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Introduction
6th Edition 2011 351
Formula
Handbook
including
Engineering
Formulae,
Mathematics,
Statistics
and
Computer Algebra
http://ubuntuone.com/p/ZOF/ - pdf
Name__________________________ http://ubuntuone.com/p/dAn - print
http://ubuntuone.com/p/ZOE/ - OOo (edit)
Course__________________________
Introduction
In order to use the interactive graphs you will need to have access to Geogebra
(see 25). If you are using a MS Windows operating system and you already have
Java Runtime Environment loaded then no changes will be required to the registry.
This should mean that no security issues should be encountered. For Mac and Linux
(and for MS Windows if you have problems)
see http://www.geogebra.org/cms/en/portable
Many thanks to my colleagues at Aberdeen College for their contributions and help
in editing the handbook. Special thanks are due to Mark Perkins at Bedford College
who adopted the handbook for his students, helped to format the contents and
contributed to the contents. Without Mark's encouragement this project would
have never taken off.
If you find any errors or have suggestions for changes please contact the editor:
Peter K Nicol. (p.nicol@abcol.ac.uk) (peterknicol@gmail.com) Contents
19/01/12
351
Contents
1 Recommended Books........................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Maths........................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Mechanical and Electrical Engineering ............................................................................3
2 Useful Web Sites..................................................................................................................4
3 Evaluation............................................................................................................................ 6
3.1.1 Accuracy and Precision................................................................................................................... 6
3.1.2 Units.................................................................................................................................................... 6
3.1.3 Rounding............................................................................................................................................ 6
4 Electrical Formulae and Constants .........................................................................................7
4.1 Basic ........................................................................................................................... 7
4.2 Electrostatics................................................................................................................ 7
4.3 Electromagnetism .........................................................................................................7
4.4 AC Circuits ...................................................................................................................8
5 Mechanical Engineering.........................................................................................................9
5.1.1 Dynamics: Terms and Equations...................................................................................................9
5.1.2 Conversions...................................................................................................................................... 9
5.2 Equations of Motion.......................................................................................................9
5.3 Newton's Second Law..................................................................................................10
5.3.1 Centrifugal Force............................................................................................................................10
5.4 Work done and Power..................................................................................................10
5.5 Energy....................................................................................................................... 10
5.6 Momentum / Angular Impulse........................................................................................11
5.7 Specific force / torque values........................................................................................11
5.8 Stress and Strain......................................................................................................... 11
5.9 Fluid Mechanics.......................................................................................................... 12
5.10 Heat Transfer............................................................................................................ 12
5.11 Thermodynamics.......................................................................................................13
6 Maths for Computing........................................................................................................... 14
6.1.1 Notation for Set Theory and Boolean Laws ..............................................................................14
7 Combinational Logic............................................................................................................ 15
7.1.1 Basic Flowchart Shapes and Symbols........................................................................................15
8 Mathematical Notation – what the symbols mean....................................................................16
8.1.1 Notation for Indices and Logarithms............................................................................................17
8.1.2 Notation for Functions....................................................................................................................17
9 Laws of Mathematics........................................................................................................... 18
9.1 Algebra – sequence of operations.................................................................................19
10 Changing the subject of a Formula (Transposition)................................................................20
11 Simultaneous Equations with 2 variables.............................................................................21
12 Matrices ......................................................................................................................... 22
13 The Straight Line ............................................................................................................. 24
14 Quadratic Equations .......................................................................................................25
15 Areas and Volumes........................................................................................................... 26
16 The Circle......................................................................................................................... 27
16.1.1 Radian Measure........................................................................................................................... 27
17 Trigonometry.................................................................................................................... 28
17.1.1 Notation for Trigonometry...........................................................................................................28
17.2 Pythagoras’ Theorem.................................................................................................28
The Triangle...................................................................................................................... 29
17.2.1 Sine Rule....................................................................................................................................... 29
17.2.2 Cosine Rule................................................................................................................................... 29
17.2.3 Area formula.................................................................................................................................. 29
17.3 Trigonometric Graphs................................................................................................30
17.3.1 Degrees - Radians Conversion..................................................................................................31
17.4 Trigonometric Identities..............................................................................................32
17.5 Multiple / double angles..............................................................................................32
Contents p1 8 Notation 1 26 Computer Input
17.6 Sinusoidal Wave........................................................................................................33
18 Complex Numbers............................................................................................................. 34
19 Vectors............................................................................................................................ 35
20 Co-ordinate Conversion using Scientific Calculators..............................................................36
21 Indices and Logs............................................................................................................... 39
21.1.1 Rules of Indices: ..........................................................................................................................39
21.1.2 Definition of logarithms................................................................................................................39
21.1.3 Rules of logarithms:..................................................................................................................... 39
21.1.4 Infinite Series................................................................................................................................ 40
21.1.5 Hyperbolic Functions .................................................................................................................. 40
21.1.6 Graphs of Common Functions...................................................................................................41
22 Calculus .......................................................................................................................... 42
22.1.1 Notation for Calculus....................................................................................................................42
22.2 Differential Calculus - Derivatives................................................................................43
22.2.1 Maxima and Minima..................................................................................................................... 45
22.2.2 Differentiation Rules..................................................................................................................... 45
22.2.3 Formula for the Newton-Raphson Iterative Process...............................................................46
22.2.4 Partial Differentiation ..................................................................................................................46
22.2.5 Implicit Differentiation..................................................................................................................46
22.2.6 Parametric Differentiation............................................................................................................46
22.3 Integral Calculus - Integrals........................................................................................47
22.3.1 Integration by Substitution..........................................................................................................48
22.3.2 Integration by Parts......................................................................................................................48
22.3.3 Indefinite Integration....................................................................................................................49
22.3.4 Area under a Curve...................................................................................................................... 49
22.3.5 Mean Value................................................................................................................................... 49
22.3.6 Root Mean Square (RMS)..........................................................................................................49
22.3.7 Volume of Revolution ..................................................................................................................50
22.3.8 Centroid.......................................................................................................................................... 50
22.3.9 Partial Fractions............................................................................................................................ 50
22.3.10 Approximation of Definite Integrals..........................................................................................51
22.3.10.1 Simpson's Rule..................................................................................................................51
22.3.10.2 Trapezium Method.............................................................................................................51
22.4 Laplace Transforms ..................................................................................................52
22.5 Approximate numerical solution of differential equations................................................53
22.6 Fourier Series. .........................................................................................................54
22.6.1 Fourier Series - wxMaxima method...........................................................................................55
23 Statistics.......................................................................................................................... 56
23.1.1 Notation for Statistics................................................................................................................... 56
23.2 Statistical Formulae...................................................................................................57
23.2.1 Regression Line ........................................................................................................................... 58
23.2.2 Tables of the Normal Distribution .............................................................................................59
23.2.3 Critical Values of the t Distribution.............................................................................................60
23.2.4 Normal Distribution Curve...........................................................................................................61
23.2.5 Binomial Theorem........................................................................................................................ 61
23.2.6 Permutations and Combinations................................................................................................61
24 Financial Mathematics.......................................................................................................62
25 Recommended Computer Programs...................................................................................63
26 Computer Input ................................................................................................................ 64
26.1 wxMaxima Input........................................................................................................ 65
26.1.1 Newton Raphson..........................................................................................................................65
26.1.2 Differential Equations................................................................................................................... 65
26.1.3 Runge-Kutta.................................................................................................................................. 65
26.2 Mathcad Input .......................................................................................................... 66
27 Using a Spreadsheet to find the ‘best fit’ formula for a set of data. ..........................................67
28 Calibration Error................................................................................................................ 68
29 SI Units - Commonly used prefixes......................................................................................69
30 Electrical Tables................................................................................................................ 69
31 THE GREEK ALPHABET...................................................................................................70
Mechanical Engineering
Electrical Engineering
Mathway Try the problem solver for algebra, trig and calculus
and it draws graphs too. See 26 for input syntax.
http://www.mathway.com
Plus Magazine Plus magazine opens a door to the world of maths, with
all its beauty and applications, by providing articles from
the top mathematicians and science writers on topics as
diverse as art, medicine, cosmology and sport. You can
read the latest mathematical news on the site every week,
browse our blog, listen to our podcasts and keep
up-to-date by subscribing to Plus (on email, RSS,
Facebook, iTunes or Twitter).
http://plus.maths.org/content/
If you come across any Engineering or Mathematics sites that might be useful
to students on your course please tell me (Peter Nicol) - p.nicol@abcol.ac.uk
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.1.2 Units
Treat units as algebra -
1 2 m
for example KE = m v where m=5 kg and v=12 .
2 s
2
1
KE = ×5×kg ×
2 12×m
2
s
2
Standard workshop
1 12 ×m
KE = ×5×kg × tolerance ±0.2 mm
2 s
2
2
1 2 kg×m
KE = ×5×12 × 2
2 s
2
kg m
KE =360 2 KE =360 J
s
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3.1.3 Rounding
Do not round calculations until the last line.
Round to significant figures preferably in engineering form
2
d
Example: A= where d =40
4
3
A=1256.637061 A=1.256637061×10
3
A=1.257×10 rounded to 4 sig fig ( A=1257 )
1 1 1 1
Parallel Resistors = …. 8
R T R1 R2 R 3
Potential Difference V =I R V
2 V2
Power P= I V or P= I R or P= W
R
1
Frequency f= Hz
T
-------------------------------------------------------
4.2 Electrostatics
1 1 1 1
Series Capacitors = …. F
CT C1 C2 C3
A A 0r
Capacitance C= = F
d d
−12
Absolute Permittivity 0≈8.854×10 F/m
-------------------------------------------------------
4.3 Electromagnetism
IN
Magnetisation H= At/m or A/m
ℓ
l l
Reluctance S= = At/Wb or A/Wb
A o r A
−7
Absolute Permeability 0=4 ×10 H/m
--------------------------------------------------------
Contents p1 8 Notation 7 26 Computer Input
4.4 AC Circuits
Unit Symbol
Force on a conductor F =B I ℓ N
Electromotive Force E= B ℓ v V
d di
Induced emf e= N e= L V
dt dt
1
RMS Voltage V rms= ×V V rms≈0.707 V peak V
2 peak
2 V AV ≈0.637 V peak V
Average Voltage V AV = ×V peak
V s Ns I p
Transformation Ratios = =
V p N p Is
Potential Difference V =I Z V
1
Capacitive Reactance X C=
2 f C
1
Admittance Y= S
Z
Linear Angular
s= displacement (m) = angular displacement (rad)
u= initial velocity (m/s) 1= initial velocity (rad/s)
v= final velocity (m/s) 2= final velocity (rad/s)
a= acceleration 2
(m/s ) = acceleration (rad/s2)
t= time (s) t = time (s)
--------------------------------------------------------
5.1.2 Conversions
Displacement s=r
s
Velocity v=r v= =
t t
Acceleration a=r
o
o
2 radians = 1 revolution = 360 , i.e. 1 rad =
360
2 o
≈57.3 see 17.4.1
2 N
If N = rotational speed in revolutions per minute (rpm), then = rad/s
60
--------------------------------------------------------
5.2 Equations of Motion
Linear Angular
1 1
s= uvt = 12 t
2 2
1 1
s=ut a t 2 =1 t t 2
2 2
v–u 2− 1
a= =
t t
-------------------------------------------------------------
Linear Angular
∑ F =ma ∑T=I
where T = F r , I =m k 2
and k = radius of gyration
---------------------------------------------------------
5.3.1 Centrifugal Force
m v2
CF=
r
CF=m 2 r
--------------------------------------------------------
5.4 Work done and Power
Linear Angular
Work done
P=
Time taken
Power Fs P=T
=
t
=F v
--------------------------------------------------------
5.5 Energy
Linear Angular
1 1
Kinetic Energy KE= m v 2 KE= I 2
2 2
1
KE= m k 2 2
2
Linear Angular
Ft=m2 v – m 1 u Tt= I 2 2− I 1 1
F
Stress = load / area =
A
l x
Strain = change in length / original length = or =
l l
E= Stress / Strain E=
M E
Bending of Beams = =
I y R
b d3
2nd Moment of Area (rectangle) I= A h2
12
T G
Torsion Equation = =
J r L
D4 d 4
2nd Moment of Area (cylinder) J= −
32 32
--------------------------------------------------------
Thanks to Frank McClean and Scott Smith, Aberdeen College
p C2
Bernoulli’s Equation z = constant
g 2g
p 1 C 21 p 2 C 22
or z 1= z 2z F
g 2g g 2g
m
2gh –1
f
Actual flow for a venturi-meter Qactual = A1 c d
A1
A2
–1
Efunda Calculator
m
2gh –1
f
Actual flow for an orifice plate Q= A0 c d 4
D
1– 0
D1
ρV D VD
Reynold’s number Re= Re= Efunda calculator
v
4 f l v2 4 f l v2
Darcy formula for head loss h= , h= energy loss
2gd 2d
Efunda Calculator
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5.10 Heat Transfer
k AT 1 – T 2
Through a slab Q̇=
x
T x1 x2 1 1
Through a composite Q̇= where R= …
R k 1 k 2 h1 h2
T
Through a cylindrical pipe Q̇=
R
where
R=
1
R
ln 2
R1
R
ln 3
R2
1
2 R 1 h 1 2 k 1 2 k 2 2 R 3 h 3
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Boyle’s Law p 1 V 1= p 2 V 2
V1 V2
Charles’s Law =
T1 T2
p1 V 1 p 2 V 2
Combined Gas Law =
T1 T2
Perfect Gas pV =m R T
Isentropic Process cP
(reversible adiabatic) pV = constant where =
cV
2 2
C C
Steady flow energy equation Q̇=ṁ h 2 – h1 2 – 1 g z 2 – z 1 Ẇ
2 2
Vapours v x= x v g
u x =u f x u g −u f
h x =h f xh g – h f or h x =h f x h f g
___________________________________________________________________
Thanks to Richard Kaczkowski and Scott Smith, Aberdeen College.
a 16 hexadecimal ( a h) a8 octal ( a o)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5
1015 Peta 2 50 1024 petabyte
_____________________________________________________________
6.1.1 Notation for Set Theory and Boolean Laws
[J Bird pp 377 - 396]
E universal set E
A B .b .c
A={ a , b , c …} a set A with elements a , b , c etc .a
a∈ A a is a member of A B⊂ A
A∪ B A B
Set theory Boolean
E
∪ union ∨ OR A B
A' A
Contents p1 8 Notation 14 26 Computer Input
7 Combinational Logic
A0= A A⋅0=0
A1=1 A⋅1= A
A⋅A= A A A= A
A A=0 A A=1
A= A
A⋅B=B⋅A A B= B A
De Morgan's Laws
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7.1.1 Basic Flowchart Shapes and Symbols
______________________________________________________________
therefore
≠ not equal to
≈ approximately equal to
∞ infinity
⇒ implies
--------------------------------------------------------
8.1.1 Notation for Indices and Logarithms
1
k a k th root of a number a . 3 8=2 k a=a k .
--------------------------------------------------------
8.1.2 Notation for Functions
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
abc=abc a b c=a b c
--------------------------------------------------------
Commutative laws - for addition and multiplication
a b
a b=b a but ≠
b a
--------------------------------------------------------
Distributive laws - for multiplication and division
bc b c
a bc=a ba c =
a a a
--------------------------------------------------------
Arithmetical Identities
ab3 =ab a 22 a bb 2 =a 33 a 2 b3 ab2b3 see 21.1.6
--------------------------------------------------------
Other useful facts
a a 1
a – b=a−b =a÷b= ×
b 1 b
a−−b=a−−b=ab
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ------
a c a d b c a c ac
= × = see 22.3.8, 4
b d bd b d bd
a c a d
÷ = × MC
b d b c
------------------------------------------------------------------
Brackets come before
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Of x 2, x , sin x , e x , comes before
“square of x , sine of x
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Multiplication × comes before
-------------------------------------------------------------------
Addition comes before
Subtraction −
-------------------------------------------------------------------
left bracket
x squared
times a
plus b
right bracket
times 3
minus 5
5a - 7 + 7 = 3b + 7
You can’t move a term (or number) from one side of the equals sign to
the other.
You must UNDO it by using the correct MATHEMATICAL operation.
etc
a x 2 b
General method:
a 1 xb1 y=c1
y y2
a 2 xb 2 y=c2
y1
x x1 x2
Notation:
[ ]
1 0 0 ..
0 1 0 ..
Identity =
0 0 1 ..
. . . ..
If A=
[ a 11 a 12
a 21 a 22 ]
and B=
b 11 b12
b 21 b 22[ ]
then A B=
[ a 11b11 a 12b12
a 21b 21 a 22b22 ]
and A× B=
[ a 11 b11a 12 b 21 a 11 b 12a 12 b 22
a 21 b11a 22 b 21 a 21 b 12a 22 b 22 ] Columns A=Rows B
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Solution of Equations 2 x 2
If A X = B then X = A−1 B
If A= [ ]
a b
c d
−1
A =
1
[
d −b
det A −c a ]
, a d −b c≠0
where det A= ∣ ∣a b
c d
=ad −bc
--------------------------------------------------------
[ ∣ ]
a 11 a12 a 13 1 0 0
Start with a 21 a22 a 23 0 1 0 carry out row operations to:
a 31 a32 a 33 0 0 1
[ ∣ ] [ ]
1 0 0 b 11 b12 b13 b 11 b12 b13
−1
0 1 0 b 21 b22 b23 where b 21 b22 b 23 = A
0 0 1 b 31 b32 b33 b 31 b32 b33
1
or for 3x3 A−1= ×transpose of the co-factors of A [place signs!!]
det A
∣ ∣
a 11 a 12 a13
where
a
det A= a 21 a 22 a 23 =a 11 22
a 31 a 32 a33
∣a 23
a32 a 33 ∣ ∣
a a
a 31 a 33
a
∣ ∣
a
−a 12 21 23 a 13 21 22
a 31 a 32 ∣
or use Sarrus' Rule as below _ _ _
∣ ∣[ ]
a 11 a 12 a 13 a 11 a 12 a 13 a 11 a 12
det A= a 21 a 22 a 23 = a 21 a 22 a 23 a 21 a 22
a 31 a 32 a 33 a 31 a 32 a 33 a 31 a 32
+ + +
detA=a 11 a 22 a 33 a 12 a 23 a 31 a 13 a 21 a 32
−a 31 a 22 a 13 −a 32 a 23 a 11 −a 33 a 21 a 12
y2 ( x2 , y2 )
+ve gradient
dy
y1
( x1 , y1 ) -ve gradient
c
dx
x
x1 x2
y =m xc
y2 – y1 dy y 2 – y 1
m= or = . See 22.1.1 and 17.3
x 2− x 1 dx x 2− x 1
Also:
y−b=m x−a
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
x1 x2 x
Geogebra quadratic
The solutions (roots) x 1 and x 2 of the equation a x 2b xc=0 are the
value(s) of x where y=a x 2 b xc crosses the x axis.
x=
−b b – 4 a c
±
2
or x=
−b± b2 – 4 a c
2a 2a 2 a
a x 2 b xc=0
2 b c
x x =0 2
a a b
2 where c a see 22.4
b d 2= −
a 2
a 2
x d =0
2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Area
length
l
V =A l
1
Triangle A= b h
h 2
r πd2
Circle A= =π r 2
4
d
C=π d =2 π r
π d2
Cylinder Total surface area = π d h2
4
side + 2 ends
h 2 π r h2 π r 2
d
d2h
V= = r 2 h
4
l πdl
h Cone Curved surface area = =π r l
2
Total surface area = r l r 2
d
d2h r2h
V= =
12 3
C
A
B D
--------------------------------------------------------
y
(x,y)
r
The equation x – a2 y – b2=r 2
b
represents a circle centre a , b
and radius r .
a x
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
16.1.1 Radian Measure
r
A radian: The angle subtended (or r
made by) an arc the same
θ
length as the radius of a circle.
Notice that an arc is curved. r
BE.com degrees and radians
c b
B C
a
=sin−1 b arcsin b the value of the basic angle whose sine function
value is b . −90o≤o≤90 o or
−
2
≤≤
2
=cos−1 b arccos b the value of the basic angle whose cosine function
value is b . 0o ≤o ≤180 o or 0≤≤
=tan−1 b arctan b the value of the basic angle whose tangent function
value is b . −90o≤ o≤90o or
−
2
≤≤
2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17.2 Pythagoras’ Theorem
SOHCAHTOA
H O
The other two sides have lengths
A (adjacent, or next to angle )
and O (opposite to angle ) θ
then
A
MC
O A O
sin = cos = tan = see also 20
H H A
and 13
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
[K Singh pp 187 - 192] A
c b
In any triangle ABC, where A is the
angle at A, B is the angle at B and C
is the angle at C the following hold:
B C
a
--------------------------------------------------------
17.2.1 Sine Rule
a b c
Sine Rule = =
sin A sin B sin C
y=sin x o
Calculator answer
Geogebra Sine wave slider http://www.ies.co.jp/math/java/trig/graphSinX/graphSinX.html
y=cos x o
Calculator answer
Geogebra Cosine wave slider http://www.ies.co.jp/math/java/trig/graphCosX/graphCosX.html
Calculator answer
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17.3.1 Degrees - Radians Conversion
0, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 135, 150, 180, 210, 225, 240, 270, 300 315, 330, 360
2 3 5 7 5 4 3 5 7 11
0 2
6 4 3 2 3 4 6 6 4 3 2 3 4 6
r
Degrees to radians o
x ÷180×= rad r
r
o
Radians to degrees rad ÷×180=x
=1 radian
Geogebra Radians
BE degrees and radians see 5.1.2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
sin A 1 cos A
tan A= cot A= = , (the cotangent of A )
cos A tan A sin A
--------------------------------------------------------
1 1
sec A= , (the secant of A ), cosec A= , (the cosecant of A )
cos A sin A
--------------------------------------------------------
2 2
sin 2 Acos 2 A=1
entered as sin A cos A
--------------------------------------------------------
sin −=−sin (an ODD function)
tan A−tan B
tan A− B=
1tan A tan B
---------------------------------------------------------
1
sin A cos B= sin ABsin A− B
2
1
cos Asin B= sin AB−sin A−B
2
1
cos Acos B= cos A Bcos A− B
2
1
sin Asin B= cos A−B−cos A B
2
---------------------------------------------------------
Sums to Products
R V =R sin t
Period =
2
[Frequency = 2 ]
= phase angle
= phase shift
Thanks to Mark Perkins, Bedford College
z 1 r 1 ∠1 r 1
Polar Division = = ∠1−2
z 2 r 2 ∠ 2 r 2
AB a vector
a
b
a vector in Component form (Rectangular Form)
---------------------------------------------------------
Vectors y
b x (a,b)
r bj
θ
a ai
A point a , b A vector v= a
b
or v=r
a1 b1
a b
where a= 2 and b= 2
a3 b3
. .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
R to P Rectangular to Polar
x
y
to r ∠ ( x jy to r ∠ )
P to R Polar to Rectangular r ∠ to
x
y
( r ∠ to x jy )
see also 17.3
x
P to R SHIFT Rec( r SHIFT , ) = out
y
Casio S-VPAM and new Texet Edit keystrokes for your calculator
R to P SHIFT Pol( x SHIFT , y ) = r out RCL tan out
Texas - 36X
Sharp Graphics
Insert the keystrokes for your calculator here (if different from above)
R to P
P to R
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Degrees to Radians ÷180× Radians to degrees ÷×180
_____________________________________________________________
am
2. =a m− n
an
3. a m n =a mn
4.
a
m
n = a
n m 1
n
a = a
n
k
5. k a−n =
an
Also,
1
a 0=1
2
x= x = x 0.5
2 and a= a
a 1=a
n
a=b⇔ bn =a
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
21.1.2 Definition of logarithms
If N =a n then n=log a N
---------------------------------------------------------
21.1.3 Rules of logarithms:
MC
1. log A× B =log Alog B
2. log A
B
=log A – log B
3. log A n =n log A
log b N
4. log a N =
log b a
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
exp x≡e x log e x≡ln x log 10 x≡lg x
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
x x x2 x3 x 4 x5 x6 x7
e =1 ... for ∣x∣∞
1! 2! 3 ! 4 ! 5! 6! 7 !
BE exponential functions better explained
jx − jx 3 5 7
e −e x x x
sin x= =x− − ... for ∣x∣∞
j2 3! 5! 7 !
jx − jx 2 4 6
e e x x x
cos x= =1− − ... for ∣x∣∞
2 2! 4! 6!
MC pronunciation
x −x 3 5 7
e −e x x x
sinh x= =x ... “shine x”
2 3! 5! 7!
x −x 2 4 6
e e x x x
cosh x= =1 ... “cosh x”
2 2! 4! 6!
e x −e −x
tanh x= x −x “thaan x”
e e
______________________________________________________________
y = cosh x
y = ex y=x y = sinh x
y = ln x y = tanh x
y = tanh x
y = sinh x
ax
ke slider k lna x slider
a
y= b y=x 2 and y= x
x
dy
the first derivative of y where y is a function of x (Leibniz)
dx
Also see 13
d2 y dy dy
the second derivative of y w.r.t x . The of
dx 2 dx dx
∂z
the partial derivative of z w.r.t. x . ( ∂ “partial d”)
∂x
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Integration
b
∫ f x dx the definite integral of f x from x =a to x=b
a
the area under f x between x=a and x=b
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
BE - gentle introduction to learning Calculus discovring pi - betterexplained.com
Contents p1 8 Notation 42 26 Computer Input
22.2 Differential Calculus - Derivatives
dy
[K Singh pp 258 - 358]
dx
dy
y or f x or f ' x
dx
________________________________________________
xn n x n−1
sin x cos x
cos x −sin x
ex ex
1
ln x
x
________________________________________________
k 0
k xn k n x n−1
sin a x a cos a x
cos a x −a sin a x
ea x a ea x
a 1
ln a x =
ax x
________________________________________________
k a xbn k n a a xbn−1
k sin a xb k a cos a xb
k cosa xb −k a sin a xb
ka
k tan a xb k a sec 2 a xb= 2
cos a xb
k e axb k a e ax b e
x
gradient slider
ka
k ln a xb
a xb
________________________________________________
cos
−1 x
a
−1
a – x
2 2
, x 2a 2
tan
−1 x
a
a
a x2
2
sinh
−1
x
a
1
x2a2
cosh
−1
x
a
1
x −a
2 2
, x 2a 2
tanh
−1
x
a
a
2
a −x
2
, x 2a 2
_____________________________________________________________
Differentiation as a gradient function (tangent to a curve).
y=k x n c dy
=k n x n−1
dx
x
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
dy
+ 0 − − 0 + + 0 + − 0 −
dx
d2 y
– + ? ?
dx2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22.2.2 Differentiation Rules
[K Singh pp 274 – 285]
dy dy du
= × MC
dx du dx
--------------------------------------------------------
If u and v are functions of x then:
du dv
Addition Rule D uv= =u ' v '
dx dx
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
du dv
Product Rule D uv=v u =v u ' u v ' MC
dx dx
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
du dv
–u v
Quotient Rule
D
u
v
=
dx
v 2
dx vu ' – uv '
=
v2
MC
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
f x n
xn f x n f ' xn x n1= x n –
f ' x n
(where f ' x n ≠0 )
f x =0 when x n1=x n to accuracy required.
http://archives.math.utk.edu/visual.calculus/3/newton.5/1.html
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22.2.4 Partial Differentiation
[K Singh pp 695 - 704]
If z = f x , y then
dy
=
∂z
∂x Also dy = 1
dx ∂z
∂y dx
dx
dy
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22.2.6 Parametric Differentiation
[K Singh pp 291 - 296]
If x= f t and y=g t
dx dy
= f ' t and =g ' t
dt dt
dy
dy g ' t
=
dx f ' t
or
dy
dx
=
dt
dx
f ' t , ≠0 MC
dx
dt
dt
______________________________________________________________
dy
f ' x
dx ln f x ln y
f x
y
1
a 2− x 2
, x 2
a 2
sin−1
x
a
2
1
a x
2
1
a
tan−1
x
a
1
sinh a xb cosh a xb
a
1
cosh a xb sinh a xb
a
1
sech 2 a xb tanh a xb
a
1
x a
2 2
, x 2a 2 sinh−1
x
a
or ln x x 2a 2
1
x −a
2 2
, x 2a 2 cosh−1
a
x
or ln x x 2−a 2
2
1
a −x
2
, x 2a 2 1
a
tanh−1 x
a
or
1
ln
2 a a – x ∣
a x
∣
2
1
x −a
2
, x 2a 2 −1
a
coth −1
x
a
or
1
ln
x−a
2 a xa ∣ ∣
______________________________________________________________
Addition Rule ∫ f x g x dx=∫ f x dx∫ g x dx
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22.3.1 Integration by Substitution
[K Singh p 368]
∫ f g x dx MC
du du
∫ f u du where u=g x then = g ' x and dx=
dx g ' x
x=b u when x=b
∫ f x dx
a
b
=[ F x c ]a
F(b) - F(a)
= F bc – F ac
a b x
Hyperlink to interactive demo of areas by integration
http://surendranath.tripod.com/Applets/Math/IntArea/IntAreaApplet.html
Procedure y
Plot between limits - a and b
Check for roots ( R1 , R 2 .. R n ) and evaluate
+ve +ve
See Newton Raphson 22.2.3
Integrate between left limit, a , and R1 a R1 R2 b x
then between R1 and R 2 and so on to -ve
last root R n and right limit b
Add moduli of areas. (areas all +ve)
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22.3.5 Mean Value
[K Singh p 445]
If y= f x then y , y y = f(x)
the mean (or average) value of y
over the interval x=a to x=b is
y
b
1
y= ∫ y dx
b−a a
a b x
--------------------------------------------------------
22.3.6 Root Mean Square (RMS)
b
1 2
where y= f x
y rms= ∫
b−a a
y dx
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Contents p1 8 Notation 49 26 Computer Input
22.3.7 Volume of Revolution
around the x axis [J Bird pp 207-208]
b
2
V = ∫ y dx where y= f x
a
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22.3.8 Centroid
[J Bird pp 208 - 210]
The centroid of the area of a lamina y
bounded by a curve y= f x and
y = f(x)
limits x=a and x=b
has co-ordinates x , y .
b b
1 2
∫ x y dx ∫
2 a
y dx x Centroid = (x, y)
a
x= b and y= b
y
∫ y dx ∫ y dx
a a
a b x
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22.3.9 Partial Fractions
[K Singh pp 397 - 402]
f x A B
≡ see 8
xa xb x a x b
f x A B C
≡
xa2 xb xa xa2 xb
f x Ax B C
2
≡ 2 2
x a xb x a x a xb
MC
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
b−a
w= yn
n
y1 y2 y3 yn-1 yn
x1 x2 x3 xn-1 xn x w
a b
b
w
∫ f x dx≈ Area≈ 3 y 14 y 22 y 3…2 y n−14 y n y n1
a
( n is even)
b
n xn yn
Multiplier m Product m y n
1 a 1 y1 1× y 1
2 aw 4 y2 4× y 2
3 a2w 2 y3 2× y 3
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
n−1 . y n−1 2 2× y n−1
n . yn 4 4× y n
n1 b y n1 1 1× y n1
Sum =
×w =
÷3 =
---------------------------------------------------------
s
9 cos (ω t ) 2 2
s
ω2
10 1−cos(ω t)
s(s 2+ω2)
2 2 s
11 ω t sin (ω t )
s 22 2
23
12 sin (ω t)−ω t cos (ω t )
s 22 2
13 e−a t sin(ω t ) 2 2 see 14
sa
sa
14 e− a t cos(ω t) 2 2
sa
a s
15 e−a t (cos (ω t)− ω sin (ω t )) 2 2
sa
ssin cos
16 sin t φ 2 2
s
a a 22
17 e−a t + ω sin (ω t)−cos(ω t)
sa s 2 2
Contents p1 8 Notation 52 26 Computer Input
f t L[ f t]
18 sinh (βt )
s − 2
2
s
19 cosh(βt ) 2 2
s −
20 e− a t sinh(β t) 2 2
sa −
sa
21 e−a t cosh(βt ) 2 2
sa −
L [ ]
dy
dt
=s L[ y ] – y 0 where y 0 is the value of y at t=0
[ ]
2
d y dy
L 2
=s 2 L[ y ]– s y0− y ' 0 where y ' 0 is the value of at t =0
dt dt
MC Efunda Calculator Efunda - Laplace
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22.5 Approximate numerical solution of differential equations
[K Singh pp 630 - 655] and section 26.1
Eulers’ method
x0 y0 y ' 0 y1
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
See also K Singh pp 601 - 693 - Differential Equations
_____________________________________________________________
2
Fundamental angular frequency =
T
or
∞
f t =a 0∑ a n cosn t b n sin n t
n=1
where
T
2
1
a 0=
T
∫ f t dt mean value of f t over period T
−T
2
see 22.3.9
T
2
2
a n=
T
∫ f t cosn t dt n=1, 2, 3…
−T
2
T
2
2
b n=
T
∫ f t sin n t dt n=1, 2, 3…
−T
2
n sample size
X a population statistic
f frequency
P= X −x the probability that the population statistic equals the sample
statistic
Mean, x =
∑fx or x=
∑ xi where x i is the variate,
∑f n
f is frequency
BE - averages n is the sample size
--------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------
=
∑ f d2
∑f
d = xi – x
--------------------------------------------------------
Table for the calculation of Sample Mean and Standard Deviation
xi f f xi x− x f x−x
2
. . . . .
. . . . .
∑ f xi = ∑ f x−x 2=
∑ f xi =
x =
n s=
∑ f x−x 2 =
n−1
--------------------------------------------------------
Coefficient of Variation
s
of a sample (as a %) ×100
x
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Q 3−Q 1
Semi-interquartile Range SIR=
2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
∑ y –b∑ x n ∑ xy – ∑ x ∑ y
a= b= 2 2
n n ∑ x – ∑ x
--------------------------------------------------------
Product moment coefficient of Correlation (r value)
r=
n ∑ xy – ∑ x ∑ y
−1≤r≤1
n ∑ x 2 – ∑ x
2
n ∑ y 2 − ∑ y
2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
x−
Z Scores Z=
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Poisson Distribution - the probability of the occurrence of a rare event
e − x
Geogbra Poisson slider P X = x=
x!
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
T Test 1 sample
s
Standard Error of the Mean SE x=
n
x−
T test (1 sample test) t=
SE x
---------------------------------------------------------
2 sample for n30 ( d f = n 1n 2 – 2 )
2 2
n 1 – 1 s 1n2 – 1 s 2
Pooled Standard Deviation sp=
n1n 2−2
2
−x−μ
1 2 2
y= e
2 π
±1sd≈68%
±2sd≈95 %
±3 sd≈99.7 %
Geogebra Normal Dist slider
Geogebra Skewed Dist
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
23.2.5 Binomial Theorem
n
n
x y = ∑
k=0
n n−k k
k
x y where
n
=
n!
k k ! n – k !
n! n! n!
x yn= x n x n−1 y 1 x n−2 y 2... x 1 y n−1 y n
1!n−1! 2 ! n−2! n−1! 1!
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
23.2.6 Permutations and Combinations
n n!
No repetition Pr= order does matter
n−r !
Combinations
n n!
No repetition Cr= order doesn’t matter
r !n−r !
n nr−1!
Repetition allowed Cr= order doesn’t matter
r !r−1!
______________________________________________________________
Thanks to Gillian Cunningham, Aberdeen College.
P Principal
A Accrued amount
a Amount
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Financial Mathematics Formulae
r=1i
A= P 1i n A= P 1 – d n
a r n – 1 a1−r n
S n= or S n=
r−1 1−r
a 1 – r−n
(annuities) P=
r−1
BE - visual guide to interest rates
Efunda Calculator
______________________________________________________________
http://wxmaxima.sourceforge.net/wiki/index.php/Main_Page
Windows: download maxima 5.24.0 (or later version)
http://portableapps.com/node/18166 (portable application)
This program can be accessed over the web i.e. you do not need to download
it although you do usually need to be running Java Runtime Environment (free
download). GeoGebra is a dynamic mathematics software that joins geometry,
algebra and calculus. An expression in the algebra window corresponds to an
object in the geometry window and vice versa.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mathcad ( £1000 approx.) MS Windows
This is the tool of choice for most engineering mathematics. Notes available.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Graph
free (Open Source) MS Windows
n
x 1 1
^ ^
x Calculator toolbar x
o o
5sin x 30
5sin x o30o 5*sin(x/180*%pi+
o symbol from 5sin x deg 30 deg 30/180*%pi)
(1)
drop down list
e from drop %e^( )
x x
e down list then ^ e or
or exp( ) exp( )
ln ln ln log
π pi CTRL g %pi
10××0.7 10 pi *0.7 10 CTRL g*0.7 10*%pi*0.7
sin−1 0.5
means asin(0.5) asin(0.5) asin(0.5)
arcsin(0.5)
(1) As all programs work in radians by default you must change every input
into degrees (if you have to work in degrees).
(2) Also available on toolbars.
(3) Only x allowed as variable
(4) See also 17.5
(5) In wxMaxima typing pi will produce π as a variable NOT 3.1415...
The same is true for e .
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
26.1.1 Newton Raphson
load(newton1)
newton f x , x , x 0, p . Start with precision p=0.1 and then
p=0.01 etc. until outputs are identical to
significant figures required
---------------------------------------------------------
26.1.2 Differential Equations
see also 22.4 (2nd page)
dy
typed as ‘diff(y,x) note the apostrophe ‘ before diff
dx
d2 y
typed as ‘diff(y,x,2)
d x2
Equations; Solve ODE. Equations; Initial value problem (1) or (2).
---------------------------------------------------------
26.1.3 Runge-Kutta
Applied Maths
Definition of variables and functions
m
Example: x:3kg will read as x :=3 kg and a:5 m/s^2 as a :=5
s2
You can type a different unit in place of the box and the number will change to
satisfy the units chosen.
---------------------------------------------------------
Symbolic Maths
f x = use Boolean (bold) equals
symbolic units
Implicit multiplication: This is allowed but only with variables that cannot be
confused with units.
When editing expressions use the Ins key to change from editing to the left
to editing to the right of cursor.
Basic Procedure:-
R 2 value should lie between 0.95 and 1. The closer to 1 the better. Right
click on trendline to change to a better type.
All instructions necessary for MS Excel (E). Open Office Calc will provide the
same answers but in a slightly different format.
Mathcad and Maxima can be used but are more complicated mathematically
but will be more accurate. Geogebra can be used to match a line to data.
Input Input
Output Output
Input Input
Output Output
Input Input
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Thanks to Olaniyi Olaosebikan, Aberdeen College
30 Electrical Tables