From Teacher Policy To Quality Teacher - UNESCO

JAK/EDU/2021/03
Brunei · Indonesia · Malaysia · The Philipines · Timor Leste

From Teacher Policy to Quality Teachers:
A Training Manual
UNESCO Office, Jakarta

Jl. Galuh II No. 5
Kebayoran Baru
Jakarta 12110, Indonesia
©UNESCO 2021
Editor
Mee Young Choi, Ph.D
Authors
Prof. Kamisah Osman Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Prof. Lilia Halim Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Hazrati Husnin, Ph.D Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Cindy Wong Chyee Chen, Ph.D Institute of Teacher Education
Rajang Campus
The publication of this report would not have been possible without
the assistance provided by Rusyda and Nadia Balqis Adris.
Disclaimer
*The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout
this report do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the
part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of any country, territory,
city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation
of its frontiers or boundaries.
The ideas and opinions expressed in this report are those of the authors;
they are not necessarily those of UNESCO and do not commit
the Organization.
F O R E W O R D
It brings me great honor to present the to all instructors working in the teacher
“From Teacher Policy to Quality Teacher: support system in five nations. It covers
A Training Manual,” which was prepared all relevant themes, from teachers as
by a renowned group of educators. I want curriculum designers to teachers as
to express my heartfelt appreciation to policy drivers, and includes policies,
the team and everyone involved with the procedures, and measures aimed at
publication. equipping teachers with the information,
attitudes, competencies and abilities they
Quality education was always a focused need to carry out their responsibilities
objective for socio-economic progress in effectively. I strongly hope that the practical
society or in a country. Human civilization examples and materials in this manual
history has demonstrated that education inspire instructors to create additional
helps to decrease inequities and is essential activities and share them with colleagues
to develop tolerance and peaceful nations. to promote quality education for all while
Teachers therefore play an essential role as also improving their knowledge and skills
key players in educational institutions to through a lifelong learning pathway and
accomplish the aim of quality education. continuous professional development,
Teachers need to be fully trained and where reflection in and on action is
equipped with pedagogical content anecessary component of the lifelong
knowledge so that what the Sustainable learning skill.
Development Goal 4.0 stipulates is
meaningfully translated into the teaching The practical guide and collection of
process: “Ensure inclusive and equitable proposed activities embedded in this
qualitative education and promote lifelong training manual is also intended to
learning opportunities for all.” provide teachers and school leaders with
the content and necessary solutions in
The COVID-19 pandemic has catalyzed revisioning the nature of teaching, content,
educators’ concerns and, thus, opportunity students, as well as understanding each
for rapid adaptations and changes toward country education’s aspirations. May this
SDG4 success. As the pandemic spreads manual contribute to the improvement
across the globe, this timely effort enables of educational quality and teacher
the rapid implementation of adaptive effectiveness towards quality education for
responses to emerging educational all.
challenges through the manual’s topics,
which include Teachers as Curriculum
Designers, Teachers as Learning Designers,
Thank you
Teachers as Resource Developers, Teachers
as Learning Doctors, Teachers as Reflective
Practitioners, and Teachers as Policy
Mohamed Djelid
Drivers.
Director of UNESCO Jakarta
Hence, this training manual was created UNESCO Representative to Brunei
with the explicit purpose of providing Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, the
valuable materials and practical knowledge Philippines, and Timor-Leste
Content Contributors Iv
Foreword V
00 Introduction: Overview Of The Teacher Training Manual Ix
01 Teachers As Curriculum Designers 05

Introduction 07
Elements Of Curriculum 08
Learning Objectives 09
Educational Goals, Educational Objectives And Instructional Objectives 09
Instructional Objectives 10
How Do We Write An Instructional Objective? 10
Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives 13
Cognitive Domain 14
Affective Domain 16
Table of Contents
Psychomotor Domains 17
Learning Content 18
Teaching Methods 19
Evaluation 20
Constructive Alignment And Evaluation Plan 21
Conclusion 22
Reflection 23
Suggested Readings 23
02 Teachers As Learning Designers 25

Introduction 27
Tpack – Its Components 28
Instructional Design Model 30
Addie (Analysis, Design, Develop, Implement, Evaluate) 31
Gagne 9 Events Of Instruction 32
Instructional Strategies 33
Microlearning 34
Role Of Technology In Teaching And Learning (Digital Learning) 36
Web 2.0 Tools 38
Multimedia Learning 40
Conclusion 40
Reflection 41
03 Teachers As Resource Developers 43

Introduction 45
Effective Learning Resources 46
Purpose Of Resources In Teaching And Learning 46
Types Of Learning Resource 47
Principles In Developing Learning Resource 47
Contextual And Experiential Learning 48
Contextual Learning 48
Experiential Learning 49
Resource Developer’s Role In Contextualized Learning Experiences 51
Development Of Learning Resources 52
Low-Cost Learning Resource 53
Considerations In Developing Learning Resources 54
Learning Resource Materials For Students 55
Learning Kit And Study Guide 55
Examples Of Learning Resources 56
Conclusion 57
Reflection 57
04 Teachers As Learning Doctors 59
Table of Contents
Introduction 61
Test, Measurement And Evaluation 62
Why We Need To Evaluate Our Students 63
Types Of Assessment 64
Norm And Criterion Referenced Evaluation 64
Phases Of The Evaluation Process (Formative Vs. Summative Evaluation) 64
The Criteria Of Good Assessment 67
Reliability 67
Methods Of Estimating Reliability 67
Test-Retest 68
Parallel Forms Or Equivalence 68
Split Half Methods 69
Factors That Influence Reliability 70
Validity 71
Content Validity 72
Criterion Related Validity 72
Construct Validity 73
Relationship Between Validity And Reliability 74
Types Of Assessment 74
General Principles In Test Construction 76
Pitfalls In Assessment 78
Online Assessment 79
Assessment Of, As, For Learning 81
Conclusion 83
Reflecting On The Module 83
Suggested Reading 84
05 Teachers As Reflective Practitioners 85
Introduction 87
Concept Of Action Research 88
Definition Of Action Research 89
Characteristics Of Action Research 90
Models Of Action Research (Ar) 91
Steps In Conducting Action Research 93
Phase 1: Initial Reflection 93
Identify A Problem To Investigate 94
Phase 2: Planning For Action 95
Literature Review 95
Check List For Action Plan 95
Phase 3: Observation/Data Gathering 96
Phase 4: Reflection/ Re-Evaluate 98
Table of Contents
Sharing Outcomes Of Action Research 99

Ethical Considerations 100
Conclusion 100
Reflection 101
06 Teachers As Policy Drivers 105

Introduction 107
Learning Objectives 108
Understanding Educational Policies 108
How Does A Policy Develop? 111
Teachers As Policy Implementers 114
Teachers As Policy Developers 117
A Snapshot Of Implementing Policies Of Remote Teaching And Learning 120
(Pdpr): Policy To Action
Reflecting On This Module 122
Conclusion 122
00
INTRODUCTION:
OVERVIEW OF
THE TEACHER
TRAINING
MANUAL
Teaching is a process of lifelong learning. It begins even before one is recruited into a pre-
service training programme, when one’s observations and experiences as a student in a
classroom eventually shape one’s perspective and views about how to learn and teach.
The pre-service phase provides an opportunity to acquire knowledge, skills, and attitudes
necessary for effective teaching. During the induction phase as a novice teacher, a teacher
would continue to learn how to teach. This time, it’s about understanding the school culture
and the application of pre-service training theory to school realities. In other words, learning
to teach demands one to have the ‘learn-relearn-unlearn’ disposition of the twenty-first
century. This concept of “Learn-Relearn-Unlearn” is relevant for the teaching profession
because teacher policies are constantly in a state of flux to meet the demands of continuously
reforming educational policies as a result of educational innovations themselves, as well as
the challenges and demands from within and outside a particular country.
Based on the UNESCO Jakarta Office’s review of the teaching policy and plan (UNESC0
2020), there have been common challenges in executing teaching policies which could
impede the acceleration of the SDG4: Quality Education in terms of quality. The primary
obstacle was the lack of opportunities for professional development that resulted in the
following results. To begin, the education system has unskilled teachers that employ
ineffective teaching approaches, which not only demotivate pupils to study but also leave
them unable to address the needs of various students. Second, teachers were constrained
in their ability to implement the newly developed curriculum due to a shortage of teaching
materials or inadequate teaching and learning resources, which could result in inappropriate
curriculum implementation. Third, teachers lack opportunities to enhance their knowledge
and abilities on ICT-related expertise, and therefore all teachers in class should be prepared
to present their pupils with these ICT-based learning environments. Without a doubt, ICT
skills were a crucial prerequisite in the unprecedented COVID-19 outbreak.
02 / TEACHERS TRAINING MANUAL
KEY
Challenges
Poor supervision
Opportunity to
Untrained teachers Lack of teaching from the school
update one’s
who are using material or limited leaders who focus
knowledge and
inappropriate teaching and more ‘on the
skills in ICT related
teaching practices learning resources management and
knowledge
administration
The other significant barrier to the development of properly qualified teachers, as shown
in the five cluster nations, is attributed to insufficient monitoring by school administrators
who are more concerned with management and administration and have not taken the
initiative to identify teacher needs. Ineffective school leaders also contribute to the failure
to ensure that the newly modified curriculum is implemented in each cluster countries.
As a result, the assessment makes the following critical recommendations to resolve such
obstacles. First, a concerted effort should be made to develop high-quality teachers by a)
guiding and assisting teachers in ensuring alignment between learning outcomes, teaching
and learning approaches, and assessment mechanisms, and b) empowering teachers to
select alternative learning resources to supplement the curriculum elements in a creative
and innovative ways. Teachers should be guided in incorporating localised learning
materials creatively within the context of students’ everyday lives experiences, c) providing
teachers with opportunities to establish and design classroom environments and learning
opportunities that facilitate students’ use of technology to learn and communicate, and d)
offering opportunities for teachers to expand their knowledge and skills through a lifelong
learning pathway and continuous professional development, where reflection in and on
action as a key component of lifelong learning and enculturation are encouraged.
The second recommendation is to ensure that school leaders play an active role in the
implementation of new curriculum. They should be able to identify root causes and
problems encountered by teachers while implementing the curriculum, most notably a lack
of learning materials, and implement necessary measures to address them. Additionally,
school leaders should be able to collaborate and negotiate with educational stakeholders
to ensure that effective teacher policies are designed and implemented, while also securing
financial assistance or in-kind assistance, particularly in navigating learning challenges
during and post pandemic COVID-19 to ensure relevancy and sustainability.
This training manual presents content and strategies to better equipping teachers and
school administrators to work in schools that are in desperate need of revising the nature
of teaching, content, and pupils, as well as comprehending and realising each country’s
educational objectives. It is crucial to consistently improve the quality of teachers and
school leaders in the areas indicated in the recommendations based on the review of
INTRODUCTION / 03
teacher policy and plan (UNESCO 2020). Thus, the six modules in this manual address the
establishment of a teacher’s quality, which encompasses the educator’s essential principles
of curriculum, pedagogy, learning resources, and the disposition to be an informational and
reflective practitioner.
06 01
Curriculum
Policy Designers
Drivers
Scolarship for
05 Reflective
Teaching and
Learning (SoTL)
Learning
Designers 02
Practitioners
Learning Resources
Doctors Developers
04 03
Apart from being reflective, an effective teacher is encouraged to regard teaching as a

scholarly endeavour and to embrace the concept of Teaching and Learning Scholarship
(SOTL). This notion serves as the foundation for the training manual. As Shulman (2000)
emphasises, SOTL offers educators with an opportunity to develop their professionalism
by embracing the inherent commitments and possibilities inherent in becoming a
professional researcher or educator. Additionally, it promotes pragmatism by ensuring
that “one’s work as an educator is continually improving and achieving its objectives and
obligations to pupils.” SOTL is also tied to policy by giving “the capacity to react to legitimate
questions” about the quality and value of the work being done by external constituencies.
Thus, the manual’s material was created with the goal of preparing competent, reflective,
and lifelong learners through the integration of the concepts of continued professional
development, SOTL, and reflective practise. The modules’ fundamental principle is that a
good teacher must have the core knowledge necessary to address future challenges and
demand in four educational pillars: 1) Curriculum, 2) Delivery or modalities, 3) Teaching
resources, and 4) Assessment. Additionally, teachers as reflective practitioners and policy
makers are emphasised in order to enhance a culture of constant learning, relearn, and
unlearning in teachers.
Indeed, developing the capacity to learn, unlearn, and relearn will rely on a teacher’s or
practitioner’s scholarship of teaching and learning, and reflective thinking will be critical.
It is not only about acquiring new knowledge and techniques, but also about undoing old
misconceptions about what it takes to be a successful and an excellent teacher. It is hoped
that this training manual would inspire teachers to develop their SoTL, enabling them to
reflect on their practise, examine evidence about the relationship between practise and
student outcomes, and implement changes that improve teaching and learning for all
students. These assets are critical in overcoming huge educational hurdles and achieving
universal access to a high-quality education. Thus, this training manual is not a full package,
but rather the beginning of a well-organized collection of effective practises that will aid
teachers and school leaders in their pursuit of continual professional growth. We envision it
expanding over time to incorporate excellent examples and innovative ideas from teachers
and school administrators across the five cluster countries (Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, The
Philippines and Timor Leste).
01
INTRODUCTION / 07
TEACHERS AS
01
MODULE
CURRICULUM
DESIGNERS
INTRODUCTION
In this module, as Curriculum Designer, you will be exposed with knowledge of how to craft
an effective curriculum and hence design your teaching and learning activities meaningfully.
In guiding you to do so, four main pillars of curriculum will be discussed. Focus will then
be given to instructional objectives. Discussion about instructional objectives will not be
completed unless reference is made to Bloom Taxonomy - a widely referred taxonomy that
provides platform for identification of correct behaviors as learning objectives. In order to
ensure holistic students’ development, affective and psychomotor domains will also be
given equal emphasis. Finally, the concept of constructive alignment will also be discussed
and how this concept should be used as major frame of reference in fulfilling your role as
Curriculum Designer. It is hoped that information gained in this module will equip you with
the craftsmanship of curriculum design and be able to design your teaching and learning
activities which bring about meaningful learning experience for all students.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, students should be able to:
. Relate all four major elements in the curriculum;

. Create learning objectives which bring out holistic students’
development in terms of cognitive, affective and psychomotor;
. Apply constructive alignment in curriculum design process; and
. Discuss why assessment is crucially important in navigating
students learning.
Elements of Curriculum
The term “curriculum” has been defined by Hirst (1980) as a program of activities (by
teachers and students) designed so that students will attain certain educational objectives.
Based on this definition, three major implications for curriculum can be elaborated.
Curriculum decisions must be

intentionally, deliberately and
consciously planned activities.
Enshrined in the definition is the notion

What is that these activities are systematically
Curriculum planned so that the underlining
objectives will be fulfilled.
The means by which these

objectives are reached must be
specified; that is the teaching and
learning processes.
Early curriculum theorists suggest that in order to develop a design for a curriculum, it is
necessary first to identify its “basic elements” and be cleared how these elements relate to
one another. This implies that, as a part of a comprehensive theory of curriculum planning,
it is important to indicate just what kind of basic elements will serve satisfactorily as
organizing elements, of how these elements interact with each other. All curricula, no what
their particular design, are composed of these four basics elements. Related to these four
elements are four basic questions that need to be answered in the construction of a new
curriculum. What is to be done? What subject matter should be organized? What methods
and organization are to be employed? and How are the results to be appraised? Indeed,
these four basic elements of the curriculum objectives, content, methods and evaluation
do not constitute neat, discreet categories, but are closely interrelated and influence one
another.
TEACHERS AS CURRICULUM DESIGNERS / 09
Think
Have you heard about “written curriculum” and “active

curriculum”?
The former is the intended curriculum, usually
embodied in official documents which specifies
specific educational level, content etc. The “active
curriculum”, on the other hand is what actually
happens in the classroom as experienced by the
students.
Learning Objectives
Learning objectives or commonly known as instructional objectives are the most important
element in curriculum design. But before that, we have to understand the differences
between the broad educational goals, educational program objectives and instructional
objectives. This may be a suitable time for you to revisit the curriculum that you are
implementing. Illustration below will help you differentiate all those three important
objectives in curriculum design.
Educational Goals, Educational Objectives and Instructional Objectives

Obviously, as someone who is taking charge at classroom level, you will have little input in
the formulation of either goals, or general educational program objectives. Thus, for the
remainder of this unit, we will be focusing on instructional objectives or commonly known
as learning objectives
Instructional objectives
Instructional objectives specify what students will be able to do when teachers have
completed the instruction. Sometimes, instructional objectives may also be referred as
performance objectives, behavioral objectives or objectives. All of these terms are used
interchangeably in designing teaching and learning. Objectives are specific, outcomes
based, measurable and describe the students’ behavior. Characteristics of instructional
objectives that could be used as guidelines when formulating instructional objectives can
be summarized as follow.
Figure 3: Characteristics of Instructional Objectives
How Do We Write an Instructional Objective?

Well written instructional objectives have four parts and call these parts with the acronym
ABCD’s instructional objectives. The A stand for Audience, the B represents Behaviour, the
C stands for Conditions and the D for Degree of Accuracy. It was then suggested that each
instructional objective is written in sentence format and should contain the A, B, C and
D. Hopefully, by taking a closer look at each of A, B, C and D as described below, you will
acquire the pre-requisite skills necessary to underline appropriate instructional objectives.
The ABCD’s of Instructional Objectives
Criteria Description
 The audience is the group of learners that the objective is written
Audience for. This is usually written “the learner” or “the students”. However, it
can be written as specific as “The third-grade students”
 The behaviour is the verb that describes what the leaner (audience)
will be able to do after the instruction. This is the heart of the objective
Behaviour and MUST be measurable. Additionally, these verbs MUST be specific.
Verbs such as know, understand, comprehend, appreciate are difficult
to measure and are therefore not good choices for objectives.
 Conditions are circumstances under which the objective must

be completed. What will the instructor allow the student to use in
Conditions
order to complete the instruction? What equipment or tools can the
student have access to such as a calculator, map class notes, etc.
 The degree identifies the standard that the learner must meet
to reach acceptable performance. In other words, what degree
Degree
the accuracy does the learner have to meet in order that his/her
performance be judged proficient?
From the information given, in general, instructional objectives (if properly written) will
inform us about three important things:
. What learners will be able to do when they are finished learning – expressed in terms
of observable behavior;
. How well they will be able to do it; and
. Under what conditions will learners be able to perform the specified behavior
On looking at the first tenet of an instructional objective - observable behavior, it is difficult

to know what students have actually learned in each lesson. The best that we can do is
to infer what they have learned from their behavior. Thus, the objective of science lesson
for instance, “help students understand differences between meiosis and mitosis” does
not describe students’ behavior. Rather it describes what the teacher is planning to do.
Additionally, the statement “students will really understand the differences between
meiosis and mitosis” may be the real goal, but is too ambiguous to measure. It does identify
student learning, but we have no clues as to how students will demonstrate what they know
about differences between meiosis and mitosis. Let’s us consider verbs in the following
statements:
. Students will list the three forms of sexual reproduction

. Students will label the five main parts of a flower
. Students will balance acid base titration equation
. Students will understand the importance of science on their daily lives
Can you identify which statement is measurable? If your answer is statement 1 to 3, then
you are correct. The verbs “list”, “label” and “balance” indicate observable student behaviour.
The verb “understand” as indicated in statement 4 provides no clue as to how students will
demonstrate what they know. A more precise and correct statement should be “students
will list three ways the knowledge of science may help them at home” or “students will
defend in a paragraph the reasons why all students should study science”.
Thus, having a written statement of student learning in terms of observable behaviour,

a teacher has addressed the most important part of an instructional objective. It seems
in reality, many teachers quit here. Teachers, who include “condition” to their objectives,
add details, which will be of help when they plan how to measure student learning. In
understanding this, you can refer at the objective above. The phrase “…defend in paragraph…”
helps us know more about what students will be expected to do in order to demonstrate that
they understand the importance of science. Besides, you will also need to tell whether the
task should be completed is an open book condition or merely from memory, or whether
there is time limit, or with what materials the students will be provided for completing the
test. Examine these two statements. Can you identify which one lists important conditions?
. The students will label the parts of flower

. Given a list of major flower parts, the students will write function of each part
Obviously, the second statement lists conditions – it states that the students tell function of
each flower part that is given by the teacher. In addition to that, do you need to write that
the students would be given a drawing of a typical flower or that students would be given
the list of flower parts or allowed to use notes from a previous lesson? Any or all of these
may have been included as conditions! Guidelines for formulating instructional objectives
can be summarized as follow.
Begin each objective with

an “action verb” which
depicts definite, observable
behaviour
01
02 State each objective

in terms of students
performance
03
State each objective as a
learning product (outcome
or terminal behaviour)
04 State only one outcome or

behaviour in each objective
05
Make objective clear, brief
and unambigous
06 Start with a phrase such as

“At the end of this lesson,
the student will be able to”
Do not include trivial

objectives 07
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
The idea for this classification system was formed at an

informal meeting of college examiners attending the
1948 American Psychological Association Convention
in Boston. At this meeting, interest was expressed
in a theoretical framework which could be used to
facilitate communication among examiners. After
considerable discussion, there was agreement that
such a theoretical framework might best be obtained
through a system of classifying the goals of the
educational process, since educational objectives
provide the basis for designing curricula and tests. The
theoretical framework is then finalised as a complete
taxonomy in three major parts: cognitive, affective and
psychomotor
Doing
Educational
Objective
Psychomotor
Feeling
Affective
Cognitive
Thinking
Cognitive Domain
As illustrated below, the levels are presumed to be hierarchical Bloom Revised Taxonomy of
cognitive domain. Higher-level objectives can only be attainted, if someone has acquired skills
at lower level. As you could see, each level of cognitive domain has different characteristics
and each of these is best described with examples of action verbs. Additionally, we could
also relate the taxonomy with thinking skills (lower, higher) and learning activities (passive,
active).
Tacitly, Bloom Taxonomy provides a way of categorizing thinking and reasoning into
a hierarchy of skills. Good evaluation, will initiate students’ thinking in a variety of these
behaviours. The following is a useful guide for selecting verbs for writing objectives for
classroom measurement and evaluation. As you could see from the example given, the
sample verbs are carefully integrated to form learning objectives, which measure a particular
level of cognitive skill.
Classify,
Compare
Contrast, Compose,
Explain, Analyse, Construct,
Demonstrate, Classify, Create, Design,
Extend, Compare, Develop,
Illustrate, Conclude, Discuss,
Interpret Simplify Formulate
UNDERSTANDING ANALYSING CREATING
REMEMBERING APPLYING EVALUATING
Remembering, Apply, Build Appraise,

Define, List, Choose, Model Assess,
Recall, Relate, Construct, Conclude,
Select, Relate Plan Develop, Criticize,
Spell Organise Deduct,
Select, Solve Defend
People learn quickly when they feel

safe, relaxed, included, interested. They
resist learning when they feel unsafe,
excluded, stressed, or see no purpose to
learning new material. Motivation has
intrinsic (curiosity, appreciation, love of
learning, interest) and extrinsic (grades,
praise, completion of certification)
factors to stimulate learning.
Affective Domain
The Affective Taxonomy, which describes objectives that reflect underlying emotions,
feelings, or values, has been developed by Kartwohl, Bloom, and Masia (1964). The Affective
Taxonomy describe a process by which another person’s, group’s or society’s ideas, beliefs,
customs, attitudes, and so on are gradually accepted and internalized by a different person,
group or society. Such process will begin with minimal, partial, or incomplete acceptance of
an alternative point of view (receiving) and culminate with the complete integration of this
point of view into individual’s personal belief system (characterization).
Think
Can you explain why student

journal has been suggested
by many as an excellent way
to measure the attainment of
affective outcomes?
Psychomotor Domains
In addition to cognitive and affective domain, a taxonomy of psychomotor domain has
been created by Harrow (1972). A Taxonomy of Psychomotor domain includes virtually all
behaviours, from speaking to flying an airplane, which are categorized as reflex, fundamental
movements, perceptual abilities, physical abilities, skills movements and non-discursive
communication.
As compared to cognitive and affective domain, the psychomotor domain and its relevant
verbs and categories have been less well articulated, at mostly all level of education. In
most cases, the manifestation of psychomotor skills is demonstrated through activities in
Physical Education classes or Science laboratory and practical work activities. In almost
every situation, the acquisition of psychomotor skills is measured while students actually
demonstrate those skills.
Learning Content
Math
Music Science
Information
Islamic
Communication
Education Technology (ICT)
Moral
Art
Education
Physical
Design &
& Health
Technology
Education
Content refers to compendium of information which comprises the learning materials

for a particular course. However, the compendium of information that structures the
content of the curriculum is not only restricted to the factual content (theories, principles,
concepts etc.), but also encompasses the organizing principles by which facts are related
to conceptual structures of the mind, the skills, the attitudes and values to be nourished
(Eggleston, 1980). How to effectively develop learning resources will be covered in Module
Two and Three.
Teaching Methods
Changes in human behavior, for example in the ways of thinking, in operating concepts
develop gradually and slowly. Many researchers have argued that no single unique learning
experience has a very profound influence upon the learner in itself. It is by the accumulation
of educational experiences that profound changes are brought about in the learner. Taba
(1962) has reminded that effective learning methodologies is one of the critical tasks of
curriculum designers because often the curriculum is ineffective not because its content is
inadequate, but because it is put together in a way that makes learning difficult, or because
learning experiences are organized in a way that makes learning either less efficient or less
productive that it might be.
Appropriate planning of learning opportunities involves a network of relationships between
students, teaching materials, the organization of content, its manner of presentation to
students and the activities the students and teachers carry out, and due to its complexity, it
has received more attention that the other elements in the curriculum (Nicholls & Nicholls
1978). Besides effective methods, the organization of learning opportunities is important for
effective learning to take place. When considering about learning organization, there are
there major criteria that need to be met – continuity, sequence and integration
Continuity Sequence Integration
Vertical reiteration Successive Horizontal

of major curriculum experiences build relationship
elements upon the preceding of curriculum
ones experience
ORGANISATION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES
In search for efficient continuity, sequence and integration, the curriculum designers’
insights will be focused on the nature of the subject and the learning theories associated
to it. Indeed, learning theories offer guidelines for designing effective learning experiences.
Further discussion on how to design an effective learning experience will be covered in
Module Two.
Evaluation
Evaluation
Value Judgement
Assessment
Documentation
Think
Measurement
Data in numerical values Can you explain the
meaning of test,
measurement, assessment
and evaluation?
Test
Measure skills and
knowledge
It is widely accepted that evaluation is a process which seeks to change the behavior
patterns of learners. It should be noted that these changes not only include the mastery
of content, i.e. “knowing what” but also include the reactions of students to this content,
such as ways of thinking and skills in “knowing how”. Thus, the ultimate stage in curriculum
design require an evaluation procedure to take place in order to determine what changes
have taken place and appraise them against the values represented in instructional
objectives. Besides, evaluation is always regarded as phase in the process of constructing
and reconstructing curricula. Its purpose is to see whether curriculum objectives are being,
or have been achieved and should be carried out from time to time to ensure that the
objectives are achieved.
A test blueprint refers to the technique used to help us remember how to write objectives
and test items at different levels. Much like the blueprint for building is to guide building
construction, test blueprint ensures that teachers will not overlook details that need to be
considered in order to produce a valid ensures that a test will sample whether learning
has taken place across the range of (i) content areas covered, and (ii), cognitive processes
that are involved. Certainly, a test blueprint is essential to good test construction and
serves a number of purposes. First, it serves as a guide for test developers as they write
test questions and construct the tests. Second, it serves as a guide to educators, parents,
and students in that they show the coverage of the test and which parts of the content are
assigned for reporting category, the number of items in each category and on the total test.
As a rule of thumb, the blueprint should be assembled before you actually begin a unit of
instruction and the following are important questions need to be asked before designing
a test blueprint.
Constructive Alignment and Evaluation Plan

Based on the discussion so far, we have seen that evaluation is one of the most important
aspects in designing a curriculum. It plays a pivotal role in students’ learning and
understanding. Hence, a well-designed evaluation plan and its effective implementation
will certainly encourage students to enculture deep learning and information processing
on part of themselves. Biggs and Tang (2007) emphasises that all teaching learning
activities and evaluation have to be paralleled with the learning objectives and learning
outcomes. At its most basic, the model requires alignment between the three key areas of
the curriculum, namely, the intended learning objectives, what the student does in order to
learn (learning activities) and how the student is evaluated.
Constructive alignment recognizes “knowledge is constructed by the activities of the
learner” rather than being directly transferable from teacher to student. “Learning takes
place through the active behavior of the student: it is what he does that he learns, not
what the teacher does.” (Tyler, 1949). Alignment occurs when the learning activities that we
ask students to engage in help them to develop the knowledge, skills and understandings
intended for the unit and measured by our assessment. A constructively aligned curriculum
capitalizes on the powerful effect of assessment on students’ learning experiences. If
assessment drives students’ learning, then students are most likely to achieve our intended
outcomes if the assessment is aligned with our intentions. In other words, constructive
alignment promotes that assessment should be at the forefront of students’ learning
activities. As curriculum designers, the application of constructive alignment in designing
learning will encourage teachers to continuously reflect upon the effectiveness of their
teaching and learning approaches as well evaluation procedures. This will then lead towards
innovation and enculturation of continuous quality improvement. On part of the learners
themselves, they will eventually comprehend which aspect of learning outcomes that they
need to improve and hence equip them with necessary knowledge, skills and disposition
required in fulfilling their roles and responsibilities as active learners.
CONCLUSION
Constructivist Learning and Learning

Aligned Curriculum
Continuous Quality Improvement
REFLECTION
This module has taught me to answer the following important questions:
. Learning outcomes are the ends (products) whereas learning activities are the
means (processes) to the ends;
. A taxonomy of educational objectives helps categories objectives at different levels
of cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains;
. How to make sure learning is meaningfully organized and delivered to my students;
. A test blueprint which contains the number of items to be constructed per objective
as well as their level of cognitive complexity must be drawn to guide item writing
and test construction; and
. The concept of constructive alignment has three important implication: constructivist
teaching and learning approaches, an aligned curriculum and continuous quality
improvement.
INSTRUCTOR’S CHECKLIST NO 1
. Explain the importance of understanding national educational policy in

designing curriculum.
. Justify why we need to make sure cognitive, affective as well as psychomotor
domains to be holistically considered in underlining instructional objectives?
. Based on Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy of cognitive domain, can we categorize
every level into lower and higher order of thinking?
. Explain how the concept of constructive alignment help us in making sure
deep learning on part of the students.
. Why it is advisable to put learning at the forefront of teaching and learning
processes?
Suggested Readings
Anderson, L.W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing,
Abridged Edition. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Biggs, J. & Tang, C. (2007). Teaching for quality learning at university. 3rd Edition. Society for
Research into Higher Education & Open University Press. New York, USA: McGraw Hill.
Bloom, B., Englehart, M., Furst, E., Hill,W, & Krathwohl, D. (1956) Taxonomy of educational
objectives. New York, N.Y.: David McKay.
Eggleston, J. (1980). Action and re-action in science teaching, in M. Galton (eds). Curriculum
change: Leicester: Leicester University Press
Harrow, A.J. (1972) A Taxonomy of the psychomotor domain: A guide for developing
behavioural bjectives. McKay New York.
Hirst, P. (1980). The logic of curriculum development. In M. Galtons (Eds). Curriculum change.
Leicester: Leicester University Press.
Krathwohl, D., et al. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives, handbook II: Affective
domain. New York: Mc Kay
Nicholls, A. & Nicholls, S.H. (1978). Developing a curriculum: A practical guide. 2nd Edition.
London: Allen and Edwin.
Taba, H. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. Harcourt: Brace and World.
Tyler, R.W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press.
02
TEACHERS
02
MODULE
AS LEARNING
DESIGNERS
INTRODUCTION
The Teachers as Learning Designers section highlights the current modalities for creating
an effective learning environment. This section describes the role of the teacher as a learning
designer. This section introduces Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK),
a knowledge and skills that the teachers need to acquire and follow through instructional
design models (ADDIE and Gagne nine events of instruction). Then, to complement
knowledge and skills in designing teaching and learning, instructional strategies and
methods such as flipped classroom, collaorative learning and microlearning are introduced.
In addition, the role of technology and its derivatives (e.g., Web 2.0 tools and the like) are
also presented in equipping teachers with comprehensive TPACK knowledge and skills and
hence fullfill their roles as instructional designers.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
. At the end of this section, learners will be able to:

. Understand the role of TPACK
. Understand the role of instructional design
. Differentiate instructional strategies for various
learning environments
. Understand the affordances of technology
concerning pedagogy
TPACK – ITS COMPONENTS

The advent of digital technology has affected most aspects of our lives, including education.
Over time, teachers need to change the way they deliver teaching in the classroom to cope
with the evolving Generation Y and Z. The role of a teacher is no longer just teaching. To
ensure the quality of education, teachers need to play a more substantial role as learning
designers in designing lessons that can provide a meaningful learning experience (Laurillard,
2012). While changes are necessary to meet the needs of our students, it is essential to
maintain certain fundamental principles. In a way, it’s not just about revising the teaching
approach; Instead, it is about managing the changes and other intersection elements,
which can be viewed from the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge framework
or TPACK (Koehler & Mishra, 2009).
Technological
Pedagogical Content
Knowledge (TPACK)
Technological
Knowledge
(TK)
Technological Technological
Pedagogical Content Knowledge
Knowledge (TCK)
(TPK)
Content
Pedagogical Knowledge
Knowledge (PK) (CK)
Pedagogical Content
Knowledge
(PCK)
Contexts
Figure 1: Reproduced by permission of the publisher, © 2012 by tpack.org

TEACHERS AS LEARNING DESIGNERS / 29
Pedagogical Knowledge
Pedagogical Knowledge, PK refers to the how-to-teach knowledge – knowledge of the
processes and methods of teaching. Such knowledge includes understanding how
students learn, designing lessons, general classroom management skills, lesson planning,
and student assessment. (Koehler & Mishra, 2009).
Content Knowledge
Content Knowledge, CK refers to the what-to-teach knowledge– knowledge of a particular
subject matter to be learned or taught by a teacher. For example, calculus, the human
respiratory system, or literature. (Koehler & Mishra, 2009).
Technological Knowledge
Technological Knowledge, TK refers to specific ways of thinking about and working with
technology, tools, and resources. It includes understanding information technology broadly
enough to use it productively at work and in everyday life, recognise when information
technology can assist or impede the achievement of a goal, and continually adapt to
changes in information technology (Koehler & Mishra, 2009).
Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Pedagogical Content Knowledge, PCK, refers to the idea of knowledge of pedagogy that
refers to the teaching of specific content. Specifically, according to Shulman (1986), this
transformation occurs as the teacher interprets the subject matter and finds effective
teaching methods. PCK also covers teaching, learning, curriculum, and assessment (Koehler
& Mishra, 2009).
Technological Content Knowledge

Technological Content Knowledge, TCK, refers to teachers’ understanding of how technology
can support teaching or represent subject matter content. Teachers need to understand
which specific technologies are best suited for addressing subject-matter learning in their
domains and how the content dictates or perhaps even changes the technology—or vice
versa (Koehler & Mishra, 2009).
Technological Pedagogical Knowledge

Technological Pedagogical Knowledge, TPK, refers to teachers’ understanding of how
technology can afford to fit the pedagogical aspect. Teachers should know how to utilise
pedagogical knowledge. It includes knowing the pedagogical affordances and constraints
of various technological tools related to disciplinarily and developmentally appropriate
pedagogical designs and strategies (Koehler & Mishra, 2009).
Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge, TPACK, refers to the teachers’ knowledge
of how technology can be utilised to manage the learning process, i.e. to fit into the
pedagogical and content aspects. TPACK support teachers in terms of designing instruction
for successful learning. (Koehler & Mishra, 2009).
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODEL

Instructional design can be defined as an iterative process that includes planning learning
objectives and outcomes, choosing effective strategies for teaching and learning, selecting
relevant technologies, identifying educational media, and measuring performance (Branch
and Kopcha, 2014, p . 77). Smith and Ragan defined instruction design as the systematic
and reflective process of translating principles of learning and instruction into plans for
teaching materials, activities, information resources, and evaluation (Smith and Ragan,
2005, p. 4). Although there are many views in defining the term, it is seen that these terms
have the elements of analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. It has
served as the fundamental backbone of many instructional design models from the outset
of many authors (see also Dick, Carey and Carey, 2013; Morrison et al., 2012). It could also be
said that these models could be mapped to the generic instructional design model known
as ADDIE.
Analysis
Evaluate
Design
ADDIE
Implement
Develop
ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Develop, Implement, Evaluate)
ADDIE evolved and influenced some of the early work on instructional design, which
continues today. Although there is no direct reference as to where and who invented
ADDIE, this model developed as an umbrella to capture the significant instructional design
process. Branch described the ADDIE model as an effective tool to create productive learning
resources, as it served as a grounded framework for any design situation. It is particularly
true for instructional design since most of the phases in any instructional design models
share the same structure as those in the ADDIE model.
ADDIE
Phases
01 01 01 01 01
Plan and design
the appropiate
Analysis context Preparing
teaching assessing the
and identifying Generating and the learning
method to fill quality of the
the possibilities validating the environment and
in the desired instructional
of a performance learning resources engaging learners
performance and product
gap with the resources
a fair assessment
method
Analysis Design Develop Implement Evaluate
In general, the ADDIE phase begins with analysing context and identifying the possibilities
of a performance gap (analysis phase). The next activity is planning and designing the
appropriate method to fill in the desired performance and a fair assessment method
(design phase). In the development phase, the process entails generating and validating
the learning resources. Later, the implementation phase involves preparing the learning
environment and engaging learners with the resources. Finally, the evaluation phase
involves assessing the quality of the instructional product.
Gagne 9 Events of Instruction
The well-known Robert Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction is based on the behaviourist
approach to learning, and it can be used as guidance to design lessons for most learning
conditions. With the advancement of technology, some events can be integrated with
technology to help students achieve their learning goals. The nine events are as follows:
Begin the lesson by presenting a stimulus
01
Gain the student’s attention to capture the learner’s attention.
Example: by telling a story or showing a
video on YouTube for a thought-starter.
02
Inform the students of the learning Inform students of the
objective and what they will do at the end
of the lesson.
objectives
Do a quick walkthrough of previous

classes to stimulate recall of prior learning
Stimulate recall of prior - help students make sense of the new
learning 03 knowledge. For example: by asking them
to reflect on previous experience.
Choose a suitable strategy to present

the content. For example: lecture,
demonstration, group project, and media
integration. 04 Present the content
Provide guidance to support student’s

Provide learner guidance 05 learning — instructional support. For
example: scaffolding and mind maps.
Provide activities that allow students

to apply what they have learned — to
assess their understanding of the content
presented. For example: formative 06 Elicit performance
assessment such as quizzes.
Provide feedback as a response to
07
student’s performance. For example: by
Provide feedback providing students with constructive
feedback to help them improve.
Assess whether the learning outcomes

have been achieved. For example: by
providing pre-test and post-test to
students and rubrics to assess student’s 08 Assess performance
assignments.
Provide activities that can help students

retain knowledge on what they have
Enhance retention and
transfer to the job 09 learned and apply it in a different
context. For example: by asking students
to relate the knowledge gained to solve a
different problem.
Even though presented in a linear sequence, the order of the events is not always followed
precisely. Depending on the situation, learning context and types of students, not all the
events are explicitly employed in instruction. Many models can be as a guideline to design a
lesson or topic (See Section 4.0). However, it will depend on the context, such as the nature
of the subject matter, the type of students we’re dealing with, and the time it takes to
prepare the materials.
INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES
Instructional strategies are a strategy that teachers use in designing and delivering lessons
to students. Choosing instructional strategies will organise the content that allows students
to understand better, enabling them to stay focused and help in information retention.
Various strategies can be used, and they differ depending on the context, such as the
learning environment, nature of the content, and type of students. This section covers
some examples of strategies in the learning continuum ranging from face-to-face to fully
online learning.
Face-to-face Blended
Online learning
learning learning
Cooperative learning
Cooperative learning is a strategy that
can be used in face-to-face learning. In
cooperative learning, students work on
tasks or projects in small groups. Teachers
are actively involved and provide guidance
or resources to the students. The tasks are
structured so that each student in the
group has responsibility for a small part of
the tasks or projects that contribute to the
completion of the task.
Suggested classroom activity: Think-pair-share

Collaborative learning
Collaborative learning is another form of

strategy used in face-to-face learning. This
strategy is quite similar to cooperative
learning but differs in terms of the role of
the teacher. In collaborative learning, the
teacher is not obliged to monitor the group
work. However, the teacher can facilitate
the students if needed. Students progress
while working together to find a solution to
a problem or completing projects.
Suggested classroom activity: Group project

and gallery walk
Flipped classroom
A flipped classroom is a strategy of blended
learning that combines traditional face-
to-face learning and online learning with
technology integration. A typical example
is that students were asked to watch a
video lecture via Youtube before attending
the class. Meanwhile, during the lesson,
the time is dedicated to discussion based
on the video they watch on Youtube.This
strategy allows deep and active learning as
the students actively participate during the
learning process.
Suggested tools: Google Classroom (resources

platform), YouTube (video) Genially (interactive
presentation)
Microlearning
Microlearning is one of a strategy that suits the online learning mode. Microlearning
is characterised by chunking, whereby the content of a subject matter is recoded and
delivered in chunks for learners to study at their own pace. Content can take many forms,
from text to fully interactive multimedia presentation. Chunking helps to increase working
memory capacity, promote information retention, and avoiding cognitive overload.
Content
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
Suggested Readings
Shopping list
Introduction to
Shopping list Micro Learning
Dairy Product
Eggs
Eggs, Milk
Milk
Cabbage
Fruits and Vegetables
Apples
Cabbage, Tomatoes,
Bread
Apples
Tomatoes
Biscuits
Bakery
Bread, Biscuits
Suggested tools: Powtoon (animation), Canva (Infographic), Genially (interactive presentation)
Gamification
Gamification is an instructional strategy that

has been employed widely in education.
It uses game elements and experience
in delivering teaching and learning.
Gamification allows students to engage
in the learning process and helps them
to achieve the learning objective. Studies
also showed the benefit of gamification
in increasing students’ motivation and
promotes behavioural change. Some of
the game elements used in teaching and
learning vary, ranging from classroom to
online learning.
Suggested tools: Genially (interactive

gameboard), Kahoot and, classroom leader
board.
Challenges or Obstacles
Badges
Challenges or obstacles
Badges in gamification refer
in gamification motivate
to a symbol representing
students to complete
rewards or achievement
the activities given to
upon accomplishing
them. By increasing
a task in an activity.
challenges, students
Badges motivate
will have to maximize
students to complete
or utilize the knowledge
activities and create
acquired to complete the
student’s satisfaction.
activity before earning
points or badges as their
achievement.
Leader boards Points

Leader boards display Points refer to the unit
student’s names to measure students’
based on points and progression while
levels. Employing a engaging with the
leader board in the learning activities.
classroom helps students For example, a group
access their achievements. will be announced as the
winner upon getting 10
points during a quiz.
Progress
Progress in gamif ication
can be in the form of a progress
bar, levels or number of points. For
example, the progress bar motivates
students to try scoring more points by
answering correctly quizzes given to
them.
Based on your experience, what are other instructional strategies that you have used during your
lesson?
ROLE OF TECHNOLOGY IN TEACHING AND LEARNING (DIGITAL

LEARNING)
Digital natives’ students tend to immerse themselves, stay connected with the world, and
access information consistently. They perceive technology as part of their lives, which has
implications for learning, developing, and functioning in the classroom. While it may be
intimidating, adapting to the technology is crucial rather than drawing students away from
it. Teachers should manage teaching and learning via technology by providing information
and engage with them. The past decades have seen an increase in the use of technology.
The teachers are slowly starting to embrace technology in teaching and learning, which has
recently become more prominent due to the pandemic.
The use of technologies stimulated creative discussion about pedagogy and benefited the
students. Some of the key benefits are as follows:
The benefit of Multimedia: The advancement of digital technology allows us to have

complete access to multimedia. Teachers can illustrate and model difficult concepts and
complex processes by combining various media. The use of multimedia and interactivity
promotes active learning. Regardless of any subject matter, multimedia brings the
opportunity to present content efficiently. However, combining all media in a content
presentation might lead to cognitive overload. Therefore, thoughtful consideration should
be made in integrating multimedia elements in content delivery.
Text
The use of text in a multimedia

presentation is essential. Although
graphic or animation are more
dynamic, the text is still needed as
one of the critical elements in the
information delivery process. Clear
Video explanations need to be given to Interactivity
students, and the use of other
media such as graphics alone
Video is a multimedia element may not convey meaning Interactivity is also part of the
that may contain media such as as expected. elements needed to support
text, graphics, audio, etc. Video is the learning engagement in a
most dynamic and realistic element multimedia learning environment.
compared to other multimedia The form of interactivity includes
elements. Thus, the use of video students’ control and manipulation
can deliver learning content more of media, such as drag and drop
effectively. activity.
Audio Graphic
Audio refers to sound recordings, Graphics refer to various

narrator voice, music, special representations of static images or
effects, etc. The use of audio can visuals such as_ pictures, drawings
help present the content of a lesson and illustrations. The use of graphics
more effective. Audio can also create allows information to be conveyed
an engaging learning experience in more accurately. Graphics can also
multimedia delivery and increase Animation help in presenting the content of a
student motivation and focus. lesson in an exciting manner.
Animation refers to a dynamic

visual display that allows abstract
content to be explained more easily.
Therefore, it is often being used in
the simulation. It can also highlight
important points in a content
presentation, such as fade or
fly-in animation, as seen in a
PowerPoint presentation.
The benefit of getting connected. Recently, many have seen the benefit of online learning
and how it can suit learning needs (e.g., during pandemics). With the benefit of the internet,
teachers and students have access to learning beyond the classroom. Learning could be
enriched by presenting many forms of content to students and controlling the information
presented at their own pace. Learners can also receive automated feedback, for example,
through learning activities and quizzes through online platforms. Teachers and students can
interact and engage while learning on various platforms like Google Classroom, Microsoft
Teams or via instant messaging such as Telegram.
The figure above is an example of Virtual Walk – where students are using the platform to
showcase group projects. This example showed how students control their learning and get
feedback from peers through the synchronous and asynchronous comments section. Can you
think of another example of how an online platform can be utilised to support blended learning?
Technology bridging gap in learning. In a situation where the ideal learning context in
real life can be expensive, unsafe, or impossible to happen, technology can bridge the
gap by redesigning the learning. Technology such as augmented or virtual reality can be
used to design such a learning environment. Students benefit from this medium because
it can expose them to a more extensive and richer learning experience and replicate a
realistic environment. Students can interact and control learning via navigation and object
manipulation.
The benefit of motivation. Since computers and technology support a mix of media,
learning has become more accessible for students. Thus, it has positively impacted learners’
motivation. For example, helping reduce mental effort and increase students’ performance,
increasing their motivation (Kablan and Erden, 2008). Besides that, students are more
positive towards using technology in teaching and learning through exposure to and using
mixed media.
Web 2.0 tools
Web 2.0 is popularised by Tim O’Reilly. He defines Web 2.0 as “web-based platforms with
simple to use interfaces that enable users to contribute and share large amounts of
information collectively” (O’Reilly, 2007). Web 2.0 technology allows an application to run
on the internet without installing the application on the computer. With the advent of Web
2.0 tools, there was renewed interest in Web 2.0 tools. It gives opportunities for teachers
to create content and provide more interactive, collaborative, and creative online learning
experiences for students. There are many Web 2.0 applications available for education
purposes. Bower (2015) conducted a typological analysis on 200 Web 2.0 applications over
the internet. The result showed that the applications tools could be categorised into 14
categories:
Text-based Image-based Audio Video
Knowledge
Multimodal
Digital storytelling Website creation organization and
production
sharing
Assessment
Data analysis Timeline 3D Modelling
Synchronous
Social networking
collaboration tools
Web 2.0 applications stimulated creative discussion about pedagogy as our understanding
and views about learning evolved. A teacher should consider the pedagogical aspect,
which is the backbone of any instruction. Since teachers are both pedagogical and content
experts, they should be aware of the affordances of Web 2.0 technology and how it affords
to support teaching and learning. Teachers need to be able to personalise the use of web
2.0 applications to suit the needs of their respective students.
Let’s take an example of a class activity of using Web 2.0 application – Canva. Canva has
thousands of templates for the student to reuse and edit. Canva allows students to create
artwork such as an infographic since it has an editor that allows for text, graphics, and
images added to the layout. At this point of usage, Canva seems only to afford the ability
to create content. In terms of pedagogical perspective, the students did not benefit much
from class activity using Canva. However, adding other classmates as collaborators for the
Canva artwork expand the affordance of Canva from creating to collaborating to produce
a group artwork and shared it on social media such as Facebook for peer review. This kind
of activity supports student-centred and active learning. This example of class activity
showed that understanding the affordances of a technology help manage and promote a
meaningful learning experience. In other words, teachers should design learning activities
by matching both pedagogical and technological aspects (Jonassen, Lee, Yang, & Laffey,
2005).
In the example above, Canva can Suggested Readings

be categorised as an image-based
tool (based on Bower Web 2.0 A Typology of
typography). The application enables Web 2.0
collaboration to create and share Technologies
images. Pedagogical use is creating
an infographic to illustrate an idea.
Multimedia Learning
As described earlier, teaching and learning benefit from using technology in terms of
access to multimedia. Teachers frequently use text, graphics, animation, audio, and video in
printed handouts or PowerPoint presentations to create learning materials. Richard Mayer
described multimedia learning as a result of mental representation from words such as
spoken text or printed text and pictures such as illustrations, photos, animation, or video
(Mayer, 2014, p.2). Mayer outlined fundamental principles of multimedia learning as below:
Coherence Principle Pre-training Principle

People learn better when extraneous words, People learn better from a multimedia les-
pictures, and sounds are excluded rather son when they know the names and char-
than included. acteristics of the main concepts.
Signalling Principle Modality Principle

People learn better when cues that high- People learn better from graphics and nar-
light the organisation of the essential mate- rations than from animation and on-screen
rial are added. text.
Redundancy Principle Multimedia Principle

People learn better from graphics and People learn better from words and pic-
narration than from graphics, narration, and tures than from words alone.
on-screen text.
Spatial Contiguity Principle Personalisation Principle

People learn better when corresponding People learn better from multimedia les-
words and pictures are presented near rath- sons when words are conversational rather
er than far from each other on the page or than formal.
screen.
Temporal Contiguity Principle Voice Principle

People learn better when corresponding People learn better when the narration in
words and pictures are presented simulta- multimedia lessons is spoken in a friendly
neously rather than successively. human voice rather than a machine voice.
Segmenting Principle Image Principle

People learn better from a multimedia People do not necessarily learn better from
lesson when presented in user-paced seg- a multimedia lesson when the speaker’s
ments rather than a continuous unit. image is added to the screen.
Therefore, it is worth
considering these principles in Content
designing multimedia-based
instruction (for example,
creating animation via
Pedagogical
Powtoon) to support learners’
construction of knowledge
and promote learning. Technological
Teacher
CONCLUSION
This section viewed the role of a teacher as a learning designer. It highlighted the core
knowledge and skills needed for a teacher in designing learning based on the TPACK
framework, i.e. technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge, and understanding
the learning context. This chapter has also suggested various strategies for teaching and
learning based on classroom teaching, blended learning, and online learning environments.
The technology supporting learning was also presented by emphasising the Web 2.0
application and multimedia. Technology should not be viewed as a solution for every
situation. Teachers should consider pedagogical, content, and contextual before deciding
on integrating technology in teaching and learning. A teacher should always be aware that
learning is not the outcome of one factor, for example, the quality of learning material,
but a web of interaction and understanding. Teachers should see themselves as learning
designers and constantly explore new knowledge and skills to provide students with a
great learning experience.
REFLECTION
This unit has taught me to answer the following essential questions:
How do I reflect on my practice as a teacher?
. How do I value the importance of the pedagogical, content, and technological
knowledge in my teaching practice?
. How do I value the process of designing instruction (analyse, design, develop,
implement, and evaluate) in my teaching practice?
. How can I redesign my lesson from a classroom setting to a blended one with
different instructional strategies?
. How do I use different kinds of technology, such as Web 2.0 applications, to support
and deliver teaching and learning?
. Describe the role of teachers as learning designers from the

perspective of TPACK.
. Explain the five main phases in designing instruction.
. Explain why we need instructional design in teaching and learning.
. Why do teachers need to equip themselves with knowledge and
skills on technology such as Web 2.0 application?
. Why do we need to understand the affordances of technologies
before using them?
SUGGESTED READINGS
Bower, M. (2016). Deriving a typology of Web 2.0 learning technologies. British Journal of
Educational Technology. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12344
Branch, R. M., & Kopcha, T. J. (2014). Instructional design models. In Handbook of Research on
Educational Communications and Technology (pp. 77–87). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-
4614-3185-5_7
Dick, W., Carey, L., & Carey, J. O. (2013). The Systematic Design of Instruction (7th ed.). Pearson.
Gagne, R. M. (2008). Mastery learning and instructional design. Performance Improvement
Quarterly, 1, 7–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1937-8327.1988.tb00003.x
Jonassen, D. H., Lee, C. B., Yang, C.-C., & Laffey, J. (2012). The Collaboration Principle in
Multimedia Learning. In The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning. https://doi.
org/10.1017/cbo9780511816819.017
Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2009). What is technological pedagogical content knowledge?
Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education. Contemporary Issues in
Technology and Teacher Education.
Laurillard, D. (2012). Teaching as a design science: Building pedagogical patterns for learning
and technology. In Teaching as a Design Science: Building Pedagogical Patterns for
Learning and Technology. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203125083
Mayer, R. E. (2014). Incorporating motivation into multimedia learning. Learning and
Instruction, 29, 171–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2013.04.003
Morrison, G. R., Ross, S. M., Kalman, H. K., & Kemp, J. E. (2012). Designing Effective Instruction
(7th ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
O’Reilly, T. (2007). What is Web 2.0: Design and Business models for the Next Generation of
Software. Communications & Strategies.
Shulman, L. (1986). Those who understand: knowledge growth in teaching. Educational
Researcher, 15(2), 4–14.
Smith, P. L., & Ragan, T. J. (2005). Instructional design (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
03
TEACHERS AS
03
MODULE
RESOURCE
DEVELOPERS
INTRODUCTION
In the 21st century teaching and learning, there is an increased need for learning resource
materials in order to help students to learn effectively and meaningfully. But many existing
or commercial teaching and learning materials in the market are not suitable to use
directly for effective learning in the classroom. As developers of resource materials, teachers
should make effort to create and use every day objects from the environment. Teaching
and learning resources relevant or drawn from the students’ everyday environment and
culture is paramount to ensure that education for all is met and embraced. As for this unit,
discussion will focus on non-ICT based learning resources.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
. Understand the importance of the role of teachers

as resource developers
. Realize the principles in producing effective resource
materials
. Apply contextual and experiential learning into
developing resource materials
. Develop teaching and learning resource using
everyday objects and low-cost materials
. Improvise materials into effective teaching and
learning tools
EFFECTIVE LEARNING RESOURCES
Effective learning resources are materials and learning opportunities created to make
teaching and learning interesting and attractive and should be able to provide the following
results:
1. construct and build in-depth knowledge
2. developing individual learning strategies, values, attitudes, and generic skills
3. create connection and meaningful experience
4. achieve desire learning outcomes
Purpose of Resources in Teaching and Learning
The purpose and role of learning resources is not only to provide a source of learning
experience that is attractive and effective, it also :
Adoption of
Encourage active Develop different desirable values
learning skills and attitudes
Build solid
Broaden learning Meeting learning
foundation for
experience needs
lifelong learning
TEACHERS AS RESOURCE DEVELOPERS / 47
Types of Learning Resource
Learning resources come in variety of formats (many shapes and sizes), but they all have in
common the ability to facilitate and enhance students’ learning. Learning resources can be
categorised into:
Visual
Aids
Science
Audio Aids
Lab
Types of
Learning
Resource
Language Audio-
Lab Visual
Computer-
Assisted
Learning
Principles in developing Learning Resource
Principles for effective

educational resource
In order to produce or develop development
effective learning resources,
there are a few basic principles
need to be considered to ensure
that the learning resources
produce will support effective
teaching and learning towards
positive impact on students’
learning.
Think
. Why do we need learning

resources?
. What are the characteristics
of good learning resources?
. How to manage learning
resources effectively?
CONTEXTUAL AND EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING
Contextual Learning
Contextual learning enables students build relevance and meaning to the learning and
helping them relate to the world they live in. It emphasises on motivating students to make
connections between what they are learning and its applications in their real-life situations.
Center for Occupational Research and Development (CORD) explained that curriculum and
instruction based on contextual learning strategies should be structured to encourage five
essential engagement strategies namely Relating, Experiencing, Applying, Cooperating,
and Transferring (REACT).
Relating Experiencing
It aims to enable students It aims to enable students to

to learn by building context learn by doing, discovering
with their prior knowledge or inventing
and life experiences
Applying Cooperating
It ams to enable students to It aims to learn by

learn around basic concepts sharing with others and
responding to others
Transferring
It aims to use students

knowledge by adapting to
different situation
Experiential Learning
Experiential learning is an engaged learning process whereby students learn by doing and
by reflecting on the experience. According to Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle, the process
of experiential learning which operate in a continuing cycle during the learning experience
follows a four-stage cycle starting from the concrete experience, then observation and
reflection on that experience, which leads to the formation of abstract concepts (analysis)
and generalization (conclusions), which are then used to test the hypothesis in future
situations, the result being concretized in a new experience.
CONCRETE
EXPERIENCE
REFLECTIVE
OBSERVATION
a new experience or
OF THE NEW
situation is encountered,
EXPERIENCE
or a reinterpretation of
existing experience of particular
importance are any
inconsistencies
between experience
and understanding
ACTIVE
EXPERIMENTATION ABSTRACT
CONCEPTUALIZATION
the learner applies
their idea(s) to the reflection gives rise to a new
world around them to idea, or a modification
see what happens of an existing abstract
concept (the person
has learned from
their experience).
Think
During experiential learning,

what are the facilitator’s role?
Experiential learning focuses on the learning process for the individual and involves hands-
on approach to learning. It makes learning an experience that attempts to bring a more
involved way of learning by the students. The Impact of Experiential learning on Student
Learning:
1 initiates deep and lasting connections

with the subject content
2 supports student motivation for learning
3 promotes
reflection
learning through criticial
4 heightens the impact of emotion on

learning
Resource Developer’s Role in Contextualized Learning Experiences
Think
1. What is the best way to teach so that students can

understand?
2. How to help students to retain the information
given?
3. How to communicate effectively with students who
wonder about the relevance of what they studied?
When designing contextualized learning experiences, teacher’s role is to create effective

and engaging learning experiences for students. This will certainly help them tackle the
real-world problems and draw on their life experiences to make the learning experience
relevant and engaging. Use of everyday materials as teaching and learning resource that
are available within their environment will bring meaningful learning to the students.
This allows the students to discover meaningful relationships between abstract ideas and
real-world applications and it will also engage students and motivate them into learning.
Teacher must be creative and innovative enough and make sure to contextualize the
lessons. However, never compromise the quality.
bamboo, wood, or even sticks as music

Music class
instruments.
bamboo can be used as a pot or base

Science class
when teaching about planting a plant.
bark (skin of a tree) or leaves as a way to

Arts class
decorate the drawing
DEVELOPMENT OF LEARNING RESOURCES
Educators are the leading experts on learning resources. There is an unlimited supply of
learning resources available in the market. But not all available resource is always relevant
to the curriculum and purchasing them may have cause financial burden.
One way to deal with this paradox is to build the capacities of teachers in the design and
development of educational tools. With a bit of creativity and imagination, teachers can
produce and develop attractive and effective teaching-learning materials which are new
and innovative using every day surrounding materials which will be cost effective, easily
available, user-friendly, flexible and can be used repetitively. It is usually a challenge for
some educators to design or develop their own teaching and learning materials. It is time-
consuming, but every learning material that you develop will be an asset to you when you
next teach a similar unit. An investment of time or money in good teaching materials is an
investment in good teaching.
Needs
1 assessment /
Analysis 2
Determining
Goals and
Consideration Objectives
of Resource and
Constraints
7 3
Developing learning
resources procedures
Conceptualizing
(Grave, 1996)
Contents
Evaluation
6 4
Selecting and
Organizing Developing
Contents and Materials and
5
Activities Activities
Low-Cost Learning Resource
To design and develop an effective low-cost resource, teacher should have thorough
knowledge of the objectives and concepts of the subject content or curriculum to provide
learning experiences. In developing low-cost learning resources, teachers can reuse many
things which are easily available in the surrounding or environment, for example:
Bamboo and sticks

Disposable glass for
for making music
making different things
instruments
Cards and papers

Household waste, bark,
making circle and other
leaves, etc.
shapes
With a bit of creativity and imagination, household waste and unused items can transform
into valuable items, which can be used as effective instructional tools. Wide use of low-cost
and locally made teaching aids will have benefits as below:
. lower cost
. easier maintenance and repair
. better availability of spare parts
. higher relevance to the curriculum
. higher local content
. flexible adaptation for new topics in the curriculum.
Rationale for locally made low-cost learning resources as stated by Engida (2012) are listed
below. Although it is more towards equipment, but generally can be used as a general
guideline:
Technical educational faults in the lack of teacher

high cost of the
unsuitability of unsuitability of procurement and technician
equipment
the equipment the equipment procedures training
inadequate inadequate
lack of
faults in the supply of maintenance,
incentives to use
distribution consumable repair, and
the equipment
materials replenishment
Considerations in Developing Learning Resources

There are a few considerations that need to be taken into account when developing learning
resources:
Availability of Level of
Cost Manageable
Resource Students
. Will it cost . Can be found . What is the . Is it easy to
financial locally? academic manage?
burden? level of the
. Is it cheap? student?
. Is it easy to . Is it easy to
. Can it be used
maintain and create or
several times?
repair? produced?
Ease of
Reusable Maintenance
production
Improvisation of Learning Resource
Besides developing learning resources, teacher may need to improvise or modify the
resources from existing, unused and discarded materials that may be cheaper and easily
available.
Think
1. Why do we need to improvise?

2. Before making improvisation, what are the things that
need to be considered?
LEARNING RESOURCE MATERIALS FOR STUDENTS
Effective teaching and learning in the classroom involve the use of many kinds of resources.
The quality of student-centered learning depend largely on the effectiveness of how
teachers choose and use appropriate learning resource to enhance students’ interest and
understanding of a topic.
Learning Kit and Study Guide
Learning kit serves as a facilitator

for teachers to improve the
effectiveness of student-centered
learning.
Study Guide is a form of proper
and systematic guide that can be
seen as the students’ personal tutor
to assist the students with their
learning.
Integration of
knowledge, skills and
values
Think
1. What characteristic
Creativity and Characteristics learning kit and study
Innovation of Learning Kit guide should have?
2. Name three ways
learning kit and study
guide can facilitate
learning?
Variety in teaching
learning activities
Examples of Learning Resources

CONCLUSION
What Generic term used to describe teaching and learning materials

used by teachers for educational purposes to support teaching
and learning process.
Why Play an important and vital role towards the success of

meaningful and effective learning and have a positive impact on
students’ achievement.
Design and develop educational tools from locally available

How
materials which refers to a diversity of tools used for teaching and
learning purposes.
REFLECTION
. Explain the purpose of resources in teaching and learning.
. List as many types of relevant resources as possible which can be brought into the
classroom to enrich the experiences of your students.
. What types of resources are most frequently used in your teaching?
. How to develop effective learning resource for instruction?
. What are the basic principles need to be considered to ensure that the learning
resources produce will support effective teaching and learning towards positive
impact on students’ learning?
. Why is it important to have learning resource?

. What have you done to develop resources you have been involved with
teaching?
. Describe the role of teachers as resource developers.
. What are the considerations to be taken when designing new
instructional material?
. Evaluate the effectiveness of specific resources in meeting individual
learning needs in teaching and learning contexts.
SUGGESTED READINGS
A Sustainable Role: Teacher as a Materials Developer (https://www.researchgate.net/
publication/329139941_A_Sustainable_Role_Teacher_as_a_Materials_Developer)
Effective Educational Resource Development. https://www.education.govt.nz/assets/
Documents/Ministry/Procurement/Effective-Educational-Resources-Information-Sheet-
Mar-2018.pdf
Effective Use of Teaching and Learning Resources (https://www.ped.muni.cz/
cphpjournal/520132/06.pdf)
Engida, T. (2012). Development of low-cost educational materials for Chemistry. AJCE, 2(1):
48-59.
Grave, K. (1996). A Framework of Course Development Process, In Grave, K. (Ed.), Teachers as
Course Developers (pp. 1-11) (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press).
Theme: Learning by doing Sub theme: Innovative use of low cost/no cost teaching learning
materials (https://www.ijhssi.org/papers/v4(10)/Version-2/A041020107.pdf)
04
INTRODUCTION / 61
TEACHERS
04
MODULE
AS LEARNING
DOCTORS
INTRODUCTION
When considering teaching as a skill, teachers need to be skilful as well as creative in designing
and delivering their lessons. In this sense, knowledge about students’ psychological and
sociological backgrounds is vital in ensuring that teachers could realize their roles as
expected. As we have learned in the previous modules, teachers must also be equipped
with technical aspects of teaching; viz. pedagogical and technological content knowledge
and skills so that they are capable to determine the most suitable learning objectives, select
the appropriate coverage of content, implement effective teaching approaches and more
importantly know why, what and how to evaluate their students.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
. Identify the criteria for good assessment

. Determine appropriate assessment methods for the
attainment of learning outcomes
. Establish validity and reliability of assessment methods
. Apply online assessment as an alternative to
conventional assessment approach
Test, Measurement and Evaluation
Evaluation is a process A process of comparing

of comparing student's student's performance or
performance or characteristics characteristics against a Evaluation
againts a per-determine perdetermine standard
standard.
A process of assigning
numbers to individuals
Measurement refers to or their characteristics
the process of collecting according to spesified
information about student's rules Measurement
performance
A measuring instrument is
A systematic way to measure used to obtain information
changes in an individual on student's achivement Test
behaviour related to student's
learning activities
Think
What about assessment? Can you think of its

relationship with testing, measurement and
evaluation?
Hopkins (1998) suggests that the distinction among
assessment, measurement and evaluation are
not always sharp or meaningful – their colours run
together!
TEACHERS AS LEARNING DOCTORS / 63
Why We Need to Evaluate Our Students
Primary Reason
Secondary Reason
Types of Assessment
Norm and Criterion Referenced Evaluation
Phases of the Evaluation Process (Formative vs. Summative Evaluation)
If we think of our students as

plants;
Summative assessment of the
plants is the process of simply
measuring them. It might be
interesting to compare and
analyse measurements but, in
themselves, these do not affect
the growth of the plants.
Formative assessment, on the
other hand, is the equivalent of
feeding and watering the plants
appropriate to their needs –
directly affecting their growth.
When the cook tastes the soup, that’s is When the guest tastes the soup, that’s is
Formative assessment Summative assessment
The term formative and summative were introduced by Scriven (1967) to describe the
various roles of evaluation in curriculum development as well as instruction. Evaluation
which measures student learning in order to identify how well they are learning or how
much of the subject matter they have mastered in order to help them learn more or to help
the teacher to improve ongoing instruction is formative.
In terms of its implementation, formative assessment is usually carried out during
instruction in order to assess student progress and learning. Teacher can use the feedback
to reinforce students in the areas in which they are performing well and indicate to them
where improvement should be focused. Essentially formative assessment should be used
throughout the entire instructional period to guide students learning as well as provide
continuous feedback to assist them shape their behaviour while at the same time improving
their learning. Since it is not high-stakes assessment, many teachers and instructors choose
not to give grades for formative assessment
On the other hand, summative evaluation is conducted at the final phase of an instructional
segment to determine if learning is sufficiently complete to warrant moving the learner to
the next segment of instruction. Summative assessment often focuses on a comprehensive
range of behaviours, skills and knowledge. The most common example is the final
examination. The result of summative assessment is used to determine final achievement
or performance and grade. The distinctions between these two types of evaluation have
implications for test development and test use in the classroom. Nevertheless, information
gathered primarily for summative purposes may be used on occasion for formative purpose
as well. The ultimate aim is to empower students to actively involved in their own learning.
In 1998 Paul Black and Dylan Wiliam of Kings

College, London published their wide-ranging
analysis of research into classroom-based
assessment: Inside the Black Box: Raising
Standards through Classroom Assessment.
In their analysis, they have concluded that
“There is a body of firm evidence that formative
assessment is an essential feature of classroom
work and that development of it can raise
standards. We know of no other way of raising
standards for which such a strong prima facie
case can be made on the basis of evidence of
such large learning gains.”
You could read more on the

studies:
THE CRITERIA OF GOOD ASSESSMENT
Reliability
The term reliability means “repeatability” or “consistency”. If a test yields the same results
when measuring an individual or group in two different occasions then the scores are
reliable (by assuming that what we are measuring isn’t changing). For example, if different
teachers mark the same essay using the same criteria and marking scheme and obtain the
same score, then we say that the scores are reliable from one examiner to another. Let’s
explore in more detail what it means to say that a measure is “repeatable” or “consistent”.
Methods of Estimating Reliability
1 Test Retest
2 Parallel Forms
3 Internal Consistency
4 Split Half
There are four general classes of reliability estimates, each of which estimates reliability in
a different way. There are test-retest, parallel forms or equivalence, split half method and
internal consistency.
Test-Retest
The test-retest method is essentially a measure of examinee reliability, an indication of how

consistently examinees perform on the same set of tasks. The simplest and the easiest
method of obtaining repeated measures of the same ability for the same individual is to
give the same test twice. This would yield two scores for each individual tested and the
correlation between the firsts set of scores and the second set of scores is determined.
In estimating reliability by applying test-retest method, the longer the interval between
test administrations, the lower the correlation. In theory, students are expected to change
with the passage of time. Thus, long interval between testing will produce a “reliability”
coefficient that is more the reflection of student changes on the attribute being measured
than a reflection of a reliability being tested
Think
What is correlation? Can

correlation be used to measure
relationship between students’
achievement in Mathematics
and their attitude towards
Mathematics?
Parallel Forms or Equivalence

In this approach, two equivalence form of test are administered to a cohort of students
and the correlation between the two sets of scores is computed. Superficially, this method
also requires two testing with the same individual. Such approach of estimating reliability
coefficient will eliminate the problems of memory and practice involved as in the test-retest
approach. Large differences in a student’s score on two forms of a test that supposedly
measure the same trait would indicate an unreliable test.
Split Half Methods

In split half reliability, we split the test into two reasonably equivalent halves. Then the total
score for each student on each half is determined and the correlation between the two
total scores for both halves is computed.
One standard method of splitting the test is to segregate the odd- numbered items and
the even-numbered item separately. Then the correlation between scores of the odd-
numbered items and the even-numbered items are calculated. By doing so, we are actually
estimating the reliability from half-length tests. This can be done with the help of the
Spearman Brown formula.
Another method to establish reliability is internal analysis reliability estimates. The methods
involve include Kuder Richardson and Cronbach Alpha methods.
You could get information on
Cronbach Alpha: https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/

ED526237.pdf
Kuder Richardson: https://scholarworks.

wmich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=3818&context=dissertation
Factors that Influence Reliability
You could read more on the

studies:
The use of scoring rubric is

strongly recommended when we
want to secure reliability when
measuring students’ performance
such as writing skill, presentation
https://www.weareteachers.
skill and many other generic
com/wp-content/uploads/
skills in performance-based
ASCD-3-Book-Sample-
assessment environment.
HowtoCreateandUseRubrics.pdf
Validity
Validity confirms whether the test really measure what it is supposed to measure. Test
validity is also the extent to which the inferences, conclusions, and decisions made on the
basis of the test scores are appropriate and meaningful. Based on conceptual definition of
validity, we can infer that a valid assessment procedure is one, which actually tests what
it sets out to test. A test is said as valid if it provides data that increase the accuracy of
decisions about a person or object. . There are three basic approaches to the validity of tests
and measures: content validity, construct validity and criterion related validity.
The purpose for which the test is used
The group with which it is used
The circumstances in which is used
Validity
How the test will be used
How decisions were reached

Content Validity
Content validity evidence answer the question “Does the test measure the instructional
objectives?”. Thus, we could say that a test with good content validity evidence matches or
fits the instructional objectives, i.e. it should be a representative sample of both the content/
topics and the cognitive processes/abilities objectives of a given course or unit. Hopkins
(1998) argues that content validity is primarily a process of logical analysis. By means of a
careful and critical examination of Table of Specification, one can make judgment about
the relatedness of the test with the content covered. In navigating the process, the following
questions should be studied carefully in preparing Table of Specification.
Criterion Related Validity

Criterion-related evidence for validity has been classified traditionally as either predictive or
concurrent evidence. Predictive validity evidence refers to how well the test predicts some
future behaviour of the examinees. This form of validity evidence is particularly useful and
important for aptitude tests, which attempt to predict how well the test taker will do in
some future setting.
Concurrent criterion-related validity evidence deals with measures that can be administered
at the same time as the measure to be validated. For instance, a well-known mathematical
ability test scores is highly correlated with Form Two mathematical test scores. Based upon
that relationship, we already established predictive criterion-related validity for Form Two
mathematical test. On the other hand, the concurrent criterion-related validity evidence for
a test is determined by administering both the new test (Scientific attitude test) and the
established test (Science test) to a group of students and then correlation between the two
scores is computed.
Mathematical Abiility
Mathematic Form 2
Test
Can Mathematical Ability Test predict Mathematic Grade?

Predictive validity involves time interval. A test is administered
and, and after a period of time, a behaviour is measured which
the test is intended to predict
Test to Measure
Science Achivement
Scintific Attitude
Is the new test correlated with science achievement?

Concurrent validity does not involve a time interval. A test is
administered, and its relationship to a well-established test
measuring the same behaviour is determined.
Construct Validity
The terms construct refers to psychological constructs, each of theoretical conceptualization
about an aspect of human behaviour than cannot be measured or observed directly.
Examples of construct are intelligent, attitude and motivation. A test has construct validity
evidence if its relationship to other information corresponds well with some theory. Many
different approaches can be used to help determine the construct validity evidence of a
test. For example, if a test is supposed to be a test of arithmetic computation skills, we
would expect score on it to improve after intensive programme on arithmetic. In general,
any information that lets us know whether results from the test correspond to what we
would expect, it provides evidence about the construct validity of the test.
More information on Construct

Validity
https://www3.nd.edu/~ghaeffel/
Cronbach%26Meehl%281955%29.pdf
Relationship between Validity and Reliability

A diagram might help you to understand the relationship between the validity and
reliability. One of the favourite metaphors used to illustrate relationship between reliability
and reliability is that of the target. Think of the centre of the target as the concept that you
are trying to measure. Imagine that for each person you are measuring, you are taking a
shot at the target. If you measure the concept perfectly for a person, you are hitting the
centre of the target. If you don’t, you are missing the centre. The more you are off for that
person, the further you are from the centre.
TYPES OF ASSESSMENT
Think
Can you recall what is the type of evaluation that

you normally used when evaluating your students?
Compare your answer with your friends and perhaps,
you could make a list of different types of evaluation
modes that you could use in your classroom!
There are mainly three types of evaluation that can be applied in evaluating our students:
teacher observation, student response and objective items.
History of measurement and

evaluation has shown that attention
of educationists in America and
Europe was drawn to the testing
of intelligence and achievement of
students. The tests in the nineteenth
century were generally subjective.
The objective tests were only later
introduced in order to do away with
the shortcomings of these tests.
General Principles in Test Construction

It is almost axiomatic that writing test items is a matter or precision. A good test items
must able to focus the examinees’ attention on the principle or content upon which the
items is based. Ideally, students who answer a test item incorrectly will do so because their
mastery of the principle or in focus was inadequate or incomplete and vice versa. To be a
proficient item writer, possession of knowledge and understanding of the material being
tested is definitely inadequate. You must also understand the students for whom the items
are intended as well as adroit in written communication and well versed about techniques
of item writing.
Congruence between
Item should be
Process and Product
objective centered
Responses
6 1
Generate
Item must be
5 2
Responsed at
context and
Acceptance Principles purpose specifc
Level for Test Item
Construction
4 3
Directly elicit the desired Adequate coverage of
performance specified content
Guidelines for Item

Writing
Item measures the

intended learning
competence directly
Performance it elicits
matches the performance in
the learning task
The test task is clear

and definite
Write the test item so taht

it is free from nonfuntional
material
Item should not provide

clues, grammatical
or otherwise, to the
respondents
The difficulty level matches

the intent of learning
competence
There is no
disagreement
concerning answer
Develop an item bank so that

items can be later reviewed
and modified as needed
Always write more test

items than called for
The success of a test depends on two

factors. First, how successfully a test
measures our prescribed objectives,
and second, can each item in the
test discriminate between bright and
weak students. If a test is not capable
of measuring the given objectives
meaningfully and discriminating students,
then it cannot be called a successful test.
The process which allow us finding out
the difficulty index, discrimination index
and the effectiveness of distractors is
called Item Analysis.
Pitfalls in Assessment
There are a number of pitfalls in assessment which might affect the validity as well as
reliability of our assessment. The following are some typical pitfalls in assessment and how
it could be avoided.
Hallo Contrats Hallo

Effect Effect Effect
1 2 3
Suffusing ratings The displacement Error in the
of special features of a series of measurement
with a halo stimuli away from process that
belongings to the the judgement differentially
individual as a anchor influences scores
whole for identified
group
Online Assessment
As an educator, you probably want to use variety of online assessment methods to determine
the extent to which your students have attained the outlined learning objectives. They
are many options available for you when you teach online, and each one of it need to be
managed differently. There are methods of assessment available to you when you teach
online. The assessment can be focused either on the individual learner or as a group. Two
main aspects that are commonly evaluated in an online platform are: Interactivity and
collaborative learning as well as collective construction of knowledge.
Examples of online assessment method and tools based on Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Advantages of Online Assessment

Assessment of, as, for Learning

In fulfilling our roles as mentor and coach of students’ learning, understanding different
assessment approaches might not be adequate. We need to also comprehend the
philosophy underlying assessment processes and how we perceive assessment whether
Assessment of Learning, Assessment for Learning and Assessment as Learning.
AS
FOR
ASSESSMENT LEARNING
AS
Traditional Assesment Pyramid
Traditional Assessment Pyramid
AS
FOR
ASSESSMENT LEARNING
AS
Reconfigured Assesment
Reconfigured Assessment
Contributes to student learning, by the teachers (Assessment for learning) and by the
students (Assessment as learning).
CONCLUSION
As Learning Doctors teachers need to be equipped with necessary knowledge and skills to
diagnose their students’ strength and weakness so that they could teach and facilitate them
accordingly. There are wide arrays of assessment approaches and methods that teachers
could creatively apply in fulfilling their role as Learning Doctors. In many circumstances
what is the most important is that the assessment that administer to our students is valid as
well as reliable. Today we are witnessing the fact that education has changed dramatically,
with the distinctive use of online and remote teaching. Thus, besides conventional pen
and pencil approaches, teachers could also fully utilise online assessment. Undoubtedly,
knowledge in reporting students’ score is also vital in making sure that teachers could fulfil
their roles as Learning Doctors fairly and in more humanistic manner.
REFLECTION
Mainly this unit has taught me how to answer the following important questions:
. How do I differentiate testing, assessment and evaluation?
. How do I fulfil my role as facilitator of my students’ learning?
. How do I establish validity as well as reliability when assessing my students?
. How do I overcome major pitfalls in assessment?
. How can I make sure that could inspire my students to be assessors of their own
learning?
. Explain main reasons why we need to evaluate our students?

. When is summative evaluation is more effective than formative
evaluation?
. Differentiate between Assessment for Learning and formative
assessment.
. Why I need to equip myself my knowledge and skills on online
assessment?
. Think about when you implement Assessment as Learning.
Did you empower your students to make their own decision in
deciding what and how they can learn?
SUGGESTED READING
Airasian, P.W. (1997). Classroom Assessment. New York: McGraw Hill.
Biggs, J. (1999). Teaching for quality learning at university: What the student does. Bristol,
PA: Open University Press
Crocker, L., & Algina, J. (1986). Introduction to Classical and Modern Test Theory. Philadelphia:
Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers.
Gronlund, N.E. (1998) Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching. 4th Edition, Macmillan
Publishing Co., Inc., New York, 96
Hopkins, K. (1998). Educational and Psychological Measurement and Evaluation, 8th Edition.
Colorado: Pearson
Kubiszyn, T. & Borich, G.D. (2016). Educational Testing and Measurement: Eleventh Edition.
New York: John Wiley and Sons Inc
Lantz, H.B. (2004). Rubrics for Assessing Student Achievement in Science Grades K-12 1st
Edition. California: Corwin Press.
Suskie, L. (2018). Assessing Student Learning: A Common-Sense Guide. New York: John
Wiley and Sons Inc.
05
INTRODUCTION / 89
TEACHERS AS
05
MODULE
REFLECTIVE
PRACTITIONERS
INTRODUCTION
In everyday teaching activities- a teacher will reflect on the outcome of their teaching and
learning sessions. The outcome of the reflection may lead to various and possible actions on
the part of the teacher- either improving the lesson plans for future teaching or investigate
further on the main aspect that needs to be tackled before the next lessons. This reflective
action is a beginning step in embarking on researching into one’s own pedagogical actions
towards improving students’ learning. This self- reflective inquiry nature is an important
disposition as a reflective practitioner. The promotion of teachers as reflective practitioners
towards school and social improvement is known as Action Research.
As a practitioner, the nature of the reflection, maybe based on years of teaching experience,
sharing of best practices among colleagues at the school or nationwide level. In the
literature. The promotion of teachers as reflective practitioners towards school and social
improvement is known as Action Research. Action research is also known by the name of
classroom research and the researcher is the teacher. The teacher scrutinizes one’s own
practice and makes changes to the practice with the aim to improve students learning. In
addition to improving one’s own practice, when the action is informed by theory coupled
with systematic observations and data analysis, one can generate new insights into the
teaching and learning field. The decision making and improvement of their own practices
contribute to the future development as a professional teacher.
This manual focusses on action research in education context in particular action research
at the classroom level. As argued by Wright (2020), teachers who strive to realise the ideas
of equity, they themselves need to be actively involve in bringing about the changes by
critically viewing and hence changing their practices towards it. Thus, AR is an affordance
for the teachers to critically recognize the problems and address the problems.
The main aim of the module is to provide participants the ability to actively involved in
bringing about changes on their practices through the critical applications of principles
and methods of action research. in their practices understand, conduct and disseminate
outcome of the process conducting action research.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
The learning objectives of this module are to:
. Identify the concepts of action research

. examine the steps in conducting research
. plan for sharing the outcome of action research
CONCEPT OF ACTION RESEARCH

Action research, as a result of its evolution, has become a worldwide activity among
the teaching profession. Thus, most countries have promoted action research a tool for
professional development of teachers in the educational system.
Why action research is suitable to provide pragmatic solutions?

TEACHERS AS REFLECTIVE PRACTITIONERS / 91
REFLECTION
Action research advocates that educational research should be

conducted by practitioners alone and not in partnership with
educational researchers. Do you agree with the statement?
Please provide an explanation for your answer?
Definition of Action Research

In the context of classroom practices there are various definitions of action research. Some
of the main proponents of action research defined it as follows (EPRD 2019):
Carr and Kemmis (1986) McNiff (1988)
Action research as an inquiry An approach to improve education

activity in the form of self- through change; aimed to promote
reflection by the teacher in teachers to be more aware and
order to understand their more critical towards their own
practices and situations in practices leading them to be ready
which the practices are carried to make changes. “Action research
out with the aim to improve is a qualitative research method
his/own practice. that encourages the practioner
(or teacher) to be reflective of his
or her own practice with the aim
of improving the system” (McNiff,
1994)
Lomax (1994) Mills (2000)
Action research is an important Action research is systematic

educational innovation because inquiry done by teachers (or other
it empowers teachers to conduct individuals in an educational setting)
innovation and contribute to changes to gather information about, and
in education subsequently improve, the ways
their particular educational setting
operates, how they teach, and how
well their students learn.
In summary outcomes of an action research is the improvement of the teacher’s practice,

their understanding of the situation and the situation in which the practice take place.
Thus, the effect of action research is on both the teacher and the students. Thus, a teacher
who embarks on action research project may be based on the following situations (Arnold
2015):
Concern for student’s needs

e.g., an educational problem to solve
Concern for self-development

e.g., educators want to reflect on their own practices
Concern for institutional priorities

e.g., want to address school-wide problems that increase collegial
interactions especially when solving area of collective interest.
Concern for intellectual pursuits

e.g., when teachers want to improve their practices which leads to the
formation of professional development.
In other words, action research in school contexts at the micro level might focus on an
individual student (What is the most effective assessment technique with student A?), or a
group of students (What are the needs of gifted children in an inclusive classroom?). At the
macro level or at school level, action research might address social issues such as ‘How low
motivated students can feel empowered to enrol in advanced science classes?’
Characteristics of Action Research

Action research is not a new concept. Based on the review by Harada & Yukawa (2012) the
following are characteristics of action research
A social practice (Not decontextualized from environment or separating

researcher from the researched)
Practitioner determined (driven from own need to know)

Researchers determine their focus for investigation, attempt to gain critical
insights into their teaching and students’ learning. Teachers’ formative
evaluation of the teaching and learning process interacts with the action
research phases.
Systematic enquiry
Refers to employing strategies to document assumptions, collect
quantitative and qualitative data and interpret findings within the context
of research (giving voice to findings and implications). Researchers attempt
to identify and better understand the assumptions underlying the contexts
in which they operate, uncover the relationships and tensions at work and
make changes for the better.
Cyclical (not necessarily simple spirals of reflection, acting, planning

observing but progressive refinements) and Reflective (outward not
inward)
Models of Action Research (AR)
There are various models of action research and each has its strength and limitations.
One of the earlier models of action research is by Carr and Kemmis (1986) (See Figure 1)- it
involves the teachers to self-inquire and recognise the need or improve to change, plan an
action (or an intervention) to address the problem, make the changes based by conducting
the plan, finally review the situation as a result of the action plan.
The model like any other action research models entails that there is a dynamic process of
spiralling back and forth among reflection, data collection, and action. It does not follow a
linear pattern, nor it follows a causal sequence from problem to action. Furthermore, one
cycle of AR may be insufficient to ensure effective solution thus an AR project may lead to
few more cycles.
There are many models of action research that break these key phases down into smaller
steps. One particular model is illustrated by Nugent et al. (2012) (Figure 2). The table below
illustrates examples of smaller steps from Figure 2 related to the key phases in Figure 1. The
table also illustrates possible occurrence of spiralling back and forth in the process of doing
AR. Teachers can choose the relevant smaller steps based on one’s knowledge, support
systems and time allocated in their daily work.
Figure 1: Cyclic Model of Figure 2: Model of Action

Action Research (Carr & Nugent et al. 2012
Kemmis 1986).
Adapted from Models of Action Research (McBride and Schostak (1994) and Lewin
in Arnold (2015))
STEPS IN CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH
The following are practical suggestions in translating the phases of action research:
Phase 1: Initial Reflection

Having a reflective mind set is a very important component of AR. This reflexive mind set
needs to be developed. According to Arnold (2015), ‘reflexive practice means looking at your
own thinking and decision making and asking questions. It means thinking about how
you see issues and situations, and not just about the issue or situation itself’ (pg. 15 ) Arnold
(2015) further suggests that there are two parts of a reflective mind set: 1) surface reflective
thinking and 2) deep reflective thinking.
In the pandemic situation, there are opportunities or reasons to be reflective. For schools in
countries that are either still in the Movement Control phase or in the midst or reopening
schools a can begin to focus on the following:
REFLECTION
In your experience, how did you

develop a reflective mind?
Other potential issues to be reflect

on by identifying strengths, needs http://aka.ms/
and gaps as suggested by Fullan et hybridlearningpaper
al. (2020)
Identify a Problem to Investigate
Action research in the classroom is often small scale so as the problem to be investigated
is within the teacher’s concern. As we know educational problems are complex. Thus, a
problem to investigate should:
There are many techniques of identifying appropriate questions and crafting researchable
questions (Koshy 2005; Nugent et al. 2012; Brownhill et al. 2017). Table 1 displays questions
one may to ask in ensuring the research questions are specific for an action research project.
Table 1 Research problem and Research Questions
Research Problem Research Questions

Some possibilities that could be actions taken are:
. Set up a learning contract
. Provide alternative reading materials
Students don’t actively engage in
reading independently One possible research question is:
If I make a contract that I will reward students for
independent reading, will the amount of time they
spend reading increase?
Some possibilities to consider before actions to be
taken:
. Can we increase parents’ interest in their
children’s education?
. What if the parents themselves illiterate?
. Perhaps assigned a more advances student
to help a struggling reading student after
Why are parents not interested in
school.
their children’s education?
A possible research question:

If I assigned a more advance student to read with
a struggling student who needs more practice in
reading, will the struggling student improve his or
her ability?
PHASE 2: PLANNING FOR ACTION
Literature Review
The role of literature review in action research is to aid the teachers- researcher to:
Check list for action plan
In developing a research plan, the researcher must identify factors or

variables that are central to the investigation. Arnold (2015) and Nugent et
al. (2012) suggest the following indicators in developing an action plan or
intervention:
. Does the plan seem to address the identified problem in a practical
way?
. Are there any anticipated obstacles and addressed?
. Are data gathering sufficient enough to gather evidence of the
effectiveness of plan?
. Is the timeline realistic?
PHASE 3: OBSERVATION/DATA GATHERING

In this phase, the teacher-researcher implement the plan, collect and analyse the data. The
role of data is to help the teacher understand how the action plan has or has not been able
to address the research problem.
Examples of common data collection tools, either quantitative or qualitative are depicted
in Table 2. The table also lists down sources of data that are available and ready for the
teacher- researchers.
Table 2 Typical collection methods and sources of data

While table 3 illustrates the link research questions, sub-research questions, and techniques
of collecting data.
Table 3 Mapping of research questions to data collection

Main research Sub research Data collection
Sources of Data
Questions questions techniques
What is the current
participation level? Journal writing
Teacher reflection
How can I increase
Desired Observation
participation in Observation of class
participation? checklist
an online class sessions
discussion? Does participation Semi-structured
Students’ interview
level according to interview
the activity
Will peer teaching
help to increase
students to use
‘check back strategy’
How can I increase when writing Teacher reflection Journal writing
the number of essays?
Students’ interview Semi structured
students use ‘check Will detailed written
Students’ essay interview
back strategy’ when feedback from the
writing essays? teacher increase Document analysis
students to use
‘check back strategy
‘when writing
essays?
!
Keep in Mind Action Research is Not to Prove
Effectiveness of Intervention but Also to
Understand
Thus, various data collection techniques are mainly qualitative in nature with the aim to:
Similarly, the focus of the data analysis should revolve around obtaining in depth information
and it would be as follows:
PHASE 4: REFLECTION/ RE-EVALUATE

In this phase, the teachers have to act on the evidence. In other words, once the data is
collected and analysed, the teachers need to ask:
Putting together the steps of conducting research, below is an example of action research.
The research problem is on the issue of ‘Shy Students’ not participating in class lessons.
Problem (Initial Action Plan Data collection

reflection) Research Questions (Planning) (Execute the action Results (Reflection)
plan)
• Teacher kept • The shy students

• The teacher • If I change • The teacher notes on student’s began to
noticed that some the structure decided to put the participation. She participate more.
students were very of discussion students in small also interviewed • However, the
shy and didi not methods, will groups to discuss the students. current action
want to participate these students the content before She also asked managed to
in class lessons. participate more? the large group the students to engage more shy
discussion. write a journal of boys compared
• The teacher herself themselves and to shy girls to
changed her create a portfolio participate.
practice in terms of the process. • The teacher plans
of welcoming to group students
questions without based on girls only,
providing value boys only and a
judgement in front group of boy and
of other students. girls in the next
cycle of action
research.
Shy Students
Adapted from Nugent et al. (2012)
SHARING OUTCOMES OF ACTION RESEARCH

Outcomes of action research is pragmatic and theoretical in nature. Teachers are encouraged
to share their practical knowledge on teaching and learning, that is often private in nature.
Figure 3 illustrates the focus, audience and modes of dissemination – in sharing outcomes
of action research.
Figure 3 Focus, Audience and Modes of Dissemination in Sharing Action Research
https://journals.
sagepub.com/home/
arj
Ethical Considerations
Action research is done by the practitioner, and in the situation where the practitioner (i.e.
teacher) works thus obtaining evidence and data collection would be relatively easy to
access since there is little distance between the researcher and subjects. Ethical issues are
central to conducting action research. The following is a list of ethical consideration and
actions needed from the teacher as researcher.
Creswell (2012)
(pg. 84).
CONCLUSION
Teachers as social change agents is the underlying core for promoting teachers as reflective
practitioners. This module has described the principles and methodology of promoting
teachers’ disposition to be reflective in practice through their engagement in action
research. Action research, as systematic form of inquiry which is participatory in nature,
empowers teacher to become the researcher. Research is conducted within specific and
often practical contexts of the teachers thus providing pragmatic solutions to the everyday
teaching and learning problems experienced in schools.
Outcomes of action research also contribute to practical knowledge based on the critical
enquiries. More importantly, issues of equity and quality may be better dealt with through
action research as those who are in the social situation such as teachers in schools would
be better informed of the needs of the diverse students and its context. Figure 4 provides
an overview of an ecosystem that drives the teachers to be critical practitioners cum
researchers through action research.
Figure 4 Becoming Reflective Practitioner Through Engagement With Action

Research
REFLECTION
Mainly this unit has taught me to answer the following important questions:
. How being self-inquiry on one’s practice could benefit myself as a teacher, and other
stakeholders especially students?
. How to create research problems that are manageable?
. How to sharpen one’s reflective skills?
. How teacher’s practical knowledge could contribute to wider understanding of
education?
. What happens when ethical considerations are neglected in conducting research?
. State one characteristics of Action Research?

. Critically appraise the following topics for action research
. A teacher would like to conduct the following Research Topic ‘A
comparison of mathematics performance test results across three
local education authorities in our neighbourhood’. Give one reason
why this topic is unsuitable for action research?
. Based on the classroom situation below, list two elements that Mr
X demonstrates that reflects Action research is the solution to his
concern?
. Mr X. is in his second year of teaching at a secondary school. Recently,
he has been more and more bothered by a considerable amount
of disruptive behaviour. The boys in the class are particularly more
troublesome. Many take a long time to settle in their seat after the
afternoon recess, and the girls never seem to stop talking. Ishak is
becoming very concerned as a lot of valuable class time is taken up
and despite the various attempts he taken, he is still unsuccessful.
. Which ethical consideration is the most important, in your view, in
conducting research on your own students? Please explain for your
reason.
. How is outcomes of action research different from exchanges of
ideas gained through professional learning communities activities?
SUGGESTED READINGS
Arnold, L. (2015). Action research for higher education practitioners: A practical guide.
https://lydiaarnold.files.wordpress.com
Bahagian Perancangan dan Penyelidikan Dasar Pendidikan (EPRD) (2019). Manual Kajian
Tindakan (KPM (Ed.); 4th ed.).
Brownhill, S., Ungarova, T., & Bipazhanova, A. (2017). ‘Jumping the first hurdle’: Framing action
research questions using the Ice Cream Cone Model. Methodological Innovations, 10(3),
205979911774140. https://doi.org/10.1177/2059799117741407
Creswell, J. W. (2012) Educational Research (Fourth Edition), Boston: Pearson
Fullan, M., Quinn, J., Drummy, M., & Gardner, M. (2020). Education Reimagined: The Future of
Learning. A Collaborative Position Paper between New Pedagogies for Deep Learning
and Microsoft Education. http://aka.ms/hybridlearningpaper
García, E., & Weiss, E. (2020). COVID-19 and student performance, equity, and U.S. education
policy. Economic Policy Institute, 1–60.
Harada, V. H., & Yukawa, J. (2012). Action Research: Reshaping Practice Through Assessment
and Critical Reflection. Handbook of Implementation Science for Psychology in
Education. https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/handbook-of-implementation-
science-for-psychology-in-education/action-research/6933BCB2B8A704408619DA8526
2CE003
Halim, L., Buang, N. A., & Meerah, T. S. (2010). Action research as instructional supervision:
Impact on the professional development of university-based supervisors and science
student teachers. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 2868–2871. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.430Koshy, V. (2005). Action Research for Improving
Education Practice: A Practical Guide. Paul Chapman Publishing.
Nugent, G. Malik, S. & Hollingsworth, S. (2012). A Practical Guide to ACTION RESEARCH for
Literacy Educators, Capitol Washington: International Reading Association.
UNESCO. (2020). Sub-Education Policy Review report: Teachers Policy and Plan.
Wright, P. (2020). Developing an empowering school curriculum: A renewed focus on action
research. London Review of Education, 18(3), 323–338. https://doi.org/10.14324/LRE.18.3.01
06
INTRODUCTION / 109
06
MODULE
TEACHERS AS
POLICY DRIVERS
INTRODUCTION
It is an undeniable fact that education is the one of the main drivers to the development
of a country. In particular, education is the modality for countries to develop highly-skilled
youth to meet the challenges of the 21st century demands. Outcomes from countries
performances on international benchmarking indicators such as Trends in Science and
Mathematics Studies (TIMSS) and Human Development Index may also be an impetus for
a country to be ready for an ongoing shift in their educational policies, as it is believed that
such reforms would contribute towards economic prosperity and social citizenship. It is
clear, then, that the learning experiences of an individual would be largely shaped by these
educational policies.
The aim of the module is to develop teachers to be active actors as implementers and
developers of educational policies at the national and school levels respectively.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
At the end of the module, participants should be able

to:
. examine and reflect on the role of educational
policies in an educational system,
. reflect on one’s role as policy implementers,
and
. develop one’s skills in policy development at
the school level.
UNDERSTANDING EDUCATIONAL POLICIES

Bell & Stevenson (2006) argued that there is often an underdeveloped understanding of
how education policy is formed, what drives it and how it impacts on schools and tertiary
institutions. Thus, as practitioners at all levels of education need to be aware and understand
the formation of educational policies and its intent – vision, values and outcomes.
Policy implementer actors namely schools’ leaders and teachers have important roles in
closing the gap between policy and reality. Actions of these actors requires them to reflect
on their roles in tripartite (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Role of teachers as policy driven
The ability to play an effective role will lead to the realisation effort towards achieving the
outcome of the educational policies, situated in their own socio-cultural contexts in an
effort to provide quality education for all.
Education policy provides guidelines for those involved in the cycle of planning and
implementing educational activities and at the national level such policies would affect all
schools in a given country. Policies also comprised of laws to oversee the process of education
systems. Most often education policies of developing countries aim to promote equity and
quality education for all. In addition, every country, depending on its socio-political context
and resources, would developed educational policies relevant to their needs.
TEACHERS AS POLICY DRIVEN / 111
REFLECTION
Do you think by understanding the educational

policies will change your current practice? Please
provide your argument.
Table 1 highlights the focus of educational policies of member states under the UNESCO
Jakarta office.
Table 1: Examples of Initiatives

COUNTRY FOCUS
. Investing in early childhood education
Brunei Darussalam
. Adopting international best practices in teaching and
learning
. Having first class secondary and tertiary education
. Strengthening the competency in info-communication
technology
. Devising programmes that promote lifelong learning
and widen access to higher education (source: SPN 21)
Indonesia
. Producing “smart and competitive” individuals who can

compete successfully for jobs and other opportunities in
an increasingly globalised economy.
. Becoming “internationally competitive” by 2025.(source:
Sebayang & Swaramarinda 2020)
. Provide equal access to quality education an international

Malaysia standard
. Ensure every child is proficiency in Bahasa Malaysia and
English Language and it encouraged to learning an
additional language
. Develop values driven Malaysians
. Transform teaching into the profession of choice
. Partner with parents, community and private sector at
scale
. (source: Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013-2030)
COUNTRY FOCUS
Philippines . Ensuring pre-schooling for all,
. Technical-vocational training as an alternative in senior
high school,
. Working with local governments to build new schools,
. Proficiency in science and maths,
. Working with private schools as “essential partners” in
basic education.
. (source: https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/covid-19-
update-registration)
. Children will have access to Pre-School that is close to
Timor-Leste the place where they live.
. Basic Education is universal, compulsory and free
focussing on sound literacy and numeracy skills, the core
values of national identity, Timorese history and culture.
. Secondary Education to learn the core scientific,
humanistic and/or technical knowledge
. Secondary technical-vocational to develop specialised
technical skills and competencies, to ensure students are
capable of entering the labour market (source: National
Education Strategic Plan 2011-2030 )
It is clear that, across the countries, each country espouses for positive changes of one’s
country towards improvement of social and economic status and it should be for ALL. Thus,
a systemic reform is made plausible via improving a country’s education system through
its educational policies and reforms. Each country envisions that their human capital is
prepared to meet the needs for the 21st century and beyond, towards contributing to the
growth of the country’s economy. One similar trend running across the policies is that
education is for all, from pre-school to high school, as well as provide quality education. At
the same time, each country’s policies are imbued with values deemed necessary according
to contexts of each country.
How does a policy develop?
Lewin (2000) suggests that there are two approaches to policy development (e.g science
education policy for developing countries). The first approach, which is a common method,
is the top-down approach (Figure 2).
. Technology
transfer
. Science and
Enterpreneurship
. Technology
STEM Education Adaption
Policy . 4IR
Curriculum Aims and Outcomes
. Assessment
. Learning and teaching
methods
. STEM knowledge skills and
values
Figure 2: STEM education policy (Top-Down Approach)

Adaptation from Lewin (2000)
In this context, the science education policy, may gained input from other policies such as
Science and Education policy of each country, which is related with particular economic
development strategies. Other input such as outcomes and reflections of report may serve
as the basis for a science education policy. For example, based on PISA report (OECD 2016),
highlights best practices of high performers in science for consideration in formulating a
similar policy.
‘Australia, Canada, Ireland, Portugal, Singapore, Slovenia

and the United Kingdom are high performers in science.
Their 15-year-old students hold strong beliefs about the
value of scientific enquiry, and larger‑than‑average
proportions of students in these countries expect to
work in a science-related occupation later on.
What are the policies, or combinations of policies, that

are common to these school systems? All of these
countries score near or above the OECD average on
most of the indices concerning resources devoted to
education and teaching practices, including quality and
quantity of teaching staff, learning time, approaches to
teaching science and extracurricular activities. (p 34).
Another approach is the bottom-up approach, as visualized in Figure 3, which explores the
needs and views of citizens of what is needed in the education and training in science.
STEM Education Policy
Educational Aims and Outcomes
Assessment and Certification

Learning and Teaching Methods
STEM Knowledge Skill and Values
Felt Needs
Equity
STEM Literacy
STEM Career
Civic Participation
Environmental Sustainability
Figure 3. Policy formulation “Bottom-Up Approach”

Adapted from Lewin (2000)
Both the ‘top-down approach’ and ‘bottom-up approach’ policy formulation has its
advantages and disadvantages.
Top Down Approach Bottom Up Approach

Development is reactive in nature,
Positive
Easy to achieve consensus on

derived and valued by those who
what are the educational aims an
want to participate in science
outcome in science education.
education.
Negative
It may only reflect the priority of Interests from individual or groups

government or lack of relevance to may be conflicting, difficult to
contexts. achieve consensus.
Thus, drawing upon these two opposite approaches and realising its benefits and pitfalls, the
process of policy formulation has adopted consultative methods with various stakeholders
on the priorities set by the governments. This method allows the government to listen to
stakeholders at the same time felts and needs of individuals and groups are heard. The
roles of stakeholders in the consultation or town hall activities are listed in Table 1.
Table2 : Stakeholders And Their Roles In Educational Policy Formulation
BODY/ ORGANISATION ROLES
GOVERNMENT
. Lead the policy process
Ministry of Education and
. Responsible for ensuring policy
related ministries that require or
implementation and evaluation
contribute to matters related to
education
. Provide expertise, input and evidence

SCHOLARS AND RESEARCHERS, to inform policy options
‘THINK TANKS’ . Possible members of task force for
situational analysis/ drafting policy
. Provide experiences and

SCHOOL LEADERS understanding of those involved in
managing schools
PARENTS AND THEIR

. Represent the needs/ concerns of
REPRESENTATIVES
parents/ local communities
. Act as link to school communities
(e.g., Parent-Teacher Associations)
. Represent the needs and interests

PRIVATE SECTOR of companies and business in policy
development
Source: Adapted from Teacher Policy Development Guide (UNESCO 2019)
Schools must also have clear policies and procedures that guide day-to-day processes which
includes areas on safety, quality of teaching and learning and professional development of
the staffs. Some may view policies and its related documents such rules and guidelines may
be bureaucratic. Policies are useful and necessary in ensuring teachers and related staffs in
schools to carry out their tasks correctly and responsibly. Rules therefore help to decrease
the amount of direct supervision by the management, and at the same time increase the
efficiency of work processes.
School policies (Samii 2018) are among others to:
Provide Internal Controls

as a control mechanism that will effectively ensure aspects such as delivery
of teaching, or assessment process is executed as planned.
Maintain Compliance
to ensure a degree of accountability for the perusal of the internal and
external stakeholders.
Build a Learning Culture
encouraging the staff to continuously add to their knowledge through
formal in-service training or exchange of ideas through professional
learning communities’ activities.
Provide Safe Learning Environments
to establish safety standards for the physical environment and mental state
of students and staffs.
Set Goals and Establish Productivity
to ensure that students receive a quality education through establishing
goals as set forth by the school management and accepted by students
and parents.
Address Suspension and Expulsion
need to align with the related national or state policy, also it is important
to have policies as well that incorporates other solutions before opting to
suspend or expel them.
Ensure Equality
so as to make sure that children with disabilities, or slow learners, receive
the same access to an education as other students.
TEACHERS AS POLICY IMPLEMENTERS

The next step after policy formulation is policy implementation (see Fig. 4). This phase of
the policy cycle is most debated, and teachers are the most important actors in this stage.
Policy implementation is a process of putting the policy statements into concrete actions-
which involves carrying out and completing relevant activities with the aim to achieve the
policy intended vision, mission, objectives and outcomes .
Agenda-setting: Problem
recognition and issue
selection
Policy
maintenance,
succession or Policy
termination formulation
and
decision-
making
Evaluation
Implementation
Figure 4: The policy cycle theory

Adapted from Viennet & Pont (2017)
The main issue with implementation of educational policies, such as curriculum policies
that have been developed at the central level, is that teachers need to be convinced that the
reforms are practical, feasible and compatible to be used in classrooms since teachers are
not passive recipients of an innovation as argued by scholars (Iskandar 2016; Ndlove 2017).
According to Iskandar (2015), there are three perspectives in relation to implementation of
curriculum policies or reforms: the fidelity perspective, the mutual adaptation perspective,
and curriculum enactment perspective.
Implementation of educational policies and reforms
The fidelity perspective expects

Fidelity the teachers to implement the
perspective
1 content of the curriculum as being
formulated Perspectives
3
The mutual adaptation perspective
allows teachers to implement the
Mutual
innovation with adjustments thus
adaptation 2 allowing a compromise between
perspective curriculum developers and
Perspectives teachers as implementers
The curriculum enactment

perspective, entails the curriculum
Enactment is formulated by the teachers and
perspective
3 students based on the curriculum
framework provided by the
ministry
Evidence for Learning (E4L) (2019) provides best practice foundations for implementation
that can be applied to the implementation of school policy:
. Plan and prepare. The implementation of a policy is a process, not an event.
. Set a conducive environment for effective implementation through strong
leadership.
. Identify the problem you wish to address.
. Create a clear and concise implementation plan; assess the capacity of the school;
train the staff and identify resources.
. Implement the policy; monitor the progress; revise where needed.
. Build sustainability into the implementation plan.
(Evidence for Learning, 2019, pp. 6–7)
Implementation of any educational innovation is a growing process (Ndlove 2017). The

growth directs to the implementor which is the teacher and is about allowing the teachers
to slowly and gradually implement the innovation after overcoming obstacles per obstacles.
Figure 5 exhibits the obstacles commonly experienced by teachers in the process of
implementing an educational innovation espoused in a national educational policy.
Unsettling zone Learning Zone Growth zone
Effective Teachers Time &

Culture School leaders
communication competencies Resources
School Ability Clear and Enhance Change

Culture and to manage consistent knowledge, is a growth-
Values need and perform information skills and needs time
to change- effectively the from all attitudes and support.
including policy process levels (policy
assumptions makers to
and beliefs implementers
and vice versa)
Figure 5 Navigating the implementation process
TEACHERS AS POLICY DEVELOPERS

In the amidst of COVID 19 situation, the role of teachers as policy developers would be an
initiative that is equally important to the role of teachers as policy implementers. Due to
the unprecedented events disrupting the education systems in most part of the world-
policymakers as well as interested stakeholders are in an ongoing effort to provide equitable
education during pandemic and reopening of schools. Research evidence and sharing
of best practices from countries around the world on plans for education as a result of
the pandemic are still evolving (Carvalho et al. 2020) for policy makers to consider. Local
actors namely the school communities (students, teachers and school principals) including
parents would have a better understanding of the situation hence teachers need to play
the role as policy developers as a stop gap measure to the current situation.
REFLECTION
What does it require for you to

be able to develop your school
policy?
The process of developing the related school policies would be similar to the model of policy
development done at the ministerial level, however, at a smaller scale. The immediate stake
holders would be the students, teachers, school principals and parents. Non-governmental
agencies as well as related educational agencies such as higher education or training
centres located within the community, municipal or district could also be relevant in the
process of policy making (see figure 6).
Ministry
Communities
Parents
School Community:
. Principals
. Teachers
. Students
International Researcher
Organisastion
State Education
District
Education
Local
Autorities
Government
Agencies
Figure 6 Potential stakeholders in education.

Adapted from Viennet & Pont (2017)
Carvalho et al. (2020) have developed a kit for policymakers to consider for school reopening
and recovery during and after COVID-19. They suggested five critical dimensions as follows:
Engaging
communities in Targeting resources
reopening plans to where they are
most needed
Recovering Getting children

learning loss back to school
and building
back better
Making school
environments
safe
Evidence shows that parents are worried in sending their children back to school for health
reasons among others. Carvalho et al. (2020) recommend that school policymakers might
include the following initiatives:
. Engage with the community and build trust and make clear of the risks
. Ensure clear and consistent communication through multiple channels to reach all
groups
It has been shown that disadvantaged students including disability students are left out
while learning from home. To some extent, some students might be used and prefer the
new learning and teaching norms. Either way, students, other than for health reasons, may
not want to reenrol with school again. Thus, Carvalho et al. (2020) suggest that to encourage
students back to school again, school as policymakers should:
. Involve community to participate with teachers and school leaders in campaigning
to parents and students the risk of dropping out from schools. Also, perhaps
suggest attendance options to accommodate all children, depending on the family
situations and mind-sets.
. Provide financial or in-kind support to help families overcome the increased costs
of attending school.
. Engage students in accelerated learning interventions to reverse crisis-related
learning loss and strengthen future learning trends. Need also to plan for relevant
intervention for ALL types of students.
. Engage teachers in training and coaching so they can help students catch up and
ensure that school environments are safe and protected.
Pandemic COVID-19 has also impacted on economy of families namely related to 1) Food
Insecurity and 2) Housing Insecurity.
The reopening of schools has changed the role of school to not only focussing on the
academic component of the students but need to provide equal priorities to the health
of the students. All school COVID-19 policies may consider the following key principles
highlighted by American Academic Paediatrics (2019) and Carvalho et al. (2020) as an effort
to mitigate further the viral transmission of the virus. Such coordinated interventions might
involve the following:
In summary, in planning for safe reopening schools, always visit or refer to the COVID-19
Prevention Strategies for each country for any updates of the viral transmission in general.
Policies should be consistently communicated to students, parents and communities.
Ongoing federal, state, and local funding should be provided for all schools so they can
continue to implement all the COVID-19 mitigation and safety measures required to protect
students and staff.
School policies should be adjusted to align with new information about the pandemic.
Schools should monitor the implementation and effectiveness of these policies. School
COVID-19 policies should be practical, feasible, and appropriate for child and adolescent’s
developmental stage and address teacher and staff safety.
h tt p s : //w w w.e d u c a t i o n .v i c .g ov.

au/Documents/school/principals/
governance/PolicyandReviewph.pdf
A snapshot of implementing policies of remote teaching and learning (PdPR):

Policy to Action
During the pandemic, all face-to-face teaching is stopped, and Ministry of Education
(MOE) Malaysia sets a policy that teaching and learning is conducted from home (remote
teaching-PdPR). Figure 7 exhibits the levels of education management involved in realising
the policy.
Figure 7: Policy to Action on Remote Teaching And Learning

CONCLUSION
The focus of this module is on teachers as policy driven. As described earlier, teachers are
driven to take part in policy making, driven to implement and finally driven to develop
policies at own schools. A teacher needs to understand and acquire skills to policy
development and implementation. Understanding educational policies promote teachers
to be abreast with the current and updated knowledge and issues on the innovations in
education nationally and globally. Teachers will also be able to reflect and discuss within
school community on the impact of the changes in education reforms or provide effective
response due to unprecedented events such as the pandemic COVID-19 on one’s practice
and beyond. Figure 8 illustrates the main concepts in effective policy formulation and
implementation.
Figure 8: Enactment of Teachers as Policy Driven
REFLECTING ON THIS MODULE
Mainly this unit has taught me to answer the following important questions:
. How educational policies are shaped by the various stakeholders?
. Why the need to have a school policy?
. How to develop a policy at the school level?
. How to be proactive in implementing the educational policy?
. How to adapt initiatives in educational policy to the reality of the
schools effectively?
. Create a school policy for your school on any one of these aspects:
mental health, absenteeism or remedial program when schools
reopen during or after the COVID-19 pandemic situation.
. List three (3) changes that you would like to suggest to the
educational policy makers. Provide at least two (2) justifications for
each of the three (3) changes proposed.
. In the context of your country, which approach (top-down or bottom-
up) would be relevant to the policy formulation. Please provide at
least two (2) justifications.
. Explain three (3) critical success factors in the process of
implementing the national educational policy in your school?
. Among the two roles- formulating and developing policy, which
role would you be able to perform effectively? Please provide at
least two (2) justifications.
SUGGESTED READINGS
American Academic Paediatrics (2019) COVID-19 Guidance for Safe Schools Downloaded
on the 29th July 2021. https://services.aap.org/en/pages/2019-novel-coronavirus-covid-
19-infections/clinical-guidance/covid-19-planning-considerations-return-to-in-person-
education-in-schools/
Bell, L. & Stevenson, H. (2006). Education Policy: Process, Themes and Impact, NY: Routledge
Ref: dalam UNESCO folder
Carvalho, S., Rossiter, J., Angrist, N., Hares, S. & Silverman, R. (2020). Planning for School
Reopening and Recovery After COVID-19 Evidence Kit for Policymakers, Washington:
Center for Global Development
Education reform in the Philippines aims for better quality and more access, (https://
oxfordbusinessgroup.com/covid-19-update-registration)
Evidence for Learning (E4L) (2019) Guidance report: Putting evidence to work: a school’s
guide to implementation, Australia: Education Endowment Foundation
Iskandar,I. (2015) Teachers’ Attitudes towards the Implementation of the National Standards
in School-Based EFL Curriculum in South Sulawesi Primary Schools in Indonesia ICLEI,
35-49
Lewin (2000) Mapping Science Education Policy in Developing Countries, Washington: The
World Bank
Malaysia Education Blueprint 2013-2025 (Preschool to Post- Secondary Education) ( 2013) :
Putrajaya: Ministry of Education, Malaysia
National Education Strategic Plan 2011-2030 (2011), Ministry of Education, Timor-Leste ©
Ministry of Education.
Ndlove, F. (2017). The teacher’s influence in curriculum policy implementation, IJRDO-
Journal of Educational Research, 2(3): 56-61
OECD (2016), PISA 2015 Results (Volume II): Policies and Practices for Successful Schools,
PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Samii, U. M. (2018) Importance of Policies in School Education Ecosystem, Downloaded at
Linkedin.com/pulse/importance-policies-school-education-ecosystem-sami-ulla-m
Sebayang , K.Di. A. & Swaramarinda, D. R. (2020) Educational Policy Implementation In
Indonesia : The Art Of Decision Making, International Journal of Scientific & Technology
Research, 9 (1),: 1286- 1290
The National Education System for the 21st century (SPN21) (2013), Ministry of Education,
Brunei Darussalam
Viennet, R. & Pont, B. (2017) Education Policy Implementation: A Literature Review and
Proposed Framework, OECD Education Working Paper No. 162
UNSECO (2017) A guide for ensuring inclusion and equity in education, France: UNESCO
UNESCO (2019) Teacher Policy Development Guide, France: UNESCO

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JAK/EDU/2021/03

Brunei · Indonesia · Malaysia · The Philipines · Timor Leste

UNESCO Office, Jakarta

00 Introduction: Overview Of The Teacher Training Manual Ix

01 Teachers As Curriculum Designers 05

02 Teachers As Learning Designers 25

03 Teachers As Resource Developers 43

04 Teachers As Learning Doctors 59

Sharing Outcomes Of Action Research 99

06 Teachers As Policy Drivers 105

Apart from being reflective, an effective teacher is encouraged to regard teaching as a

At the end of this unit, students should be able to:

. Relate all four major elements in the curriculum;

Curriculum decisions must be

Enshrined in the definition is the notion

The means by which these

Have you heard about “written curriculum” and “active

Educational Goals, Educational Objectives and Instructional Objectives

Figure 3: Characteristics of Instructional Objectives

How Do We Write an Instructional Objective?

The ABCD’s of Instructional Objectives

 Conditions are circumstances under which the objective must

On looking at the first tenet of an instructional objective - observable behavior, it is difficult

. Students will list the three forms of sexual reproduction

Thus, having a written statement of student learning in terms of observable behaviour,

. The students will label the parts of flower

Begin each objective with

02 State each objective

04 State only one outcome or

06 Start with a phrase such as

Do not include trivial

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

The idea for this classification system was formed at an

REMEMBERING APPLYING EVALUATING

Remembering, Apply, Build Appraise,

People learn quickly when they feel

Can you explain why student

Content refers to compendium of information which comprises the learning materials

Continuity Sequence Integration

Vertical reiteration Successive Horizontal

ORGANISATION OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES

Constructive Alignment and Evaluation Plan

Constructivist Learning and Learning

. Explain the importance of understanding national educational policy in

. At the end of this section, learners will be able to:

TPACK – ITS COMPONENTS

Figure 1: Reproduced by permission of the publisher, © 2012 by tpack.org

Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Technological Content Knowledge

Technological Pedagogical Knowledge

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN MODEL

ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Develop, Implement, Evaluate)

Analysis Design Develop Implement Evaluate

Gagne 9 Events of Instruction

Begin the lesson by presenting a stimulus

Do a quick walkthrough of previous

Choose a suitable strategy to present

Provide guidance to support student’s

Provide activities that allow students

Provide feedback as a response to

Assess whether the learning outcomes

Provide activities that can help students