ae CHAPTER 10 Ue Naseer eer sary Dea oes ck a i eer arrapirie: atnematica ea. et eee Sa cut era eet Logic ee @rmmmD Mathematical Logic It is the analysis of the method of reasoning, | Logic Statement and Quantifiers A logic statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false. A simple statement, contains a single idea, A compound statement contains several simple statements ideas). The ideas in a compound statement are “connected” by connectives. Moreover, the ideas can be represented by Table of Symbols: P, Q, R, Logic Symbols [Notation [Meaning i [Conjunction A PAQ |PandQ Disjunction Vv PVQ [Por inclusive) Q ‘Negation = =P. not P. Conditional | > PQ [ifPtheng Biconditional ° PQ _ [PifandonlyifQ Example: Let P = “Roses are red”, Q = “Violets are blue’. Express each symbolic statement in English, 4 a. PA Q = “Roses are red and violets are blue. b. ~ PV ~Q= “Roses are not red or violets are not blue” c d. P @~Q = “Roses are red if and only if violets are blue”. 179 | . ~P 2 Q= “Ifroses are not red, then violets are blue”.}0| Mathematics in the Moder World - Quantifiers express how many “objects” satisfy a given property or idea. _ A quantified statement is a statement with at least one quantifier. ‘Universal Quantifiers: “All”, “Every”, “Each” Existential Quantifiers: “Some”, “At least one”, “There exists”, “There is/are” Examples of quantified statements: “All roses are red”, “Every rose is red’, “Each rose is red” “Some violets are blue”, “At least one violet is blue”, “There exists a blue violet”, “There is a blue.” ‘Truth Tables and Tautologies A truth table shows the truth or falsity of a compound statement. It depends the truth or falsity of the simple statements from which it is constructed. Example of a truth table. ‘A tautology is a formula which is “always true” --- that is, it is true for assignment of truth values to its simple components. Example: (x - y)? = x? - 2xy + y? is a tautology because it is always true, In a table, tautology can be represented as follows:Part il - Mathematics as a Tool 2, CHAPTER 10 - Mathematical Logic | 181 Conditional, Biconditional and Related Statements A conditional statement is an if-then statement. For every conditional statement you can write three related statements, the converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive. A biconditional statement is a true statement using ‘if and only if. The related statements are the converse, inverse and contrapositive. A converse statement is the reverse of the conditional statement. A converse of a given conditional statement is when the “if and “then” parts are reversed. ‘An Inverse statement is the negative version of the conditional statement. A contrapositive statement is the negative version of the converse statement. Examples: Conditional: If p, then (p #4) If @ figure is a square, then it is a quadrilateral Converse: Ifq, then p (4 > p) Ifa figure is a quadrilateral, then it is a square. Inverse: If ~p, then ~ q (-p = ~q) Ifa figure is not a square, then it is not a quadrilateral. Contrapositive: If -q, then ~ p (-q=-p) Ifa figure is not quadrilateral, then it is not a square. Symbolic Arguments ‘An argument is a set of statements, one of which is called the conclusion and the rest of which are called premises, An argument is said to be valid if the conclusion must be true whenever the premises are all true. An argument is invalid if it is not valid; it is possible for all the premises to be true and the conclusion to be false. Example: If Edith eats her vegetables, then she can have a cookie Edith eats her vegetables. Edith gets a cookie. Arguments and Euler Diagrams ‘An argument can be classified as either valid or invalid. A valid argument occurs in situations where if the premises are true, then the conclusion must also be true. An argument can be valid even if the conclusion is false.Another way to analyze this is by using the Buler Diagram, ae "The argument is not necessarily true, because you know that not all dogs have fleas. All this shows that the "argument is valid. If the two premises are true, then the conclusion must be true. j