Professional Documents
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Advanced Principles and Methods of Teaching (Comprehensive Report)
Advanced Principles and Methods of Teaching (Comprehensive Report)
(Comprehensive Report)
‘Learning’
All of us understand things in the light of our past experience. This is also true of
‘learning’ – we get our ideas of what ‘learning’ means from what happened to us in
the past. So, for example, we may think of ‘learning’ as something which takes
place in a school or college, in a classroom. We may think of it as a person sitting
alone at night, trying to memorise a lot of facts so that s/he can pass an
examination. However, a bit of reflection will show us that ‘learning’ is much
wider than that. After all, children learn a great deal before they even get to school
- they learn to speak, to walk. Educational psychologists tell us that any activity
which leads to a change in our behaviour is ‘learning’.1
‘Teaching’
Once again, our understanding of what ‘teaching’ is, is based on our past
experience. Our earliest experience was in school, where the teacher was also a
‘master’ or ‘mistress’, standing in front of the class, telling us what to do and what
to learn. Some of us experienced the same kind of ‘teaching’ at college. Others
may have experienced teaching where the ‘teacher’ is more of an equal, who takes
account of the learner'sexperience and even learns from the learner. That is why
Abbatt and McMahon say: ‘Teaching is helping other people to learn’.5 They go on
to say that the job of ‘teaching’ health care workers has four elements:
1. The teacher has to decide what students should learn. The students may take part
in this decision, but all are guided by the same principle: it is the job that people
have to do, that determines what they should learn. They have to learn all the
knowledge, skills and attitudes that they need to perform a specific job. They learn
what they ‘must know’ and ‘should know’, not what is ‘nice to know’.
2. The teacher has to help the learners to learn. This does not mean that the teacher
‘spoonfeeds’ the students, as if they were babies. It does mean that the
teacher'sfirst concern should be that the students should learn as well as possible.
Teaching sessions or classes have to be planned carefully, considering the learning
styles, the language, the background of the students. In short, the teachers must
be student centred, not teacher centred.
3. The teacher has to make sure that the students have learnt - s/he has to assess
them. Assessment helps teachers and students to see how well the students are
progressing, so that they can attend to any weaknesses. It sets a standard, so that
society is given people who are competent to practice. Assessment must be
carefully planned so that it supports the learning we want to see- we know that
students learn what they believe they need to pass the exams, and leave out the rest
…
4. The teacher has to look after the welfare of her/ his students. Students who are
stressed and unhappy do not learn well. Good teachers try to ensure that the
general living conditions and environment of their students are adequate. They also
provide opportunities for personal counselling for them. Teachers need to
cultivate an open and trusting relationship with their students.
LEARNING PRINCIPLES
1. Effective teaching involves acquiring relevant knowledge about students and using
that knowledge to inform our course design and classroom teaching.
2. Effective teaching involves aligning the three major components of instruction:
learning objectives, assessments, and instructional activities.
3. Effective teaching involves articulating explicit expectations regarding learning
objectives and policies.
4. Effective teaching involves prioritizing the knowledge and skills we choose to
focus on.
5. Effective teaching involves recognizing and overcoming our expert blind spots.
6. Effective teaching involves adopting appropriate teaching roles to support our
learning goals.
7. Effective teaching involves progressively refining our courses based on reflection
and feedback.
Instructional planning includes not only planning what students will learn, but
how they will learn it.
Planning should include both short-term goals and long-term goals, and for
students with exceptionalities, should address the goals on their Individualized
Education Program (IEP). Instructional plans may include considerations of
academic content, assistive or augmentative technology needs, scaffolded supports,
specific teaching strategies, and adaptations of or modifications to content.
TYPES OF LESSONS
Objectives:
1. To tell the kinds of development lessons and give examples.2. To differentiate the
drill from the review3. To show the forms that application lessons may
take4. To give the conditions necessary to effective appreciationSome lessons may not
follow a specific method or may use a combination of methods. Such lessons may be classified
into types, depending on the objectives andsubject matter. Daily lessons may fall into the
following categories: (1) developmentlesson, (2) review lesson, (3) drill lesson, (4) application
lesson, (5) supervised studylesson, (6) test or examination lesson, and (7) appreciation lesson. It
is also possible fora lesson type to make use of a specific method, as illustrated in the following
pages.
THE DEVELOPMENT LESSON
Nature
The development lesson is one in which something new is presented ordeveloped. It may be a
fact, a principle, a skill, a generalization, or some knowledge. Itmust be something the class did
not know before.
Types
Development lessons are of two types, the formal and the informal. The formaldevelopment
lesson uses formal time-tested methods such as the inductive, deductive,or problem solving.
The informal development lesson does not make use of a definitemethod with definite steps. It
may use the question-answer or Socratic Method. It mayuse the conversational method or what
some authors call “developmental method”where the child is encouraged to see the facts, form
his judgments, discover truths forhimself, and make a conclusion. The developmental method
differs from the tellingmethod because the class is not just told or given the information. As
Thomas M. Risk(1965) says:The developmental procedure is used when the learners go
through thesteps of the learning process in order to attain some understanding,interpretation,
generalization or solution. This is the antithesis of the authoritativemethod, through which the
learner receives the information given by someauthority – generally the teacher or the textbook.
As ordinarily interpreted, theterm “developmental study method” is applied to a direct learning
procedure,under the directions of the teacher, in which students participate step by step.Many
lessons in the primary grades are of the informal development type.The logical thinking
required by the inductive or deductive process is usually notin keeping with children’s mental
development, short attention span, and theshort periods allotted to subjects.
Steps
An informal development lesson may have the following steps:
1.
Preparation.
The preparation consists of the cognitive and motivationalaspects. The teacher may review
facts or recall old experiencesrelated to the new lesson. It is in the preparation step that the
rightmental set for the lesson is established. The motivation of the lesson istaken care of in the
preparatory step.
2.
Presentation or development
.
The teacher directs children’s learning bymeans of questions and teaching aids, leading the
class to examineanalyze, compare, contrast, generalize, observe, judge, or
discoversomething.During the presentation step, the teacher makes the class aware ofwhat is to
be learned through clear perception of the object, specimen,fact or event, and the like.
Teaching Methods
Your choice of teaching method depends on what fits you — your educational
philosophy, classroom demographic, subject area(s) and school mission statement.
Teaching theories can be organized into four categories based on two major
parameters: a teacher-centered approach versus a student-centered approach, and
high-tech material use versus low-tech material use.
Interested in developing your skills as a teacher? Explore online education short
courses designed to give you an in depth understanding of various skills in
teaching.
Teacher-Centered Approach to Learning
Taken to its most extreme interpretation, teachers are the main authority figure in a
teacher-centered instruction model. Students are viewed as “empty
vessels”External link:open_in_new who passively receive knowledge from their
teachers through lectures and direct instruction, with an end goal of positive results
from testing and assessment. In this style, teaching and assessment are viewed as
two separate entities; student learning is measured through objectively scored tests
and assessments.
Learn more about the different teaching styles that use a teacher-centered
approach.
The teacher’s primary role is to coach and facilitate student learning and overall
comprehension of material, and to measure student learning through both formal
and informal forms of assessment, like group projects, student portfolios, and class
participation. In the student-centered classroom, teaching and assessment are
connected because student learning is continuously measured during teacher
instruction.
Learn more about the different teaching styles that use a student-centered
approach.
Advancements in technology have propelled the education sector in the last few
decades. As the name suggests, the high tech approach to learning utilizes different
technology to aid students in their classroom learning. Many educators use
computers and tablets in the classroom, and others may use the internet to assign
homework. The internet is also beneficial in a classroom setting as it provides
unlimited resources. Teachers may also use the internet in order to connect their
students with people from around the world.
You’ve completed your coursework. Student teaching has ended. You’ve donned
the cap and gown, crossed the stage, smiled with your diploma and went home to
fill out application after application. Suddenly you are standing in what will be
your classroom for the next year and after the excitement of decorating it wears off
and you begin lesson planning, you start to notice all of your lessons are executed
the same way, just with different material. But that is what you know and what
you’ve been taught, so you go with it. After a while, your students are bored, and
so are you. There must be something wrong because this isn’t what you envisioned
teaching to be like. There is.
Figuring out the best ways you can deliver information to students can sometimes
be even harder than what students go through in discovering how they learn best.
The reason is because every single teacher needs a variety of different teaching
methods in their theoretical teaching bag to pull from depending on the lesson, the
students, and things as seemingly minute as the time the class is and the subject.
Using these different teaching methods, which are rooted in theory of different
teaching styles, will not only help teachers reach their full potential, but more
importantly engage, motivate and reach the students in their classes, whether in
person or online.
eaching Methods
Teaching methods, or methodology, is a narrower topic because it’s founded in
theories and educational psychology. If you have a degree in teaching, you most
likely have heard of names like Skinner, Vygotsky, Gardner, Piaget, and Bloom. If
their names don’t ring a bell, you should definitely recognize their theories that
have become teaching methods. The following are the most common teaching
theories.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism is the theory that every learner is essentially a “clean slate” to start off
and shaped by emotions. People react to stimuli, reactions as well as positive and
negative reinforcement, the site states. Learning Theories names the most popular
theorists who ascribed to this theory were Ivan Pavlov, who many people may
know with his experiments with dogs. He performed an experiment with dogs that
when he rang a bell, the dogs responded to the stimuli; then he applied the idea to
humans. Other popular educational theorists who were part of behaviorism was
B.F. Skinner and Albert Bandura.
Social Cognitive Theory is typically spoken about at the early childhood level
because it has to do with critical thinking with the biggest concept being the idea of
play, according to Edwin Peel writing for Encyclopedia Britannica. Though
Bandura and Lev Vygotsky also contributed to cognitive theory, according to Dr.
Norman Herr with California State University, the most popular and first theorist
of cognitivism is Piaget.
There are four stages to Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development that he created
in 1918. Each stage correlates with a child’s development from infancy to their
teenage years.
The first stage is called the Sensorimotor Stage which occurs from birth to 18
months. The reason this is considered cognitive development is because the brain
is literally growing through exploration, like squeaking horns, discovering
themselves in mirrors or spinning things that click on their floor mats or walkers;
creating habits like sleeping with a certain blanket; having reflexes like rubbing
their eyes when tired or thumb sucking; and beginning to decipher vocal tones.
The second stage, or the Preoperational Stage, occurs from ages 2 to 7 when
toddlers begin to understand and correlate symbols around them, ask a lot of
questions, and start forming sentences and conversations, but they haven’t
developed perspective yet so empathy does not quite exist yet, the website states.
This is the stage when children tend to blurt out honest statements, usually
embarrassing their parents, because they don’t understand censoring themselves
either.
From ages 7 to 11, children are beginning to problem solve, can have
conversations about things they are interested in, are more aware of logic and
develop empathy during the Concrete Operational Stage.
The final stage, called the Formal Operational Stage, though by definition ends at
age 16, can continue beyond. It involves deeper thinking and abstract thoughts as
well as questioning not only what things are but why the way they are is popular,
the site states. Many times people entering new stages of their lives like high
school, college, or even marriage go through elements of Piaget’s theory, which is
why the strategies that come from this method are applicable across all levels of
education.
The Multiple Intelligences Theory states that people don’t need to be smart in every
single discipline to be considered intelligent on paper tests, but that people excel in
various disciplines, making them exceptional. Created in 1983, the former
principal in the Scranton School District in Scranton, PA, created eight different
intelligences, though since then two others have been debated of whether to be
added but have not yet officially, according to the site. The original eight are
musical, spatial, linguistic, mathematical, kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal
and naturalistic and most people have a predominant intelligence followed by
others. For those who are musically-inclined either via instruments, vocals, has
perfect pitch, can read sheet music or can easily create music has Musical
Intelligence. Being able to see something and rearrange it or imagine it differently
is Spatial Intelligence, while being talented with language, writing or avid readers
have Linguistic Intelligence. Kinesthetic Intelligence refers to understanding how
the body works either anatomically or athletically and Naturalistic Intelligence is
having an understanding of nature and elements of the ecosystem.
The final intelligences have to do with personal interactions. Intrapersonal
Intelligence is a matter of knowing oneself, one’s limits, and their inner selves
while Interpersonal Intelligence is knowing how to handle a variety of other people
without conflict or knowing how to resolve it, the site states. There is still an
elementary school in Scranton, PA named after their once-principal.
Constructivism
The final method is the Universal Design for Learning which has redefined the
educational community since its inception in the mid-1980s by David H. Rose.
This theory focuses on how teachers need to design their curriculum for their
students. This theory really gained traction in the United States in 2004 when it
was presented at an international conference and he explained that this theory is
based on neuroscience and how the brain processes information, perform tasks and
get excited about education. The theory, known as UDL, advocates for presenting
information in multiple ways to enable a variety of learners to understand the
information; presenting multiple assessments for students to show what they have
learned; and learn and utilize a student’s own interests to motivate them to learn,
the site states. This theory also discussed incorporating technology in the
classroom and ways to educate students in the digital age.
Teaching Styles
From each of the educational theories, teachers extract and develop a plethora of
different teaching styles, or strategies. Instructors must have a large and varied
arsenal of strategies to use weekly and even daily in order to build rapport, keep
students engaged and even keep instructors from getting bored with their own
material. These can be applicable to all teaching levels, but adaptations must be
made based on the student’s age and level of development.
There are so many different methodologies and strategies that go into becoming an
effective instructor. A consistent theme throughout all of these is for a teacher to
take the time to know their students because they care, not because they have to.
When an instructor knows the stories behind the students, they are able to design
lessons that are more fun, more meaningful, and more effective because they were
designed with the students’ best interests in mind. There are plenty of pre-made
lessons, activities and tests available online and from textbook publishers that any
teacher could use. But you need to decide if you want to be the original teacher
who makes a significant impact on your students, or a pre-made teacher a student
needs to get through.
aper airplanes fly across the room. Students race between desks. You can’t get a
word in, as they yell over you.
Disruptive behavior doesn’t have to be this dramatic, like a movie scene you’d watch
in a media literacy lesson, but poor classroom management will almost assuredly
elevate your stress and burnout rates.
Use the ones that best appeal to your situation and teaching style.
Try these effective classroom management strategies with your students to become a
happier, more effective teacher.
Make a habit of demonstrating behavior you want to see, as many studies show that
modelling effectively teaches students how to act in different situations.
After, start a class discussion to list and expand upon the ideal behaviors you
exemplified.
Encourage all students to help you build classroom expectations and rules, as you’ll
generate more buy-in than just telling them what they’re not allowed to do.
This is especially essential for new teachers. Near the start of the school year or
during the first day of a semester, start a discussion by asking students what they
believe should and shouldn’t fly in terms of appropriate behavior.
At what points are phones okay and not okay? What are acceptable noise levels
during lessons?
This may seem like you’re setting yourself up for failure, but -- depending on the
makeup of your class -- you may be shocked at the strictness of some proposed rules.
Regardless, having a discussion should lead to mutually-understood and -respected
expectations for your classroom culture.
3. Document rules
Similar to handing out a syllabus, print and distribute the list of rules that the class
discussion generated. Then, go through the list with your students. Doing this
emphasizes the fact that you respect their ideas and intend to adhere to them. And
when a student breaks a rule, it’ll be easy for you to point to this document.
You'll likely want to post these rules up in your classroom — if you haven't already
— for occasional reference. If you’re feeling creative, you can include the rule list in
a student handbook with important dates, events and curriculum information, too.
4. Avoid punishing the class
“Do you have a question?”, not “Stop talking and disrupting other students”
“Do you need help focusing?”, not “Pay attention and stop fooling around while
I’m talking”
This basic approach will allow you to keep a friendly disposition, while immediately
acknowledging inappropriate behavior.
5. Encourage initiative
Promote growth mindset, and inject variety into your lessons, by allowing students
to work ahead and deliver short presentations to share take-away points. Almost
inevitably, you’ll have some eager learners in your classroom. You can simply ask
them if they’d like to get ahead from time-to-time.
For example, if you’re reading a specific chapter in a textbook, propose that they read
the following one too. When they deliver their subsequent presentations to preview
the next chapter on your behalf, you may find that other students want a bit more
work as well.
6. Offer praise
Praise students for jobs well done, as doing so improves academic and behavioral
performance, according to a recent research review and study.
8. Hold parties
Even if it’s just for 20 or 30 minutes, they should be happy with snacks and a
selection of group games to play. Clarify that you’re holding the party to reward
them and they can earn future parties by demonstrating ideal behavior, collectively
scoring high on assessments and more.
Let’s say a few students are actively listening throughout the entire lesson, answering
questions and asking their own. Before the class ends, walk over to their desks to
give them raffle tickets. So others can learn, state aloud what each student did to earn
the tickets. On Friday, they can submit their tickets for a shot at a prize that changes
each week -- from candy to being able to choose a game for the next class party.
When the occasion arises, from academic effort or behavioral progress, letting
parents know has a trickle-down effect. They’ll generally congratulate their kids;
their kids will likely come to class eager to earn more positive feedback. This can
also entice parents to grow more invested in a child’s learning, opening the door to
at-home lessons. Such lessons are a mainstay element of culturally-responsive
teaching.
11. Build excitement for content and lesson plans
This one works well no matter the grade level: elementary school, middle school or
high school. Start lessons by previewing particularly-exciting parts, hooking student
interest from the get-go.
As the bell rings and students settle, go through an agenda of the day’s highlights for
the whole class. These could include group tasks, engaging bits of content and
anything else to pique curiosity. For example, “Throughout the day, you’ll learn
about:”
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Provide a range of activities during free study time to appeal to students who
struggle to process content in silence, individually.
You can do this by dividing your class into clearly-sectioned solo and team activities.
In separate sections, consider:
By running these sorts of activities, free study time will begin to benefit diverse
learners. This should contribute to overall classroom engagement.
Help student group work run smoothly and effectively by writing contracts that
contain guidelines, having everyone sign.
Group contracts should be based on expectations that students have for each other,
and you have for them. You can gather the class’s thoughts by holding a discussion
about what the ideal group member does, and how he or she acts. Once you’ve
written the contract, encourage students to come up with consequences for violating
expectations.
By having them sign a fresh version of the contract before each group task and
project, you’re empowering them to hold each other accountable.
This starts by giving the class a list of broad project ideas, asking each student to
choose one. Be sure to provide a rubric for each project that clearly defines
expectations. By both enticing and challenging students, you should notice they’ll:
With these benefits, students may actually look forward to taking on new projects.
Instead, just state if a student did or did not meet expectations. Then, provide
struggling students with a clear path to improve. For example, pair classmates who
didn’t meet expectations with those who did, giving them a review and practice
activity. When strugglers are confident they understand key concepts, encourage
them to tell you. Provide a new assessment, allowing them to prove their
competency.
There are many games and platforms that use adaptive learning principles to detect a
given student’s skill deficits, serving them content to help overcome them.
While running learning stations or a large-group activity, pull each student aside for a
few minutes. Ask about:
What helps them focus
Who they work well with
Their favorite types of lessons
Their favorite in-class activities
Which kinds of exercises help them remember key lesson points
Note their answers to come up with activities and approaches that engage them,
thereby limiting classroom disruptions.
Acting sooner than later will help ensure that negative feelings -- whether between
students or you and a student -- won’t fester. Failure to act can result in more poor
behavior, leading to needlessly-difficult conversations.
Peer teaching activities, such as pairing students together as reading buddies, can
be especially beneficial for students who suffer from low confidence and poor
interpersonal skills.
Adjusting your scoring system -- Give experience points (XP) -- along with
traditional scores -- on tests and assignments, setting a goal for the student to reach
a certain amount of XP per unit. For example, if a student scores 60% on a quiz,
give him or her 6,000 XP. You can also award XP for completing extra
assignments, participating in class or anything else that shows effort to learn.
Using stages -- Refer to topics and units as stages. The former terms have clear
connotations for you, but students may not see how they fit together. If they’re
gamers, they’ll understand that reaching the next stage requires overcoming
precursory challenges. Emphasize this by framing certain tasks as prerequisites to
reach the next learning stage.
If these strategies work especially well for individual students, you should see similar
success by using them as class-wide student management techniques.
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management strategies at your own school!
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own banner maker.
According to Diana Baumrind's work, a clinical psychologist known for her research
on parenting styles, some educators believe an authoritative classroom management
style may the best one. This type of high control, high involvement classroom
management style is characterized by strong expectations of appropriate behavior,
clear understandings of why certain behaviors are acceptable and others not
acceptable, and warm student-teacher relationships.
However, there is no specific approach that has been proven to be the most effective.
So you may wish to review The Classroom Management Book by Harry K. Wong
and Rosemary T. Wong which includes a variety of solutions that can be easily
implemented. Every group of students has varying needs and will likely need a
unique approach to help every student bring his or her best self to the classroom and
be ready-to-learn every single day.
What are the four components of classroom management?
Implementing the top four components of classroom management from the start will
set you and your students up for success all year long. They are:
Classroom design — be intentional about how you set up your desk, your
students' desks, bulletin board displays, devices and other aspects of your
classroom. Thoughtful classroom design can help create a safe and welcoming
learning environment.
Rules/discipline — to create a safe and caring school community, develop
classroom rules your students understand and — hopefully — respect. While it
may not be fun, be sure to communicate that breaking classroom rules will have
concrete yet fair consequences.
Scheduling/organization — being on time, keeping on task and staying
organized will help set up your lessons (and your students' learning) up for
success.
Instructional technique — while you may not have the flexibility you'd like
when it comes to content and curriculum, you should have the freedom to
choose how you teach. For example, 8th grade students may prefer a lecture-style
lesson with small group discussions while 3rd grade students may prefer learning
math with a digital game-based learning platform. Observe how your students
learn best and use the classroom management strategies and techniques to teach
your lessons.
When done effectively, classroom management is important for three main reasons.
It:
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