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): At times extra
amount of air can be forcefully inspired. The extra
Lungs are large, paired, spongy organs
volume of air that can be inspired beyond the normal
occupying the thoracic or pleural cavity. The
tidal volume is called inspiratory reserve volume;
right lung is divided into three lobes and the left
it is about 2500–3000 ml of air.
lung into two lobes. Each lung is covered with a
pleural membrane, which forms a continuous sac Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): An extra
that encloses the lung and becomes the lining of amount of air can be expired forcefully even
the thoracic cavity. The pleural cavity is the space beyond the normal tidal expiration. The measure of
between the pleural membranes. A fib of fluid in the this capacity of lung is called expiratory reserve
pleural cavity provides lubrication between the lungs volume; it is about 1000 ml of air.
and the chest wall.
Residual volume RV): The volume of air left in
the lungs and respiratory passages after a maximum
Mechanism of Pulmonary Respiration forced expiration; it is about 1500 ml of air.
Inspiration: Inspiration is brought about by
Pulmonary capacities: When any two or more of the
diaphragm muscles and external intercostal muscles.
above mentioned pulmonary volumes are considered

Respiratory System 2.3
together such combinations are called pulmonary to form oxyhaemoglobin. Po2 of oxygenated blood
capacities. is 95 mm Hg.
Inspiratory capacity (IC): The total amount of Pco2 of alveolar capillary blood is 46 trim Hg
air a person can take in distending the lungs to the while in fresh alveolar air it is 40 mm Hg. As the
maximum, beginning at normal expiratory level, is diffusing capacity of CO2 is 20 times higher than that
called inspiratory capacity; it is about 3000–3500 of O2, CO2, of blood rapidly passes out into alveolar
ml of air. It is equal to the sum of tidal volume and air. Its partial pressure in oxygenated blood is 40 mm
inspiratory reserve volume (IC =TV + IRV). Hg (equal to that of fresh alveolar air).
Functional residual capacity (FRC): When a person Gaseous exchange occurs another time in the
breathes normally then the amount which remains in tissues between tissue cells and capillary blood
the lung after normal expiration, is called functional through the interstitial fluid. Partial pressure of
residual capacity; it is about 2500 ml of air. It can be oxygen, Po2, in respiring cells is 20 mm Hg, tissue
measured as the total of expiratory reserve volume fluid 40 mm Hg while it is 95 mm Hg in capillary
and the residual volume (FRC = ERV + RV). blood. Therefore, O2, diffuses from blood into tissue
fluid and from there into cells. Blood leaving the
Vital capacity (VC): It is the amount of air which
tissue capillaries has a Po2 of about 40 mm Hg.
one can exhale with maximum effort after inhalation
with maximum effort; it is about 3400 ml to 4800 ml, Pco2, of blood capillaries is 40 mm Hg, tissue
depending on age, sex and height of the individual. fluid 46 mm Hg and that of cells 52 mm Hg.
Vital capacity is the sum total of inspiratory reserve Therefore, carbon dioxide diffuses out of cells into
volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume tissue fluid and from tissue fluid into blood. Blood
(VC = IRV + TV + ERV). leaving the tissue capillaries has a Pco2 of 46 mm
Hg.
Exchange of Gas
Transport of Oxygen
Gas exchange between air and blood occurs at the
alveoli. These tiny air sacs create a huge surface Blood is the medium for the transport of oxygen
area. Inside the alveoli the inspired air remains in a from the respiratory organ to the different tissues
very close contact with the blood. The alveolar wall and carbon dioxide from tissues to the respiratory
is very thin and contains a network of interconnected organ. Haemoglobin transports about 97 percent of
capillaries. The alveolar wall appears to be a sheet the oxygen. Only about 2 percent is dissolved in
of flowing blood and is called the respiratory plasma.
membrane. It consists mainly of the alveolar
Oxygen diffuses into erythrocytes and combines
epithelium, epithelial basement membrane, a thin
loosely with the Fe2+ ions of haemoelobin to form
interstitial space, capillary basement membrane and
oxyhaemogolibin. Each of four Fe2+ ions in the
capillary endothelial membrane. All these layers
haemoglobin molecule can bind with one molecule
cumulatively form a membrane of 0.2 mm thickness.
of oxygen; so oxyhaemoglobin carries 1 to 4
Diffusing capacity of gas across a membrane molecules of oxygen according to its degree of
is the volume of gas that diffuses per minute for a saturation with oxygen.
pressure difference of 1 mm Hg. The rate of diffusion
The capacity of 1 g of haemoglobin to combine
of CO2 is 20 times faster than that of oxygen while
with oxygen is 1.34 ml. Thus, on an average, 100
oxygen diffuses twice as fast as nitrogen.
ml of blood carries about 20 ml (19.4 ml exactly) of
Partial pressure of O2 in alveolar air (Po2) is oxygen. When blood reaches the tissues, its oxygen
about 100 mm Hg while that of deoxygenated blood concentration is reduced gradually to 14.4 ml, which
in alveolar capillary is 40 mm Hg. As a result, oxygen is then collected by the venules and veins. Therefore,
diffuses into blood and combines with haemoglobin under normal conditions approximately 5 ml of
oxygen is transported by 100 ml of blood.

Transport of Carbon Dioxide (c) In combination with amine group of protein:

In addition to the above two methods carbon
The blood transports carbon dioxide comparatively dioxide reacts directly with the amine radicals
easily because of its higher solubility. Carbon dioxide (NH2) of haemoglobin molecule and forms a
is transported in the blood in three ways. carbaminohaemoglobin (HbCO2) molecule.
(a) In dissolved state: About 5–7 per cent of carbon This combination of carbon dioxide with
dioxide is transported being dissolved in the haemoglobin is a reversible reaction. Almost
plasma of blood. The partial pressures (Pco2) of 23 percent of carbon dioxide is transported
the venous blood and arterial blood is 45 mm of through this form.
Hg (i.e., 2.7 ml of CO2/100 ml) and 40 mm of Hg
(2.4 ml CO2/100 ml), respectively. Consequently Release of Carbon dioxide in the
0.3 ml of carbon dioxide is transported per 100 Alveoli
ml of blood.
When the deoxygenated blood reaches the alveoli
(b) In the form of bicarbonate: Carbon dioxide
of the lungs, it contains carbon dioxide as dissolved
produced by the tissues diffuses passively into
in plasma, as carbaminohaemo globin, and as
the blood stream and passes into the red blood
bicarbonate ions. In the pulmonary capillaries, the
corpuscles where it reacts with water to form
carbon dioxide dissolved in plasma diffuses into
carbonic acid (H2,CO3). The enzyme, carbonic
alveoli. Carbamino haemoglobin also splits into
anhydrase (CA), found in the erythrocytes,
carbon dioxide and haemoglobin.
catalyses this reaction. Instantaneously after
its formation, carbonic acid dissociates into For the release of carbon dioxide from the
Hydrogen (H+) and bicarbonate (HCO3+) ions. bicarbonate, a sequence of reverse reactions takes
The oxyhaemoglobin (HbO2) of the erythrocytes place. When the haemoglobin in the pulmonary blood
is weakly acidic and remains in association with takes up oxygen the H+ is released from it. Then,
K+ ions as KHbO2. The hydrogen ion (H+’) the Cl- and HCO3+ ions are released (from KCl in
released from carbonic acid combines with blood and NaHCO3 in the RBC, respectively). Then
haemoglobin after its dissociation from the HCO3- reacts with H+ to form H2CO3. This H2CO3,
potassium ions. eventually, then splits into carbon dioxide and water
in the presence of carbonic anhydrase enzyme and
Most of the bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) formed carbon dioxide is released into lungs.
within the erythrocytes diffuse out into the
plasma along a concentration gradient. These
combine with haemoglobin to form the Regulation of Respiration
haemoglobinic acid (H.Hb).
Control of breathing is involuntary. The rate
In response, chloride ions (Cl-) diffuse from changes as the brain detects the physical and
plasma into the erythrocytes to maintain the chemical variations that occur in the body as we
ionic balance. Thus, electrochemical neutrality carry out different activities. A number of groups of
is maintained. This process is called chloride neurons located bilaterally in the medulla oblongata
shift. The chloride ions (Cl-) inside RBC control the respiration. These are called respiratory
combine with potassium ion (K+) to form centres. Three groups of respiratory centres have
potassium chloride (KCI) whereas hydrogen been identified, namely; dorsal respiratory group,
carbonate ions (HCO3-) in the plasma combine ventral respiratory group, and pneumotaxic centre.
with Na+ to form sodium hydrogen carbonate
(NaHCO3). Almost 70 percent of carbon The dorsal respiratory group is present in the
dioxide is transported from tissues to the lungs dorsal portion of medulla oblongata. The signals
in this form. from these neurons produce the basic respiratory

rhythm. The nervous signal released from this group during expiration. The mucous membranes on the
is transmitted to the diaphragm which is the main wall of the air passage start secreting excess amount
inspiratory muscle. of mucous, which may clog the bronchi, as well as
bronchiole. Bronchial asthma is an allergic disease
The ventral respiratory group of neurons are
so avoiding exposure to the foreign substance or
situated anterolateral to the dorsal respiratory group.
allergens is the best preventive measure. Treatment of
During normal respiration this remains inactive. It
the disease includes antibiotic therapy for removing
does not play any role in the essential respiratory
the infection and use of bronchodilator drugs, as well
rhythm. But, this group becomes active only when
as inhalers used for symptomatic relief.
we need to breathe forcefully.
Emphysema refers to the destruction of lung
The pneumotaxic centre is located dorsally in
tissue with accompanying inflation of lungs due to
the upper pons. It transmits signals to the inspiratory
trapped air. The trouble stems from the damage and
area. Mainly it controls the switch off point of
collapse of the bronchioles, which results into the
inspiration. When this signal is strong the inspiration
loss of elasticity of these parts. Cigarette smoking and
lasts only for 0.5 seconds and lungs are filled
chronic bronchitis leads to the disease. Emphysema
partially. In weak pneumotaxic signal inspiration
is a chronic obstructive disease of the lungs which
lasts for 5 seconds, or more, resulting into complete
causes irreversible distension and loss of elasticity of
filling of lungs. The strong signal causes increased
alveoli. Consequently, it can’t be cured permanently.
rate of breathing because inspiration as well as
Its treatment is also symptomatic. Bronchodilators,
expiration, is shortened.
antibiotics, and oxygen therapy are used. This
Carbon dioxide concentration is the most disease is preventable if chronic exposure to smoke
important chemical stimulus for regulating the rate of (cigarette and others) and pollutants is avoided.
respiration. The concentration of CO2 and H+ causes
Pneumoma is caused primarily due to infection
increased strength of inspiratory as well as expiratory
of the bacteria (Streptococcus pneumoniae). It is an
signal. Oxygen concentration generally does not play
acute infection or inflammation of the alveoli of the
an important role in regulating respiration.
lung. At times, other bacteria or fungi, protozoan,
viruses, and mycoplasma may also be responsible.
Respiratory Disorders In this disease the fluid with dead WBC occupies
most of the air space of the alveolar sac. Uptake of
Bronchitis is the inflammation of the bronchi that oxygen is badly affected in the inflamed alveoli,
is characterised by hypertrophy and hyperplasia as a result of which, the oxygen level of the blood
of seromucous gland and goblet cells lining the falls. As infection is the major cause of pneumonia,
bronchi. The symptom is recurring coughing with use of antibiotics to remove the infection cures it.
thick greenish yellow sputum. Cigarette smoking Patient may need symptomatic treatment such as
and environmental exposure to dust and chemicals bronchodilater drugs.
such as carbon monoxide may also cause it. Avoiding
exposure to the cause, i.e., smoke, chemicals, and Occupational lung disease is caused because
pollutants, can prevent bronchitis. The infection of of the exposure of harmful substances such as gas,
the disease is treated with appropriate antibiotics. fumes or dusts, present in the environment where a
Bronchodilator drugs give symptomatic relief. person works. Silicosis and asbestosis are the familiar
examples which occur due to chronic exposure of
Bronchial asthma is characterised by the spasm silica and asbestos dust in the mining industry. It
of the smooth muscles present in the walls of the is characterised by fibrosis of upper part of lung,
bronchiole. It is caused due to the hypersensitivity of causing inflammation. Diseases such as silicosis
the bronchiole to the foreign substances present in the and asbestosis are not curable. Therefore, the person
air passing through it. The symptoms of the disease likely to be exposed to such irritants should adopt all
may be coughing or difficulty in breathing, primarily possible preventive measures.

Multiple Choice Questions (c) the beating of millions of cilia;

(d) rhythmic body movements.
Tick () the most appropriate answer(s) among the
following: 9. The gas-exchange surfaces of larger aquatic
animals are __________________
Level 1: Elementary Questions (a) tracheae
(b) Malpighian tubules
1. The process of respiration is concerned with
(c) gills
(a) liberation of oxygen
(d) book lungs
(b) liberation of carbon dioxide
(c) liberation of energy 10. Alveoli in a frog
(d) intake of oxygen (a) help in exposure of air to larger surface
covered by thin flattened cells, which are
2. Which energy is consumed in breathing? not ciliated;
(a) mechanical (b) chemical (b) help in exposure of air to larger surface
(c) bioelectricity (d) physical energy covered by cells of cylindrical shape and
3. Which of the following yields double calories ciliated;
per gram of carbohydrate? (c) help in exposure of air to larger surface
(a) fat (b) protein covered by thin flattened cells except
on edges where they are cylindrical and
(c) mineral (d) vitamin
ciliated;
4. The common immediate source of energy for (d) help in exposure of air to larger surface
cellular activity is covered by thick flattened cells, which are
(a) NAD (b) ATP ciliated.
(c) DNA (d) RNA 11. During hibernation the frog respires by
5. An advantage of gas exchange in aquatic (a) lungs only
habitats, as compared with terrestrial habitats, is (b) partly by lungs and partly by skin
that it is easier to keep the gas-exchange surfaces (c) both skin and lungs
(a) wet (d) skin only
(b) ventilated
12. In which of these skin serves as an accessory
(c) saturated with oxygen
organ of respiration?
(d) free of injury
(a) rabbit (b) lizards
6. Which of the following has no blood but (c) frog (d) birds
respires?
13. The epithelial lining of the alveoli of frog’s
(a) earthworm (b) hydra
lungs facing lung cavity is
(c) cockroach (d) fish
(a) squamous, ciliated
7. Which type of respiratory organs are present in (b) squamous, non ciliated
spiders and scorpions? (c) columnar ciliated
(a) book lungs (b) gill books (d) columnar, non ciliated
(c) gills (d) lungs
14. In a mammal living in water
8. A cockroach ventilates its gas-exchange (a) lungs will be large in size
surfaces by
(b) lungs will be small in size
(a) moving its diaphragm;
(c) heart will be large in size
(b) moving its rib cage;
(d) heart will be smaller in size

15. Which of the following prevents collapsing of (c) pushing the expired air out
trachea? (d) pushing mucus in
(a) diaphragm
24. Each lung is enclosed in two membranes called
(b) ribs pleura. The membrane which closely covers the
(c) cartilaginous discs lung is called
(d) muscles (a) parietal pleura (b) visceral pleura
16. A normal man respires in a minute (c) peritoneum pleura (d) lung pleura
(a) 10–15 times (b) 14–18 times
25. The narrowest and most numerous tubes of
(c) 20–25 times (d) 25–30 times
lungs are termed as
17. The respiration rate is lowest at (a) bronchus (b) alveoli
(a) playing tennis (c) bronchioles (d) hilum
(b) running
(c) snoring while sleeping 26. Mammalian lung contains an enormous number
of alveoli. This is to allow
(d) eating food
(a) more surface area for diffusion of gases;
18. Vocal cords occur in
(b) more spongy texture for keeping the lungs;
(a) pharynx (b) glottis
(c) more nerve supply to keep the organ
(c) bronchial tube (d) larynx
working more efficiently;
19. In man which of the following structures is (d) more space for the inspired air.
analogous to the spiracles of cockroach?
(a) alveoli (b) lungs 27. When diaphragm of man is completely dome
shaped it shows
(c) bronchioles (d) nostrils
(a) end of expiration and beginning of
20. Air is breathed through inspiration;
(a) trachea → lungs → larynx → pharynx →
(b) beginning of expiration and end of
alveoli
inspiration;
(b) nose → larynx → pharynx → bronchus →
(c) increased rate of breathing;
alveoli → bronchioles
(c) nostrils → pharynx → larynx → trachea (d) decreased rate of breathing.
→ bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli 28. Which one of the following events takes place
(d) nose → mouth → lungs during inspiration in man?
21. If the digestive and respiratory tracts were (a) the internal intercostal muscles relax;
completely separate in humans, there would be (b) due to contraction of external intercostal
no need for muscles and flattening of diaphragm the
(a) swallowing (b) a nose volume of thoracic cavity increases;
(c) an epiglottis (d) a diaphragm (c) due to contraction of external intercostal
22. Which of the following contain inner lining of muscles, and flattening of diaphragm the
ciliated epithelium? volume of thoracic cavity decreases;
(a) trachea (b) uterus (d) the abdominal muscles contract.
(c) ureter (d) vasa deferentia 29. In normal expiration the diaphragm is
23. Ciliated tracheal lining is helpful in (a) arched (b) not involved
(a) pushing mucus out (c) flattened (d) perforated
(b) pushing the inspired air in

30. Forced deep breathing for a few minutes by 37. In man percentage of CO2 transported as
a person sitting at rest may be followed by a bicarbonates is
temporary cessation of breathing. This is due to (a) 5 to 10 percent (b) 70 to 75 percent
(a) too much oxygen is blood; (c) 9 to 95 percent (d) 50 to 65 percent
(b) too much carbon dioxide in blood;
38. All of the following can bind to haemoglobin
(c) both too much oxygen and very little except
carbon dioxide in blood;
(a) HCO3- (b) O2,
(d) very little carbon dioxide in blood.
(c) H+ (d) CO2,
31. Volume of air inspired or expired with each
39. About 23 percent of CO2 is transported as
normal breath is called
(a) carbamino compounds
(a) tidal volume
(b) bicarbonates of Na and K
(b) inspiratory capacity
(c) carboxyhaemoglobin
(c) total lung capacity
(d) oxyhaemoglobin
(d) residual volume
40. Emphysema is a condition resulting from
32. The maximum possible volume of air, which
can be inspired, is called as (a) cigarette smoking
(a) tidal air volume (b) liquor consumption
(b) vital lung capacity (c) drug addiction
(c) complemental air volume (d) none of the above
(d) total lung capacity 41. The affinity of carbon monoxide for haemoglobin
in comparison to that with oxygen is;
33. After complete exhalation the lungs of a healthy
man contains about a litre of gas, this quantity is (a) 1000 (b) 200 times
known as (c) 20 times (d) 2 times
(a) residual volume 42. In anaerobic respiration
(b) functional residual capacity (a) O2 is taken in (b) CO2 is taken in
(c) total lung capacity (c) O2 is given out (d) CO2+ given out
(d) dead space
43. In which animal does blood flow from the
34. In higher mammals in the transport of oxygen respiratory organ to the heart before circulating
haemoglobin plays an important role. The metal through rest of the body?
associated with haemoglobin is (a) annelid (b mollusc
(a) magnesium (b) iron (c) fish (d) frog
(c) manganese (d) copper
44. Which of the following is false concerning the
35. When ferrous iron of haem unit gets associated haemoglobin molecule?
with one molecule of oxygen to form (a) It contains amino acids;
oxyhaemoglobin, this reaction is called (b) It contains iron;
(a) oxidation (b) oxygenation (c) It can bind four O2 molecules;
(c) reduction (d) redox reaction (d) It is found in humans only.
36. At high altitude RBCs of human blood will 45. Which of the following respiratory systems is
(a) increase in number most efficient at obtaining oxygen from the
(b) decrease in number surrounding environment?
(c) decrease in size (a) mammal lung (b) reptile lungs
(d) increase in size (c) amphibian lungs (d) fish gills

46. Breathing rate in mammals is controlled by a 54. In Nereis, gaseous exchange occurs through
part of the brain called the (a) parapodia (b) gills
(a) thalamus (b) hypothalamus (c) lungs (d) skin
(c) medulla oblongata (d) cerebellum 55. Thoracic cage of man is formed of
47. Which one of the following binds with (a) ribs and sternum
haemoglobin irreversibly? (b) ribs, sternum and thoracic vertebrae
(a) carbon dioxide (b) carbon monoxide (c) ribs, sternum and lumbar vertebrae
(c) ethane (d) nitrogen (d) ribs and thoracic vertebrae
[MP PMT 2002]
48. Determination of oxygen carried by
haemoglobin is done by 56. Which one is present in arthropods?
(a) partial pressure of oxygen (a) haemoglobin (b) chlorophyll
(b) pH (c) haemocyanin (d) myoglobin
(c) partial pressure of carbon dioxide [RPMT 2002]
(d) all the above

49. Blue copper protein complex contained in some
molluscs in their plasma for oxygen transport is 1. Arytenoid cartilage occurs in
(a) larynx (b) nose
(a) chlorocruorin (b) bilirubin
(c) hyoid (d) sternum
(c) haemoglobin (d) naemocyanin
[BHU 2002]
50. Amount of oxygen absorbed by one gram of
2. Insect tracheal system opens to the outside
haemoglobin is
through
(a) 20 ml (b) 1.34 ml (a) spiral valve (b) pecten
(c) 13.4 ml (d) 134 ml (c) spiracle (d) taenidia
51. Food does not enter windpipe due to a structure [DPMT 2002]
called 3. Which one has the smallest diameter?
(a) glottis (b) epiglottis (a) right bronchus
(c) pharynx (d) larynx (b) left bronchus
[Kerala 2000] (c) secondary bronchiole
52. Oxygen carried by blood is liberated in (d) respiratory bronchiole
[Kerala 2003]
(a) arteries
(b) capillaries of body 4. A molecule of haemoglobin carries how many
(c) capillaries of lungs oxygen molecules
(a) 1 (b) 2
(d) heart
(c) 3 (d) 4
[CET Chd. 2000]
5. Which of the following is the site of respiration
53. Diffusion of oxygen in tissues of cockroach within the cell?
occurs through
(a) Ribosomes (b) Nucleus
(a) blood (c) tracheae
(c) Golgi body (d) Mitochondrion
(c) integument (d) tracheoles
[AMU 2000]

6. Synthesis of ATP in mitochondria takes place (a) chloroplasts

(a) in the matrix (b) endoplasmic reticulum
(b) at the cristae (c) mitochondria
(c) at the outer membrane (d) lysosomes
(d) in the intracristae space
15. Respiratory enzymes are located in
7.. In which one the following oxidative (a) mitochondrial matrix
phosphorylation occurs during electron (b) perimitochondrial space
transport?
(c) cristae
(a) chloroplast (b) ribosomes
(d) outer membrane
(c) mitochondria (d) glyoxysomes
16. The end products of respiration in plants are
8. ATP is
(a) starch and O2
(a) an enzyme which brings about oxidation;
(b) H2O and energy
(b) a molecule, which contains high-energy
phosphate bonds; (c) CO2 H2O and energy
(c) a hormone; (d) sugar and O2,
(d) a protein. 17. In anaerobic respiration in plants
9. What is the energy currency of living organisms? (a) oxygen is given out
(a) chlorophyll (b) calorie (b) carbon dioxide is given out
(c) ATP (d) NADP (c) carbon dioxide is taken in
(d) oxygen is taken in
10 During ATP synthesis electrons pass through
which one of the following? 18. In which of the following respiration in absence
(a) carbon dioxide (b) water of oxygen too takes place?
(c) oxygen (d) cytochromes (a) Yeast (b) Spirogyra
(c) Potato (d) Frog
11. An indispensable role in energy metabolism is
played by 19. How many molecules of ATP are gained during
(a) sodium (d) phosphorous anaerobic respiration of one molecule of
(c) calcium (d) boron glucose?
(a) 36 (b) 2
12. Which of the following makes direct use of
oxygen? (c) 38 (d) 4
(a) Glycolysis 20. When a molecule of pyruvic acid is subjected to
(b) Krebs citric acid cycle anaerobic oxidation and forms lactic acid, there
(c) Electron transport is
(d) Fermentation (a) gain of 2 ATP molecules
(b) loss of 3 ATP molecules
13. The number of ATP molecules released in the
complete oxidation of one molecule of pyruvic (c) loss of 6 ATP molecules
acid is (d) gain of 3 ATP molecules
(a) 2 (b) 6 21. Which of the molecules listed below is a product
(c) 15 (d) 30 of fermentation of glucose by yeast?
14. Organelles which are regarded as “powerhouse” (a) (C6H10O5)n (b) C2H5OH
of the cell and in which the oxidative reactions (c) C6H12O2 (d) CH3OH
of the respiratory process take place are

22. When yeast is producing wine, which of the 29. How many molecules of oxygen gas are used
following is NOT formed? during the glycolysis of one glucose molecule?
(a) Ethyl alcohol (a) 1 (b) 16
(b) Carbon dioxide (c) 38 (d) 4
(c) Acetyl-coenzyme A 30. Incomplete oxidation of glucose into pyruvic
(d) Pyruvic acid acid with several intermediate steps is known as
23. Respiration in plants (a) T.C.A. pathway (b) Glycolysis
(a) often requires carbon dioxide; (c) H.M.S. pathway (d) C4 pathway
(b) is characteristic of all living cells; 31. Glyceraldehyde phosphate is oxidised during
(c) occurs only during day; glycolysis. What happens to hydrogen atom and
(d) results in the formation of amino acids. the electron that are removed during oxidation?
24. Respiration is a process in which (a) they oxidise NAD+;
(a) energy is stored in the form of ADP; (b) they are transferred to pyruvic acid;
(b) energy is released and stored in the form of (c) they are eliminated in the form of methane;
ATP; (d) they reduce NAD+.
(c) energy is released at all; 32. What is the total gain of energy during anaerobic
(d) energy is used up. respiration’?
25. Which of the scientific paper would you assign (a) one molecule of ATP
to plant physiology? (b) two molecules of ATP
(a) Embryo culture of plants; (c) four molecules of ATP
(b) Respiratory activities in plants; (d) eight molecules of ATP
(c) Cell and cell division;
33. In glycolysis the net gain is 2 ATP molecules
(d) Evergreen plants of India.
and 2 molecules of
26. Which of the following is the source of (a) NADH2 (b) FADH2
respiration (c) FMNH2 (d) NADPH2
(a) stored food (b) DNA
34. Total ATP production during EMP pathway is
(c) NADH2 (d) ATP
(a) 24 ATP molecules
27. Why do fishes in an aquarium thrive better if
(b) 8 ATP molecules
green plants are growing there? Because they
(c) 38 ATP molecules
(a) inhale oxygen released by green plants;
(d) 4 ATP molecules
(b) inhale carbon dioxide released by green
plants; 35. Which of the following is NOT true of
(c) like green surrounding; glycolysis?
(d) can feed on them. (a) the end products are water and carbon
dioxide;
28. What is the importance of respiration in plants?
(b) substrate-level phosphorylation takes place;
(a) it provides oxygen to plants;
(c) ATP is used;
(b) it liberates energy;
(c) it liberates carbon dioxide; (d) ATP is formed.
(d) all the above.

36. Krebs cycle takes place in 46. The inner membrane of a mitochondrion is
(a) dictyosomes very selective about what it allows to leave the
organelle. One molecule that regularly passes
(b) mitochondrial matrix
out of a mitochondrion is
(c) lysosomes
(a) ATP (b) pyruvic acid
(d) vesicles of endoplasmic reticulum
(c) glucose (d) citric acid
37. If respiratory substrate is rich in oxygen,
47. Within the mitochondrion, the proton gradient
Respiratory quotient will be
develops across the
(a) equal to one (b) more than one
(a) outer membrane
(c) less then one (d) none of these
(b) inner membrane
38. Respiratory quotient is represented by
(c) intermembrane space
(a) C/N (b) N/C
(d) matrix
(c) CO2/O2 (d) O2 /CO2
48. Which of the following involves the loss of two
39. Respiratory quotient of fatty substances is
protons and two electrons?
generally
(a) deamination (b) dehydrogenation
(a) zero (b) unity
(c) more than one (d) less then one (c) carboxylation (d) decarboxylation
40. Protein rich pulses have Respiratory quotient 49. When yeast ferments glucose the products are
equal to (a) ethanol and water
(a) one (b) more than one (b) water and carbon dioxide
(c) less than one (d) infinity (c) methanol and CO2
41. Respiratory quotient for germinating castor (d) ethanol and carbon dioxide
seed is
50. Fermentation is
(a) 1 (b) < 1
(a) incomplete oxidation of proteins
(c) > 1 (d) 0
(b) complete oxidation of carbohydrates
42. R.Q. of fatty substances is (c) aerobic respiration
(a) 0.715 (b) 1.000
(d) incomplete oxidation of carbohydrates
(c) 1.430 (d) 2.140
51. Which of the following statements is true of
43. Respiratory quotient is maximum when the fermentation?
respiratory substrate is
(a) it produces a net gain of NADH;
(a) fats (b) glucose
(b) it produces a net gain of ATP;
(c) malic acid (d) proteins
(c) it is an aerobic process;
44. Which is the final electron acceptor in
(d) it produces more energy per glucose
respiration?
molecule than does aerobic respiration.
(a) cytochromes (b) dehydrogenases
(c) oxygen (d) hydrogen 52. Glycolysis is a process found in
(a) most body cells
45. The number of ATP molecules produced by
ETS from Krebs intermediates after a single (b) eukaryotic cells
turn of the cycle is (c) anaerobic bacteria
(a) 15 (b) 14 (d) virtually all cells
(c) 13 (d) 11

53. The common phase between aerobic and (a) mitochondria

anaerobic respiration is called (b) cytosol
(a) glycolysis (c) both mitochondria and cytosol
(b) tricarboxylic acid cycle (d) vacuole
(c) oxidative phosphorylation 56. What is the end product of glycolysis?
(d) Krebs cycle (a) Pyruvic acid
54. What is the other name for glycolysis? (b) C2H5OH
(a) TCA pathway (b) Carbon pathway (c) CO2
(c) EMP pathway (d) HMS pathway (d) Glucose
55. Enzymes taking part in glycolysis (EMP

pathway) are present in
A NSW E RS
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a)
6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c)
16. (b) 17. (c) 18. (d) 19. (d) 20. (c)
21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (b) 25. (c)
26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (b) 29. (a) 30. (d)
31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (a) 34. (b) 35. (b)
36. (a) 37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (a) 40. (a)
41. (b) 42. (d) 43. (d) 44. (d) 45. (d)
46. (c) 47. (b) 48. (a) 49. (d) 50. (b)
51. (c) 52. (b) 53. (b) 54. (d) 55. (b)
56. (c)
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (d) 5. (d)
6. (b) 7. (c) 8. (b) 9. (c) 10. (d)
11. (b) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (a)
16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (c)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (b) 24. (b) 25. (b)
26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (b) 29. (d) 30. (b)
31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (a) 34. (b) 35. (a)
36. (b) 37. (a) 38. (c) 39. (d) 40. (c)
41. (b) 42. (a) 43. (c) 44. (c) 45. (d)
46. (a) 47. (b) 48. (b) 49. (d) 50. (d)
51. (b) 52. (d) 53. (a) 54. (c) 55. (b)
56. (a)

Chapter
Circulatory System 3
Introduction and flows through open spaces and channels in the

tissues before returning to the heart. This is called the
The circulatory system circulates some extracellular open circulatory system.
fluid to different areas of the body. The circulating
fluid transports nutrients, waste products, respiratory Vertebrates possess a closed circulatory system
gases, metabolic intermediates, and informational in which blood remains confined in blood vessels.
molecules between different tissues and organs. In closed circulatory system the blood flows
It also distributes water, H+, chemicals and heat around the body through the specific blood vessels.
uniformly all over the body. In this system, the same blood repeatedly circulates
Sponges possess extensive canal systems in the in the body under high pressure, and returns back
body. Water from the surrounding medium circulates to the heart without leaving the system of tubes.
through the canals, carrying food and oxygen to The heart pumps the blood into the aorta, which
the cells and taking away carbon dioxide and waste branches in the body into the arteries, and in the
products from them. tissues into the arterioles, to form the capillary
network. The venules of the capillary network carry
Hydra possesses a central water-filled body the blood back to the heart via veins and vena cava.
cavity or coelenteron, drawing water from the Closed circulatory system is found in cephalopods,
surrounding medium. Food, waste products, and echinoderms and vertebrates.
respiratory gases are exchanged between this water
and the cells in the body wall. Fishes have a 2–chambered heart in which a
single–loop circulatory pattern takes blood from the
heart to the gills and then to the body. Amphibians
Open and Closed Systems have a 3–chambered heart with two atria and one
ventricle. Most reptiles have partial separation of the
More advanced animals carry blood as the circulating
ventricle. Other reptiles such as crocodiles, plus, all
fluid and a circulatory system with the heart
birds and mammals, have a 4–chambered heart with
and blood vessels to conduct the blood. In many
complete separation of both systemic and pulmonary
invertebrates such as prawns and insects the blood
circuits.
pumped by the heart comes out from blood vessels
03_Circulatory system.indd 1 3/6/2017 5:13:19 PM

Blood Vascular System of The leucocytes or white blood corpuscles

(WBCs) are colourless because they lack any
Humans pigment. The number of WBCs in blood has a range
Blood is a complex connective tissue. It consists of of 7,000–10,000/mm3. These cells are distinguished
two components: (i) Plasma (ii) Blood corpuscles. from one another by their staining characteristics,
size, and the shape of their nuclei. Leucocytes are of
Plasma different types and these are generally grouped into
two categories: (i) granulocytes (with cytoplasmic
It is the extracellular fluid of blood which constitutes
granules) and (ii) agranulocytes (without granules).
about 55 percent of the blood volume. It is a pale
yellow coloured viscous fluid, which is alkaline in The granulocytes are characterised by larger
nature. Plasma is composed of water (91–92 per cent), lobed nuclei and distinctive granules in the
proteins (about 7 percent), inorganic constituents cytoplasm. The three varieties of granulocytes are the
(0.9 percent) and glucose (0.1 percent) and the rest neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils. Neutrophils
includes various other organic substances. do not take colour when exposed to acidic or basic
dyes. Its nucleus has two to seven lobes. The cell
Plasma contains three major classes of plasma
is almost circular and measures 12–15 µm in
proteins viz., albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen.
diameter. Neutrophils are principal phagocytic cells
Plasma proteins serve as a source of proteins for
in the blood and are responsible for the protection
tissue cells. Tissue cells may utilise plasma proteins
against infection. This constitutes 62 percent of total
for forming their cellular proteins. Albumin provides
leucocytes.
the colloid osmotic pressure in plasma. One class of
globulins, called immunoglobulins, act as antibodies. Eosinophils are characterised by a bilobed
Fibrinogen is the protein involved in the clotting nucleus. The cell contains numerous coarse granules
process. The dissolved mineral ions (Na+, K+, Ca+2, that are stained bright red with eosin, an acid dye.
Mg+2, HPO4-3, PO43-, Cl-, HCO3-, etc.) maintain the The proportion of eosinophils is less than 3 percent.
pH of blood by buffering action. The eosinophils are not markedly motile and only
slightly phagocytic. They play an important function
Blood Corpuscles in detoxifying foreign proteins.
Almost 45 percent volume of blood consists of Basophils are found in least proportion (i.e., 0.5
corpuscles or blood cells. The blood corpuscles are to 1 percent). The nucleus has two to three lobes. It
of three types: erythrocytes or red blood corpuscles contains fewer coarse granules, which can be stained
(RBCs), leucocytes or white blood corpuscles with basic dyes, e.g., methylene blue. These cells
(WBCs), and thrombocytes or blood platelets. play a role in allergic reactions.
Erythrocytes or red blood corpuscles (RBCs) The agranulocytes lack large, distinctive
are the most common corpuscles (about 4.5 to 5.5 granules, and their nuclei are rounded or kidney
million/mm3) and have a biconcave disc-like shape shaped. The two types of agranulocytes are
with a diameter of 7 to 8 mm. The erythrocytes lymphocytes and monocytes.
contain an adequate amount of carbonic anhydrase Lymphocytes have a single large nucleus with
enzyme, which catalyses the reaction between carbon pale blue cytoplasm; they have a proportion of about
dioxide and water, and helps in the transportation of 30 percent. An important function of the lymphocytes
carbon dioxide from tissues to the lungs. The human is the manufacture of serum globulin, and they play
RBCs also lacks nucleus. The life span of a human a key role in immunological reactions. Lymphocytes
RBC is about 120 days, after which it is destroyed. are of two kinds: small lymphocyte and large
The RBC, due to the presence of haemoglobin, lymphocyte. Small lymphocytes are slightly larger
carries out the most significant function of blood. than the red cells and about 7–10 µm in diameter.
i.e., the transport of gases. In humans, haemoglobin The nucleus is relatively large, and stains more
is localised to the RBCs.

Circulatory System 3.3
deeply with basic dyes than the surrounding narrow The right and left atria receive blood from
rim of cytoplasm that separates it from the boundary different body parts. The right atrium receives
of the cell. Large lymphocytes are considerably deoxygenated blood from all parts of the body,
larger (10–14 µm in diameter) and the cytoplasm is except the lungs, through the superior and inferior
more abundant. vena cava. Pulmonary veins bring oxygenated
blood to the left atrium from the lungs. The right
Monocytes are the largest WBCs (10–18 µm
and left atria pump their blood into the right and
in diameter) with kidney–shaped nucleus. These
left ventricles, respectively. From the right ventricle
constitute 5–6 percent of total WBCs. They are
arises a pulmonary trunk which soon bifurcates to
actively motile and are phagocytic.
form right and left pulmonary arteries, which supply
Thrombocytes or platelets are small (2–4 µm in deoxygenated blood to the lungs of the respective
diameter), round or oval cells. Their number in blood side. The left ventricle gives rise to an ascending
ranges between 2,50,000 to 4,00,000/ mm3. They bud aorta from which the oxygenated blood is supplied
off from the cytoplasm of very large megakaryocyte to the coronary arteries and the systemic circulation
cells of bone marrow. Their normal life span is about of the body.
a week. They play a key role in blood coagulation.
Internally, the four chambers of human heart
At the site of injury of the blood vessels, platelets
are separated by septa and valves. The right atrium
get clumped at the injured spot and release certain
and ventricles are separated from the left atrium and
chemicals called platelet factors. These promote
ventricle by a wall or septum. Between the atria the
blood coagulation.
wall is known as the interatrial septum; between
the ventricles it is the interventricular septum.
The Heart The wall of the heart is made up of cardiac muscle
Heart is the size of our fist. It is located behind and fibres, connective tissue and tiny blood vessels. The
to the left of breastbone, also called sternum. It is fibres branch and cross-connect with each other to
located in the thoracic cavity medial to the lungs form a complex net-like arrangement. This facilitates
and posterior to the sternum. It looks like a blunt constriction waves to pass quickly through the
cone which is 12 cm in length and 9 cm in width chambers.
at the broadest point. Its narrow apex is directed
To prevent the blood from flowing backward the
downward and to the left. Heart remains enclosed in
heart is equipped with valves that close automatically.
a double walled sac called pericardium, consisting
The valve between the right atrium and right
of an outer non-distensible fibrous layer and an inner
ventricle is called the right atrioventricular (AV)
serous layer. Between these two layers is a small
valve or tricuspid valve. The left AV valve (between
pericardial cavity filled with fluid which reduces
the left atrium and left ventricle) is referred to as the
friction to a minimum as the heart beats.
mitral valve or bicuspid valve. The AV valves are
Heart consists of four chambers: two upper held in place by stout cords, or “heart-strings;” the
thin-layered atria (sing. atrium) and two lower chordae tendineae. These cords attach the valves to
thick-layered ventricles. The atria are situated at the the papillary muscles that project from the walls of
broader end while the ventricles are situated at the the ventricles.
lower conical end. Externally, a transverse groove
Semilunar valves (named for their flaps, which are
is present between the atria and ventricles called
shaped like half moons) guard the exits from the heart.
the coronary sulcus. On the ventricle, also two
The pulmonary semilunar valve guards the opening
grooves are present, which are called the anterior
in the right ventricle from where the pulmonary trunk
interventricular sulcus and posterior interventricular
begins. Similarly, the aortic semilunar valve guards
sulcus. These sulci house coronary arteries through
the ascending aorta. Besides, the openings of superior,
which the heart receives blood.
as well as inferior, vena cava are present in the right
atrium and pulmonary veins in the left atrium.

Course of Circulation through Heart Heart Beat and Pulse

The sequence of events which occur from the A complete heartbeat consists of both systoles and
beginning of one heartbeat to the beginning of the diastoles of atria and ventricles. The human heart
next (completion of one heart beat) is called cardiac beats at the rate of about 70-80 times per minute.
cycle. During the cardiac cycle, blood flows through One complete heartbeat takes about 0.8 seconds.
the cardiac chambers in a specific direction. The
Pulse is a wave of distension that passes along
cycle involves systole, or contraction, and also
the arteries following each ventricular systole. It
diastole, or relaxation, of the atria and ventricles. The
can be felt in superficial arteries such as those in
pumping action during single cardiac cycle involves
the wrist, neck, and temples. Since each heart beat
the following steps:
generates one pulse in the arteries the pulse rate per
Atrial systole: Under normal conditions blood minute indicates the heart rate.
continuously enters into right atrium through superior,
as well as inferior, vena cava and coronary sinus. The Heart Sounds
pulmonary veins bring blood to the left atrium from
With a stethoscope we can hear two main heart
lungs. From the atria, nearly 70 percent of the blood
sounds, lubb and dubb, which repeat rhythmically.
passively flows into the ventricles. During atrial
These sounds result from the closure of the heart
systole, both atria contract, forcing rest of the blood
valves. The first sound (lubb) which is of longer
into both of the ventricles. The arrangement of valves
duration (0. 16–0.90 sec) and a louder one is
is such that it allows the flow of blood from atria to
created by the closure of the atrio-ventricular valves
ventricles.
immediately after the start of the ventricular systole.
Ventricular filling: The moment the
The second sound (dubb) is of shorter duration
atrioventricular valve opens nearly one-third of the
(0.10 sec), and is created by the closure of the
ventricle is filled. Rest of the ventricular filling takes
semilunar valve at the end of the ventricular systole.
place during the contraction of the atria.
Ventricular systole: Both ventricles contract Automatic Rhythmicity of the Heart
which results in the rise of ventricular pressure,
and both the atrioventricular valves are closed to The human heart is myogenic and is able to contract
prevent the backflow of blood. The contraction of automatically and rhythmically. A specialised
ventricle is so strong that the ventricular pressure conduction system ensures that the heart beats in
exceeds the aortic pressure, as a result of which, the a regular and effective rhythm. This includes sino-
semilunar valve opens. Now the blood is pumped atrial node (SA node), internodal pathways, the atrio-
through the pulmonary artery to the lungs and ventricular node (AV node), the AV bundle and the
through the aorta to the rest of the body. bundle of purkinje fibres.
Atrial diastole: The atria relax although the The sino-atrial node (SA node) is a small,
ventricles are still contracted. Blood enters the atria flattened and ellipsoid strip of muscle fibre of 0.3
from the large veins coming from the body. mm size, situated in the upper lateral wall of the
right atrium. The fibres arising from it remain in
Ventricular diastole: The ventricular systole is direct contact with the fibres of the atria. The fibres
followed by ventricular diastole, during which there of the SA node express the ability of self-excitation
is a fall in ventricular pressure. The semilunar valves and control the rate of entire heartbeat (hence called
close to prevent backflow of blood from aortas. At the the pacemaker). Ends of the SA node fibres fuse
same time, the AV valve opens to allow the flow of with surrounding ordinary atrial muscle fibres so
blood from both the atria to the respective ventricles. that each action potential spreads through both atria,
Given an average heart rate of 72 beats per minute, producing atrial contraction.
each cycle takes 0.8 seconds.

The action potential generated at SA node travels to a network of blood vessels within the wall of the
throughout the auricles at a velocity of 0.3 m/sec. This, heart. Blood from these capillaries flows into coronary
eventually, stimulates the atrio-ventricular (AV) veins, which join to form a large vein, the coronary
node through internodal pathway, which is present sinus. The coronary sinus empties directly into the
in the posterior wall of the septum of the right atrium. right atrium; it does not join either of the venae cavae.
From here, the impulse continues through The portal system consists of two capillary beds
the atrio-ventricular bundle or bundle of His, in series, where blood from the first is drained by the
beginning at the top of the inter-ventricular septum. veins into a second bed, which in turn is drained by
This conducting tissue pierces the fibrous skeleton veins that return blood to the heart.
of the heart and continues to descend along the inter-
The two major portal systems are the hepatic
ventricular septum. The atrio-ventricular bundle
portal system and the hypothalmo-hypophyseal
divides into right and left bundle branches, which
portal system. The hepatic portal system consists
are continuous with the Purkinje fibres within the
of the portal vein and its tributaries. Blood is drained
ventricular walls. Stimulation of these fibres cause
from the spleen, stomach, pancreas, and the small
both ventricles to contract simultaneously and eject
and large intestines into veins that merge to form
blood into the pulmonary and systemic circulation.
portal vein leading to the liver. Here, the portal vein
branches, ending in many small capillaries.
Blood Vessels and Course of
Circulation of Blood
Lymphatic System
The artery, which has to withstand pulses of high
pressure, has an especially thick tunica media The lymphatic system consists of an extensive
containing smooth muscles and elastic fibres. Veins network of lymphatic vessels and lymph organs
have a thinner tunica media and a large lumen to such as lymph nodes, spleen and thymus. The fluid
carry slower–flowing blood at low pressure. Valves present in the lymphatic system is called lymph.
prevent blood flowing backwards. Lymph is a transparent fluid derived from
The system of blood vessels that ensures the blood and other tissues, which accumulates in the
supply of oxygenated blood from the left ventricles interstitial spaces as the interstitial fluid. Lymph
to all the body organs except lungs, and return of contains leucocytes mainly the lymphocytes. This
deoxygenated blood to the right atrium, is called fluid has a composition similar to that of plasma
systemic circulation. The importance of such a except that it is low in protein.
circulation is to transport oxygen, as well as nutrients Tiny “dead end” capillaries of the lymphatic
to the body tissues, and to remove carbon dioxide system extend into almost all the tissues of the body.
and harmful nitrogenous wastes from them. Lymph capillaries join to form larger lymphatic
The pulmonary circulation connects the vessels. When interstitial fluid enters lymph
heart and lungs. The right side of the heart receives capillaries it is referred to as lymph. Structurally,
deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it to the lymph vessels are similar to that of veins except
the lungs. Here the blood gains oxygen and releases for their thinner wall and more valves. These valves
carbon dioxide. Oxygenated blood returns to the prevent backflow. Besides, a number of lymph
heart to be pumped to all parts of the body except the nodes are present at intervals. These structures are
lungs. Therefore, the importance of such a circulation made up of lymphoid tissues lying in the lymphatic
is to oxygenate the blood. vessels in which the foreign bodies (antigens) are
filtered and destroyed by the lymphocytes.
The coronary circulation ensures the supply of
blood to the heart muscles (myocardium). Coronary The system of lymphatic vessels is distributed in
arteries branch from the aorta at the point where that the limbs, abdomen, thorax, and neck. The lymphatic
vessel leaves the heart. The coronary arteries give rise vessels from the lower body parts extend upward

to form the left thoracic duct, which receives the normal arterial systolic and diastolic pressure of a
vessels from left arm, left side of head, and partly healthy individual is 120 mm Hg and 80 mm Hg,
from thoracic region. Left thoracic duct opens into respectively. But the increase in the blood pressure
the vein near the junction of left internal jugular vein beyond 140 mm Hg (systolic) and 90 mm Hg
and the subclavian vein. (diastolic) is referred to as high blood pressure. Its
degree may vary from mild to high. A continuous or
The lymphatic vessels from the right arm, the
sustained rise in the arterial blood pressure is known
remaining thoracic parts, and the right side of the
as “hypertension”.
head form the right lymphatic duct, which opens at
the junction of right subclavian and internal jugular Hypertension may be of unknown cause. It may also
vein. result from kidney disorders, endocrine diseases, or
disease of arteries.
A normal electrocardiogram is composed of
a P wave, a QRS complex, and a T wave. The P
wave is caused by the firing of the SA node and
Atherosclerosis
depolarisation of the atria muscle. Then QRS Atherosclerosis refers to the deposition of
complex appears reflecting the firing of the AV node lipids (especially cholesterol from low-density
and depolarisation of the ventricles. The T wave lipoproteins) on the wall lining the lumen of large
results from the repolarisation of the ventricles. The and medium–sized arteries. Such a deposition is
heart then repeats its pattern of electrical impulses, called atheromatous or atherosclerotic plaque.
generating a new P wave, QRS complex, and T wave.
Its formation starts with the deposition of minute
cholesterol particles/crystals in the tunica intima and
Pacemaker smooth muscles. Slowly, these plaques grow due
to the proliferation of the fibres and small muscles
SA node is a node of specialised cardiac muscle fibres. around it. This results into the reduction of the lumen
The cardiac impulse originates from the SA node. size of the artery, and subsequently, the flow of blood
By determining the rate of discharge of the cardiac is also reduced. Under these conditions, the tissue is
impulse, the SA node determines the rate of heartbeat; deprived of an adequate oxygen and nutrient supply.
so it is called the natural pacemaker of the heart.
Although it can affect almost any artery, the
Artificial pacemaker is an electronic device, disease most often develops in the coronary and
which regularly sends a small amount of electrical cerebral arteries. When it occurs in the coronary
charge for maintaining the rhythmicity of the heart. artery, it reduces the blood supply to the heart or may
It is implanted subcutaneously in the upper thoracic stop the supply due to complete blockage. This may
region which has a connection with the heart. The result in heart attack. When it occurs in the cerebral
artificial pacemaker is called a life-saving instrument arteries less blood is delivered to the brain. This
because it stimulates the heart electrically at regular condition can lead to stroke. A diet rich in animal
intervals to maintain its beats. Thus, it replaces the fats, cigarette smoking, obesity, and inactivity are the
SA node as the originator of the cardiac impulse. principal causes for stroke.
Disorders Related to The Arteriosclerosis

Circulatory System Arteriosclerosis refers to the hardening of the arteries
due to deposition and thickening. In arteriosclerosis,
Hypertension calcium salts precipitate with the cholesterol of
the forming or formed plaque. This calcification
Hypertension is an expression of high blood pressure, of the plaques eventually makes the wall of the
i.e., elevation of arterial blood pressure above the arteries rigid and inflexible, and is referred to as the
normal range expected in a particular age group. The ‘hardenings of the arteries’. The affected artery

loses the property of distension and may rupture. 7. A vain differs from artery in having
The blood leaking from the ruptured wall may clot (a) valves to control direction of flow;
(thrombosis) and block the pathway of blood flow. (b) strong muscular walls;
If clot formation takes place in the coronary artery, it
(c) pigmented wall to give a darker appearance;
may lead to a heart attack and even death.
(d) narrow lumen.
8. The blood vessel, which has valves is knwon as
Multiple Choice Questions (a) arteries (b) veins
Tick () the most appropriate answer(s) among the (c) capillaries (d) dorsal aorta
following: 9. In connection with circulatory system valves
are present
Level 1: Elementary Questions (a) not only in hearts and blood vessels of
1. In the sinuses of an open circulatory system, vertebrates and invertebrates, but in
blood is NOT segregated from the vertebrate lymphatics as well;
(a) cytoplasm (b) interstitial fluid (b) in vertebrate heart only;
(c) digestive cavity (d) urine (c) in vertebrate heart and invertebrate hearts
only;
2. In a closed circulatory system blood is (d) in vertebrate hearts, invertebrate hearts
completely enclosed within and their blood vessels.
(a) the skeleton (b) sinuses
10. Which of the following has no muscular walls?
(c) vessels (d) hearts
(a) artery (b) arteriole
3. In which of the following groups of animal the (c) capillary (d) vein
heart pumps only deoxygenated blood
(a) fishes (b) reptile 11. The exchange of materials between blood and
interstitial fluid occurs only at the
(c) birds (d) amphibians
(a) veins (b) capillaries
4. Haemoglobin is found in (c) arteries (d) arterioles
(a) all invertebrates;
12. The cells constituting walls of the blood
(b) only in vertebrates;
capillaries are known as
(c) earthworm and rabbit;
(a) parietal cells (b) haemocytes
(d) cockroach and earthworm.
(c) oxyntic cells (d) endothelial cells
5. An artery is a vessel that carries blood
13. About how much blood is in the circulatory
(a) with high concentrations of oxygen system of an average person?
(b) with high concentrations of carbon dioxide (a) 1 litre (b) 2 litres
(c) away from the heart (c) 5 litres (d) 10 litres
(d) towards the heart
14. pH of blood in arteries and veins is
6. Which is a true statement? (a) more in arteries and less in veins;
(a) All veins carry oxygenated blood; (b) more in veins and less in arteries;
(b) All arteries except one carry oxygenated (c) not definite;
blood;
(d) same.
(c) All veins except one carry oxygenated
blood;
(d) All arteries carry oxygenated blood.

15. Serum differs from plasma in having 24. In higher mammals during the transport of
(a) excess of fibrinogen and other clotting oxygen haemoglobin plays an important role.
factors; The metal associated with haemoglobin is
(b) absence of fibrinogen and other clotting (a) magnesium (b) iron
factors; (c) manganese (d) copper
(c) absence of haemoglobin;
25. Normal haemoglobin content of an adult man is
(d) excess of haemoglobin.
(a) 10.5 gm/100 ml of blood;
16. The colloid osmotic pressure of blood is mainly
(b) 12.5 gm/100 ml of blood;
due to
(c) 14.5 gm/100 ml of blood;
(a) globulin (b) albumin
(c) fibrinogen (d) none of the above (d) 13.5 gm/100 ml of blood.
17. Which is NOT true of lymph nodes? 26. The advantage of RBCs being biconcave is that
(a) destroy bacteria and viruses; (a) to increase surface area;
(b) aid in clotting; (b) they can be packed up like coins;
(c) they can fit into capillaries;
(c) produce certain white blood cells;
(d) none of the above.
(d) are filled channels through which the
lymph is forced. 27. A mature mammalian erythrocyte is unusual as
it has
18. Both erythrocytes and leucocytes are formed in
(a) no nucleus
the
(b) no continuous plasma membrane
(a) bone marrow (b) thymus
(c) plastids
(c) arterial walls (d) lymph nodes
(d) a cells wall ‘
19. An erythrocyte lives for approximately
28. Which blood constituent makes up more of the
(a) one week (b) one month volume of blood?
(c) four months (d) one year (a) red blood cells (b) plasma
20. One of the following cells cannot respire (c) blood proteins (d) white blood cells
(a) epidermal (b) intestinal 29. Most of the plasma is
(c) leucocytes (d) erythrocytes (a) protein (b) salt
(c) gases (d) water
21. Which one of the following minerals helps in
erythropoiesis? 30. Erythrocytes of frog differs from that of rabbit
(a) Mg2+ (b) Fe2+ because in frog they are
(c) Cu 2+
(d) C2+ (a) large and round with biconcave nucleus;
(b) small, round, biconcave and non-nucleated;
22. Which of the following has a heart with two (c) large and oval with biconvex nucleus;
chambers?
(d) large and rectangular with biconvex nucleus.
(a) hummingbird (b) human
31. Which statement is true about the nucleus of the
(c) goldfish (d) frog
mature red blood corpuscles?
23. In human blood, the oxygen carrier is (a) present in both human and frog;
(a) methaemoglobin (b) haemocyanin (b) present in human;
(c) haemoglobin (d) iron (c) present in frog;
(d) present neither in human nor in frog.

32. Number of RBCs in an adult man per mm3 of 8. The cytoplasmic granules of neutrophils
blood is actually are
(a) 5,000 (b) 50,000 (a) golgi body (b) mitochondria
(c) 500,000 (d) 5,000,000 (c) phagosome (d) ER
9. If the number of leucocytes is increased beyond
Level 2: Conceptual Questions normal limits in the blood it shows that
1. Number of RBCs increases if one lives at higher (a) the person is becoming stronger by
altitude because acquiring more WBCs;
(a) there is less oxygen on mountains; (b) it is a normal process;
(b) more heat is required in body for producing
(c) there is some infection in the body;
body warmth;
(d) he is anaemic.
(c) there are no germs in mountain air;
(d) there is more oxygen on mountains. 10. “Leukaemia”—a cancer is due to
2. There are more RBCs than WBCs in mammals. (a) excessive production of WBCs;
The ratio of RBCs to WBCs is (b) excessive production of RBCs;
(a) 600 : 1 (b) 60 : 1 (c) excessive production of platelets;
(c) 6000 : 1 (d) 6 : 1 (d) all of these.
3. The life span of human WBC is normally 11. What is diapedesis?

(a) 12–13 days (b) 80–90 days (a) a kind of amoeboid movement;
(b) process of coming out of WBC through
(c) 100–120 days (d) 20–30 days
the capillary wall to fight against foreign
4. Approximately 99 perecent of blood cells are microorganism;
involved in (c) a type of locomotion found in hydra;
(a) immunity (d) the process of filtration of urea in kidney.
(b) transporting oxygen 12. Females need more dietary iron than males
(c) eating invaders because
(d) entering and leaving the blood stream (a) they lose iron during menstruation;
(b) they have less bone marrow;
5. Which of the following kind of WBC neutralise
toxins produced by harmful bacteria in the (c) they have large volume of blood;
body? (d) they are less able to absorb iron.
(a) monocytes (b) basophils 13. Which is false?
(c) neutrophils (d) lymphocytes (a) RBCs are also called leucocytes;
6. Which one of the following types of cells (b) White blood corpuscles are part of body’s
produces lots of antibodies? defence mechanism;
(c) Platelets are also called thrombocytes;
(a) fibroblasts (b) plasma cells
(d) Oxygen is carried in blood after combining
(c) macrophages (d) mast cells
with haemoglobin.
7. Which one of the following is phagocytic cell? 14. Thromboplastin required in blood clotting is
(a) monocyte (b) eosinophil secreted by
(c) platelet (d) basophil (a) monocytes (b) lymphocytes
(c) erythrocytes (d) platelets

15. In mammals oxygenated blood enters the heart (a) Ca+++ ions (b) Fe++ ions
at the (c) fibrinogen (d) platelets
(a) right atrium (b) left atrium
26. A clot of blood contains
(c) right ventricle (d) left ventricle
(a) prothrombin (b) fibrinogen
16. Which chamber of a bird’s heart does oxygen- (c) fibrin (d) thrombin
rich blood first enters?
27. The function of vitamin K is in the
(a) right atrium (b) right ventricle
(a) regulation of calcium and phosphorus
(c) left ventricle (d) left atrium
metabolism;
17. Blood enters the heart because muscles of the (b) blood clotting
(a) atria relax (b) ventricles relax (c) respiration
(c) ventricles contract (d) atria contract (d) carbohydrate metabolism
18. Prothrombin found in plasma is associated with 28. Cardiac muscle is composed of
(a) initiation of heart beat (a) striated, unbranched and involuntary
(b) agglutination muscle fibres;
(c) coagulation of blood (b) unstriated, spindle-shaped and involuntary
(d) blood pressure muscle;
(c) striated, branched and involuntary muscle
19. Blood clot inside a blood vessel is known as
fibres;
(a) thrombosis (b) agglutinin
(d) striated, branched and voluntary muscle
(c) clot (d) thrombus fibres.
20. In humans prothrombin required for blood 29. The blood leaving the lungs is richer than that
clotting is produced in entering the lungs in
(a) liver (d) stomach (a) the number of RBCs per ml of blood;
(c) pancreas (d) spleen (b) the amount of haemoglobin per ml of
21. Blood can be stored by adding blood;
(a) sodium oxalate (c) the amount of oxygen per ml of blood;
(b) sodium nitrate (d) the amount of nutrients per ml of blood.
(c) potassium sulphate 30. Oxygenated blood is carried by
(d) ammonium chloride (a) pulmonary vein
22. Which of the metallic ions is essential for blood (b) pulmonary artery
clotting? (c) hepatic portal vein
(a) Na+ (b) Ca+ (d) renal vein
+
(c) K (d) Fe++ 31. Blood from the head, neck, and forelimbs enters
23. Blood coagulation is prevented by the heart by way of the
(a) thrombin (b) plastin (a) superior vena cava
(c) heparin (d) prothrombin (b) inferior vena cava
(c) pulmonary artery
24. Heparin in blood is released from
(d) pulmonary vein
(a) clumped platelets (b) mast-cell granules
(c) non-granulocytes (d) granulocytes 32. Covering of heart as known as
(a) pericardium (b) perineurium
25. Which is NOT essential for blood clotting?
(c) periosteum (d) peritoneum

A NSW E RS
1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (c)
6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (c)
11. (b) 12. (d) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (b)
16. (b) 17. (b) 18. (a) 19. (c) 20. (d)
21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (d) 25. (c)
26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (b) 29. (d) 30. (c)
31. (c) 32. (d)
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (d)
6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (b) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (b)
16. (d) 17. (a) 18. (c) 19. (d) 20. (a)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (c) 24. (b) 25. (b)
26. (c) 27. (b) 28. (c) 29. (c) 30. (a)
31. (a) 32. (a)

Chapter
Excretory System 4
Introduction Ammonia. It is formed as a result of the deamination

of proteins. It is characteristic of aquatic invertebrates
Excretion is the elimination of waste products from and vertebrates, e.g., protozoans, coelenterates,
the body. Lungs excrete carbon dioxide and some echinoderms, fresh water leeches, fishes and larvae
water in the expired air from the body. But non- of amphibians. It is highly soluble in water and very
volatile solutes and water are primarily excreted easily diffuses across the wet body surface.
in the urine. The urinary system consists of those
organs of the excretory system which form, store, Urea. It requires less water for its removal and due to
and release urine. its less toxicity it can be retained in the body for some
time. The liver in many animals contains an enzyme
Metabolic wastes, particularly nitrogenous arginase, which is responsible for the formation of
wastes that are the by-products of the break-down urea. It is characteristic of elasmobranch fishes, adult
of proteins and nucleic acids, are toxic to cells and amphibians, and mammals.
must therefore be removed quickly. Nitrogenous
wastes have the ability to change the pH of cells Uric acid. It is almost insoluble in water. Due to
and interfere with membrane transport functions and its less toxicity it can be retained in body for longer
may denature enzymes. periods. It is present as a nitrogenous product among
the birds, terrestrial reptiles, some snails, and insects.
The word homeostasis means the automatic It is excreted in crystalline form and hence requires
tendency of an organism to maintain such a steady minimal amount of water for its elimination.
state. It is necessary for animals because cells are
efficient but demanding. To function properly they Trimethylamine oxide. It occurs in large quantities
need to be bathed in tissue fluid, which provides in marine teleost fishes.
them with their optimum conditions. This means Guanine. This excretory product is found among the
that animals must maintain the composition of their spiders only.
tissue fluid within very narrow limits.
Hippuric acid. The benzoic acid present in
mammal’s food is removed which combines with
Metabolic Waste Products glycine to form hippuric acid.
The following are the main nitrogenous excretory
products found in different animals:
04_Excretory system.indd 1 3/6/2017 5:15:49 PM

Besides the above creatine, creatinine, allantoin Osmoregulators are the animals that maintain
and allantoic acid are the other nitrogenous waste an internal osmolarity different from the surrounding
products. medium in which they live. Many aquatic
invertebrates are strict or limited osmoregulators.
Most vertebrates are strict osmoregulators.
Excretory Organs Osmoregulators should either eliminate excess water
Protozoa. By simple diffusion through general body if they are in a hypotonic medium or continuously
surface. take in water to compensate for water loss if they are
in a hypertonic situation.
Porifera and Coelenterata. Direct diffusion from
tissues into external medium.
Platyhelminthes. Flame cells. Elimination of Nitrogenous
Nematoda. Longitudinal tubes which are present Wastes
below the oesophagus. The process by which nitrogen-containing waste
Annelids. Nephridia. products of metabolism are eliminated from the
body is called excretion. The nature of the nitrogen
Arthropods: Crustaceans have Green (antennary) containing wastes and their excretion varies among
glands, the species, depending on the availability of water.
Insects have Malpighian tubules. Animals mostly excrete excess of nitrogen as
ammonia, urea, or uric acid.
Arachnids have Coxal gland.
Molluscs. Excretion by paired metanephridia Ammonotelism
(kidneys).
Ammonotelism is the urinary elimination of nitrogen
Echinodermata. Amoebocytes found in the coelomic mainly in the form of ammonia. Ammonia is the
fluid. Specialised excretory organs are absent. basic nitrogenous catabolite of proteins. Ammonia
Cyclostomata. Pronephric kidney. is highly soluble in water and highly toxic to the
animal. So, its concentration must be kept very low
Fishes and Amphibia. Mesonephric kidney.
in the blood. For this, ammonia should be eliminated
Reptiles, Birds and Mammals. Metanephric kidney. as rapidly from the body as it is formed. A large
volume of water is needed by the animal to dissolve
ammonia and eliminate it from the body. So, its
Osmoconformers and elimination in urine involves considerable loss of
Osmoregulators water from the body. But this poses no problem for
animals living in aquatic habitat.
Osmoregulation is the active regulation of the
osmotic pressure of body fluids so that they do Most teleost fish (modem bony fish), tadpoles,
not become excessively dilute or excessively and aquatic insects excrete nitrogenous wastes
concentrated. as ammonia. This occurrence is referred to as
ammonotelism, and the concerned animals are
Osmoconformers are the animals that do not called ammonotelic.
vigorously control the osmotic condition of their body
fluids. They rather change the osmolarity of body In soft-bodied invertebrates ammonia diffuses
fluids according to the osmolarity of the surrounding out across the whole body surface into the surrounding
medium. Osmoconformers show a tremendous water. In fish most of the ammonia (NH3) is lost as
ability to tolerate a wide range of cellular osmotic ammonium ions (NH4+) across the gill epithelium.
environments. All marine invertebrates and some Kidneys play a minor role in ammonia excretion.
freshwater invertebrates are strictly osmoconformers.
Hagfish is the only vertebrate osmoconformer.

Excretory System 4.3
Ureotelism Human Urinary System

Ureotelism is the urinary elimination of nitrogen Human urinary system is made up of two kidneys
mainly as urea. Many animals cannot readily get as and their blood supplies, a pair of ureters, a urinary
much water as is required for the speedy elimination bladder, and a urethra. Each individual typically has
of ammonia. In the liver of such animals ammonia is two kidneys, one located on each side against the
immediately combined with carbon dioxide to form dorsal inner surface of the lower back, at the level of
urea. It is very helpful to the animal because urea 12th thoracic and 1st or 2nd lumbar vertebrae inside
is far less toxic than ammonia and the animals can the abdominal cavity. Each kidney is a bean-shaped,
afford to excrete it at a slower rate than ammonia reddish brown structure and measures about 10 cm
itself. Urea is very soluble in water and needs a in length, 5 cm in breadth, and 3 cm in thickness. In
considerable volume of water for its elimination. So it adults, it weighs about 125–170 gm.
can serve as the principal nitrogenous waste product
A connective tissue capsule covers each kidney.
only when the animal can afford either to excrete
On the concave median margin of the kidney there
sufficient volumes of water, or to concentrate urea
is a longitudinal opening called the hilum (hilus
considerably in the urine, or to retain considerable
renalis), through which renal artery and nerves enter
amounts of urea in the blood and body fluids for
and renal vein and ureter leave the kidney.
osmoregulation. It helps to maintain the osmolarity
gradient that functions in water resorption. Sharks A longitudinal section of the kidney shows
also produce urea and retain a good amount of that the hilum leads to an extensive flat, funnel-
it in the blood as a major osmolyte to balance the shaped space called the pelvis. The pelvis is almost
osmolarity of the body fluids with the surrounding completely surrounded by the kidney tissue, which is
seawater. arranged in an outer functional layer called the renal
cortex, and an inner functional layer called renal
Mammals, most adult amphibians living on
medulla. The outer renal cortex is reddish brown
land and many marine fish and turtles, which face
and granular in appearance because of its many
the problem of conserving water in their hypertonic
capillaries. The renal medulla is lighter in colour
environment are ureotelic.
and striped in appearance because of the presence
of microscopic tubules and blood vessels. The renal
Uricotelism medulla is composed of eight to fifteen conical
Uricotelism is the elimination of nitrogen mainly as medullary pyramids or renal pyramids.
uric acid. Ammonia produced by protein catabolism
The functional units of the mammalian kidney,
is converted to uric acid in the liver of uricotelic
called nephrons, are arranged in a radiating fashion
animals. Synthesis of uric acid involves far higher
within the renal pyramids. Urine produced by
expenditure of enemy than the synthesis of urea. But
each nephron within a renal pyramid empties into
excretion of uric acid instead of urea is of greater
collecting duct, which passes through a papilla into
advantage to land animals and birds with very limited
a calyx. The renal calyces drain urine in the central
access to water because it is far less toxic and being
cavity of renal pelvis. Urine passes from the pelvis
insoluble in water, does not require much water for
into the ureter, which takes it to the urinary bladder.
its elimination.
The urinary bladder is a remarkable organ capable of
Land snails, insects, birds and many reptiles are holding upto 800 ml of urine.
uricotelic and excrete uric acid. In birds and reptiles
During micturition (urination), urine is released
urine is eliminated in a paste-like form along with
from the bladder and flows through the urethra,
faeces. Uricotelism is predominantly advantageous
a duct leading to the outside of the body. In male
to the land vertebrates those lay shelled eggs.
the urethra is lengthy and passes through the penis.

Semen, as well as urine, is transported through the epithelium. However, the cells here possess
male urethra. In the females urethra is short and much less microvilli and mitochondria compared
transports only urine. Its opening to the outside is to the cells of proximal tubule. The distal part of
just above the opening of the vagina. descending limb is the thin segment and is lined
by flat epithelial cells with sparse microvilli and
Nephron mitochondria. Ascending limb too has a thin
segment and a thick segment. At the medullary
Nephrons are the functional units of kidneys. Each
zone the thin ascending limb widens abruptly
kidney possesses about one million nephrons in man.
and forms thick ascending segment. Cuboidal
It is an intricate epithelial tube about 3 cm long and
epithelial cel Is line this segment.
20–60 mm in diameter. The nephron is a thin, long,
twisted tubular structure, originating in the renal 3. Distal nephron: The ascending limb of the
cortex and coursing partly through the cortex and loop of Henle merges into the distal convoluted
partly through the renal medulla. Nephrons present tubule, which terminates as it empties into a
a vast total surface area for exchange of materials collecting duct. Each collecting duct receives the
between the urine in their lumen and the cells on ultrafiltrate from many nephrons. This is lined
their wall. Each nephron can be divided into three by cuboidal epithelial cells with a few microvilli.
main regions: There are two types of nephrons, which are
1. Proximal nephron: Nephron tubule is closed at classified according to their position in the kidney
its proximal but open at its distal end. The closed and the lengths of their loops of Henle.
end of a nephron is pushed in on itself to form the (1) Juxtamedullary nephrons: Their glomeruli are
double walled cup-shaped Bowman’s capsule. placed close to the inner margin of the cortex
The lumen of the capsule is continuous with the and long loops of Henle are placed deep into
narrow lumen that extends through the renal the medulla and are associated with vasa recta.
tubule. Positioned within Bowman’s capsule is The blood first passes through the capillaries of
a cluster of capillaries known as glomerulus. glomerulus and then flows through the hairpin
Bowman’s capsule and the glomerulus together loops of the vasa recta of the loop of Henle. In
constitute the Malpighian corpuscle. This human kidneys about 15 percent of the nephrons
structure of ultrafiltration is responsible for are juxtamedullary.
the first step of urine formation. Highly coiled
(2) Cortical nephrons: These are more common
renal tubule, i.e., proximal convoluted tubule,
(about 85 percent of the nephrons) and have
follows the Bowman’s capsule. The epithelial
their glomeruli in the outer cortex and relatively
cells of this region are specialised for the transport
short loops of Henle that extend a short distance
of salts and other substances from the lumen
into the medulla. They lack vasa recta.
to the interstitial fluid. The apical membrane
of the cells facing the tubule lumen contains
numerous microvilli (finger-like projections), Mechanism of Urine Formation
which increase the surface area. Mitochondria
are concentrated near the basolateral surface, Urine is produced by a combination of three
which allows the reabsorption of the salts by processes: glomerular filtration, reabsorption, and
active transport. tubular secretion.
2. Loop of Henle: The loop of Henle is the Glomerular Filtration
segment of renal tubule just behind the proximal
tubule. It consists of a descending limb, a sharp The total volume of blood passing through the
turn, and an ascending limb. The first fourth- kidneys is about 1200 mL per minute or about one
fifth of the descending limb constitutes the thick fourth of the entire cardiac output. An ultrafiltrate of
segment and has the same diameter as that of the the blood passes through the single cell layered thick
proximal tubule. This is also lined by cuboidal capillary walls, through a basement membrane, and

finally, another single cell layer thick epithelium of myogenic and juxtaglomerular mechanisms
the wall of Bowman’s capsule. These three layers work together to autoregulate the GFR over
together form a sieve-like separation wall between a wide range of blood pressure. In addition to
the lumen of the capillary and the Bowman’s capsule. these extrinsic neural control also regulates the
filtration rate.
The wall of Bowman’s capsule in contact with
the capillaries consists of specialised epithelial
cells called podocytes. These cells have numerous
Tubular Reabsorption
cytoplasmic extensions called foot processes This is the second step in urine formation which takes
that cover most of the surfaces of the glomerular place by means of both passive and active transport
capillaries. Foot processes of adjacent podocytes are mechanism from all parts of the renal tubule. As
separated by narrow gaps called filtration slits. filtration is non-selective, it is necessary that small
molecules, essential to the body, must be returned to
The process of ultrafiltration depends on two
the interstitial fluid and blood plasma. This selective
key factors: (i) the net hydrostatic pressure difference
transport of substances across the epithelium of
between the lumen of the capillary and the lumen
the excretory tubule from the ultrafiltrate to the
of Bowman’s capsule favours filtration, and (ii)
interstitial fluid is called reabsorption. The proximal
the colloidal osmotic pressure of plasma opposes
and distal convoluted tubules, the loop of Henle
filtration.
and the collecting duct, contribute to reabsorption.
The glomerular ultrafiltrate contains basically Practically all the sugar, vitamins, organic nutrients,
all the constituents of the blood except for blood and most of the water present in the initial ultrafitrate
corpuscles and the plasma proteins. Almost 15–25 are reabsorbed.
per cent of the water and solutes are removed from
the plasma that flows through glomerulus. The Tubular Secretion
glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is about 125 mL
In addition to reabsorption, tubule cells also secrete
per minute. This is equivalent to 7.5 L per hour or
certain substances. Tubular secretion means the
180 L per day in human kidneys.
movement of substances out of the blood and into the
Two significant intrinsic mechanisms provide tubular fluid. This is a yen selective process involving
autoregulation of glomerular filtration rate: both passive and active transport. As filtrate travels
(a) Myogenic mechanism: An increase in blood through the nephron tubule, substances that are
pressure tends to stretch the afferent arteriole, transposed across the tubule epithelium from the
which is expected to increase the blood flow to surrounding interstitial fluid join it. Because small
the glomerulus. The wall of the afferent arteriole, molecules pass freely from the plasma within the
however, responds to stretch by contraction, capillaries into the interstitial fluid, the net effect of
thus reducing the diameter of the arteriole, and renal secretion is the addition of plasma solutes to
therefore, increasing the resistance to flow. This the filtrate within the tubule. The proximal and distal
myogenic mechanism, thus, reduces variations convoluted tubules are the main sites of tubular
in flow to the glomerulus in case of fluctuations secretion.
in blood pressure. Under conditions in which the kidney conserves
(b) Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA): The as much water as possible, urine can reach an
juxtaglomerular apparatus (meaning “structure osmolarity of about 1200 mosm L-1, significantly
near the glomerulus”) is located where the distal hypertonic to blood (about 300 mosm L-1). This
convoluted tubule passes close to the Bowman’s capability to excrete nitrogenous wastes with a
capsule between the afferent and efferent minimal loss of water is an important adaptive
arterioles. JGA cells secrete enzymes such as feature that has permitted humans to lead a
resin that modulate blood pressure, and thus renal triumphant terrestrial life facing a continuous threat
blood flow and GFR are regulated. Therefore, of desiccation.

Regulation of Kidney Functions increase in blood volume and pressure. It increases

sodium excretion and decreases blood pressure.
Control by Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): ANF opposes the regulation by renin-angiotensin-
Permeability of the collecting ducts to water is aldosterone system (RAAS). ANF inhibits release
regulated by antidiuretic hormone. When the body of renin from JGA, and thereby, inhibits NaCl
needs to conserve water, the posterior pituitary reabsorption by the collecting duct and reduce
gland increases its release of ADH. This hormone aldosterone release from the adrenal gland.
makes the collecting ducts more permeable to
water so that more of water is absorbed and
small volume of concentrated urine is produced. Micturition
Secretion of ADH is stimulated by special receptors
Micturition is a process by which the urinary
in the hypothalamus. When fluid intake is low,
bladder empties itself when it becomes filled. The
the body begins to dehydrate, causing the blood
release of urine is accomplished by the simultaneous
volume to decrease. As blood volume decreases,
contraction of the smooth muscle of the urinary
the concentration of salts dissolved in the blood
bladder wall and the relaxation of the skeletal muscle
becomes greater, causing an increase in osmotic
sphincter around the opening of the bladder.
pressure. Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus are
sensitive to this osmotic change and stimulate Filling of urinary bladder activates stretch
the posterior lobe of the pituitary to release more receptors in the walls of the bladder, which generate
ADH. In this situation, the osmoreceptor cells also nerve impulses that are carried by sensory neurons to
promote thirst. Drinking reduces the osmolarity of the spinal cord and brain, producing the sensation of
the blood, which inhibits the secretion of ADH, ‘fullness’ that gives desire to void. The sphincter can
thereby completing the feedback circuit. then be relaxed by the inhibition of motor impulses,
allowing the smooth muscles of the bladder wall
Control by Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
to contract under autonomic control and empty the
(JGA): Juxtaglomerular apparatus operates a multi-
content.
hormonal Renin-Angiotensin-Aldoster-one System
(RAAS). The JGA responds to a decrease in blood
pressure or blood volume in the afferent arteriole of Constituencts of Urine
the glomerulus and releases an enzyme, renin into
the blood stream and activate renin-angiotensin- Urine is a pale-yellow coloured, slightly acidic
aldosterone pathway. Renin acts on the plasma (average pH 6.0; range 4.5–8.2) watery fluid
protein angiotensinogen, converting it to angiotensin (specific gravity 1.015–1.025) with a characteristic
II, which works as a hormone. smell. Human adults produce around 1.5 L of urine
per day.
Angiotensin II increases blood pressure by
causing arterioles to constrict. It also increases blood Composition
volume in two ways: first, by signaling the proximal
convoluted tubules to reabsorb more NaCl and water, Urine consists of water, organic and inorganic
and second, by stimulating the adrenal gland to substances. Water alone forms about 95 precent of
release a hormone aldosterone. Aldosterone induces it, other substances form only 5 percent. The organic
the distal convoluted tubule to reabsorb more Na+ substances are mainly nitrogenous compounds but
and water. This leads to an increase in blood volume small amounts of non-nitrogenous compounds are
and pressure, completing the feedback circuit by also present. The nitrogenous organic compounds
supporting the release of renin. include urea, uric acid, creatinine, and hippuric acid.
The non-nitrogenous compounds include vitamin
Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF): Atrial C, oxalic acid, phenolic substances, and a trace of
natriuretic factor (ANF) is a hormone produced by glucose. The inorganic substances include ammonia
the walls of the atria of the heart in response to an and mineral salts such as chlorides, sulphates and

phosphates of sodium, potassium, and calcium. outside the membrane. The dialysing fluid contains
Sodium chloride is the principal salt present in the some small solutes and mineral ions, but does not
urine. It also contains substances such as pigments, contain nitrogenous waste products, such as urea, uric
drugs, and some epithelial cells and leucocytes. acid, and creatinine. As a result, these wastes diffuse
down their concentration gradient from the patient’s
Abnormal Urine blood through minute pores in the tubing and into
the surrounding solution in the dialysis machine.
Proteinuria – The presence of protein in urine. This
As the blood circulates through the tubing in the
may indicate the presence of damage to, or disease
machine dialysis continues, eventually adjusting
of, the kidneys.
most of the values of the patient’s blood chemistry
Albuminuria – The presence of albumin in urine. to normal. The blood coming out of the artificial
This may be associated with nephritis (inflammation kidney is warmed to body temperature, mixed with
of glomeruli), when the size of the filtering slits an antiheparin to restore its normal coagulability
enlarges. and returned to a vein of the patient. Haemodialysis
saves and prolongs the life of many uremic patients.
Glycosuria – The presence of glucose in urine in
abnormally large amounts as in the case of diabetes
mellitus. Only very minute quantities of this sugar Kidney Transplantation
may be found normally in the urine.
Kidney transplantation involves the transfer of a
Ketonuria – The presence of abnormally high healthy kidney from one person called the donor
ketone bodies in urine. into the body of the patient whose kidneys have
Haematuria – The presence of blood or blood cells failed, the recipient. The kidney of donor must be
in urine. a good match for the recipient. The more the new
tissue from the donor is like the recipient’s tissue,
Haemoglobinouria – The presence of haemoglobin the less likely the immune system of the recipient is
in urine. to reject it. In addition to tissue type matching, the
Uremia – The presence of excess urea in urine. recipient may be treated with immunosuppressant
drugs. These inhibit the immune response.
Haemodialysis
Role of Lungs in Excretion
Haemodialysis is a technique of removing waste
material or poison from the blood using the principal Human lungs remove around 18 L of CO2 per hour
of dialysis. Haemodialysis is performed on patients and about 400 ml of water per day in normal resting
whose kidneys have ceased to function. The process condition. Water loss via the lungs is small in hot
takes place in an artificial kidney or dialyser. humid climate and large in cold dry climates. The rate
of ventilation and ventilation pattern (i.e., breathing
The stream of blood is taken out from an through mouth or nose) also affects the water loss
artery of the patient, cooled to 0°C, mixed with an through the lungs. Various volatile materials are also
anticoagulant such as heparin, and then pumped eliminated through the lunds.
into the apparatus called the artificial kidney. In this
apparatus, blood flows through channels or tubes
bounded by cellophane membrane. The membrane Role of Skin in Excretion
is impermeable to macromolecules such as plasma
Human skin possesses glands for secreting two fluids
proteins, but permeable to small solutes, such as
on its surface, viz., sweat from sweat glands, and
urea, uric acid, creatinine and mineral ions. The
sebum from sebaceous glands. Sweat is an aqueous
membrane separates the blood flowing inside the
fluid (around 99.5 percent water) containing sodium
channels or tubes from a dialysing fluid flowing

chloride, lactic acid, urea, amino acids, and glucose. 5. Marine birds such as gulls excrete excess salt via
It also serves for cooling the body temperature. The the
volume of sweat varies from negligible to 14 L a (a) eyes (b) nostrils
day, rising with activity and temperature. Sebum
(c) cloaca (d) kidney
is a waxy protective secretion to keep the skin oily
and this secretion eliminates some lipids such as 6. Animal species living in areas with chronic
waxes, sterols, other hydrocarbons and fatty acids. shortage of water generally excrete uric acid as
Integument in many aquatic animals is helpful in the principal nitrogenous waste product because
eliminating ammonia into the surrounding medium (a) uric acid can be stored in the body for long
by diffusion. periods;
(b) uric acid is highly soluble in water and can
Role of Liver in Excretion be easily eliminated;
Liver is the key site for elimination of cholesterol, (c) the kidneys are unable to convert uric acid
bile pigments (bilirubin and biliverdin), inactivated into urea;
products of steroid hormones, some vitamins and (d) enzymes for the formation of urea are
many drugs. Liver secretes these substances in bile. absent.
Bile, in turn, carries these materials to the intestine,
7. Which of the following group of animals is
which are eventually removed with the faeces.
uricotelic?
(a) fish, dog, monkey and bird
Multiple Choice Questions (b) fish, lizard, snake and bird
(c) lizard, snake, bird and insect
Tick () the most appropriate answer(s) among the
following: (d) monkey, man, cow and dog
8. A terrestrial reptile excretes nitrogen in the form
Level 1: Elementary Questions of
1. Catabolic waste products of proteins are (a) ammonium ions (b) amino acids
(a) urea, SO, and NHS (c) urea (d) uric acid
(b) urea, NHS, alanine and creatine 9. The flame-cell system functions mostly to
(c) urea, NH3 and uric acid (a) remove ammonium ions
(d) CO2 NH3 and urea
(b) regulate pH
2. Ureotelic animals are those which eliminate the (c) osmoregulate
nitrogenous wastes predominantly in the form
(d) remove urea
of
(a) uric acid (b) ammonia 10. A nephridium of an earthworm drains materials
(c) amino acids (d) urea directly from the
(a) gut (b) coelom
3. A mammal excretes nitrogen in the form of
(c) lymph (d) blood
(a) ammonium ions (b) amino acids
(c) urea (d) uric acid 11. A malpighian tubule empties urine into the
4. A man takes large amount of proteins. He is (a) gut (b) coelom
likely to excrete more amount of (c) lymph (d) ureters
(a) uric acid (b) sugars
(c) amino acids (d) urea

12. In insects, malpighian tubules drain materials 6. Which of the following components of the
directly from the blood does not enter the nephron?
(a) gut (b) haemocoel (a) tons (b) glucose
(c) spider (d) telly fish (c) plasma proteins (d) urea
13. The kidney of adult rabbit 7. The ultra structure has shown that in glomerulus
(a) opisthonephros (b) mesonephros of a nephron, the process of filtration mainly
(c) metanephros (d) pronephros takes place due to
(a) podocytes;
14. Which of the following is the part of kidney? (b) pores in blood capillaries;
(a) pelvis (c) basement membrane;
(b) ileum (d) endothelium of the blood capillaries.
(c) seminiferous tubules
8. The blood constituents that remain unchanged
(d) cystic duct
in quantity after circulating through the kidney
15. The basic unit of a vertebrate kidney is the are
(a) ureter (a) glucose and proteins;
(b) nephron (b) urea and proteins;
(c) malpighian tubule (c) urea and uric acid;
(d) islets of Langerhans (d) urea and glucose.
Level 2: Conceptual Questions 9. Surgical removal of both the kidneys would

result in death because
1. In the kidney of a mammal the capsules are (a) water will accumulate in blood;
situated in
(b) urea will not be excreted;
(a) cortex (b) medulla
(c) immune response will be suppressed;
(c) pyramid (d) pelvis
(d) glucose will be lost from the body.
2. In mammalian kidney Henle’s loop is present in
10. Which of the following are the abnormal
(a) cortex (b) caput epididymis constituents of urine?
(c) medulla (d) ureter
(a) uric acid and ammonia
3. About how many nephrons are there in each (b) urea and glucose
kidney of a human? (c) creatine and creatinine
(a) 16 (b) 200 (d) lipoproteins, glucose, and ketone bodies
(c) 1000 (d) 1,000,000
11. Presence of blood in urine is known as
4. Nephrons are connected with (a) albuminuria (b) ketouria
(a) respiratory system (c) anuria (d) haematuria
(b) nervous system
12. Excess of urea in blood resulting from kidney
(c) circulatory system
failure is known as
(d) excretory system
(a) ureotelic (b) uricotelic
5. The mechanism of uric acid excretion in (c) urochrome (d) uraemia
nephron is
(a) diffusion (b) ultrafiltration 13. What is blood pressure?
(c) osmosis (d) secretion (a) The pressure of blood on the heart muscles;
(b) The pressure of blood exerted on the walls
of arteries and veins;

(c) The pressure of blood on the walls of veins (c) by combination of all the above factors;
only; (d) increased sweating.
(d) The pressure of blood on the walls of
15. Volume of urine is regulated by
arteries only.
(a) ADH
14. Lack of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) causes (b) Aldosterone
water loss from the body by
(c) USX ADH and aldosterone
(a) increased water loss through expiration;
(d) ADH, aldosterone and testosterone
(b) excessive urination;
A NSW E RS
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (d) 5. (a)
6. (a) 7. (c) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (a) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (b)
1. (a) 2. (c) 3. (b) 4. (b) 5. (b)
6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (d)
11. (d) 12. (d) 13. (b) 14. (d) 15. (c)

Chapter
Nervous System 5
Introduction Information passes along neurons in the

form of electric impulses called nerve impulses.
Nervous system is a complex network of specialised Communication between neuron at synapses is via
nerve cells called neurons. It coordinates the chemical transmitters. A mixture of electric and
activities of all but the simple of animals. The nervous chemical signals allows information to travel around
system receives sensory information, interprets it, an organism with far greater speed than if only
and creates proper responses using structures such as chemical signals were use.
muscles. Environmental changes, stimuli, alter the
electrical properties of neuron membranes.
The nervous system serves the following basic Nervous System of Humans
functions: The human nervous system has two contrasting
(i) Receiving sensory input from internal and functional subsystems, the central nervous system
external environment by nerves to the brain. (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
(ii) Processing the input information with the help of The central nervous system consists of a complex
a central processor, the brain. brain that is continuous with the dorsal tubular
(iii) Responding to stimuli which transmits motor spinal cord. Serving as central control, these organs
commands from the brain to determine the integrate incoming information and determine
response of the body parts or cells. appropriate responses.
Most complex nervous systems can be divided The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes
into two parts. The central nervous system receives all the nerve pathways of the body outside the brain
all incoming information and is the site of decision- and spinal cord. These pathways are divided into two
making. In humans it consists of the brain and groups: the sensory or afferent pathways, which
spinal cord. All the other parts of the nervous transmit information to the CNS, and the motor or
system make up the peripheral nervous system, efferent pathways, which transmit commands from
which relays information between the sense organs the CNS. The motor pathways, in turn, are partitioned
receiving stimuli, the central nervous system, and the into somatic (voluntary) nervous system, which
structures, which bring about responses. relay commands to skeletal muscles, and autonomic
05_Nervous system.indd 1 3/6/2017 5:17:53 PM

(involuntary) nervous system (ANS) that stimulates The Nerve Impulse

the glands and other muscles of the body.
Like most cells, neurons have selectively permeable
When the neurons are clustered into groups membranes that contain specialist proteins. Some
within the CNS these are called nuclei, and if these of these proteins act as passive ion channels; others
are in the PNS, these are called ganglia. Within the are active transport mechanisms that pump ions. A
CNS the bundles of nerve fibres are called tracts, membrane potential is a measure (in millivolts)
whereas in the PNS they are called nerves. of the charge inside the membrane relative to the
Neuron is a nerve cell; a conducting cell of the charge outside. The resting membrane potential
nervous system that typically consists of a cell body, of the axon of a neuron is the potential difference
dendrites, and an axon. Neurons or nerve cells are of between inside and outside when the axon is
three types: “resting”, i.e., not actively conducting impulses. In
this state, if one of the two electrodes connected to
(i) Multipolar nerve cells which have many short a voltmeter is inserted in the axon’s cytoplasm while
dendrites and one long axon (e.g. pyramidal the other is placed nearby on the external surface
cells in cerebral cortex). of the membrane, the voltmeter will typically show
(ii) Bipolar nerve cells have the long axon which a potential difference of 70 millivolts (mV). This
extends on either side of the cell body (e.g., means that the interior of the axon is 70 mV more
bipolar neurons in the retina of eye). negative than the exterior.
(iii) Pseudo-unipolar nerve cells with the cell body The steps that establish a resting membrane
on a side-branch of the main axon (e.g., cells of potential are summarised as follows:
dorsal root ganglion).
1. The permeability of the plasma membrane
Nerve is a bundle of axons (or dendrites) wrapped to K+ ions is greater than its permeability
in connective tissue that coveys impulse between the to Na+ ions in a neuron, when these are at
central nervous system and some other part of the rest. The axoplasm inside the axon has a high
body. A typical nerve has a tough outer covering, the concentration of K+ ions and a low concentration
epineurium. Inside are the long fibres or axons of of Na+ ions, in contrast to the fluid outside the
individual nerve cells, gathered into bundles called axon, which has a low concentration of K+ ions
fascicles, wrapped in the perineurium. Most large and a high concentration of Na+ ions. At rest K+
nerves are mixed nerves, containing both motor and ions can cross through the plasma membrane
sensory nerve fibres running to and from a particular easily. However, at rest, Cl- ions and Na+ ions
region of the body. have more difficulty in crossing. The negatively
Schwann cells. These are the cells that lay down charged protein molecules inside the neuron
the myelin sheath around the axon of a medullated cannot cross the plasma membrane because of its
nerve fibre. Each cell is responsible for one length semi-permeability. Because of this, the surface
of axon, around which it twists as it grows, so that of the axon carries a positive charge relative to
concentric layers of membrane envelope the axon. its interior.
The gap between adjacent Schwann cells forms a 2. The electrochemical ionic gradients are
Node of Ranvier. maintained by the active transport of ions
against the electrochemical gradient by Na+–K+
Neuroglia or glial cells are special companion
ion transmembrane pumps. Each neuron has
cells that aid the function of neurons. These cells
a million or so ATP-powered Na+–K+ exchange
perform many housekeeping functions, provide
pumps built into its membrane. Each Na+–K+
nutritional support to neurons, and consume waste
transport pump expels three Na+ ions for every
products. They also insulate, separating each neuron
two K+ ions imported.
from the others.

Nervous System 5.3
An action potential is a very rapid change in internal charge. Enough Na+ rushes in to actually
the axon membrane potential from negative resting make the inside of the membrane positive for a few
potential (-70 mV) to a positive peak (typically, +40 milliseconds.
mV) and then back to the resting potential. Action
This shift of charge constitutes the nerve impulse,
potential is another name of nerve impulse or spike,
or action potential. Although it occurs at only one
which in contrast with resting potential, propagates
place on the neuron, it triggers a depolarisation of the
along fire membrane from one point of neuron to its
adjacent area, thus initiating a new action potential.
farthest extensions. It is caused by the sudden rush of
This process continues as a wave of depolarisation
sodium ions into the axon.
down the length of the axon. The impulse is thus
All neurons do not possess the same action not actually transported anywhere but like a wave of
potential. Because different neurons possess different water is recreated at each point.
densities of Na+ ion channels, as a result different
At any point on the neuron when the action
neurons exhibit different action potentials. However,
potential reaches a maximum (about +40 mV of
for any one neuron the action potential is always the
the interior relative to the exterior), the membrane
same.
suddenly again becomes impermeable to Na+. At
The nerve impulse may be defined as a the same time, K+ is pumped out, until it essentially
momentary reversal in polarity or depolarisation of balances the number of sodium ions that rushed in
the membrane of a nerve fibre. A nerve impulse is an and the membrane is repolarised. This efflux of
electrochemical event which brings about changes positive ions restores the resting potential of -70
in resting potential or membrane potential of the mV. After the resting potential is established, Na+-
nerve fibre, which spreads rapidly down the fibres K+ ion transmembrane pumps restore the original
and causes transmission of stimulus from receptor to sodium and potassium gradients existing before the
central nervous system and from there to end organ initiation of the action potential. Until the membrane
or effector. reaches its resting potential again, it is incapable of
developing a new action potential; while this is the
When a neuron is not conducting an impulse it
case, the membrane is said to begin its refractory
is said to be in the resting state. In this condition a
period.
resting potential, that is a difference in charge, exists
between the inside and outside of the membrane. A The whole process of depolarisation and
higher concentration of sodium ions exists outside repolarisation is very fast. It takes only about 5
the membrane, while there is a higher concentration milliseconds (ms).
of potassium ions inside. In addition, a number of
In addition to Na+-K+ ion transmembrane
negatively charged proteins reside on inside. These
pumps, there appear to be ion channels in the
concentration gradients are maintained by two
membrane that are specific to either Na+ or K+. These
factors: the impermeability of the resting membrane
channels are guarded by voltage-sensitive proteins
to Na+ and the action of a Na+-K+ ion pump that,
that by changing shape in response to specific
driven by ATP, transfers Na+ to the outside and
voltage act as gates to open and close channels.
pumps K+ in. Because of these gradients, the inside
The sodium gates open and sodium rushes into the
of the neuron is negative to the outside; a potential
axon during depolarisation. The potassium gates
difference of roughly -70 millivolts (mV) exists
open and potassium rushes out of the axon during
across the membrane.
repolarisation.
When a neuron is stimulated, the point of
The stimulus required to open enough Na+
stimulation suddenly becomes permeable to sodium
channels to initiate depolarisation is called threshold
ions, which rush in, depolarising the membrane
stimulus. For most excitable cells, the threshold is
(that is, eliminating the potential difference), as
about -55 to -60 mV. This is 10 mV less than the
the incoming positive ions balance the negative
resting potential of -70 mV.

“All-or-none” phenomenon is the principal depending upon the nature of transfer of information
which explain neurons transmit an impulse in a across the synapse.
similar way but no matter how weak or strong the
Electrical synapses: These are specialised for
stimulus is. The neuron either transmits an action
rapid signal transmission, the cells are separated
potential (all) or does not (none).
by a gap, the synaptic cleft, of only 0.2 nm so that
an action potential arriving at the presynaptic side
Saltatory Conduction of cleft can adequately depolarise the postsynaptic
Saltatory nerve conduction takes place in myelinated membrane to directly trigger its action potential.
nerve fibres. The insulating Schwann cells around However, more than 20 nm gap of most synapses
the axon allow ions to cross the membrane only at is too great a distance for such direct electrical
the nodes—the gaps between the Schwann cells. As coupling. Electrical synapses in the central nervous
a result action potentials arise only at the nodes, and system of vertebrates synchronises the activity of
conduction occurs in a series of saltatory ‘jumps’ neurons responsible for some rapid, stereotypical
from node to node. When the current reaches a node movements. For example, electrical synapses in the
it opens Na+ ion channels. In doing so it generates a brain enable some fishes to flap their tail very rapidly
potential difference large enough to create a current when escaping from predators.
that reaches the next node. The arrival of the current
Chemical synapses: The majority of synapses
at that node opens its Na+ channels, creating another
are chemical synapses. Presynaptic and postsynaptic
current that passes on to the next node and so on.
neurons are separated by a space, the synaptic cleft,
This, very fast form of nerve impulse conduction, is
about 20 not wide. It consists of a bulbous expansion
known as saltatory conduction.
of a nerve terminal, called synaptic knob, lying in
Saltatory conduction has two advantages: close proximity to the membrane of a dendrite. The
(1) The conduction of a nerve impulse is fast. In cytoplasm of the synaptic knob contains numerous
human unmyelinated fibres, nerve impulses tiny, round sacs, called synaptic vesicles. Each vesicle
travel at 1 to 3 metres per second, while has a diameter of approximately 50 nm, and contains
myelinated fibres conduct at speeds of up to 120 as many as 10,000 molecules of a neurotransmitter
metres per second. substance responsible for the transmission of nerve
impulse across the synapse.
(2) Metabolically, saltatory conduction is quite
economical, because fewer ions move across the The membrane of the synaptic knob on the
membrane, so the ion pumps needless energy to axon side, thickened as a result of cytoplasmic
restore the ionic balance. condensation, is called presynaptic membrane.
When a wave of depolarisation reaches the
Synapse presyraptic membrane, voltage-gated calcium
channels, concentrated at the synapse open. Because
A synapse is a junction between two neurons or they are 10,000 times more concentrated outside
between a neuron and an effector (muscle or gland). cells, Ca2+ ions then diffuse into the terminal from
A synapse has three components: a presynaptic the surrounding fluid. The Ca2+ ions, in some way,
membrane, a gap (10 to 20 nanometres across) stimulate synaptic vesicles in the terminal to move to
now called the synaptic cleft, and postsynaptic the terminal membrane, fuse with it, and then rupture
membrane. thereby releasing neurotransmitter chemicals from
The number of synapses is usually very large, vesicles at the tip by exocytosis into the cleft. These
providing a large surface area for the transfer of neurotransmitters rapidly pass to the other side of
information. For instance, over 1000 synapses may the gap. They then combine with specific receptor
be found on the dendrites and the cell body of a motor molecules on the membrane of the target cell, which
neuron in the spinal cord. There are mainly two is called the postsynaptic membrane. By doing so
types of synapses: (i) electrical, and (ii) chemical, they cause small, short-lived electrical signals in the

Nervous System 5.5
dendrite of the second neuron. To end the signal, the 3. Temporal lobe. Decoding and interpretation of
synaptic blobs reabsorb some neurotransmitters and sound, language comprehension, smell, memory,
enzymes in the synapse neutralise others. and emotion.
The great benefit of a chemical synapse, 4. Occipital lobe. Decoding and interpretation of
compared with the direct electrical synapse, is that visual information—shape and colour.
the nature of the messenger neurotransmitter can be The central sulcus separates the motor area of
different in different synapses, permitting different frontal lobe from the somatosensory area of parietal
kinds of responses, either excitatory or inhibitory in lobe. Motor area triggers all commands to the body
nature. to move whereas somatosensory area registers
messages from the body and the senses.
Central Nervous System
Cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the
The brain is situated inside the cranium, the bones cerebrum. It is made of gray matter and contains
of which protect it from injuries. The adult human many layers of nerve cells. The surface of each
brain contains an estimated 100 billion neurons, cerebral hemisphere shows many convolutions called
weighing 1.5 kg. It is covered by tough tissue known gyri (singular; gyrus) separated by depressions,
as meninges. The three layers of meninges are the called sulci. The gyri increase the surface area of the
outermost dura mater, middle arachnoid membrane, cortex for accommodating far more nerve cells in it.
and inner pia mater. The human brain may be Beneath this run millions of axons comprising nerve
divided into forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. fibre tracts, connecting the neurons of cerebral cortex
The hindbrain continues into the spinal cord. with those located elsewhere in the brain. The large
The forebrain consists of two main parts, the concentration of myelin gives this tissue an opaque
diencephalon and the cerebrum. The diencephalon white appearance. Therefore, they are referred by the
contains the thalamus and hypothalamus. term white matter.
The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres by The cerebral cortex can be divided into three
prominent longitudinal fissure. The two hemispheres main kinds of functional areas. They are sensory,
are connected by a bundle of transverse fibres called motor, and association areas. The sensory areas are
corpus caIlosum. The left half of the brain controls the sites of reception, correlation and interpretation of
the right side of the body and vice versa. Each sensory information, which is perception. The motor
cerebral hemisphere is divided by other grooves areas are the regions from where motor pathways
into four lobes namely, frontal, temporal, parietal originate. Association areas link sensory and motor
and occipital. A mirror image of this arrangement information and store memory.
characterises the right cerebral hemisphere. Different The cerebellum is the second largest part of the
functions are associated with each lobe. brain. It is wedged between cerebral hemispheres
1. Frontal lobe. Voluntary motor control of skeletal and brainstem. The cerebellum is divided into two
muscles; willpower and personality; inner hemispheres. The surface of each hemisphere is
monitoring of complex thoughts and actions; made up of gray matter surrounding a large mass of
creative ideas; reality testing by judgement; white matter (nerve cells with myelinated axons).
intellectual insight; ability to abstract; reasoning, The gray matter consists of three layers of cells and
decision making; expression of emotions. fibres. The middle layer contains typically large
2. Parietal lobe. Registration of sensory perception flask-shaped Purkinje cells. Purkinje cells are like
of touch, pain, heat and cold from receptors big oak trees, with more branches than any other
located in skin, knowledge about position in kind of nerve cell.
space, taking in information from environment, The cerebellum connects to the rest of the brain
organising it and communicating to rest of through three cerebellar peduncles, the superior,
brain. middle and inferior. The superior cerebellar

peduncles connect the cerebellum to the midbrain, The hippocampus consists of two “horns” that
the middle cerebellar peduncles communicate with curve back from the area of the hypothalamus to the
the pons, and the inferior cerebellar peduncles amygdala; make the swollen lower lip of the limbic
consist of pathways between the cerebellum and the fork. This organ deals with a strange mix of signals
medulla oblongata as well as spinal cord. about smells and memories. The hippocampus
functions as a kind of index for recall of an event
Cerebellum does not initiate movement but
with its associated memory. The hippocampus
modulates or reorganises motor commands. It
converts information from short-term to long-term
functions in muscle coordination, integrating
memory, which indispensable in learning.
impulses received from higher centres to ensure that
all of the skeletal muscles work together to produce
smooth and graceful motions. The cerbellum is vital
Brain Stem
to the control of rapid muscular activities such as The medulla oblongata, the pons, and midbrain lie in
running, typing and even talking. a portion of the brain known as brain stem.
The thalamus is a mass of gray matter that The midbrain contains four little lobes, the
comprises about four-fifths of the diencephalon. corpora quadrigemina. Its chief structures are
The thalamus acts primarily as a communication superior colliculi and inferior colliculi. The
link between the senses and the cortex that receives superior pair of colliculi receives sensory impulses
majority of incoming signals. It determines their from the eyes and muscles of the head and control
source, evaluates their importance, and integrates visual reflexes. For example, they control and
before passing them on to the cerebrum. coordinate the movement of the head and eyes to fix
and focus on an object. The inferior pair of colliculi
The hypothalamus is a small portion of the
receives sensory impulses from the ears and muscles
diencephalons located below the thalamus. This
of the head and control auditory reflexes such as the
extremely important brain region contains neural
movement of the head to locate and detect the source
centres for hunger, thirst, and the regulation of body
of a sound.
temperature and pituitary secretion. Hypothalamus
organises behaviour related to survival of species: Pons forms the floor of the brain stem. It serves
fighting, feeding, fleeing and mating. It also as a neuronal link between the cerebral cortex and
influences respiration and heartbeat, and sends the cerebellum.
out signals to correct them when they are wrong.
The medulla oblongata is the lower portion of
Through connections with the pituitary gland, the
the brain stem. It is inferior to the pons and anterior
hypothalamus controls growth and sexual behaviour.
to the cerebellum. It controls autonomic functions
It also controls many more functions.
and relays nerve signals between the brain and spinal
The limbic system (limbus means lip-like or cord.
ring) is a complex set of structures that lies above and
around the thalamus, and just under the cerebrum. Spinal Cord
It includes the hypothalamus, the hippocampus, the
The spinal cord starts at the base of the brain and
amygdala, and several other nearby areas. It appears
ends at the first lumbar vertebra. The spinal cord
to be primarily responsible for our emotional life,
is enclosed within the vertebral column and has
and has a lot to do with the formation of memories.
a diameter of about 5 millimetres. The spinal cord
The amygdala consists of two almond-shaped acts as the link between the brain and the nerves that
masses of neurons on either side of the thalamus stretch throughout the body.
at the lower end of the hippocampus. This bulge
Unlike the brain, in which the gray matter forms
of neurons is like a defence castle controlling the
a cortex over white matter, the gray matter of the
moods, especially anger and rage. Various regions
spinal cord is located centrally, surrounded by white
of the amygdala play important role in emotional
matter. In cross-section, spinal cord consists of a
behaviour, such as aggression and remembering fear.

Nervous System 5.7
H- or a butterfly-shaped central core of gray matter (3) It helps in the excretion of waste products. One-
composed of nerve cell bodies, dendrites, and way flow from CSF to the blood takes harmful
synapses surrounding a central canal, and an outer metabolites, drugs, and other substances away
layer, the white matter, whose myelin sheaths give from the brain.
it its characteristic white colour. The gray matter (4) It acts as an endocrine medium for the brain to
on each side of the spinal cord is subdivided into transport hormones to other areas of the brain.
regions called horns. Those closer to the front of The hormones released into CSF can be carried
cord are called anterior (ventral) gray horn, while to remote sites of the brain, where they may have
those closer to the back are posterior (dorsal) gray some action.
horn. Between the anterior and posterior gray horns
are lateral gray horns.
The spinal cord serves as a link between the
Peripheral Nervous System
brain and nerves from all over the body. The stimuli
for reflex actions are received in the dorsal ganglia Cranial Nerves
and transmitted via neurons in the gray matter to the There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves which originate
ventral motor nerves. from the brain stem. After leaving the cranial cavity
by way of small foramina (holes) in the skull,
Ventricles they extend to their respective destinations. The
cranial nerves are designated with roman numerals,
There are four cavities within the human brain that
indicating the order in which the nerves arise from
are called cerebral ventricles. Each of the two lateral
the brain, from anterior to posterior.
ventricles is located in a hemisphere of the cerebrum.
The third ventricle is a vertical slit at the midline Like all nerves, cranial nerves are made up of
between the lateral ventricles. The fourth ventricle bundles of axon. Mixed cranial nerves contain
lies between the brain stem and the cerebellum. axons of sensory and motor neurons. Sensory
cranial nerves consist of sensory axons only and
Cerebrospinal Fluid motor cranial nerves consist mainly of motor axons.
The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is the clear watery First and second cranial nerves are sensory. Third
fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. It is and fourth cranial nerves originate from midbrain.
contained in the subarachnoid space and circulates One-third of cranial nerves (V to VIII) originate
in the ventricles of the brain and in the central canal from pons. Trigeminal nerve (V) is the largest. As the
of the spinal cord. It is a clear, colourless fluid, name suggests, the trigeminal nerve branches into
similar to the blood plasma, except that it has a much three pairs, with sensory fibres fanning out to jaw,
lower proportion of protein and cholesterol. The scalp, and face. Another one-third of cranial nerves
membranes in the roof of the ventricles produce CSF. (IX to XII) originate from the side of the medulla.
The entire central nervous system (CNS) contains Vagus (X) nerve regulates the functions of organs in
between 80 ml and 150 ml of CSF. the thoracic and abdominal cavities.
Functions of cerebrospinal fluid:
Spinal Nerves
(1) It protects the delicate brain and spinal cord by
providing shock-absorbing medium. It acts to There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves. These nerves
cushion jolts to CNS and lower their impact. are grouped into 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar,
5 sacral, and 1 coccygeal according to the region of
(2) It provides buoyancy to the brain because it is the vertebral column from which they arise.
immersed in CSF, and so the net weight of the
brain is reduced from about 1.4 kg to about 0.18 Each spinal nerve joins the spinal cord at two
kg. Therefore, the pressure at the base is reduced. points called roots, and contains both receptor

neurons and effector neurons. The dorsal or axons enter the automoninaglia, which are bulbous
posterior root contains sensory afferent fibres that structures containing the cell bodies of many
transmit impulses from receptors in the periphery neurons of the sympathetic chain, but not all of
into the spinal cord. At the middle of each dorsal root them synapse there. The exception is the medulla
there is a swelling, called dorsal root ganglion, which of the adrenal gland.
contains the sensory neurons. The other point of
The cell bodies of sympathetic postganglionic
attachment of a spinal nerve to the cord is the ventral
(motor) neurons are situated in ganglia close to the
or anterior root. It contains the motor neurons present
spinal cord. Each sympathetic ganglion is connected
in gray matter, and transmits impulses from the spinal
to the spinal cord by a white ramus communicans
cord to the effectors via motor efferent nerve fibres.
(pl. rami communicantes), and the spinal nerve by a
There is no ventral root gaglion. Immediately after
gray ramus communicans.
the roots leave the spinal cord they merge to form a
mixed spinal nerve on each side.
The Sympathetic Nervous System
It is made up of a network of short preganglionic
Autonomic Nervous system axons that extend to ganglia located near the thoracic
The autonomic nervous system or ANS is a self- and lumbar region of the spinal cord, and of long
governing system within the peripheral nervous postganglionic neurons extending from the ganglia
system which helps regulate the internal environment directly to each target organ. For this reason the
of the body, receiving information from and sending fibres of the sympathetic efferent neurons are also
commands to the heart, intestines, and other organs referred to as the thoracolumbar outflow.
in order to regulate vital bodily functions.
The Parasympathetic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system consists of
two separate output systems, the sympathetic and It is made up of a network of preganglionic axons
the parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic that synapse with organ–associated ganglia in
nervous system prepares the body for emergency the immediate vicinity of an organ, located in the
situations, the responses associated with “fight or cranial and sacral regions of the spinal cord, and of
flight”. It produces rapid and total mobilisation to short postganglionic neurons extending from the
thwart danger. The heart beat is strengthened and ganglia to the target organ. Thus, the fibres of the
accelerated, blood pressure is increased, the blood parasympathetic efferent neurons are referred to as
sugar level goes up, and blood from vessels within the craniosacral outflow.
the trunk to those of the arms and legs to support Adjacent segmental sympathetic ganglia on
fighting or running away. each side of the spinal cord are linked together to
On the other hand, the parasympathetic nervous the sympathetic tract to form a chain of sympathetic
system maintains those conserving functions that ganglia running alongside the spinal cord. The
restore the organism during period of tranquillity. ganglia of the parasympathetic nervous system are
situated close to, or within, the effector organ. The
Both contain only effector neurons which paired sympathetic trunks lie anterior and lateral to
connect the central nervous system to the effector the spinal cord, one on either side.
organs.
The neurotransmitter within the ganglion
The autonomic nervous system is composed of is acetylcholine for both sympathetic and
two types of neurons a myelinated preganglionic parasympathetic nerves. However, the
neuron, which leaves the ventral root of the neurotransmitter between the terminal autonomic
segmental nerve before synapsing with several neuron axon and the target organ is different in the
unmyelinated neurons leading to the effectors. two antagonistic autonomic nervous systems.
With one exception, all sympathy preganglionic

Nervous System 5.9
In the parasympathetic system, the neurotransmitter efferent neurons to reach a muscle or gland, called
at the terminal synapse is acetylcholine, just as it an effector for that reflex. This produces either a
is in the ganglion. In the sympathetic system, the movement of the muscle or the secretion of the gland
neurotransmitter at the terminal synapse is either as the effect of the reflex.
adrenaline or noradrenaline, both of which have an
Coughing is a reflex action. The stimulus is foreign
effect opposite to that of acetylcholine. There is one
matter in the respiratory tract. The pupil of the eye
exception: the sympathetic postganglionic neuron that
automatically responds to change in light stimuli. If
terminates on the sweat glands uses acetylcholine.
the light intensity is increased, the circular muscle
Hence, depending on which of the two paths fibres of the iris contract and the diameter of the
is selected by the CNS, an arriving signal will pupil decreases.
either stimulate or inhibit the organ. Therefore, an
organ receiving nerves from both visceral nervous
systems is subjected to the effects of two opposing Sensory Reception and
neurotransmitters. If the sympathetic nerve ending Processing
excites a particular organ, the parasympathetic
usually inhibits it. Sensing (conscious or unconscious awareness) of the
external environment is called extroception.
Sensing (conscious or unconscious awareness)
Reflex Action: Rapid and of the internal condition and position of the body is
Automatic Responses called introception.
A reflex action is a quick autonomic response to Perception is the conscious awareness and
a stimulus. The response does not involve any interpretation of sensations.
conscious effort. Therefore, reflexes are described as
involuntary actions.
A reflex arc is a structure involved in a reflex Multiple Choice Questions
action. The simplest reflex arc involves some specific Tick () the most appropriate answer(s) among the
receptor(s) such as afferent sensory neuron(s) following:
towards an aggregation of nervous tissue, which
may be ganglion or the spinal cord or a posterior
extension of brain, and efferent motor neuron(s)
from the latter to specific effector muscle fibre(s) 1. The simplest form of nervous system that
or gland(s), and one or more intermediate or relay integrates body activities is found in cnidarians
interneuron conducting impulses from receptor to and is called a
effector. Impulses can flow only in a single direction (a) nerve-trunk system
in a reflex arc because each synapse in a reflex arc (b) ladder system
allows impulses to cross it in a single direction.
(c) nerve-net system
The terminal dendrites of the afferent sensory (d) nerve-cord system
neuron lie in a dorsal root ganglion of the spinal
cord. The dendrites of the efferent motor neuron lie 2. The longest cell in the body of an animal is
in a ventral root. (a) osteocytes (b) neuron
(c) chromatophores (d) lymph corpuscles
A specific stimulus must be applied on a specific
group of receptors to elicit the reflex. Stimulation 3. The first animals to have nerves were probably
of the receptors initiates a nerve impulse along similar to modern
the afferent neuron connected to them. The nerve (a) sponges (b) flatworms
impulse flows along the afferent, connector and (c) cnidarians (d) annelids

4. Nerve cells are devoid of 3. Subarachnoid space occurs

(a) nucleus (b) sarcolemma (a) above pia mater (b) above dura mater
(c) axon (d) cytoplasm (c) inside blastocoel (d) none of the above
5. Nissl bodies are known to occur in 4. The part of a neuron that contains a nucleus and
(a) mast cell (b) osteocyte other organelles typical of cells is the
(c) chondrocytes (d) nerve cell (a) axon (b) dendrite
6. The interstitial tissue of nervous tissue is (c) Schwann cell (d) cell body
(a) satellite cells (b) neuroglia 5. Which term does NOT belong with the others?
(c) schwann cells (d) all of the above (a) cerebrum
7. The parts of neurons that perform basic cellular (b) cerebral cortex
functions such as protein synthesis are the (c) cerebral hemispheres
(a) somas (b) axons (d) cerebellum
(c) dendrites (d) synaptic knobs 6. Largest part of the brain of man is called
8. Power of regeneration is lowest in the (a) olfactory lobe
(a) liver cell (b) bone cell (b) cerebral hemisphere
(c) muscle cell (d) brain cell (c) corpus callosum
(d) optic nerve
9. The dendrites of a typical vertebrate motor
neuron, compared to the neuron’s axon, are 7. Which part of the human brain is more
genetically? developed in comparison to others?
(a) Longer (b) Larger in diameter (a) cerebrum
(c) More myelinated (d) More branched (b) cerebellum
(c) optic lobes
10. The largest number of cell bodies of neurons in
(d) medulla oblongata
our body is found in
(a) brain (b) spinal cord 8. A touch on the right hand stimulates neurons in
the
(c) tongue (d) retina
(a) left somatic sensory area
11. The medullary sheath of the nerve fibre is (b) left occipital lobe
interrupted at intervals by
(c) right somatic sensory area
(a) Nodes of Ranvier (b) synapses
(d) right occipital lobe
(c) glial cells (d) septa
9. Which of the following structure is in the
Level 2: Conceptual Questions diencephalon?
(a) cerebral cortex (b) cerebral lobes
1. Outermost covering of brain is called as
(c) hypothalamus (d) medulla oblongata
(a) dura mater (b) pia mater
10. The appetite and satiety centres in the brain are
(c) pericardium (d) gray matter
located in the region of the
2. Axon is characterised by (a) hypothalamus
(a) transformation of energy; (b) cerebral hemispheres
(b) receiving the impulse; (c) medulla oblongata
(c) providing energy for impulse; (d) cerebellum
(d) conduction of impulse.

Nervous System 5.11
11. What type of neuron is most prevalent in the 12. Which part of mammalian brain controls the
human body? muscular coordination?
(a) unipolar neuron (b) bipolar neuron (a) cerebrum (b) cerebellum
(c) mutipolar neuron (d) none of the above (c) corpus callosum (d) medulla oblongata
A NSW E RS
1. (c) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (d)
6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (d) 9. (d) 10. (a)
11. (a)
1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (d)
6. (b) 7. (a) 8. (a) 9. (c) 10. (a)
11. (c) 12. (b)

Chapter
Chemical
Co-ordination in 6
Organisms
Indroduction pituitary, thyroid, four parathyroids, two adrenals,

two testes (male) or two ovaries (female), thymus,
Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the blood. pineal, islet tissue of pancreas, and hormonal tissues
Hormones are informational molecules. They on gastrointestinal tract. Besides, a nerve structure
regulate functions of other organs and tissues. Their called hypothalamus of the brain is integrated with
actions are slower and more widespread than nerve the endocrine system and which secretes hormones.
impulses. They coordinate the activities of different
organs and tissues.
Hormone is a chemical messenger that is
Hypothalamus
produced by cells or tissues of the endocrine system The hypothalamus is a region of the brain located just
and which travels through the blood to act on target above the pituitary. It is here that many of the sensory
cells or target organs, before being broken down. stimuli of the nervous system are converted into
hormonal responses. The hypothalamus synthesises
The endocrine system has four main functions:
and secretes a number of hormones.
1. It maintains homeostasis, the balance of the
body, by making sure that the concentration of The hypothalamus is connected to the posterior
many different substances in body fluids are pituitary by a stalk through which nerves run. It is
kept at the correct level. The control of blood believed that oxytocin and vasopressin (ADH) are
sugar level, blood pH, and water balance are all produced in the hypothalamus and travel down the
examples of homeostasis. nerves to the posterior lobe for storage. They are
released from their storage area by nerve impulses
2. It works with the nervous system to help the from the hypothalamus.
body respond to stress.
The hypothalamus is connected to anterior
3. It controls the body’s rate of growth.
pituitary by an unusual capillary system. The
4. It controls sexual development and reproduction. hormones are carried by the portal blood vessels
to the anterior lobe of the pituitary which is then
stimulated to release its hormones. On this account,
Human Endocrine System hypothalamic hormones are called releasing
The human endocrine system consists mainly of hormones (RH). Certain hypothalamic hormones
the following organs and tissues: hypothalamus, inhibit the secretion of some of the pituitary
06_Chemical coordination in organisms.indd 1 3/6/2017 5:21:49 PM

hormones. Such hormones are called inhibitory 2. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH): It
hormones (IH). These releasing or inhibiting stimulates the growth of the thyroid and secretion
hormones regulate and coordinate the anterior lobe of of thyroid hormones.
the pituitary to initiate the production or suppression 3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): It
of specific hormones. controls the secretion of adrenal cortex hormones.
The various hormones secreted by hypothalamus are: 4. Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH):
1. Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH) – It stimulates the cutaneous pigmentation by
It stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete dispersion of melanin granules.
thyrotropin or thyroid stimulating hormone 5. Prolactin (PRL): It stimulates milk production
(TSH). and secretion, participates in control of
2. Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) reproduction, osmoregulation, growth and
– It stimulates growth release hormone. metabolism.
3. Growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH) 6. Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH): In males
– It inhibits growth release hormone. it stimulates spermatogenesis. In females,
growth of ovarian follicles is stimulated.
4. Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) –
It stimulates the release of follicle stimulating 7. Luteinising hormone (LH): In females, together
hormone and luteinising hormone. with FSH, it triggers ovulation, stimulates
conversion of ovarian follicles into corpus
5. Prolactin releasing hormone (PRH) – It
luteum. In males, LH (which is sometimes also
stimulates the release of prolactin.
called interstitial cell stimulating hormone
6. Prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH) – It or ICSH) stimulates the secretion of male sex
inhibits prolactin release. hormone (testosterone) from the interstitial cells
7. Adrenocorticotropic hormone releasing of Leydig in the testes.
hormone (CRH) – It stimulates The posterior pituitary secretes only two hormones.
adrenocorticotropic hormone. These are:
8. Melanocyte stimulating hormone-releasing 1. Vasopressin. The chief action of vasopressin
hormone (MRH) – It stimulates melanocyte is to stimulate the reabsorption of water from
stimulating hormone release. the distal convoluted tubules and collecting
9. Melanocyte stimulating hormone inhibiting ducts of the kidney, thereby reducing urine
hormone (MIH) – It inhibits melanocyrte volume and conserving body fluid. Because
stimulating hormone release. of this antidiuretic effect, it is also referred to
as the antidiuretic hormone (ADH). This
hormone also plays a minor role in regulating
Pituitary blood pressure by contracting arteriolar smooth
The anterior lobe of the pituitary produces seven muscle.
principal hormones that control the activities of 2. Oxytocin. This hormone has no known function
various other endocrine glands. They are: in males, but in females, it is known to stimulate
1. Human growth hormone (hGH): It promotes the rhythmic contractions of uterine smooth
the growth of body cells especially of bones muscle during parturition (child birth). It also
and limbs. Growth hormone enhances the stimulates milk ejection from lactating breast,
body protein synthesis and inhibits protein in response to infant suckling by contracting
breakdown. It also affects lipid and carbohydrate myoepithelial cells present in the alveolar
metabolism. In adipose tissues, it decreases secretory epithelium.
glucose uptake and promotes mobilisation of fat, The posterior pituitary hormones are actually
raising the level of free fatty acids in the blood. produced by neuroendocrine cells in two distinct

Chemical Co-ordination in Organisms 6.3
areas of the hypothalamus. Enclosed within vesicles, Thyroid Gland and its Hormones
they are transported down axons that extend into the
posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. These vesicles Thyroid is a butterfly-shaped gland that is located in
are stored in these axon terminals until neuron is the neck region in front of the trachea and below the
stimulated. From here they pass into blood and then larynx. The right and left lateral lobes lie on either
travel around the body. sides. Connecting the lobes is a mass of tissue, called
isthmus.
The hypothalamus plays an important role in
integrating the endocrine and nervous systems. This On a microscopic level, the thyroid gland
region of the lower brain receives information from consists of many spherical hollow sacs called thyroid
the nerves throughout the body and other parts of the follicles. These follicles are lined with a simple
brain, then initiates endocrine signals appropriate to cuboidal epithelium composed of principal cells,
environmental conditions. which synthesise the principal thyroid hormones.
The interior of the follicles contains colloid, which is
The hormone-releasing cells in the hypothalamus protein rich fluid. Between the follicles are epithelial
are two sets of neurosecretory cells whose secretions cells called parafollicular cells, which produce a
are stored in or regulate the activity of the pituitary hormone called calcitonin.
gland, a small organ with multiple endocrine
functions. The pituitary gland is located at the base Two of the thyroid hormones, thyroxine,
of hypothalamus. The pituitary has two discrete also known as T4, and triiodothyronine or T3, are
parts, each with a different function. The posterior synthesised from the amino acid tyrosine and from
pituitary, or neurohypophysis, is an extension iodine. Thyroxine has four iodine atoms attached to
of the brain that stores and secretes two hormones each molecule T3 has three iodine atomes. T3, is more
that are made by a set of neurosecretory cells in the active and several times more potent than T4, but it
hypothalamus. The two hormones released from the is secreted in smaller amounts. T4 is converted to T3
posterior lobe act directly on muscles of the uterus by removal of one iodine. Because T4 and T3 have
and on the kidneys, rather than affecting other virtually identical effects on the target cells, they are
endocrine glands. usually considered together under the designation
thyroid hormone or TH.
Unlike posterior pituitary, the anterior
pituitary, or adenohypophysis, is composed of The functions of thyroid gland are:
non-nervous endocrine tissues it synthesises its 1. It regulates metabolism of the body.
own hormones. A set of neurosecretory cells in 2. It regulates metabolism by stimulating protein
the hypothalamus exerts control over the anterior synthesis.
pituitary by secreting two kinds of hormones into
the blood. Releasing hormones make the anterior 3. It maintains normal body temperature.
pituitary secrete its hormones. Inhibiting hormones 4. It regulates the development of mental faculties.
from the hypothalamus make the anterior pituitary 5. It enhances some actions of neurotransmitters:
stop secreting hormones. Thus, the hypothalamus adrenaline and noradrenaline.
and pituitary act as a coordinated unit in maintaining
physiological processes. Disorders – Malfunctioning of Thyroid Gland
Growth hormone (also called somatotropin) is Hypothyroidism. It can result from (i) primary
secreted by anterior lobe of the pituitary. Secretion failure of thyroid gland itself; (ii) secondary to
of GH is inhibited by growth hormone inhibiting hyposecretion of TRH, TSH or both; or (iii) an
hormone (GHIH) released by hypothalamus. The inadequate dietary supply of iodine. The symptoms
failure of secretion of growth hormone from an early include reduction in overall metabolic activity and
age stops the growth of long bones and of the body poor tolerance to cold. Hypothyroidism results in the
prematurely; this makes the patient dwarf (Dwarfism). following disorders:

1. Cretinism (in children). It exhibits dwarfism Disorders – Malfunctioning of Parathyroid gland

because the skeleton fails to grow and mature.
Hypoparathyroidism. It can result from accidental
Patients are severely mentally retarded as
damage to the parathyroids or their blood supply
the brain fails to develop completely. Other
during thyroidectomy surgery causing hyposecretion
clinical features include dry skin, thick tongue,
of PTH. The hyposecretion of PTH leads to
prolonged neonatal jaundice, lethargy, low
hypocalcemia. Because of deficiency of Ca2+,
body temperature, respiratory problems, and
neurons become depolarised without the usual
constipation.
stimulus. Consequently, nerve and muscle action
2. Myxoedema (in adults). The fundamental potentials arise spontaneously, leading to muscle
symptom of this disorder is edema (accumulation twitches, spasms and convulsions. This condition is
of interstitial fluid) that causes the facial called hypocalcaemic tetany.
tissues to swell and look fluffy. A person with
myxoedema has a lower metabolic rate, lethargy, Hyperparathyroidism. The most common cause
and a tendency to gain weight. of hyperparathyroidism is a tumour which usually
occurs in the parathyroids. It causes hypersecretion
Hyperthyroidism. The most common cause of of PTH. Its excess produces hypercalcemia, or
hyperthyroidism is Grave’s disease (exophthalmic higher than normal blood concentration of calcium.
goiter). It is an autoimmune disorder in which the Bone mass decreases (as a result of increased bone
person produces antibodies that mimic the action destruction) and become deformed and easily
of TSH, but are not regulated by normal negative fractured. If untreated, this condition may lead to
feedback controls. This leads to increased production osteitis fibrosa cystica, so named because the areas
of thyroid hormones. These patients have a peculiar of the destroyed bone tissue are replaced by cavities
edema behind the eyes called exophthalmos, which that are filled with fibrous tissues.
causes the eyes to protrude. They also tend to be
nervous, irritable, and emotionally unstable.
Adrenal Glands and Their
Parathyroid and its Hormones Hormones
The adrenal glands are paired organs that cap the
The small, flattened parathyroid glands are embedded
superior borders of kidneys. Each adrenal consists of
in the posterior surfaces of the lateral lobes of the
an outer cortex and inner medulla which functions as
thyroid gland. There are usually four parathyroid
separate glands.
glands. They are totally independent of the thyroid,
both developmentally and functionally. The adrenal cortex secretes steroid hormones
called corticosteroids or corticoids, for short. There
The parathyroid glands secrete one hormone
are three functional categories of corticosteroids:
called parathyroid hormone (PTH). It is essential to
regulate the calcium and phosphate balance between 1. Mineralocorticoids: These are aldosterone
the blood and other tissues. PTH raises blood level of and deoxycorticosterone. They regulate salt-
calcium and thus has an effect opposite to that of the water balance through their effect on kidney,
thyroid hormone calcitonin. blood volume and blood pressure. In humans,
the principal mineralocorticoid is aldosterone.
Calcium itself controls the secretion of PTH In response to aldosterone, the kidneys absorb
by feedback mechanism. PTH mobilises the more sodium and excrete more potassium. As
release of calcium into the blood from the bones. a result of increased sodium, extracellular fluid
It aids its dietary absorption from the intestines volume increase, which results in greater blood
and reabsorption from kidneys. PTH also inhibits volume and elevated blood pressure.
collagen synthesis by osteoblasts and bone resorption
by osteoclasts. 2. Glucocorticoids: They regulate carbohydrate,
protein and lipid metabolism, in a manner nearly

opposite to that of insulin. They influence a hormones are very similar. Most of the hormone
wide variety of other vital functions, including output of the adrenal medulla is adrenaline. Adrenaline
inflammatory reactions and the capacity to reinforces the role of sympathetic nervous system.
cope with stress. The chief glucocorticoids are
During a stressful situation adrenal medullary
cortisol (also called hydrocortisone), cortisone,
hormones initiate an alarm reaction enabling human
and corticosterone. Of these only cortisol is
to think more quickly, fight harder, or run faster
secreted in significant quantities in the human.
than usual. Metabolic rate also increases. Blood
Cortisol helps in ensuring adequate fuel supplies
is rerouted to those organs which are essential for
for the cells when the body is under stress. Its
emergency action. Blood vessels going to the brain,
principal action is to stimulate gluconeogenesis
muscles, and heart dilate, while those to skin and
in liver cells. Cortisol provides nutrients for
kidneys are constricted. Constriction of blood
glucose production by stimulating transport
vessels serving the skin has an added advantage of
of amino acids to liver cells. It also promotes
decreasing blood loss in case of haemorrhage. At
mobilisation of fats so that fatty acids are
the same time, the heart beats faster. Strength of
available for conversion of glucose. These
muscle contraction increases. The adrenal medullary
actions ensure that glucose is produced in the
hormones also raise fatty acid and glucose levels in
liver and the concentration of glucose in the
the blood, ensuring fuel for extra energy.
blood rises. Thus, the adrenal cortex provides
an important backup system for the adrenal
medulla, ensuring glucose supply when the body Pancreas and its Hormones
is under stress and in need of extra energy.
The pancreas is an elongated gland (about 15 cm
(3) Gonadocorticoids: The term gonadocorticoid long) weighing about 85 g. The “head” of the gland
refers to sex hormones that are released from lies in the C-shaped beginning of small intestine
the adrenal cortex rather than gonads. The (duodenum), with its body extending horizontally
normal adrenal cortex secretes small amounts behind the stomach and its tail touching the spleen.
of both male hormones (androgens) and female The tissue of pancreas is composed of both endocrine
hormones (estrogens). In each normal cortex, the and exocrine tissues. Exocrine cells of pancreas
amount of androgen produced is physiologically secrete about 1 litre of pancreatic juice a day,
significant, but the amount of estrogen appears containing at least three enzymes to aid the digestive
to be insignificant. Normally, there is not processes. Endocrine cells of pancreas form groups
enough androgen produced to give women some of cells, called islets of Langerhans located around
masculine characteristics. It may contribute to capillaries within the lobules. About a million islets
female sexual characteristics such as growth of of Langerhans, each with approximately 3,000 cells,
pubic hair. comprise about 1.5 percent of the pancreatic mass.
Aldosterone is secreted when there is fall There are three types of hormone—secreting
in plasma Na+ concentration or rise in plasma cells. The α (alpha) cells secrete the hormone
K+. Aldosterone controls electrolyte and water glucagon; the β (beta) cells secrete insulin, and the
metabolism. It increases blood levels of Na+ and δ (delta) cells secrete somatostatin.
water; decrease blood levels of K+ by stimulating
kidney tubules to reabsorb more Na+. CI- and water Glucagon tends to increase blood glucose levels
and less K+. The excessive secretion of aldosterone by stimulating the conversion of glycogen to glucose
causes a disorder called aldosteronism. in liver cells. It also stimulates gluconeogenesis
(transformation of fatty acids and amino acids into
The cells of adernal medulla secrete two glucose) in liver cells. The glucose produced via
catecholamine hormones. These are adrenaline the breakdown of glycogen and by gluconeogenesis
(also known as epinephrine) and noradrenaline is released into the bloodstream, producing a
(also known as norepinephrine). Chemically, these hyperglycaemic effect.

Insulin increases the utilisation of glucose resemblance to a pinecone. It has no direct connection
in tissues and facilitates the storage of glucose as with central nervous system. It is variable in size and
glycogen in muscles and liver. By these actions, weighs about 150 mg but is richly vascularised. The
insulin lowers the blood sugar level. Insulin pineal produces the hormone melatonin, a modified
increases the synthesis of fat in the adipose tissue amino acid.
from fatty acids as well as glucose. It also reduces
the breakdown and oxidation of fat. Insulin promotes Thymus
protein synthesis in tissues from amino acids. It
reduces catabolism of proteins in the body. The thymus is a lymphoid glond comprised of two
identically sized lobes. It is located behind the sternum
Somatostatin inhibits secretion of glucagon (breast bone) but in front of the heart. Also called throne
and insulin. It also decreases secretion, motility, and of immunity. Produces harmone thymosin which when
absorption in the digestive tract. released in the blood stream has stimulating effect on
the entire immune system. It promotes proliferation
Disorders – Insulin Deficiency and Excess of Insulin
and maturation of T-lymphocytes.
Hyperglycaemia results from hyposecretion of
Melatonin is secreted in daily rhythm which in
insulin. Its symptoms include: high blood glucose
mammals is regulated by eyes. In humans it has no
level; breakdown of muscle tissue; loss of weight;
light-sensitive cells, like lower vertebrates where
and tiredness.
pineal is eye-like and responds to light. By responding
Hypoglycaemia results from hypersecretion to day lengths characteristic of different seasons, the
of insulin. Its symptoms include: low blood glucose pineal appears to regulate the seasonal reproductive
level; hunger, sweating; irritability; and double vision. cycles of many mammals. Pineal gland functions as
a biological clock and a neurosecretory transducer,
Diabetes mellitus is a disorder of carbohydrate
converting neural information. More melatonin is
metabolism in which sugars in the body are not
produced during darkness. Its formation is interrupted
oxidised to produce energy due to under activity
when light enters the eyes and stimulates the retinal
of the β (beta) cells in islets of Langerhans of
neurons. They transmit impulses to the hypothalamus
pancreas. The accumulation of sugar leads to its
and finally to the pineal gland. The result is this
appearance in the blood (hyperglycaemia), and then
inhibition of melatonin secretion. In this way the
in urine. Symptoms include thirst, loss of weight, and
release of melatonin is governed by the diurnal dark-
excessive production of urine. The untreated diabetic
light cycle in the bloodstream that has a stimulating
is unable to utilise glucose for energy and the body
effect on the entire immune system. It promotes
is forced to burn protein and fat. This abnormal
proliferation and maturation of T-lymphocytes.
metabolic shift results in fatigue and weight loss. If
glucose metabolism is severely restricted, the large
quantities of fat that must be burned which leads to
the disturbances of acid-base balance, accumulation Sex Organs and their Hormones
of ketones in the bloodstream, and eventually to
convulsions preceding diabetic copra. Treatment is Male Sex Hormones
based on a carefully controlled diet with adequate
carbohydrate for body’s needs, together with The testes are paired organs within a sac of skin
injections of insulin or drugs such as tolbutamide called the scrotum, which hangs from the groin area
that are taken by mouth to lower blood-glucose level. of the trunk. Composed mainly of coils of sperm
producing seminiferous tubules, there is scattering
of endocrine interstitial cells found in the areas
Pineal Gland and its Hormones between the tubules. These interstitial cells produce
androgens (male sex hormones); the principal
The pineal gland is attached to the roof of third androgen is testosterone.
ventricle in the rear portion of brain, named for its

Functions of testosterone Human placental lactogen is a polypeptide

hormone secreted by the placenta that enters the
Testosterone stimulates the growth and development
maternal circulation and disappears from the
of male secondary sex organs such as the prostate,
circulation immediately after delivery. It stimulates
seminal vesicles and penis. It also stimulates and
mammary growth.
maintains their normal functions in reproduction.
These organs are called secondary sex organs Hypogonadism
because they participate and help in reproduction but
do not produce gametes. Impaired function or injury to the hypothalamus,
the pituitary, or the testes or ovary, result in
Testosterone stimulates the development and hypogonadism. Male leypogonadism can consist
maintenance of the external male sex characters of deficient androgen production (hypofunction
such as beards, moustaches, and low-pitch male of Leydig cells), deficient sperm formation
voice in man, and combs and wattles in cock. It also (hypofunction of Sertoli cells), or both, before
stimulates the formation of sperms in the testes. puberty. It results in the lack of development
Testosterone promotes the growth of many of secondary sexual characteristics and male
body tissues including bones and muscles. This also musculature. Female hypogonadism results from the
explains the body growth at puberty and a higher hyposecretion of estrogen resulting in the cessation
stature of the male body than the female body. of reproductive cycles. Such hypogonadism can
result from a shortage of pituitary gonadotropins
Female Sex Hormones (LH, FSH, or both).
Ovaries are a set of paired glands in the pelvis that Precocious Puberty
produce several types of sex hormones.
Precocious puberty refers to the appearance
Estrogens are steroid hormones secreted by of physical and hormonal signs of pubertal
the cells of the ovarian follicles that stimulate development at an earlier age than is considered
development and maintenance of female sexual normal. True sexual precocity, i.e., early maturation
characteristics such as high pitch, female voice and of ovaries and testes with production of ova before
female pattern of body hair distribution at puberty. the age of 9 years in girls, or sperm before 10 years
Together with gonadotropic hormones of the anterior in boys, occurs without obvious cause. Sexual
pituitary gland, they also regulate the menstrual cycle. pseudoprecocity results from excesses of sex
Progesterone is a hormone whose name, which hormones from the adrenal cortex, testis, ovary or
means “pregnancy-promoting steroid,” is an indicator from other sources, including extragonadal tumours.
of its chief function. Secreted by the corpus luteum In boys it occurs as a result of increased supply of
(the tissue left behind after the rupture of a follicle testosterone produced by tumours of the testis or
during ovulation), progesterone maintains the lining adrenals. This result in enlargement of the penis,
of the uterus necessary for successful pregnancy. It accelerated appearance of sexual characteristics,
also inhibits ovulation. such as, pubic and axillary hair, masculinisation and
faster body growth. In girls, sexual pseudoprecocity
Relaxin is a hormone secreted by corpus luteum arises from increased supply of estrogen secreted
in the terminal stages of pregnancy that causes the by tumours of the ovaries or adrenals. The external
cervix of uterus to dilate and prepares the uterus for appearance of sexual maturation, for example, breast
the action of oxytocin during labour. formation and emergence of pubic hair, appear early,
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is but the maturation and release of ova do not occur.
a hormone that is produced by placenta during
Eunuchoidism
pregnancy. It stimulates the release of progesterone
from the corpus luteum and maintains it. The failure of testosterone secretion results in
eunuchoidism. In this disease, secondary sex

organs such as prostate, seminal vesicles, and is slow in the initial stages (lag phase), and increases
penis remain infantile and small in size and fail to rapidly later on (exponential phase). The growth
function. External sex characters such as beards, again slows down due to the limitation of nutrients
moustaches and low-pitch male voice fail to develop. (stationary phase).
Spermatozoa fail to be produced. Administration of
The rate of growth can be measured by an
testosterone to the patient stimulates growth and
in-crease in size or area of an organ of the plant, such
development of secondary sex organs and characters.
as leaf, dower, and fruit, in a unit time. The rate of
Gynaecomastia is the development of breast growth is also called efficiency index.
tissues, often to the extent that they resemble
female breasts, hence the name of the condition,
gynaecomastia or ‘woman like breasts’. It is Conditions for Growth
generally due to perturbation of estrogen to androgen The conditions necessary for growth are:
ratio. In the neonatal period and during puberty,
(i) Nutrients: An adequate supply of nutrients is
gynaecomastia is due to temporary increase in
necessary for synthesis of protoplasm and to act
estrogen. Decreased testosterone in later life may also
as a source of energy.
lead to gynaecomastia.
(ii) Water: A sufficient supply of water is essential
for growth. It maintains cell turgidity without
Characteristics of Growth which no growth is possible. It also provides
medium for enzymatic reactions,
The most important features of plant growth are:
(iii) Oxygen: It is indispensable for respiration and
(i) Growth in plants occurs by cell division and
release of energy.
cell enlargement, invariably followed by cell
differentiation. (iv) Temperature: The most favourable temperature
for growth is called the optimum temperature and
(ii) The cell division normally occurs in apical
it ranges from 28° to 30°C. Temperature above
regions of shoot and root. Thus, the meristematic
45°C coagulates and damages the protoplasm
cells present at shoot and root apices are
and obstructs growth.
responsible for growth in plants.
(v) Light: It is not necessary during the initial stages
(iii) The meristematic cells, in the form of cambium,
of the growth but is required for further growth
are also present in vascular bundles of root and
and photosynthesis. There is stimulating effect
stem of dicot plants. They help in increasing
of light on plant growth and its absence results
the thickness of stem and root due to secondary
in etiolation.
growth.
(vi) Salts, mineral deficiencies, and stress factors
(iv) Plant growth shows characteristically typical
also affect the rate of growth.
sigmoid or S-shaped growth curve. The rate
of plant growth is slow in the initial stages and
increases rapidly later on. The growth again Phases of Growth
slows down due to the limitation of nutrients.
The period of growth is commonly divided into three
Growth Curve and Efficiency Index phases:
(i) Formative phase. This phase has continuously
The growth curve refers to the graphic representation
dividing cells and is restricted to the apical
of the total growth against time. The rate of growth
meristems, both at the root and shoot tips.
is never uniform during the period of growth. If we
plot the increase in number of cells as an indicator of (ii) Phase of elongation. It lies just behind the
growth against time, a typical sigmoid or S-shaped formative phase and is aimed at the enlargement
growth curve is obtained. The rate of plant growth of cells.

(iii) Phase of maturation. It lies further behind Dormancy and Seed Germination
the elongation phase, where cells undergo
maturation to accomplish their final size, shape A period of suspended growth and even a period of
and structure. rest is referred to as dormancy. It is the condition
of the seed when it fails to germinate even though
These phases are also known as regions. The favourable environmental conditions are present.
time interval from the formative phase to maturation The dormancy in seeds may be due to impermeable
phase is called the grand period of growth. and mechanically resistant seed coat, physiologically
immature and rudimentary embryo, or even due to
the presence of inhibitors.
Measurement of Growth
Quiescence is the condition of a seed when it is unable
The length of a plant or a plant organ can easily be
to germinate because favourable environmental
measured with the help of ordinary measuring scale
conditions are not present.
at particular interval of time to find out the change
in length.
The instrument used to measure the increase Seed Dormancy
in height of an angiospermic plant is called arc Seed dormancy is the inherent block in the seeds,
auxanometer. A thread is tied to the growing tip which prevents the seeds from germination even
of a potted plant, and at the other end, a weight under favourable conditions. Seed dormancy can be
is tied after passing the thread over a pulley of caused due to any one of the following reasons:
auxanometer. The needle attached in the centre of
(i) Under-developed embryos: In plants such as
the pulley will show the deflection, which can be
Ginkgo biloba and Eranthis hiemalis, the embryo
read on the graduated arc to find out the increase
is unorganised when the seed is shed and attains
in length of the plant. As the stem grows in length,
full development before it germinates.
the weight pulls the thread down. This leads to
movement of pointer on the graduated arc and (ii) Impermeability of seed coat: Examples of
indicates growth. hard seed coats that prevent uptake of water
and oxygen are Trigonella and Xaathiurn,
Growth can also be measured by an increase in respectively.
weight, both fresh and dry, and volume of the plant.
(iii) Presence of germination inhibitors:
The increase in the number of cells, particularly in
Accumulation of certain inhibitory substances in
algae, yeast, and bacteria, also gives an idea about the
the tissue of seed may prevent seed germination,
rate of growth. The measurement of area or volume
e.g., abscisic acid, phenolic acids, short chain
of an organ of the plant will also provide information
fatty acids, and coumarin.
about the rate of growth.
Under natural conditions the following processes
Growth is the sum total of various processes
gradually overcome seed dormancy:
that combine to cause an irreversible increase in
mass, weight, or volume. (i) Weakening of seed coat by digestive juices in
the alimentary tract of fruit-eating birds and
Plant growth occurs by cell division and cell other animals, or in the soil due to the action of
enlargement. Increase in the number and size of cells microbes, or due to mechanical abrasions.
by itself cannot account for the development of an
(ii) The inhibitors may be inactivated by heat or cold
organised plant. For example, when a seed is sown it
or washed off by rain, or counteracted by growth
does not become a larger seed but a seedling. Thus,
hormones synthesised towards the end of the
growth is invariably accompanied by differentiation,
dormancy period.
which is explained as qualitative change in terms of
structure and function of cells. Artificially the following processes can break
dormancy of seeds:

(i) Mechanical or chemical scarification of the Vivipary

seed coat.
Vivipary is the condition whereby the seeds germinate
(ii) Stratification of seeds (i.e., subjecting the moist inside the fruit while being still attached to the parent
seeds in the presence of oxygen for variable plant. The weight of the germinating seed increases,
periods to low or high temperatures). and thus, seedling separates and falls down vertically
(iii) Changing the environmental conditions such as into the mud. The lateral roots develop quickly
temperature, light and pressure. for proper anchorage. This condition is found in
Importance of seed dormancy: rhizophora, Zonneratia, and Heritiera.
(1) Seed dormancy is a kind of adaptation to ensure
that germination will occur at a time most Growth Regulators
advantageous to the seedling.
Phytohormones are organic compounds made in
(2) It helps the seeds to disseminate in time and one part of a plant and transported to another part,
space in order to avail maximum supportive where they elicit a response. Phytohormones are
environmental conditions for the survival of the active in small concentrations. They are capable
species. of influencing physiological activities leading to
(3) Dormant seeds can be stored up to ample promotion, inhibition, and modification of growth.
duration of time to ensure agricultural security. These growth-regulatory substances are generally
grouped under five major classes, namely auxins,
Steps involved in the Process of Seed gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, and abscisic acid.
Germination
Auxins
The term germination refers to the resumption
of growth of an embryo and occurs when a seed The term ‘auxin’ is applied to indole-3-acetic acid
sprouts. The availability of water and oxygen, proper (IAA) and to natural and synthetic compounds
temperature, and sometimes the presence of light are having similar structure and growth regulating
the essential conditions for seed germination. The properties.
imbibition or uptake of water by the seed is the Auxins are generally produced by the growing
first step. As a seed imbibes water, it often swells apices of the stem and root, from where they migrate
to several times its original, dry size. It causes the to the region of their action. Auxins such as IAA and
rupturing of the seed coat to enable the radicle to indole butyric acid (IBA) have been isolated from
emerge: The stored polysaccharides and proteins plants. There are many chemicals synthesized by
get hydrolysed to restart metabolic activities. The chemists that cause various physiological responses
metabolic activities require oxygen for breaking common to IAA. Some of the examples of synthetic
down the reserve food and to release energy for auxins are 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-
various activities. D), 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T),
The radicle comes out at one end of the naphthalene acetic acid (NAA).
embryonic axis which gives rise to the root system.
At the other end of embryonic axis, the plumule Functions of Auxins
emerges out and forms the shoot (stem and leaves). Auxins help to induce meristematic activity where
Subsequently, there is rapid increase in the rate of new cells are formed. This leads to the formation of
respiration during germination. adventitious roots at the base of cuttings. This fact
In some plants, such as certain varieties of is of great practical importance and has been widely
lettuce and tobacco, light plays an important role in utilised to promote root formation in economically
germination. The red region of the visible spectrum useful plants, which are propagated by cuttings.
is most effective for the onset of seed germination.

Auxins control preharvest fruit drop. genetically dwarf (mutants) varieties of plants such
as corn and pea. Application of gibberellins to
The synthetic auxins 2, 4-dichlorophenoxy acetic
normal plants does not induce marked elongation. It
acid (2, 4-D) and 2, 4, 5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid
is believed that certain types of dwarfness are due to
(2, 4, 5-T) can be used to kill broadleaf weeds but,
gibberellin deficiency.
for reasons not completely understood at this time,
do not kill grasses. Gibberellins induce stem elongation in `rosette’
plants. Cabbage is a good example of such a plant in
Initiation and promotion of cell division by
which leaf development is profuse whereas internodal
auxins is very useful in tissue culture experiments
growth is retarded. Just prior to the reproductive
and formation of callus.
phase the internodes elongate enormously causing
Higher concentration of auxins inhibit growth a marked increase in stem height. This is called
and exert toxic effect on the plants. In normal course bolting. Bolting requires either long days or cold
of nature, self-produced auxin inhibits the growth nights. If a cabbage head is kept under warm nights
and development of lateral buds and as a result apical it retains its rosette habit. Bolting in cabbage can be
bud remains dormant (apical dominance). induced artificially by the application of gibberellins
under conditions that would normally maintain the
Gibberellins rosette form.
Gibberellin are plant hormones that stimulate the Natural dormancy of buds, tubers, rhizomes, and
growth of leaves and shoots in general and internodal some seeds is overcome by gibberellins.
length of genetically dwarf plants in particular.
Gibberellins induce the production of
In the 1920s, a Japanese biologist was studying enzymes, such as amylases proteases, lipases, and
a disease of rice in which the young rice seedlings ribonucleases, for mobilising storage reserves during
grew extremely tall and spindly fell over and died. seed germination and early seedling growth.
The cause of disease, dubbed the “bakane” or
Gibberellins cause parthenocarpy in pome
“foolish seedling” disease, was a fungus Gibberella
fruits (apple, pear) and are now used in India to
fujikuroi. The active principle responsible for causing
increase the fruit size and bunch length in grapes.
disease symptoms in rice was later identified from
fungal extracts and called gibberellin. Subsequently, Gibberellins control flowering in long-day
gibberellins were identified from other plants as well. plants. In addition, they can substitute for the low
temperature that biennials require before applied
Chemically, gibberellins contain a gibbane ring
to biennials during their first year of growth,
system with specific biological properties. There are
flowering occurs without exposure to a period of low
more than 100 gibberellins reported from both fungi
temperature.
and higher plants, and the number is still increasing.
They are denoted as GA1, GA2, GA3 and so on. Gibberellins promote the production of male
However, GA3 was one of the first gibberellins to be flowers (either in place of female flowers in
discovered and remains the most intensively studied monoecious plants such as cucurbits or in genetically
form. female plants such as Cannabis).
The major sites of gibberellin production in
Cytokinins
plants are embryos, roots and young leaves near the
shoot tip. Cytokinins are a group of plant hormones, including
kinetin, which acts synergistically with auxins to
Functions of Gibberellins promote cell division. They have definite effects
Gibberellins stimulate stem elongation and leaf on cytokinesis, and were discovered as kinetin
expansion but have no effect on roots. The most (a modified form of adenine) from the autoclaved
striking effect of gibberellins is the elongation of herring sperm DNA. Kinetin does not occur naturally

in plants. The searches for natural substances with plant organs (leaves and flowers, etc).
cytokinin-like activity led to the isolation of zeatin
Exposure of plants to ethylene causes drooping
from corn kernels and coconut milk, etc. Since the
of leaves and flowers a phenomenon known as
discovery of zeatin, several naturally occurring
epinasty.
cytokinins, and some synthetic compounds with
cell division promoting activity have been identified It modifies growth by inhibiting stem elongation
from plants. and stimulating transverse expansion so that the stem
looks swollen.
Cytokinins are synthesised in areas where cell
division is occurring, for example, root apices, It influences horizontal growth of seedlings and
developing shoot buds, young fruits, etc. tighter apical hook formation in dicot seedlings.
Functions of Cytokinins Ethylene application increases the number of

female flowers and fruits in cucumber plants.
Cytokinins never act alone. In conjunction with
auxins, cytokinins stimulate cell division even Abscisic Acid
in non-meristematic tissues. In tissue cultures of
parenchyma, mitoses are accelerated when both In the quest for naturally occurring substances
auxin and cytokinin are present; no response that were responsible for bud dormancy and leaf
occurs with auxin or cytokinin alone. Moreover, abscission, plant physiologists discovered a growth
the ratio of cytokinins to auxins controls cell regulator in the mid 1960s and called it abscisic
differentiation. When both are present in acid (ABA). Abscisic acid is a naturally occurring
relatively equal quantities, cells divide but do not (endogenous) growth inhibitor.
differentiate. If there is more cytokinin than auxin,
Functions of abscisic acid
shoot buds develop from a callus (derived from
tobacco pith). If there is relatively more auxin than Abscisic acid inhibits mitoses in vascular
cytokinins, roots develop. Thus, the proportion of cambium and causes active axillary buds to become
these two hormones control organ formation in dormant with the approach of winter. It also inhibits
callus tissues. growth of excised embryos.
Cytokinins act antagonistically to auxin which It plays a major role in seed development and
promote apical dominance. They promote the growth maturation, enabling seeds to withstand desiccation
of lateral buds. and to become dormant.
Cytokinins can retard ageing of plant organs It also acts as a ‘stress hormone’ helping the
by controlling protein synthesis and mobilisation of plants to cope with adverse environmental conditions.
resources. Cut leaves dipped in cytokinins stay green For example, under severe drought, abscisic acid
longer than the control leaves. prevents water loss by causing stomatal closure.
Cytokinins induce flowering in certain species Abscisic acid application to leaf causes the
and also break the dormancy of some seeds. treated areas to become yellow–an effect opposite to
that of cytokinin.
Ethylene
Ethylene is a simple gaseous hormone. Photoperiodism
Effects of Ethylene on Plants The ability of the plant to detect and respond to the
length of daily period of light or, more precisely, the
Ethylene is highly effective in inducing fruit relative length of day and night to which the plant is
ripening. It promotes senescence and abscission of exposed is called photoperiodism.

In response to photoperiod, the flowering response red light present in sunlight, it changes to Pfr form. In
of angiosperms falls into three basic categories: complete darkness, Pfr reverts, slowly, to the Pr form.
1. Short-day plants initiate flowering when the The relative amounts of these two molecular forms
day becomes shorter than a certain critical length. are determined by light conditions governing many
If these plants are kept in day lengths in excess cellular activities within the plant.
of this critical point, they will remain vegetative.
Red light
The short day plants include Cosmos, dahlia, Pr Pr
Chrysanthemum, rice, etc. and are generally
Far red light
grown in the winter season.
2. Long-day plants begin flowering when the day
length exceeds a critical length. The long day
plants are wheat, barley. sugar beat, larkspur.
etc.
Fig 6.1: Slow conversion in dark
3. Neutral or intermediate day plants flower
after a period of vegetative growth, regardless of
the photoperiod. Tobacco, cucumber, sunflower, Florigen
tomato are some examples of the neutral or
Florigen is a hypothetical flowering hormone. It has
intermediate day plants.
never been identified or isolated. It is believed that
The critical day length of both long-day and this active principle is synthesised in the leaves when
short-day plants tends to fall in the 12 to 14 hour the plants are exposed to the inductive photoperiod,
range. and is translocated to the apical meristem for inducing
flowering by conversion of vegetative meristem into
The terms long-day and short-day plants are
reproductive meristem.
actually misnomers. When photoperiodism was
discovered, the duration of the light period was How does phytochrome exert its effects on
thought to be critical for flowering. However, flowering?
subsequently researchers found that when the long
The leaves detect the photoperiodic stimulus.
night period was interrupted in short-day plants, by a
This has been shown by covering the whole of a plant
brief exposure to light, they failed to flower. In other
with a lightproof cover except for one leaf, which is
words, the requirement is actually for a long night
then subjected to light/dark treatment. Under these
or a critical dark period rather than for a short-day
conditions the flowering response still takes place.
length. Thus, a short-day plant is more appropriately
From the leaves the message is transmitted to the
called as a long-night plant.
buds, some of which respond by changing into
Long-day plants respond to nights shorter than flower buds. These buds instead of giving rise to side
the critical dark period. Long-day plants do not need branches and leaves develop into flowers.
an uninterrupted dark night. Thus a long-day plant is
The message itself takes the form of a chemical
more appropriately called as a short-night plant.
substance. This has been demonstrated by grafting
a short-day plant, which has been induced to flower
Phytochrome by exposure to short days to another short-day
The pigment phytochrome is a protein molecule plant, which has been prevented from flowering by
located within the plasma membranes of the leaf being kept in long-day conditions. The result is that
cells that are extremely sensitive to certain forms the latter blooms. This substance has been named
of light. The pigment occurs in two molecular florigen, but it has not been isolated and identified
forms- red absorbing phytochrome (Pr) and far-red chemically. Functionally it appears to act like a
absorbing phytochrome (Pfr). When Pr absorbs the hormone.

Florigen is physiologically not specific. It can, The movements in plants are broadly classified
without difficulty, be exchanged between short-day, as (i) movements of locomotion and, (ii) movements
long-day, and day-neutral plants. It is very likely of curvature.
that it is identical in all plants. The main difference
between short-day and long-day plants is that the Movements of Locomotion
florigen production occurs only under a certain

Movements of locomotion include movements of
(inductive) light program which differs in the two
protoplasm and different cell organelles, unicellular
types.
plants such as Chlamydomonas or the movements of
gametes. These movements are of two types:
Vernalisation I. Spontaneous (autonomous) movement. These
Many plants such as winter annuals, biennials and movements in plants are self controlled and are
perennials require a cold temperature treatment not induced by any external stimulus. These
before flowering can begin. This requirement for movements may be at the level of protoplasm
cold exposure is called vernalisation. or organ, or even at the whole plant. The
protoplasmic movements, accomplished by
Different species of plants become responsive naked protoplasm in unicellular organisms, are
to vernalisation at different stages. Some winter normally divided into ciliary, amoeboid, cyclosis
cereals can be vernalised as seeds, provided that they and gliding movements.
have imbibed (soaked up water in preparation for (a) Ciliary: It is also called as flagellar
germination) and are metabolically active. Others movements. Certain plants such as
will not respond until they reach a particular size. Chlamydomonas and Volvox and their
Although the exact temperature and amount zoospores have cilia, which help in their
of time required vary among species, vernalisation movement from one place to another.
typically occurs between 1–10°C for a three–to (b) Amoeboid: Some slime moulds, develop
eight–week period. pseudopodia in Amoeba, with the help of
Vernalisation takes place in the apical meristem which the naked mass of protoplasm moves.
(actively growing regions at the tip of branches or (c) Cyclosis: Living cells exhibit movement of
at the top of rosettes). Experiments where only the their protoplasm in several plants.
apical meristems were chilled still led to flowering (d) Gliding movements: It occurs in diatoms
in plants requiring vernalisation, even though the and several other algae. These movements
rest of the plants were not chilled. Chilling leaves are caused by contractile activity of cells.
generally has no effect.
2. Induced (paratonic) movement. These
movements take place in whole small plants,
Plant Movement e.g., Chlamydomonas or small free ciliated
or flagellated organs, e.g., gametes. These
Plants remain fixed at one place and are immobile. movements are influenced by external stimuli.
However, certain kinds of movements do occur in This is also called tactic (taxism or taxis).
plants, but these are generally too slow and remain Depending upon the types of stimulus, they are
unnoticed by the human eye. These can be observed of the following three types.
at the interval of several hours by noting the changes
(1) Chemotaxis. The movement may be
in position of various organs. Plastids in cells may
due to some chemical substances, such
show movements in response to light; stem of a
as sucrose and malic acid, present in the
plant grows upwards against the force of gravity or
archegonium of ferns and moss, which
bends towards light. The streaming movement of
attract spermatozoids; and mobile bacteria
protoplasm may be expedited due to temperature
are attracted by peptone.
increase or exposure to light.

(2) Phototaxis. This is the movement in because the stem apex shows more
response to light. The weak light attracts and growth on one side at one time and
strong light repels the mobile algae. a little later there is greater growth
(3) Thermotaxis. The tactic response to the on the opposite side.
stimulation by heat, as observed by the (b) Hyponasty. These movements are
rapid circulation or rotation of protoplasm usually found in leaves, petals, etc.,
in the gently warmed tissues. Many algae, when abaxial or morphologically
e.g., Chlamydomonas move from cold water lower surface grows more than the
to medium warm water and from very hot upper surface, resulting in folding
water to medium temperature. of leaves.
(c) Epinasty. When a leaf or petal
Movements of Curvature shows more growth on the adaxial
The higher plants generally remain anchored at one or morphologically upper surface
place and can change the direction of their organs the organ curves downwards. It is
by means of curvature. These movements are of the this type of curvature that results in
following two types: the unfolding of leaves.
1. Mechanical: These movements are found in (2) Induced (paratonic) movements. These
the nonliving organs of the plant. They are movements are of organs in response
resulted due to physical cause, such as hydration to stimuli. These movements are of the
or dehydration of cell walls, e.g., peristomial following types:
teeth of moss protrude out of the capsule in dry (A) Nastic movements. When curvature is
and curve inside the capsule when the capsule produced by diffused stimuli and affects
is wet. When water is lost from the annulus of the whole plant uniformly, it is of
the sporangia of fern it bursts from stomium and nastic type. The nastic movements are
spores are thus liberated out. divided into photonasty, thermonasty,
hydronasty, haptonasty, chemonasty
2. Vital: These movements are found in living
and seismonasty, according to the
organs of the plant. They are caused by vital
factors involved.
activities of living cells. The movements caused
by the vital activities of the living cells may also (i) Photonasty – Leaves of oxalis take
be spontaneous or induced. up horizontal position in the sunlight
and droop down during night.
(1) Spontaneous (autonomous). These
(ii) Thermonasty – Flowers of tulips
movements are of two types:
and crocus open during the high
(A) Movements of variation. It may be temperatures and close down
due to the turgor changes as observed during the low temperatures.
in some leguminous plants and flowers, (iii) Haptonasty – When marginal
called variation type. glandular hairs of Drosera come
(B) Movements of growth. These in contact with some foreign body,
movements are caused by an unequal e.g., body of insect, they show
growth in the different parts of an organ. haptonastic movements.
These are of the following types: (iv) Seismonasty – These movements
(a) Mutation. The growing stems are observed in case of sensitive
of twinner and tendrils show plants such as Mimosa pudica
such autonomic movements. The and occur in response to touch or
stem exhibits a kind of nodding mechanical disturbances such as
movement in two directions. This is shaking.

(B) Tropic movements. When curvature is 2. Proteins, which identify a cell as a target cell for
produced by directive stimuli and does not a hormone, are called
affect the whole plant, it is of tropic type. (a) cyclic AMP (b) receptors
The tropism shows a definite direction (c) response proteins (d) neuromodulators
in relation to the stimuli such as water,
chemical, contact, gravity, light, etc. This 3. When some hormones work together to control
is also divided into various groups, namely a process, it is called
hydrotropism, geotropism, phototropism, (a) antagonism (b) feedback system
chemotropism, thigmotropism, etc., on (c) factor hypothesis (d) synergism
the basis of types of stimuli the plants
receive. 4. What is true about hormones?
(a) hormones produced in one species usually
(i) Hydrotropism - Growth
perform same function in other species;
movements in response to external
stimulus of water. Roots are (b) only excess of hormones leads to serious
positively hydro-tropic. consequences;
(ii) Geotropism - Movement or growth (c) chemically hormones arc always steroids;
in relation to gravity, either in (d) hormones can be stored in certain body
the direction of gravity (positive parts such as in liver and thyroid.
geotropism) or away from ground 5. Which of the following hormones is a modified
(negative geotropism). Roots of amino acid?
plants show positive geotropism,
(a) prostaglandin (b) estrogen
shoots show negative geotropism.
(c) epinephrine (d) progesterone
(iii) Phototropism (Heliotropism) - A
tropic response of a plant or plant 6. Which one of the following is NOT a steroid
organ to. the stimulus of light. hormone?
(iv) Chemotropism - A tropic response (a) estrogen (b) androgen
of a plant or plant organ to a (c) aldosterone (d) thyroxine
chemical stimulus, e.g. movement
7. Which of the following hormone is a steroid?
of pollen tube towards ovary
or movement of fungal hyphae (a) prostaglandin (b) estrogen
towards sugars and peptones. (c) epinephrine (d) thyroxine
(v) Thigmotropism (Haptotropism) 8. Most of the steroid hormones are synthesised
- In plants, unequal growth due to from
contact with solid objects, as the (a) insulin (b) tyrosine
coiling of tendrils around a pole. (c) glycogen (d) cholesterol
9. Hormone secreting cells called neurosecretory
Multiple Choice Questions cells are abundant in the
Tick () the most appropriate answer(s) among the (a) hypothalamus (b) pons
following: (c) cerebral corny (d) medulla oblongata
10. LH and FSH are called
(a) antistress hormones
1. Endocrine glands are those which put their (b) gonadotropic hormones
secretions directly into
(c) emergency hormone
(a) ducts (b) blood
(d) neurohormones
(c) both (d) none of the above

11. Follicle stimulating hormone is produced from (a) Thyroxine (b) FSH
(a) gonad gland (c) GH (d) ACTH
(b) posterior part of pituitary gland
19. Anterior lobe of pituitary secretes
(c) thyroid gland
(a) TSH, ADH and prolactin;
(d) anterior part of pituitary gland
(b) LH, FSH and a growth hormone;
12. The spermatogenesis in mammalian testis is (c) ACTH. TSH and oxytocin;
controlled by
(d) STH, GH and antidiuretic hormone.
(a) luteinising hormone
(b) follicle stimulating hormone 20. Gonadotropins are secreted from
(c) FSH and prolactin (a) hypothalamus (b) posterior pituitary
(d) growth hormone and prolactin (c) anterior pituitary (d) gonads
21. Growth hormone is secreted by the
13. FSH is to estrogen as LH is to
(a) anterior lobe of the pituitary
(a) vasopressin (b) testosterone
(b) posterior lobe of the pituitary
(c) progesterone (d) LTH
(c) adrenal gland
14. Luteinising hormone is responsible for (d) gonads
(a) ovulation and formation of corpus luteum;
22. The synthesis and release of thyroxine from the
(b) controlling activity of corpus luteum; thyroid gland is stimulated by
(c) development of mammary glands; (a) LH (b) TSH
(d) growth of female reproductive organs. (c) ACTH (d) FSH
15. The secretion of the following pituitary 23. Continued secretion of milk is maintained by
hormones is controlled by hypothalamus (a) prolactin (b) oestrogen
(a) thyrotropin (TSH) and cortisol; (c) progesterone (d) aldosterone
(b) follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and
24. The increased blood pressure, decrease in
progesterone;
the water content of urine and promotion of
(c) corticotropin (ACTH), growth hormone contraction of smooth muscles is brought about
(GH), and vasopressin; by
(d) luteinising hormone (LH), corticotropin (a) oxytocin and ACTH
(ACTH), and thyrotropin (TSH). (b) vasopressin and ACTH
16. Pituitary gland is found in (c) vasopressin and ADH
(a) around trachea (b) gonad (d) vasopressin and oxytocin
(c) pancreas (d) brain 25. Which of the following hormones influence the
reabsorption of water in the kidney?
17. Surgical removal of pituitary gland will cause a
fall in sodium ions present in serum and rise in (a) ADH (b) corticosterone
potassium ion level due to (c) insulin (d) oxytocin
(a) atrophy of adrenal cortex; 26. Oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone reach the
(b) no hormones from pancreas are available; posterior pituitary by the way of
(c) atrophy of adrenal medulla; (a) the anterior pituitary gland
(d) none of the above. (b) lymphatic vessels
(c) blood vessels
18. Which one is NOT secreted by pituitary?
(d) axons

27. Stimulation of uterine contraction at the time of (a) phenylalanine (b) cholesterol
childbirth is brought about by (c) glycoproteins (d) tyrosine
(a) progesterone (b) oxytocin
36. Cretinism in young children is due to the lack of
(c) prolactin (d) adrenaline
(a) vitamin D (b) growth hormone
28. Hormone oxytocin, at the time of birth, acts on (c) calcitonin (d) thyroxine
uterus by
37. Name the disease caused by the deficiency of
(a) stimulating the smooth muscles to contract;
thyroxine in adults
(b) reducing the lumen of uterus;
(a) Diabetes insipidus
(c) increasing the movement of foetus;
(b) Myxedema
(d) producing rhythmic movements in uterus.
(c) Diabetes mellitus
29. The main function of prolactin hormone is to (d) Exophthalmic goitre
(a) influence the activity of thyroid gland;
38. Tetany is a condition in man caused by the
(b) control development of Graafian follicles;
(a) removal of parathyroid gland;
(c) initiate and maintain secretion of milk by
(b hyposecretion of thyroxine hormone;
mammary glands;
(c) hypersecretion of parathyroid hormone;
(d) cause ejection of milk.
(d) all of the above.
30. The two lobes of thyroid are joined together by
a structure called 39. Which two hormones in your body are
absolutely essential for survival?
(a) isthmus (b) corpus callosum
(a) calcitonin and insulin
(c) thyroglossal duct (d) corpus albicans
(b) parathyroid hormone and aldosterone
31. Hormone from thyroid gland is (c) estrogen and testosterone
(a) thyroxine (b) thyroidine (d) somatotropin and cortisol
(c) parathyroxin (d) thyroprotein
40. Exophthalmic goitre is caused due to
32. Ca2+ level is controlled by (a) hypersecretion of thyrocalcitonin
(a) thyroxine (b) hyposecretion of thyrocalcitonin
(b) FSH (c) hypersecretion of thyroxine
(c) pancreas (d) hyposecretion of thyroxine
(d) thyroid and parathyroid
41. On removing thyroid from the tadpole it will
33. Which endocrine gland stores its secretion in (a) grow into a giant frog
extracellular spaces before discharging in the
(b) remain tadpole throughout life
blood?
(c) turn into dwarf frog
(a) testis (b) thyroid
(d) die immediately
(c) pancreas (d) Adrenal
42. Surgical removal of which of the following
34. What is the effect of thyroxine on basal
endocrine glands will maximally upset calcium
metabolic rate?
levels in the blood of man?
(a) No effect (b) Decrease
(a) parathyroid (b) adrenal medulla
(c) Increase (d) Uncertain
(c) thyroid (d) pancreas
35. Thyroxine and triiodothyronine, produced by
43. Which region of the pancreas in mammals
the thyroid gland, are synthesised from iodine
secretes glucagon hormone?
and

(a) a-cells of the endocrine part (a) loss of endometrium;

(b) b-cells of the endocrine part (b) growth and dilation of endometrium;
(c) exocrine region of the gland (c) release of ova from ovaries;
(d) d-cells of the endocrine part (d) constriction of uterine blood vessels
leading to sloughing of uterine epithelium.
44. Insulin is a hormone secreted by
(a) adrenals and regulates the heart beats 52. In woman estrogen and progesterone are
(b) thyroid and regulates growth produced by
(c) pituitary and regulates reproduction (a) interstitial cell and corpus luteum
(d) islets of Langerhans and regulates blood (b) Graafian follicle and corpus luteum
glucose level (c) tunica ovaria and corpus luteum
(d) Graafian follicle and atrophic follicles
45. The exact structure of molecule of insulin was
first reported by 53. Progesterone is a hormone secreted by
(a) Sanger (a) corpus luteum (b) pituitary
(b) J.E. Murray (c) pineal (d) placenta
(c) Har Govind Khorana 54. The corpus luteum is
(d) De Robertes (a) an immature follicle;
46. An over dose of intravenous insulin may lead to (b) a structure developed from the follicle
the death of an individual due to after ovulation;
(a) excessive increase of blood glucose; (c) the part of the egg that develops extra
(b) excessive decrease of blood glucose; embryonic membranes;
(c) inhibition of glucagon secretion; (d) a structure that is present in the embryonic
(d) overproduction of histamine. ovary.
47. Androgens are secreted from 55. Correct hormonal sequence responsible for
menstrual cycle is
(a) ovary and placenta
(a) estrogen, FSH, and progesterone
(b) testis and adrenal
(b) estrogen, progesterone, and FSH
(c) ovary and testes
(c) FSH, progesterone, and estrogen
(d) thymus and parathyroid
(d) FSH, estrogen, and progesterone
48. The hormone, which brings about characteristic
changes in male at puberty, is called 56. Which of the following acts as a temporary
ductless gland?
(a) testosterone. (b) estrogen
(a) Pineal (b) Pancreas
(c) FSH (d) LH
(c) Placenta (d) Parathyroid
49. Development of secondary sexual characters in
female is controlled by 57. Function of relaxin hormone is
(a) oestrogen (b) oxytocin (a) relax public symphysis
(c) testosterone (d) progesterone (b) relax ovaries
(c) relax uterus
50. Estrogen secretion is controlled by
(d) relax Fallopian tubule
(a) FSH (b) LH
(c) Progesterone (d) HCG 58. A male moth finds a mate by means of her
(a) thyroxine (b) ecdysone
51. A decrease in level of oestrogen and
(c) brain hormone (d) pheromone
progesterone causes

59. The development of adult characteristics in a (c) transpiration

moulting insect is promoted by (d) photorespiration
(a) thyroxine (b) ecdysone
67. Which one of the following nutrients is
(c) juvenile hormone (d) a pheromone concerned with the growth of the plants in view
60. The retention of larval characteristics in a of their role in synthesis of auxin?
moulting insect is promoted by (a) S (b) Mn
(a) thyroxine (b) ecdysone (c) Zn (d) K
(c) juvenile hormone (d) pheromone 68. Leaf fall occurs when the content of
61. A temporary endocrine gland formed in ovary (a) auxin increases
after ovulation is (b) auxin decreases
(a) Corpus uteri (b) Corpus albicans (c) abscisic acid decreases
(c) Corpus callosum (d) Corpus luteum (d) gibberellic acid decreases
62. Most contraceptive pills contain 69. Which of the following is NOT true about
(a) oestrogen and progesterone auxins?
(b) oestrogen and FSH (a) inhibits lateral growth;
(c) FSH and LH (b) promotes stem elongation;
(d) progesterone and LH (c) promotes cell division;
(d) helps hyperelongation.
63. Phytohormones are
(a) hormones regulating growth from seed to 70. Which of the following hormone is concerned
adulthood; chiefly with root initiation?
(b) growth regulators synthesised by plants (a) IBA (b) GA3
and influencing physiological processes; (c) ABA (d) Kinetin
(c) hormones regulating flowering; 71. A high concentration of synthetic auxin is
(d) hormones regulating secondary growth. generally used for
64. The natural plant hormones were first isolated (a) weed control
from (b) preventing the growth of the lateral buds
(a) corn germ oil and human urine; (c) enhancing root initiation
(b) cotton fruits, spinach leaves and rice (d) controlling of cell enlargement
plants; 72. Gibberellin was first extracted from
(c) human urine and rice seedlings; (a) algae
(d) spinach leaves and fungus Gibberella. (b) bacteria
65. The biological activity of IAA is tested by (c) roots of higher plants
(a) a-amylase test (d) fungus
(b) Avena curvature test
(c) Xanthium leaf disc test
(d) tobacco callus test 1. Which of the following physiological effect is
caused by gibberellins in plants?
66. If the tip of a seedling is cut off, growth as well
(a) Shortening of genetically tall plants
as bending ceases because it hampers
(b) Elongation of genetically dwarf plants
(a) respiration
(c) Promotion of rooting
(b) perception of light stimulus
(d) Yellowing of young leaves

2. Which one of the following is primarily 11. Abscisic acid controls

concerned with cell division? (a) shoot elongation
(a) GA3 (b) IAA (b) cell elongation and cell wall formation
(c) Cytokinin (d) NAA (c) cell division
3. Cut leaves remain green for longer time when (d) leaf fall and dormancy
dip in 12. Presence of which of the following in a seed is
(a) cytokinins (b) ethylene associated with dormancy
(c) gibberellins (d) auxins (a) Abscisic acid (b) Ethylene
(c) Gibberellic acid (d) Auxin
4. The growth regulator that retards ageing of
plant organs is 13. Ethylene is a
(a) Gibberellins (b) Cytokinin (a) gaseous hormone (b) gaseous enzyme
(c) Abscisic acid (d) Auxins (c) solid hormone (d) liquid gas mixture
5. Which of the following is NOT a naturally 14. The ripening of fruits can be accelerated by
occurring plant hormone? (a) reducing the supply of water to plant when
(a) 2,4-D (b) Gibberellin fruits are maturing;
(b) increasing the supply of nitrogen to the
(c) IAA (d) GA3
atmosphere surrounding them;
6. Which of the following is a weed killer? (c) artificially adding ethylene gas to the
(a) 2, 4-D (b) kinetin atmosphere surrounding them;
(c) ABA (d) GA3 (d) warming up the surroundings.
7. Which of the following is responsible for apical 15. A higher proportion of ethylene is found in
dominance? (a) ripening banana (b) green apple
(a) GA3 (b) IAA (c) fresh potato tuber (d) green banana
(c) ABA (d) Florigen 16. Which of the following factors influence the
flowering in plants?
8. Auxin inhibits the growth of
(a) Acidity of soil
(a) apical buds
(b) Amount of green pigment
(b) parthenocarpic development of fruits
(c) Accumulation of florigen
(c) lateral axillary buds
(d) Presence of phytochromes
(d) roots of cuttings
17. Which one of the following is a long day plant?
9. During adverse environmental condition plants (a) Bajra (b) Soybean
develop a stress hormone, which is
(c) Tobacco (d) wheat
(a) abscisic acid
18. Photoperiodism is associated with the formation
(b) ethylene
of
(c) benzyl amino purine
(a) chlorophyll (b) florigen
(d) dichlorophenoxyacetic acid
(c) auxin (d) gibberellin
10. Some of the growth regulators affect stomatal 19. Hormone responsible for vernalisation is
opening. Closure of stomata is brought about by
(a) florigen (b) colchicine
(a) abscisic acid (b) kinetin
(c) vernalin (d) gibberellin
(c) gibberellie acid (d) indolebutyric acid

20. A plant placed near a window bends outward 27. The best material for demonstrating streaming
because movements of protoplasm within living cells is
(a) its tip is able to obtain more light; (a) staminal hairs of tradescantia
(b) its tip is able to receive necessary warmth; (b) onion peelings
(c) the auxin content on the shaded side is (c) pith cells
higher than that on the lighted side and as a (d) none of the above
result the shaded side elongates more than
the cells on the illuminated side and the tip 28. Auxanometer is meant for
bends outward; (a) photosynthetic activity
(d) its tip is able to get more oxygen. (b) growth activity
21. Phototropic and geotropic movements in plants (c) the amount of auxins
have been traced to be linked with (d) respiratory activity
(a) enzymes (b) starch
29. Rhizomes are mostly
(c) gibberellins (d) auxins
(a) sympodial (b) diageotropic
22. Phototropic movements of roots and stems are (c) plagiotropic (d) ageotropic
due to
(a) action of gravity 30. Movements of leaves of the sensitive plant
Mimosa pudica is due to
(b) effect of light
(a) thermonasty (b) eismonasty
(c) differential hormonal effect
(c) photonasty (d) nyctinasty
(d) epinasty and hyponasty
31. What is vernalisation?
23. An apparatus commonly used to demonstrate
phototropism is (a) Growth curve in response to light;
(a) heliotropic chamber (b) Recurrence of day and night;
(b) clinostat (c) Effect of day length on plant growth;
(c) auxanometer (d) Acceleration of the ability to flower by
(d) photometer low temperature treatment.
24. A clinostate is associated with: 32. Flowering in short day plants is induced by
(a) Turgor movements (a) short days and uninterrupted long nights
(b) Measurement of leaf area (b) short days and interrupted long nights
(c) Thigmotropism (c) short nights
(d) Geotropism (d) long day with interrupted night
25. Thigmotropism is best exhibited by 33. Bending of growing shoot towards sunlight is
(a) tendrils (b) stein apex called
(c) root apex (d) leaf apex (a) heliotropism (b) hydrotropism
26. Pneumatophores are (c) photonasty (d) phototropism
(a) positive geotropic 34. Mowing of a grass lawn facilitate better
(b) negative phototropic maintenance primarily owing to
(c) thigmotropic (a) removal of apical dominance and
(d) ageotropic promotion of lateral meristem;
(b) wounding which stimulate rapid
regeneration;

(c) removal of apical dominance and 43. Types of plants that come to flower after expo-
promotion of intercalary meristems; sure to short photoperiods followed by long
(d) removal of apical dominance. photoperiods
(a) intermediate plants
35. The movement of auxin is largely
(a) basipetal (b) day neutral plants
(b) both acropetal and basipetal (d) SLDP
(c) centripetal (d) LSDP
(d) acropetal 44. Banana is seedless because
36. Which of the following plant hormone (a) it reproduces asexually
substitutes for long photoperiod in flowering (b) it is sprayed by auxin
plants? (c) both A and B
(a) auxin (b) gibberellin
(d) none of the above
(c) cytokinin (d) ethylene [JIPMER 2004]
37. Which of the following hormones can replace 45. Pruning of plants promotes branching due to
vernalisation? sensitisation of axillary buds by
(a) ethylene (b) gibberellins (a) ethylene (b) gibberellin
(c) cytokinins (d) auxins (c) IAA (d) cytokinin
38. Which of the following test will you perform to [AIIMS 2004]
demonstrate the presence of gibberellin? 46. Parthenocarpic fruit cannot be produced by the
(a) bolting of cabbage; application of
(b) differentiation of shoots in tobacco callus (a) IAA (b) 2, 4-D
culture; (c) ABA (d) IBA
(c) rapid division in carrot cells; [Manipal 2004]
(d) elongation of Avena coleoptile.
47. Gibberellin is a
39. Which one of the following is a naturally (a) vitamin (b) sugar
occurring growth inhibitor? (c) protein (d) sterol
(a) IAA (b) ABA [Haryana PMT 2005]
(c) NAA (d) GA
48. Which flower shows nyctinastic movement?
40. Which one of the following triggers the ripening (a) Bizzia lebbek
of fruits? (b) Pentapetes
(a) ethylene (b) indoleacetic acid (c) Mimosa pudica
(c) gibberellic acid (d) kinetin (d) Bryophyllum
41. Bud dormancy is induced by [Panjab PMT 2005]
(a) IAA (b) GA 49. Morphactins are derivatives of
(c) BA (d) ethylene (a) fluoromalic acid
42. The pigment that absorbs red and far red light in (b) fluorine carboxylic acid
plants is (c) chlorotluorocarbons
(a) cytochrome (b) xanthophyll (d) methanogens
(c) phytochrome (d) carotene [Pb. PMT 2005]

50. Period of suspended growth due to exogenous 58. Auxins are mostly produced in
condition is termed as (a) shoot
(a) dormancy (b) quiescence (b) meristematic region of stem
(c) perennation (d) hibernation (c) root
[JKCMEE 20051 (d) leaf buds
51. Which hormone is not translocated? [Manipur 2006]
(a) auxin (b) gibberellins 59. Photoperiodism is associated with
(c) cytokinin (d) aBA (a) auxin (b) chlorophyll
[AMU 2005] (c) florigen (d) gibberellin
52. During which phase of growth, cell increases in [Chandigarh CET 20061
volume 60. Opening of floral buds into flowers is a type of
(a) cell division (b) exponential (a) autonomic movement of variation;
(c) differentiation (d) enlargement (b) paratonic movement of growth;
[Gujarat CET 20061
(c) autonomic movement of growth;
53. Which is not an influence of auxins? (d) autonomic movement of locomotion.
(a) parthenocarpy
[CBSE PMT 2007]
(b) tropical movements
61. Hormone responsible for senescence
(c) bolting
(d) apical dominance (a) ABA (b) auxin
[Karnataka 2006] (c) GA (d) cytokinin
[CBSE PMT 20011
54. a-amylase synthesis is promoted by
(a) IAA (b) Cytokinin 62. Antiauxin used in picking cotton bolls is
(c) NAA (d) GA (a) 2, 4-D (b) TIBA
[Bihar PMT 206] (c) NAA (d) Both A and B
[Punjab PMT 2002]
55. Which is NOT a function of cytokinin?
63. Antigibberellin is
(a) delay is senescence
(a) cycocel (b) IAA
(b) breaking seed dormancy
(c) plastoquinone (d) ubiquinone
(c) promoting bud dormancy
[BHU 2002]
(d) promoting stomatal opening
[RPMT 2006] 64. Bending of shoot towards light is due to
(a) Photolaxis;
56. Common biosynthetic inhibitor of GA is
(b) Increase in auxin and elongation of cells in
(a) CCC (b) jasmonic acid shaded area;
(c) citric acid (d) lactic acid (c) More cells divided on lighted side due to
[Orissa 2006] auxin;
57. Cryptochrome is (d) More cells divided on lighted side due to
(a) yellow light absorbing; gibberellins.
[Manipal 2002]
(b) pigment of cryptogams;
(c) red light absorbing pigment; 65. Phytochrome was isolated by
(d) blue-light absorbing pigment. (a) Butler et al (b) F. W. Went
[Orissa 2006] (c) R. Hill (d) Borthwick et al
[MPPMT 2002]

66. Choose the correct statement 69. In plants auxin synthesis occurs in
(a) Albinism is genetic and etiolation is (a) cortex (b) xylem cells
physiological; (c) phloem cells (d) root and shoot tips
(b) Etiolation is genetic and albinism is [BV 2006]
physiological;
70. Avena curvature test is bioassay for activity of
(c) Etiolation is irreversible; (a) auxin (b) ethylene
(d) Etiolation and albinism are synonyms. (c) cytokinin (d) gibberellin
[CET Chd. 2002] [AIIMS 20061
67. Sleep movements in Samanea saman are 71. Which one is wrongly matched?
regulated by (a) Auxins – to grow
(a) N (b) P (b) Gibberellins – Gibherella fujikuroi
(c) K (d) Mg (c) Cytokinins – Herring sperm DNA
[APMEE 2002] (d) ABA - flowering hormone
68. Gibberellins promote 72. Which one of the following acts as a hormone
involved in ripening of fruits?
(a) seed dormancy (b) leaf fall
(a) Naphthalene acetic acid
(c) seed germination (d) root elongation
(b) Ethylene
[DPMT 2002]
(c) Indole acetic acid
(d) Zeatin
A NSW E RS
1. (b) 2. (b) 3. (d) 4. (a) 5. (c)
6. (d) 7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (d) 12. (b) 13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (d)
16. (d) 17. (a) 18. (a) 19. (b) 20. (c)
21. (a) 22. (b) 23. (a) 24. (d) 25. (a)
26. (d) 27. (b) 28. (a) 29. (c) 30. (a)
31. (a) 32. (d) 33. (b) 34. (c) 35. (d)
36. (d) 37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (b) 40. (c)
41. (b) 42. (a) 43. (a) 44. (d) 45. (a)
46. (b) 47. (b) 48. (a) 49. (a) 50. (a)
51. (d) 52. (b) 53. (a) 54. (b) 55. (d)
56. (c) 57. (a) 58. (d) 59. (b) 60. (c)
61. (d) 62. (a) 63. (b) 64. (a) 65. (b)
66. (b) 67. (c) 68. (b) 69. (d) 70. (a)
71. (a) 72. (d)


1. (b) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (a)
6. (a) 7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11. (d) 12. (a) 13. (a) 14. (c) 15. (a)
16. (c) 17. (d) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (c)
21. (d) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (d) 25. (a)
26. (d) 27. (a) 28. (b) 29. (b) 30. (b)
31. (d) 32. (a) 33. (a) 34. (c) 35. (b)
36. (b) 37. (b) 38. (a) 39. (b) 40. (a)
41. (c) 42. (c) 43. (c) 44. (a) 45. (c)
46. (c) 47. (d) 48. (c) 49. (b) 50. (b)
51. (d) 52. (b) 53. (c) 54. (d) 55. (c)
56. (a) 57. (d) 58. (b) 59. (c) 60. (c)
61. (a) 62. (b) 63. (a) 64. (b) 65. (a)
66. (a) 67. (c) 68. (c) 69. (d) 70. (a)
71. (d) 144. (b)

Chapter
Reproduction
in Plants 7
Introduction Fission: This is the commonest and simplest

method of reproduction. The nucleus divides first
Reproduction is the process by which an organism and the cytoplasm next. Subsequently, the mother
produces young individuals of its own species. It, cell splits into two equal sized daughter halves
thus, maintains the continuity of the species. or cells (e.g., Amoeba, Paramoecium, Vorticella,
Life span is the period spanning from birth to Euglena, Planaria, etc.). This is generally referred
the natural death of an organism. to as binary fission. Binary fission involves mitosis
only and, as a result, the resultant offsprings are
genetically identical to the parent and to each other.
Major Types of Reproduction According to the plane of fission, following types of
binary fission have been recognised in organisms.
Asexual reproduction is a method of reproduction in
which genetically identical offsprings are produced (i) Simple binary fission. When the plane of
from a single parent; occurs by many mechanisms, cytoplasmic division passes through any
including budding, fission, and fragmentation. For direction, e.g. Amoeba.
example, many acellular organisms, such as Amoeba, (ii) Transverse binary fission. The plane of
Paramoecium, Euglena, and multicellular metazoans, cytoplasmic division coincides with the
such as Sycon, Hydra, Tubularia, Planaria, Ascidia, transverse axis of the individual, as in
reproduce mainly by asexual means. Paramoecium and Planaria.
Sexual reproduction is a type of reproduction (iii) Longitudinal binary fission. The plane
in which two parents, each capable of producing of cytoplasmic division coincides with the
gametes, spermatozoa and ova, are required. Many longitudinal axis of the individual, as in Euglena
acellular protists, such as Monocystis, Plasmodium, and Vorticella.
Paramoecium, and all metazoans use sexual Multiple fission. In multiple fission, the nucleus
reproduction. divides several times by mitosis to produce many
nuclei, without involving any cytokinesis. Later,
each nucleus gathers a small amount of cytoplasm
Asexual Reproduction around it and the mother individual splits into many
There are three common modes of asexual
reproduction: fission, budding, and fragmentation.
07_Reproduction in Plant.indd 1 3/6/2017 5:24:32 PM

tiny daughter cells, e.g., Amoeba, Plasmodium, a recombination of genetic material. It involves
Monocystis, etc. Subsequently, each of these unspecialised plant parts, which may become
daughter cells starts a free life and transforms into reproductive structures, e.g., roots, stems, or leaves.
an adult individual. In adverse environmental The methods of vegetative propagation are grouped
conditions, an Amoeba withdraws its pseudopodia under natural and artificial.
and secretes a three-layered hard covering or
cyst around itself. This phenomenon is termed Natural Methods
as encystation. During favourable condition, the
In natural methods of propagation, a portion of the
encysted Amoeba divides by multiple fission and
plant gets detached from the body of the mother plant.
produces many minute amoebae or pseudapodia
This detached portion may be a part of stem, leaf, root
spores. Afterwards the cyst wall bursts out, and
or even flower, which develops into a new independent
the spores are released in the surrounding medium
plant under suitable environmental conditions.
to grow up into many amoebae. This phenomenon
is known as sporulation. Acellular protists such 1. Vegetative propagation by stems. The
as sporozoans (e.g. ,Monocystis, Plasmodium, etc.) underground modifications of stem, such as
characteristically exhibit sporulation in their life rhizome, tuber, bulb and corm, are used for
cycles. vegetative propagation of plants in the field.
Ginger, potato, onion, and zamikand are grown
Budding. In budding, new individuals are with the help of underground stem. The stem of
formed by mitosis. To begin with, a small outgrowth plants with subaerial modifications as in Pistia,
of the parent’s body develops into a miniature Chrysanthemum, Eichhornia, pineapple and
individual. It then separates from the mother to banana are also used for propagating plants.
lead a free life, e.g., Hydra. This type of budding is
known as exogenous budding. Sometimes, the buds 2. Vegetative propagation by roots. The plants of
do not get separated from the mother individual and sweet potato, asparagus, tapioca, and dahlia are
form a colony. For example, in Obelia, the colony propagated through roots.
consists of a number of individuals or zooids that 3. Vegetative propagation by leaves. Bryophyllum
perform different functions. In fresh water sponges and Kalanchoe are commonly propagated
(e.g., Spongilla) and marine sponges (e.g., Sycon), through leaves.
the parent individual releases a specialised mass of 4. Vegetative propagation from reproductive
cells enclosed in a common opaque envelope called organs. The buds produced in their notches along
the gemmule. On germination, each gemmule gives the leaf margin fall on to the soil and develop
rise to an offspring. Gemmules are considered to be into new plants. In plants such as Agave, wild
internal buds. yam and Oxalis, small buds develop near the
Fragmentation. In fragmentation the body of the flower, leaf axil and tuberous root, respectively,
parent breaks into discrete pieces, each of which can to give rise to new plants.
produce an offspring, e.g. Hydra and sea stars. This
capability for generating an entire new individual Artificial Methods
from a fragment of tissue is called regeneration. Some flowering plants have a capacity to develop a
part of their somatic body into a new independent
Vegetative Reproduction plant. This is done by applying special techniques.
1. Cuttings. Many plants such as rose, sugarcane,
While in animals and other simple organisms the term
croton, tapioca, china rose can easily be grown
asexual is used clearly, in plants the term vegetative
from stem cuttings by putting them into the
reproduction is often used.
moist soil. Sometimes the root cuttings from
Vegetative reproduction is a reproductive lemon, tamarind, etc., sprout, producing roots
process that is asexual and so does not involve and shoots, if they are put in the moist soil.

Reproduction in Plants 7.3
2. Layering. In this technique roots are induced Some of the regetative propagules are discussed
in a stem before it is detached from the parent below:
plant for propagation. Layering can be done 1. Rhizome. It is thick, prostrate and branched
by bending down the lower branch close to the stem growing horizontally beneath the soil
ground and covering it with moist soil. The surface. Nodes are marked as dry scars. They
covered portion of the branch produces roots bear scale leaves, and branches with buds in
after some days and can be cut and grown their axils. The lower surface of the nodes
independently. This method is commonly gives out small slender adventitious roots, e.g.,
employed for propagating jasmine, strawberry, Zingiber officinale (ginger), Curcuma domestica
grape vine, raspberry, etc. (turmeric), some ferns and many aroids.
3. Grafting is practised in plants, which do not root 2. Tuber. It is the swollen tip of the underground
easily, or have a weak root system. It is an art of branch. It stores large amount of reserve
joining parts of two plants of the same or allied materials primarily starch, e.g., Solanum
species in such a way as to bring about an organic tuberosum (potato). The eyes of potato are
union or fusion of the tissues. It is successful nodes at each of which 1–3 buds are produced
in plants, which have cambium for secondary in the axils of small scale like leaves. Cutting of
growth. The basic or main part is called stock, tubers propagates potatoes. Each piece of tuber
and the portion to be grafted on to the stock is should contain an eye or node for vegetative
called a scion. The rootstock is generally disease propagation.
resistant and of good absorbing capacity and
scion is from a plant of desirable characters like 3. Bulb. It is a highly reduced stem represented by
superior quality fruits or flowers. This method a small disc like structure upon which numerous
is commonly employed for propagating mango, fleshy scale leaves are borne (which store food
apple, pear, citrus, guava and rubber plant. material). The disc and leaves together are called
Grafting may be of different types, namely bud bulb. On the upper side disc bears terminal bud
grafting, approach grafting, tongue grafting, surrounded by a number of leaves. The axillary
wedge grafting and crown grafting, depending buds are present between the axis of leaves. The
on the methods of uniting the two parts. adventitious roots are borne on the lower side of
the disc. Bulbs are of two types:
4. Gootee. In this case, a healthy and woody
(i) Tunicated. In tunicated bulb the scale leaves
branch is selected and the bark is sliced off in
overlap one another to form concentric
a ring form of about 3–5 cm in length. A thick
circles, e.g., Allium cepa (onion).
plaster of grafting clay (clay, cow-dung, finely
cut hay, and water) is wrapped up with rag and (ii) Scaly or imbricate. The scaly bulb is one
tied onto the debarked portion. An appropriate in which fleshy scale leaves may lie loose
arrangement is made for keeping the clay moist. without forming concentric circles on the
In about 2–3 months, the roots come out and the discoid stem, e.g., Allium sativum (garlic).
gootee is ready to be cut below the bandage for 4. Runner. These are produced by creeping
propagation. This method is normally employed herbs. The runners are slender stems that run or
for propagating lemon, orange, guava and litchi creep, over the ground, often for considerable
during the early monsoon rains. distances. At every node, it is rooted and bears
leaves above ground. Axillary buds form new
Vegetative Propagules aerial shoots. Many grasses, Oxalis and mint
In plants the units of vegetative propagation such propagate by runners.
as rhizome, tuber, bulb, runner, sucker off set, are 5. Sucker. It is like a runner but originates from
all capable of giving rise to new offspring. These the basal and underground portion of the main
structures are called vegetative propagules. stem. It is shorter and stouter than a runner. It

grows horizontally for a distance partly below The oestrous cycle refers to the recurring
ground, striking roots at the nodes and then physiological changes that are induced by
emerges obliquely bearing a leafy shoot, e.g., reproductive hormones in most mammals like cows,
Chrysanthemum. sheep, rats, deers, dogs, tiger etc. It is the period of
6. Offset. It is stout and short runner like branch, time when the female is receptive to the male and
which bends at the tip and gives rise to a rosette will stand for mating.
of leaves above and roots below, e.g. Pistia, Mammals that exhibit reproductive cycles only
Eichhornia (water hyacinth). during favourable seasons in their reproductive
phase are called seasonal breeders, e.g. deer. On
the other hand, many mammals are reproductively
Sexual Reproduction active throughout their reproductive phase and hence
Males and females of the species are responsible are called continuous breeders, e.g. human.
for this form of reproduction. They produce cells
specialised, for reproduction, which are called sex Prefertilisation Events
cells or gametes. The male sex cells are called sperm The process of the formation of haploid gametes
cells and female sex cells are known as ova (sing. from diploid germ cells in the gonads is called
Ovum). The fusion of one sperm cell with an ovum gametogenesis. There are two types of gametes,
produces a zygote. The single-celled zygote contains the spermatozoa and ova. Gametogenesis can be
all the chromosomes originally present in the two studied under two broad headings: spermatogenesis
gametes. Repeated mitosis of the zygote forms a and oogenesis. Spermatogenesis is the formation of
multicellular embryo, which gradually develops into spermatozoa, whereas oogenesis is the formation of
a full-grown animal. ova.
The offspring of sexually reproducing organisms Homogametes are gametes that are the same size.
receive a set of genome from each of the parents. Also called isogametes, Isogamous species do not
In other words, sexual reproduction introduces new produce sperm (small gametes) or eggs (large gametes).
gene combinations in a population.
Heterogametes are gametes that are of two
Some acellular protist animals, e.g. morphologically distinct types. The male gamete
Paramoecium, exhibit sexual reproduction by is called the antherozoid or sperm and the female
forming male and female gamete nuclei, which they gamete is called the egg or ovum.
exchange through a temporary cytoplasmic bridge.
Afterwards, the cytoplasmic bridge disappears and Fertilisation
the gamete nucleus of one individual fuses with that
of the other to form zygote nucleus. This mode of The term syngamy means `fusion of gametes’ and
sexual reproduction is known as conjugation. describes the event that occurs when two gametes
of opposite sexes come close to each other and fuse.
Juvenile phase, A period gone through by some The term fertilization, however, encompasses all the
plants, especially woody perennials, during which associated events that ultimately lead to syngamy. In
the plant cannot produce reproductive structures most aquatic organisms, such as a majority of algae
even if all the appropriate envionmental signals are and fishes as well as amphibians, syngamy occurs in
present. the external medium (water), i.e. outside the body of
Reproductive phase. That part of the life the organism. This type of gametic fusion is called
cycle during which reproduction takes place. The external fertilization. In many terrestrial organisms
reproductive phase is also of variable duration in belonging to fungi, higher animals such as reptiles,
different organisms. birds, mammals and in a majority of plants (bryophytes,
pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms),
Senescence phase. The growth phase in a plant syngamy occurs inside the body of organism; hence
or plant part (as a leaf) from full maturity to death. the process is called internal fertilization.

Post-fertilisation Events Flowers are the seat of sexual reproduction in

angiosperms. In the flower, androecium consisting of
Zygote is the diploid cell produced by the fusion stamens represents the male reproductive organs and
of the nuclei of male and female gamete nuclei at gynoecium consisting of pistils represents the female
fertilisation. reproductive organs.
Embryo is the name for the early developmental In the sexual method, there is a fusion of two
stage of an animal or a plant following fertilisation gametes, one from male organ and the other from
of an ovum (egg cell). In humans the term embryo female organ of the plant, to produce a zygote.
describes the fertilised egg during its first seven Sexual reproduction normally results in the mixing
weeks of existence; from the eighth week onwards it of characters from two parents and maintains the
is referred to as a foetus. general vigour of the offspring.
Embryogenesis refers to the process of In angiosperms sexual reproduction occurs
development of embryo from the zygote. During in the flower, which is considered as an especially
embryogenesis zygote undergoes cell division modified shoot.
(mitosis) and cell differentiation. While cell divisions
increase the number of cells in the developing
embryo; cell differentiation helps groups of cells to Sexual Reproduction
undergo certain modifications to form specialised
tissues and organs to form an organism. The flower, in angiosperms, is a dwarf shoot,
a determinate stem apex bearing floral leaves,
subserving the function of reproduction. Typically it
Deviations in The Reproductive is made up of a calyx of sepals, a corolla of petals,
(these two being the perianth), an androecium of
Strategies stamens, and a gynoecium of carpels. Any of these
Hermaphroditism is a form of sexual reproduction parts may be missing in a particular flower. The
in which a single individual produces both eggs floral axis is the receptacle.
and sperms. This condition is found in tapeworms
Essential floral organs are those floral organs
and earthworms. Tapeworms are self-fertilising; the
which take part in sexual reproduction, i.e., stamens
sperm produced in the testes of one individual can
and carpets. Non-essential floral organs are those
fertilise the eggs produced by the same individual.
accessory floral organs that do not take any direct
The earthworms use cross fertilisation where the
part in sexual reproduction, viz., sepals and petals.
sperm of one individual fertilises with the eggs of
the other.
Development of the Male Gametophyte
Parthenogenesis (virgin development) is a form
Stamen is the male reproductive part of the flowers.
of asexual reproduction in which an unfertilised egg
It consists of anther, filament, and connective. Each
develops into a new individual without fertilisation.
anther is a bilobed structure with each lobe containing
The adult is typically haploid. Charles Bonnet
two pollen sacs. In total, there are four pollen sacs
discovered the phenomenon of parthenogenesis in
in which pollen grains are produced. The two lobes
1745 in insects (aphids). As the egg develops without
of anther are joined by a connective that contains
meiosis, the offspring are identical in all inherited
the vascular bundle from filament that carries the
respects to the mother. Rotifers, some gastropod
nourishment. Each pollen sac contains several pollen
molluscs, many arthropod crustaceans, and even
grains. The anther wall is composed of four to five
the lizards, take up parthenogenesis as a natural
layers. The developing pollen grains consume the
phenomenon. In certain rotifera, the existence of male
products of middle layers and tapetum, leaving
is still unknown. In honey-bees, bees, queen bees
behind the two layers, namely epidermis and
and worker bees are developed from fertilised ova.
endothecium.
Drones (males) are produced parthenogenetically.

Each pollen sac is termed as a microsporangium The main body of the ovule consists of the
and is filled with number of large sized cells parenchymatous tissue, the nucellus, with one or
called sporogenous cells. The sporogenous cells two coverings or integuments. The integuments
may function directly as microspore mother cells surround the nucellus all around except at the apex,
(MMC) or microsporocytes. Alternatively, the cells leaving a narrow passage. called the micropyle.
of the sporogenous tissue may undergo a few mitotic
The ovule at first arises as a primordium on the
divisions to add up to their number before entering
placenta in the cavity of the ovary. Owing to the
meiosis. Each microspore mother cell (MMC) has
meristematic activity of the cells of ovular primordial,
two sets of chromosomes and is, therefore diploid.
the protuberances become prominent and constitute
By a single meiotic division, each MMC gives rise
the nucellus. The initials of the two integuments arise
to four haploid microspores. Initially, all the four
at the base of the nucellus, and surround it all around
spores remain enclosed in a common wall made
except at the apex.
of callose. This four celled organisation is called
tetrad. A mature microspore is called pollen grain. The process of megasporogenesis begins with
the differentiation of primary archesporial cell in
The mature anther dehiscence by means of slits.
the nucellar hypodermic. The primary archesporial
The pollen grain is uninucleate with two-layered cell
cell divides to form outer primary cell wall and inner
wall. The inner layer is thin and made up of cellulose.
primary sporogenous cell. This sporogenous cell
called intine, whereas the outer layer is tough,
directly behaves as the megaspore mother cell, and
cuticularised and often with spinous outgrowth, known
gives rise to four potential megaspores by meiosis.
as exine. The exine is made up of a complex substance,
The four megaspores are arranged in a linear tetrad.
called sporopollenin that is resistant to chemical and
Usually, one megaspore of the tetrad becomes
biological decomposition. At one or more places, the
functional and develops further.
exine is very thin or missing, giving an appearance of
a pore, called the germ pore. There are usually three The functional megaspore is the first cell
germ pores in dicots and one in monocots. of the female gametophyte. It divides by three
successive divisions to form an eight-nucleate
The development of the male gametophyte is more
female gametophyte or embryo sac. Three of the
or less uniform in all flowering plants. Pollen grain is
four nuclei nearest the micropyle (i.e. the opening
the fast cell of a male gametophyte. The size of the
in the ovule through which the pollen tube will
nucleus increases and it divides mitotically to produce
enter) differentiate into the egg apparatus. The egg
a bigger vegetative cell and a smaller generative cell.
apparatus consists of three cells: the egg cell and two
At this stage, the dehiscence of the anther takes place
flanking cells, called synergids. Three of the four at
and the two-celled pollen grains are released.
the opposite end of the developing embryo sac, which
In large majority of flowering plants, pollen is is called the chalazal pole, are called the antipodal
shed at two-celled stage. However, in plants such as cells. The two remaining nuclei, one from each pole,
cereals, the generative cell divides to form two male migrate to the middle of the embryo sac and are
gametes while the pollen is still within the anther. In called the polar nuclei or secondary nucleus (2n).
those cases where pollen is shed at two-celled stage, This is monosporic type of development, generally
the generative cell divides after pollen has landed on referred to as the polygonum type, because it was
the stigma or upon its germination. first found in Polygonum species. About 70 percent
of angiosperms have this type of development.
Development of the Female
Gametophyte Pollination
A typical pistil consists of a basal swollen part The term pollination refers to the process of transfer
(ovary), a stalk (style) and a terminal receptive disc of pollen grains from anther and their deposition on
(stigma). Inside the ovary, there are one or more to the stigmatic surface of the flower.
ovules or megasporangia.

Self-pollination is the process of transfer of Protogyny. Gynoecium matures earlier than the
pollen grains from anther to stigma of the same anthers, e.g., Michelia champaka (champaka),
flower, as in pea, wheat and rice. It is also referred Brassica (mustard), Ficus (fig, banyan, peepul),
to as autogamy. In cases where pollen is transferred Mirabilis (four o’clock plant), Anona (custard
from anther of a flower to stigma of another flower apple), etc.
of the same plant, it is referred to as geitonogamy. 4. Heterostyly. In some plants flowers are of two
Autogamy takes place in three circumstances: (dimorphic) or three (trimorphic) forms with
anthers and stigmas at different levels. One
1. Chasmogamy. Pollination occurring after the
form has short stamens and long style and the
flower opens and exposes the reproductive
other has long stamens and short style. Based on
organs, e.g. Mirabilis, potato, sunflower, etc.
difference in length, the phenomenon is called
2. Cleistogamy. The flowers remain closed so heterostyly, e.g., Fagopyrum (buckwheat),
that only self-pollination occurs. In Commelina Oxalis (wood-sorrel), Linum (linseed).
bengalensis and peanut.
5. Herlcogamy. Male and female sex organs are
3. Bud Pollination. In several cultivated plants, so placed in a flower that the pollen grains from
self pollination occurs in the bud condition the anther are unable to reach the stigma even in
before the flowers open, e.g., Wheat, Tobacco, the same flower, e.g., Calotropis (madar), Salvia
Tomato, Linseed, Jute, Rice, etc. (sage). etc.
Cross-pollination is defined as the deposition of
pollen grains from anther of a flower to the stigma of Agents and Types of Pollination
a different flower of another plant. It is also known The agencies which transfer pollen grains from
as allogamy or xenogamy. one flower to the stigma of a different flower, are
There are special devices or arrangements, as follows: Wind (anemophily), water (hydrophily).
which favour cross-pollination. insects (entomophily), birds (ornithophily) and bats
(cheiropterophily).
1. Dicliny or Unisexuality. Flowers when they are
all unisexual only allogamy is possible. There Wind pollination (anemophily). The wind-
are two types of flowers, male and female. pollinated flowers are generally unisexual, as in
The plants may be monoecious or dioecious. coconut palm, date palm, maize, many grasses,
Monoecious is a plant species in which male and cannabis, etc. The pollen grains are produced in
female organs are found on the same plant but in large quantities and are small, smooth and dry. The
different flowers (for example maize). Dioecious wind pollination is not precise, as it involves the
is a plant species in which male and female movement of pollen over long distances with respect
organs appear on separate in-dividuals, e.g., to the direction of wind. In some plants as in Pinus
Morus alba (mulberry), Piper belle, Vallisneria. pollen grains are winged.
2. Self-Sterility. The pollen of a flower has no Water pollination (hydrophily). The mode of
fertilising effect on the stigma of the same pollination through the agency of water is not very
flower, e.g., in Thea sinensis (tea), Passiflora common and occurs only in a few aquatic plants,
(passion flower). especially submerged ones, such as Vallisneria,
3. Dichogamy. Male and female sex organs mature Ceratophyllum and Zostera. In Zostera marina, a
at different times. There are two different totally marine submerged plant, the pollen grains are
conditions. elongated (2500 im), needle-like and without an exine.
The pollen grains are carried by water and when they
Protandry. Anthers mature earlier than the reach the stigma, they coil around it and germinate.
gynoecium, e.g., Helianthus annul (sunflower),
Tagetes (Marigold), China rose, cotton, lady’s Insect pollination (entomophily). Insects are
finger, etc. the most common pollinators. The flowers producing

nectar and fragrance, with bright colours, attract the cytoplasm outgrowth, called germ tube, emerges
insects. The most common insect pollinators are - from the pollen and continues to grow as pollen
moths, flies, butterflies, wasps, bees, beetles, etc. tube. During its growth the pollen tube secretes
The bees and butterflies commonly pollinate the enzymes, which digest the tissues of the stigma and
flowers of Asteraceae and Labiatae families. the style. The pollen tube grows chemotropically and
intercellularly into the style due to a concentration
Pollination by birds (ornithophily). The
gradient of calcium-boron-inositol sugar complex.
pollination by birds is common in coral tree, bottle
brush, Butea monosperma, and silk-cotton tree. The nucleus of the generative cell forms two
Ornithophilous flowers are usually large in size. male gametes by mitotic division. The pollen tube
They have tubular or funnel shaped corollas. The eventually enters the ovule through its micropyle and
flowers are brightly coloured (such as red, yellow, embryo sac through one of the synergids. Later on;
orange, blue, etc.) which attract birds from long the two male gametes (sperms) are discharged in the
distances. Humming bird pollinates while hovering embryo sac.
over the flowers and sucking nectar.
One of the male gametes fuses with the egg,
Pollination by bats (chiropterophily). The bats resulting in the production of zygote. This is called
are nocturnal flying mammals, which move swiftly syngamy. The second male gamete fuse with two
and transport pollen grains to long distances. The polar nuclei (or the secondary diploid nucleus),
flowers they visit are large, dull-coloured and have producing a triploid primary endosperm nucleus.
strong scent. Chiropterophilous flowers produce This is called triple fusion. Thus, in an embryo sac
abundant pollen grains and secrete more nectar there occur two sexual fusions: one in syngamy, and
than the ornithophilous flowers. Bats carry out the the other in triple fusion. This phenomenon is called
pollination in Adansonia and Kigelia. double fertilisation.
Need and Significance of Pollination Significance of Double Fertilisation

Pollination leads to fertilisation and production of Double fertilisation gives birth to the seed embryo
seeds and fruits, which ensure continuity of plant (diploid) and to the endosperm (triploid). The
life. endosperm supplies food material to the developing
embryo, due to which the embryo is differentiated
The pollination, especially cross-pollination,
properly leading to the formation of seed. It provides
results in the production of plants with a combination
some characteristic of the male parent to the nutritive
of characters from two plants.
tissue or endosperm.
1. It prevents ovary abscission.
2. It stimulates the growth of the ovary. Endosperm and Embryo Development
The role of pollination in the production of The endosperm in angiosperms develops from the
hybrid seeds has been of great significance. primary endosperm nucleus, which is formed as
a result of triple fusion. It is a nutritive tissue that
The seeds and fruits are also a source of nutrition supplies food material to the growing embryo and
for animals, including humans. also the seedling. The primary endosperm nucleus
is triploid (as it is formed by the fusion of one of
Pollen Germination and Fertilisation the male gametes with two polar nuclei). It divides
Pollen grains, which fall on the stigma, are held by its to form a large triploid endosperm. There are three
sticky secretion and start germinating in the presence types of endosperm based on first and subsequent
of moisture and nutrients available on the stigmatic divisions of primary endosperm nucleus.
disc. The nucleus of the pollen grain divides to 1. Nuclear type: In this type of endosperm,
produce vegetative and generative cells. A short primary endosperm nucleus undergoes repeated

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Introduction of this relationship. Parasitic organisms include

Parasitic nutrition. Parasites thrive on liquid food Steps of Holozoic Nutrition

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Nutritional Disorders One cause of goitre is iodine deficiency. The

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Carbon Dioxide Nutrient Supply

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Significance of Photosynthesis Level 1: Elementary Questions

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(a) butter is an animal product; 46. Vitamin A is produced from carotene in

45. A deficiency of vitamin A results in 55. Vitamin that is destroyed on heating is

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72. The chief constituents of Hill reaction are 3. Photosystem II occurs in

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10. Grana refers to (a) red light (b) blue light

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42. The example of a saprophyte is (a) Fe and Mg

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Level 2: Conceptual Questions

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46. (a) 47.

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Introduction Tracheal respiration is met only among the

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Transport of Carbon Dioxide (c) In combination with amine group of protein: