Transport Policy 35 (2014) 105–116

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Transport Policy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tranpol

Mobility characteristics of the elderly and their associated level of

satisfaction with transport services in Osogbo, Southwestern Nigeria
Moses Olaniran Olawole n, Oluwole Aloba 1
Department of Geography, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Older people are perceived to face different problems while commuting. Studies on mobility of the
Keywords: elderly and associated constraints are, in Nigeria, recent but scanty. Hence, this paper explores elderly
Elderly mobility characteristics, commuting patterns, quality of transport services and problems associated with
Commuting the use of public transport services. Questionnaires were administered to 250 elderly aged 60 years and
Satisfaction above using a purposive sampling technique. Findings showed that 58.4% of the sampled elderly lack
Transport services personal means of transportation. The study revealed that an elderly generates about 2.88 trips per day.
Mobility constraints Trip destinations within a distance of 2 km of respondents' residence accounted for 65.60% trips
generated. Daily frequency accounted for 38.56% of the visits to four trip destinations (work, social,
religion and market). Walking accounts for 36.89% of travel mode of the elderly. Transport constraints
identified include high transport fare, lack of bus stops, poor nature of roads, traffic congestion, poor
attitude of commercial transport operators and the absence of state owned transport services. There is
also a low level of satisfaction with transport services with significant variation in satisfaction with
transport service among the different age groups. The paper suggests that government should include
issues of elderly mobility and safety in the nation's transport policy in addition to the provision of
affordable public transport services for the elderly.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction integral part of efforts to promote overall societal development

Population in most countries of the world is ageing. World-
wide, the proportion of persons of 60 years and over is growing
faster than any other age group and by the year 2050 there will be
2 billion persons 60 years and over, with 80% of them living in
developing countries (WHO, 2002). For instance, in 2005, Nigeria
was ranked among the top 30 countries in the world on the basis
of the size of its population aged 60 years and over, and had the
largest older population in sub-Saharan Africa, with over 6 million
people, 60 years and over. By 2030, the country will still have the
largest older population, with over 12 million people, 60 years and
over (NPC, 2003; Velkoff and Kowal, 2006).
Population ageing is of interest mainly for several reasons. First,
the fast rate at which the number of older persons is increasing
presents a great challenge to unprepared nations. Second, older
people widely lack access to public social and health care support
structures especially in developing countries. Enhancing older
people's mobility capacity, therefore, needs to be seen as an
n
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ 234 803 578 4825.
E-mail addresses: moolawole@gmail.com,
molawole@oauife.edu.ng (M.O. Olawole), oaloba2004@yahoo.com (O. Aloba).
1
Tel.: þ234 803 722 0616.
especially in the transportation sector. Ashford and Bell (1979)
identified two areas associated with the need to understand the
problems of providing transport for elderly persons. First, the
lifestyle of the elderly, which initiates different demand, patterns
from those, which are produced by the adult population of work-
ing age. The second reason is associated with the frailty of the
elderly persons which reduces their ability to cope with the
physical attributes of the system or which by reason of age
increases the risk of a serious injury that would be unlikely to
occur in a younger person (e.g. bone fractures from falls).
The expected increase in the number of the elderly in the world
and in Nigeria in particular connotes among others, the need for
transportation stakeholders to make mobility and travel behaviour of
the elderly an issue of priority, as mobility is critical for social
integration of the elderly in the society. The implications of mobility
needs of the elderly, their accessibility to essential facilities and their
demand for transportation services consequently became a subject of
examination, as their mobility and spatial interaction are crucial to
the effective social, political and economic development of the
societies and the fulfillment of their physical needs.
In Nigeria, the support and caring for older people is
primarily a family responsibility, either in the context of
extended families or co-residence of parents with adult children

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2014.05.018
0967-070X/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
106 M.O. Olawole, O. Aloba / Transport Policy 35 (2014) 105–116
(NPC, 2003). Thus, there is the need for a study of this nature
because of relatively sparse literature on the mobility situations
of older persons in Nigeria (Ipingbemi, 2010). In addition, the
study on the travel behaviour and mobility characteristics of
urban dwellers in the country are not new. Over the last 40
years, these have contributed mostly to our understanding of
the trip patterns, modal choice and challenges that people face
in commuting in the urban centres. To this end, the research and
policy emphasis in this area has been based primarily upon the
relationship between transportation and access to socio-
economic facilities. Much less attention has been placed upon
the full array of activities and travel needs of the elderly
population and their perception of the quality of transport
infrastructure and services.
Moreover, ageing-related issues have a low priority in the
policies and programmes in Nigeria. This is reflected in the lack
of National Policy on the care and welfare of older persons and
total absence of transport policy on travel and mobility of the
elderly (Adebowale et al., 2012; Ipingbemi, 2010; Ajomale, 2007).
2. Literature review
2.1. Mobility behaviour of the elderly
The literature on mobility behaviour of the elderly is numerous
and comprehensive especially in developed countries. For instance,
the implications of the travel patterns of older people and their
demand for transportation services have been the subject of exten-
sive discussion and speculation in the developed countries (Hess,
2009; Rosenbloom, 2004; Banister and Bowling, 2004).
Noble and Mitchell (2001) analyzed data collected from the
British National Travel Survey (NTS) of 1996/1998. Their work
showed the change in modal choice towards private car in recent
decades in the UK. It is further shown that older women use more
of buses and travel as car passengers compared to males. Hjorthol
et al. (2010) examined the activity and travel patterns of different
groups of older people in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Using
data from the National Travel Surveys of the three countries across
a period of 20 years, their study showed a significant period effect
in car ownership and use among older people in Denmark, Nor-
way and Sweden with a clear increase during the past 20 years.
Furthermore, in terms of travel, older people of today were found
to travel more than the comparable age groups 20–25 years ago:
everyday trip rates are higher and activities outside home are
more common. However, commuting and work-related trips was
found to decline after retirement.
Studies analyzing the mode choice of older people abound. For
example, the study by Schwanen et al. (2001) analyzed leisure
trips of seniors in the Netherlands. They concluded that older
people in urban areas use public transport about eight times more
than in rural areas. Studies have also shown that the elderly and
their mobility characteristics do not constitute a homogeneous
group. For instance, Hildebrand (2003) showed how older people
can be classified into different groups with consequences for both
the activities they engage in and how they make trips. Conse-
quently, the study identified six lifestyle groups among elderly
people 65 years and over in Poland. In the same vein, Collia et al.
(2003) conducted a monographic study on travel characteristics of
the American elders. They analyzed the differences between the
population of 19–64 years old and the population of 65 years old
and above from every angle related to travel and found that 89% of
the American elders travel by private cars, which is nearly the
same as the population of 19–64 years old. Also, Alsnih and
Hensher (2003) observed, in a comparative study of the flexibility
of the elders at different age levels, that the more old people own
driver license, the stronger their dependence on private cars
for travel
A number of recent studies have attempted to examine mobility
of the elderly in developing countries, In Nigeria, for instance,
Ipingbemi (2010), using data from a survey of 264 elderly, examined
travel characteristics and mobility crisis of the elderly in Ibadan
Metropolis. The study showed that work and health related trips
accounted for 31.8% and 27.1% of the journey purpose, while the use
of bus and walking respectively accounted for 30% and 29.6% of the
modal split. The study identified vehicle design, long access and
waiting time as well as poor facilities at the terminals as constraints
to the effective mobility of the elderly. In an earlier study, Odufuwa
(2006) analyzed mobility of the elderly from the provision of public
transport perspective and observed that inadequacy of public trans-
portation has resultant impacts on the mobility of the elderly as
more than 80% of the elderly depended on various means of urban
public transport for intra and intercity travels.
These studies of Ipingbemi (2010) and Odufuwa (2006) have
helped to break new ground in understanding elderly mobility.
However, from research and policy advocacy perspective, they are
insufficient to make much impact on the formulation of national
transport policy for the older population in the country or to
support any contentions about the possible transportation impacts
of demographic ageing. Consequently, the exigencies of growing
old and an inadequate knowledge base in the country strengthen
the need to further our understanding of the travel patterns and
perception of the elderly on transport issues concerning them.
Therefore, studies such as this become necessary because of the
increasing number of the elderly; and the fact that the elderly
travel patterns are different from those produced by the generality
of the population. This study aims to provide insight into the
mobility characteristic and commuting patterns of the elderly in
Osogbo, Southwestern Nigeria. Specific objectives of this study are
to examine the socio-economic characteristics of the elderly; their
perception of the quality of transport services and problems
associated with the use of public transport services.
2.2. Satisfaction and transport services
Satisfaction with quality of transport service provision can be
conceptualized as the degree of harmony between a commuter's
expectation of services and his perception of the services received.
Satisfaction is based on an individual's reaction to the perceived
difference between performance appraisal and expectations. Dis-
confirmed expectation leads an individual to a state of dissatisfac-
tion, while the confirmation of expectation yields satisfaction.
Studies have shown that satisfaction assessments and service
quality perceptions are closely connected (Abiodun, 2010). Satis-
faction, like quality, is a multidimensional construct. Thus, satis-
faction with a service provider is based on satisfaction with all
aspects of the services provided. For a transport service to be
evaluated positively on quality terms, it must perform well,
whereas to be judged otherwise, poor performance on one or
few dimensions is sufficient indicator.
During commuting, captive-riders are exposed to service attri-
butes that are cognitively processed and help to affect an individual's
perception of quality service delivery, hence satisfaction. These
attributes comprise the condition of vehicle, passenger carrying
capacity, neatness etc. In addition, satisfaction derived from their
perception of quality of service may be derived from their assess-
ment of the intangible elements associated with the interaction
between the commuters and the transport service provider. These
intangible elements include such aspects as courtesy, competence,
access and availability of services as at when needed. Indeed,
research efforts have documented the importance of efficient
M.O. Olawole, O. Aloba / Transport Policy 35 (2014) 105–116 107

Fig. 1. Map of the study area showing Osun State.

108 M.O. Olawole, O. Aloba / Transport Policy 35 (2014) 105–116

transport service provision to socio-economic development of peo-
ple, community and nations (Ogunsanya, 1998).
3. Study area
Osogbo is situated within latitude 7139″N latitude7156″N and
longitude 4130″ and longitude 4137″E (Fig. 1). Following the
creation of Osun State in 1991, Osogbo assumed the status of a
State capital and also serves as the administrative headquarters of
Osogbo and Olorunda Local Government Areas (LGAs). It covers an
area of 140 km2 (Fadare and Salami, 2004). The sum of the
population of the two LGAs in 2006 census was 288,455 (NPC,
2006). Osogbo LGA had 156,694 people while the population base
of Olorunda was 131761 in 2006. Osogbo also doubles as the state
capital of the state in Nigeria with the largest percentage (8.1%) of
its population made up by the elderly in 1991 (NPC, 2003)
Osogbo, like any other traditional Yoruba town, has a consider-
able variation in its physical pattern and growth. Olawuni (1999)
identified three residential densities in Osogbo: high, medium and
low residential densities. The high residential density area in
Osogbo is comprised of housing that are laid out in traditional
compounds with many small rooms, limited open space, almost no
road, or formal recreation space, and homogeneous population.
The medium and low residential density areas are mostly well laid
out, with a regular street plan, having many plots almost com-
pletely occupied by two or three-storey buildings. The population
in these areas is less homogeneous, consisting of people of diverse
ethnic origins. The variation in the spatial form of Osogbo is
noticed as one moves from the interior towards the outskirts while
most of the business districts are interwoven with residential
districts (Egunjobi, 1995).
Private operators dominate transport service provision in
Osogbo as there is no state owned intra city transport services.
Taxis, mini-buses (Korope) and motorcycles are the main transport
service providers. Taxis and mini-buses ply the major roads and
arterials, while commercial motorcyclists ply all routes in the city.
Travels within Osogbo is getting increasingly difficult due partly to
congestion in the central business districts (CBDs) and partly to
the sprawling of the administrative city into surrounding agricul-
tural and rural settlement areas. These developments have led to
exclusions of these categories of the population in terms of
vehicular movement. They have also caused considerable chal-
lenges to planning and administration especially in the areas of
sanitation and uncontrolled parking.
4. Material and methods
Data used in the paper were obtained from a survey of house-
holds conducted in Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria, in 2012. The study
utilized mostly primary data generated from questionnaire survey.
The study population consists of older people aged 60 and above.
The questionnaire designed for the research had four main
sections. ‘Section-1’ comprised eight items related to socio-
economic and mobility characteristics of the elderly. ‘Section-2’
had four items related to housing and residential zone character-
istics. ‘Section-3’ comprised six items related to travel behaviour of
the elderly, each of the six items consists of questions relating to
six trip purposes and ‘Section-4’ comprised 16 items on elderly'
perception of satisfaction with available transport services within
the city and what they perceived as the main transport constraint
affecting their travel behaviour respectively. The variables used
relate to socio-economic and mobility characteristics of the elderly
investigated: sex, age, education, income, marital status, employ-
ment status, occupation and ownership of transport means. For
the housing and residential area characteristics, variables such as
dwelling type, ownership status, type residential neighborhood
and distance of house to motorable road were examined. Variables
included under the section on travel behaviour of the elderly
include trip purposes, trip frequency, travel distance, travel mode,
travel cost and time. Data on elderly' satisfaction with transport
services were obtained using a Likert-type scale ranging from ‘1’
for highly dissatisfied; ‘2’ dissatisfied; ‘3’ for neutral; ‘4’ for
satisfied and to ‘5’ for highly satisfied. Elderly respondents were
also asked to identify as many transport constraints affecting

Table 1
Distribution of samples based on residential areas.

No. Name of wards Residential density No. of questionnaires

High Medium Low

n
1 Isale Osun-Lasinmi-Ajenisuwa
n
2 Isale Osun 26
n
3 Asubiaro 14
n
4 IsaleAro-Kaka-OgoOluwa-Isale Ijebu 33
n
5 Alekuwodo-Okefia-Osogbo Grammar School 8
n
6 Okepopo-Okanla-OkeOla-Gbaemu 9
n
7 Iyadudu-Odofin-Okokangi-Afonja
n
8 Itaolokan-Ayepe-Owode Coastain 10
n
9 Agate-Abolubode-Jagun-Agbede-pupo-Gbodupe
n
10 Aresa-Ajiroba-Ikoleba-Samota
n
11 Okebaale-Obatedo-OSBC 17
n
12 Iyalode-Layiokun-Idi Omo
n
13 Balogun-Kujenyo-Akepe
n
14 Gbonmi-Obalende -Fiwasaye-Iludun-Onigbongbo 26
n
15 Kelebe and others 17
n
16 OkeOnitea-Agowande-Aiyetooro-Ring Road-GRA 25
n
17 Igbona Market-Balogun Agoro-Station Road-Latona Area 18
n
18 Oriaye-Olubi-Akogun Areas
n
19 Radio Station Akogun-Atelewo Areas 6
n
20 Odo Eran-Youth Center-Irepodun-Ifaology
n
21 Olu Ode-Owode-Abaku 8
n
22 Sabo Area-Owope 14
n
23 Kola Balogun-Testing Ground-Power line-Kobo n´ gbogboe-Otaefun 19
Total 250

n
denotes classification of wards by residential area.
 M.O. Olawole, O. Aloba / Transport Policy 35 (2014) 105–116 109

their travel behaviour as possible from a list of seven problems Table 2

identified in the reviewed literature (see Ipingbemi 2010 and Socio-economic characteristics of the elderly in Osogbo.
Odufuwa, 2006).
Sex Frequency Percent
For the purpose of effective and objective data collection and
analysis, the city was divided into three residential zones – high, Male 128 51.2
medium and low density in line with Olawuni's (1999) classifica- Female 122 48.8
tion (Table 1). Within each zone, all streets were listed and Age

numbered and the first street was selected by the use of random 60–64 Years 61 24.4
numbers. All subsequent streets in the sample were chosen at 65–69 Years 80 32
70–74 Years 53 21.2
uniform intervals of two. Systematic sampling procedure was
75 Years and above 56 22.4
initially designed to select houses alone the sampled streets, but Marital status
the method proved inadequate, as it was difficult to obtain size-
Single 7 2.8
able and reliable number of target population in some parts of the Married 145 58
city. Elderly were eventually selected from the sampled streets Widowed 83 33.2
using purposive sampling technique, based on the willingness of Divorced 15 6
the elderly to participate in the survey. However, the selection was Level of education

made in a way that all the houses with elderly living in them, in No formal education 113 45.2
the sampled street, were considered in the survey. A total of 250 Primary 35 14
Secondary 40 16
elderly were sampled in the three residential zones. Interviews
Tertiary 62 24.8
were conducted, face to face, with the willing elderly by the Employment status
researchers and a trained research assistant. Data collected were
No 77 30.8
subjected to descriptive statistics, which generated percentages
Yes 173 69.2
and frequencies of respondents' socio-economic characteristics, Occupation
travel characteristics and mean satisfaction scores with transport
None 77 30.8
services. In addition, chi square analysis was also used to examine Farming 49 19.6
the level of significance between transport constraints in the Trading 101 40.4
residential zones. Artisan 23 9.2
Monthly income range

¼ N ¼ 10,000 and below 125 50

5. Results ¼ N ¼ 10,000 to ¼N ¼ 20,000 46 18.4
¼ N ¼ 20,001 to ¼N ¼ 30,000 20 8
¼ N ¼ 30,001 to ¼N ¼ 40,000 23 9.2
The results of this study are presented as socio- economic and
¼ N ¼ 40,001 to ¼N ¼ 50,000 25 10
mobility characteristic of respondents; trip characteristics; trans- Above ¼ N¼ 50,000 11 4.4
port problems; and satisfaction with the quality of transport
services.

5.1. Socio-economic and mobility characteristics
Travel is a derived demand, i.e. people travel in order to access
employment, education, health facilities, recreational and com-
mercial activities. Analysis of data collected reveals that the
sample consisted of 51.20% male and 48.80% female. Table 2 shows
that 24.40% are between 60 and 64 years. Respondents in the age
group of 65–69 years are 32% and 21.20% are between the ages of
70 and 74 years, while, respondents aged 75 years and above
accounted for 22.40%. Very few (2.8%) of the respondents have
never been married, while 58% are currently married, 33.2% are
widowed and 6% are divorced/separated.
Educational information of the respondents shows that 45.20%
have no formal education, 24.80% are educated up to tertiary
levels, while those with primary and secondary education are 14%
and 16% respectively. A majority (69.3%) of the elderly are
employed. However, significant relationship exists at 5% significant
level between age group and employment status of the elderly
(χ2 ¼11.03, df ¼ 3, p ¼0.012).
The respondents' income analysis as shown in Table 2 further
reveals that 50% of the respondents earn below ¼ N ¼10,000 per
month. The proportion of the elderly who earn between
¼N ¼ 10,001 and ¼N ¼ 20,000 is 18.40%, those earning between
¼N ¼ 20,001 and ¼N ¼30,000 are very low (8.0%). Respondents
whose earning ranges from ¼N ¼ 30,001 to ¼N ¼ 40,000 are less
than 10% (9.2%) and respondents with monthly income between
¼N ¼ 40,001 and ¼N ¼ 50,000 are 10%. About 4.40% of the respon-
dents above ¼N ¼ 50,000 per month.
Majority (58.4%) of the sampled elderly have no means of
transport, while 41.6% of the respondents have personal means of
transport (Fig. 2a). Further analysis shows that those with personal
means of transport are made up of 29.2% vehicle owners, 6%
owned motorcycle and 6.4% owned bicycle (Fig. 2b).
5.1.1. Trip characteristics
Trip characteristics of the sampled include, among others, trip
generation, trip frequency, trip distance and trip mode. In terms of
trip generation, 721 trips were generated by the respondents
within a period of 24 h. In other words, an average of 2.88 trips
was generated by an older person per day. Trips to religious places
rank first and accounted for 26.21% of total trips generated.
Trips to work accounted for the second highest trips with 24.83%
of trips generated. Social trips accounted for 18.45% of the total
trip generated and ranked the third highest trip generated by the
sampled elderly. Trips to hospitals accounted for the fourth
position with a total of 87 (12.07%). Trips to markets and banks
accounted for 11.65% and 6.80% respectively (Fig. 3).
Total trips generated vary across the four age groups. Trips
generated increase from 30.51% for elderly in the age group 60–64
years to 31.76% (65–69 years). It declines to 20.80% for the elderly
in the age bracket (70–74 years) and 16.92% for elderly 75 years
and above (Table 3 and Fig. 4). This pattern suggests the existence
of inverse relationship between trips generated and the age
groups of the elderly. In fact, inversely significant correlation
exists between age group and total trip generated by each of the
respondents (r ¼  0.309, p o0.005).
Table 3 shows trip frequency for each of the six trip purposes.
Trips made on a daily basis accounted for 38.56% of the trips and
were concentrated among four of the trip purposes (work, social,
110 M.O. Olawole, O. Aloba / Transport Policy 35 (2014) 105–116
Fig. 2. (a): Ownership of means of transport, and (b) means of transport owned by types.
religion and market). 15.12% of the total trips were generated three
times per week. Another 15.39% of the trips were performed on a
weekly basis. The proportions of trips occurring on a fortnightly
and occasionally are 6.66% and 24.27% respectively. Table 3 reveals
that trips to work are the only trips made by most respondents on
a daily basis. A majority (103) of the respondents go to work daily
as compared to social trips (60), religion (87) and market (28).
Daily trips to hospitals and banks are not common among the
sampled elderly. Trips to these activities occur mostly weekly,
fortnightly or occasionally.
In terms of trip distance, 41.05% of the respondents traveled
below 1 km. Trips to religious centers (104) constitute the bulk of
trip destinations under 1 km of the respondents residences. The
proportion of the elderly traveling between 1 km and 2 km to
activity points is 24.55%. Some (17.89%) of the elderly traveled
between 2 km and 3 km and 9.85% commute between 3 km and
4 km with the study area to the six activity points. With regard to
trip distance above 4 km, a small proportion (6.66%) of the
sampled elderly traveled above 4 km to the six destination points
(Table 3).
Table 3 also shows findings of the study with regard to mode of
transport used by the elderly to travel to the six activity points.
Walking accounts for 36.89% of travel mode. This is to be expected
as a majority (65.60%) of the trip destinations are located less than
2 km of the respondents' residences. Other modes: motorcycle
(16.78%), Taxi (13.04%), Mini-bus (23.30%) and Personal Vehicles
(9.99%) accounted for the respondents' means of travel to different
activity points. The proportions of respondents using different
mode rarely changed when the data were further disaggregated
according to activity points except that taxi, mini buses and
personal vehicles are the equally used frequently to commutes
to hospital, religious centres and banks (Table 3).
5.2. Transportation problems
Respondents' views on issues affecting their mobility (Table 4)
show that high transport fare, poor or lack of facilities at bus stops,
poor road network or traffic congestion, absence of govern-
ment operated mass transit, boarding constraints, long waiting
time at bus stops and problems due to operators' conduct were
 M.O. Olawole, O. Aloba / Transport Policy 35 (2014) 105–116 111

Fig. 3. Trip generation by purpose.

Table 3
Trip characteristics.

Trip characteristics Trip Total

Work Hospital Social Religion Market Bank Freq. Percent

Trip by age group

60–64 Years 53 22 38 56 35 16 220 30.51
65–69 Years 61 29 40 58 23 18 229 31.76
70–74 Years 41 15 31 36 18 9 150 20.80
Above 75 Years 24 21 24 39 8 6 122 16.92
Total 179 87 133 189 84 49 721 100.00

Frequency
Daily 103 0 60 87 28 0 278 38.56
Three Times a Week 10 10 40 39 2 8 109 15.12
Weekly 12 6 18 44 23 8 111 15.39
Fortnightly 17 10 10 4 3 4 48 6.66
Occasionally 37 61 5 15 28 29 175 24.27
Total 179 87 133 189 84 49 721 100.00

Distance
Below 1 km 72 16 81 104 22 1 296 41.05
1–2 km 30 30 33 40 27 17 177 24.55
2–3 km 28 28 14 23 26 10 129 17.89
3–4 km 25 10 5 13 6 12 71 9.85
Above 4 km 24 3 0 9 3 9 48 6.66
Total 179 87 133 189 84 49 721 100.00

Mode
Foot 94 5 35 98 31 3 266 36.89
Motorcycle 33 13 40 17 11 7 121 16.78
Taxi 13 17 14 19 21 10 94 13.04
Mini bus 27 38 29 43 16 15 168 23.30
Personal car 12 14 15 12 5 14 72 9.99
Total 179 87 133 189 84 49 721 100.00

some of the problems affecting mobility of the elderly in the
city. The frequency of each of the problems identified by the
respondents were added together to produce a composite score
(Table 4). Associated Chi square levels of independence within
residential density and by age groups are shown in Tables 5 and 6
respectively.
High transport fare and lack of bus stops ranked high (13.85%)
among the problems faced by the elderly. This is not strange as
cost of commuting varies according to modal choice and distance
between points of origins and destinations. For instance, transport
fare charged by the dominant commercial mini-buses (Korope)
operators and motorcyclists in the city starts from ¼ N ¼30.00 K
and increases with distance. A test of independence shows that the
problem of high transport fare is not statistically significant among
the age groups (χ2 ¼4.106, df ¼ 3, p ¼0.250). This implies that high
transport fare affects all categories of elderly irrespective of their
age group and employment status. However, a significant differ-
ence exists between high transport fare as mobility constraint and
residential zones (χ2 ¼34.379, df ¼2, p¼ 0.000). Similarly, inade-
quate government designated bus stops in the city of Osogbo also
constitutes transport constraint to the elderly. It accounted for
13.85% of the transport challenges faced by the sampled elderly.
112 M.O. Olawole, O. Aloba / Transport Policy 35 (2014) 105–116
Fig. 4. Trip generation by purposes and age group.
Table 4
Problems affecting elderly utilization of transport services.
Problem Frequency
1 Poor road network/Traffic congestion 149
2 Lack of state owned urban transit system 161
3 High Transport fare 164
4 Boarding problem 96
5 Poor conduct of transport operators 162
6 Condition of vehicle 152
7 Inadequate bus stop 164
8 Waiting time at bus stop 136
Total 1184
For instance, bus stops in the city are few and are located along
Olaiya-Ogo Oluwa-Gbongan-Ibadan road. Field observation
revealed that, captive riders in the city rarely use the bus stops
due to the fact that commercial transport can be boarded at any
point along the roads and streets of the city.
The poor nature of roads and traffic congestion in the ancient
city accounted for 12.58% of the transport problems encountered
by the elderly. Due to deplorable state of roads in some parts of the
city, traffic is often slow in some areas especially along Osogbo-
Gbongban road, during the busy hours of the day. Another
transport problem facing the elderly is the poor attitude of
commercial transport operators (13.68%). Most of the elderly
interviewed complained that the operators are always in haste
and do not pay special attention to their need especially for ample
time while boarding or disembarking from commercial modes
such as mini-buses and motorcycles. The absence of state owned
transport services accounted for 13.60% of the constraint asso-
ciated with elderly transportation in the city of Osogbo (Table 4).
Complaints about boarding problems especially when boarding
mini-buses accounted for 8.11% of the transport problems facing
the elderly. The condition of vehicle in terms of quality of vehicle
seats and spaces between seats also influence the travel behaviour
of the elderly. Poor condition of commercial buses in the city
accounted for 13.68% of the transport problem of the elderly
(Table 4).
Chi square test revealed that, the problem of inadequate bus
Percent
stops; poor nature of roads; poor attitude of operators to elderly;
12.58 and lack of State operated transport services, are not statistically
13.60 significant among the housing density zones (Table 5) and among
13.85 the age groups (Table 6).
8.11
13.68
12.84
13.85
5.3. Satisfaction with quality of transport services
11.49
The satisfaction of the elderly with the quality of transport
100.00
service is evaluated using their perception of the standard of
transport services. Table 7 presents, by age groups, the mean score
values and standard deviation (SD) of the satisfaction of elderly
regarding the quality of transport services available to them. The
mean satisfaction of the elderly, by age group, with transport
services ranges between M¼2.34 and M¼ 2.79. A moderate level
of satisfaction (M¼ 2.79, SD ¼1.84) with transport services is
computed for the elderly in the age group 70–74 years and
M¼2.66, SD¼ 1.59 for those above 75 years (Table 7). This level
of satisfaction reflects the low level of trip generated by the elderly
in the age group 60–64 years and 65–69 years (Table 3). The
results of Chi-square test of significance indicates that there is
statistically significant variation in satisfaction with transport
service, χ2 (6, N ¼250) ¼21.26, p o0.05. In terms of average
monthly income, majority of the respondents earning below
¼N ¼20,000 are unsatisfied with transport services in the city
(Fig. 5).
6. Discussion of findings
This study has looked at older people's travel behaviour in
Osogbo, a medium-size state capital in Southwestern Nigeria.
Drawing from a sample survey of the elderly, it has documented
socio-economic and mobility characteristics of the elderly, pro-
blems associated with transport services, and elderly respondents'
views of the quality of transport services.
 M.O. Olawole, O. Aloba / Transport Policy 35 (2014) 105–116 113

Table 5
Transport problems by housing density.

Item Response Housing zone

Total
High density zone Medium density zone Low density zone

No Percent No Percent No Percent No Percent

No 43 17.20 33 13.20 25 10.00 101 40.40

Yes 67 26.80 42 16.80 40 16.00 149 59.60
Poor road network/Traffic congestion
Total 110 44.00 75 30.00 65 26.00 250 100.00
χ2 ¼ 0.583, df¼ 2, p ¼ 0.747

No 27 10.80 22 8.80 40 16.00 89 35.60

Yes 83 33.20 53 21.20 25 10.00 161 64.40
Lack of state owned urban transit system
Total 110 44.00 75 30.00 65 26.00 250
2
χ ¼ 26.223, df¼ 2, p ¼ 0.00

High cost of transport No 17 6.80 32 12.80 37 14.80 86 34.40

Yes 93 37.20 43 17.20 28 11.20 164 65.60
110 44.00 75 30.00 65 26.00 250 100.00
2
χ ¼ 34.379, df ¼2, p ¼ 0.00

Boarding problem No 69 27.60 47 18.80 38 15.20 154 61.60

Yes 41 16.40 28 11.20 27 10.80 96 38.40
Total 110 44.00 75 30.00 65 26.00 250 100.00
χ2 ¼ 0.366, df ¼2, p ¼ 0.833

Poor conduct of transport operators No 36 14.40 29 11.60 23 9.20 88 35.20

Yes 74 29.60 46 18.40 42 16.80 162 64.80
Total 110 44.00 75 30.00 65 26.00 250 100.00
χ2 ¼ 0.691, df ¼ 2, p ¼0.708

Poor condition of vehicle No 35 14.00 33 13.20 30 12.00 98 39.20

Yes 75 30.00 42 16.80 35 14.00 152 60.80
Total 110 44.00 75 30.00 65 26.00 250 100.00
2
χ ¼ 4.559, df¼ 2, p ¼ 0.102

Inadequate bus stop No 38 15.20 32 12.80 16 6.40 86 34.40

Yes 72 28.80 43 17.20 49 19.60 164 65.60
Total 110 44.00 75 30.00 65 26.00 250 100.00
χ2 ¼ 5.030, df¼ 2, p ¼ 0.81

Waiting time at bus stop No 47 18.80 27 10.80 40 16.00 114 45.60

Yes 63 25.20 48 19.20 25 10.00 136 54.40
Total 110 44.00 75 30.00 65 26.00 250 100.00
χ2 ¼ 9.809, df¼ 2, p ¼ 0.007

Findings on the socio-economic characteristics and employ-
ment status of the elderly in Osogbo are consistent with similar
studies in Nigeria (NPC, 2003; Ipingbemi, 2010; Fadare and Salami,
2004) but deviate from the findings in more affluent countries,
e.g., the findings of Hjorthol et al. (2010) on travel patterns of the
elderly in Denmark, Norway and Sweden. In particular, the high
proportion of the elderly involved in income generating activities
differs substantially from the Scandinavian studies and is
a reflection of the level of poverty among the elderly in Nigeria,
i.e., they need to keep working. The economic profile of older
people in the Nigerian case has significant implications. The
elderly who are engaged in the labour force are more challenged,
transport wise, than the elderly who are not in employed, because
they generate more trips but share the same problems with high
fares, unreliable services, and difficulties boarding and alighting.
Ownership of personal means of transport and ability to drive
are some of the factors influencing elderly mobility (Mattson,
2011; Metz, 2000). The lack of personal means of transportation,
especially car, by a majority of the elderly in the study area is not
surprising as the level of poverty is high in the country. The
implication of this is that most of the elderly in Osogbo are likely
to be dependent on the public transportation systems as majority
of the elderly have no personal means of transport. The impor-
tance of having means of mobility such as private vehicles and
driver licenses has also been found to influence mobility of the
elderly in advanced countries where more than 75% of people over
65 years have some access to a car (Help the Aged, 1996;
Rosenbloom and Waldorf, 2001; Alsnih and Hensher, 2003).
In terms of trip generation, the average of 2.88 trips generated
per day by the study's sample of elderly is less than the 3.4 trips
per day reported by Rosenbloom and Stahl (2002) for countries in
North America and Europe. However, total trips generated vary
across age groups as the number of trips generated decreases
with age. This implies that older elderly are likely to travel less
than the younger elderly. This finding is corroborated by similar
findings in developed countries (Metz, 2000; Banister and
Bowling, 2004). Studies have suggested that the low level of trips
generated by the elderly results from deteriorating physical
mobility and the lower income of older people, as well as a lower
average educational attainment of older people (Banister and
Bowling, 2004; Tacken, 1998); due to fewer business and work
trips, and a lack of income (Metz, 2000). This is also in line with
Rosenbloom (2004) who established that older adults among
others are less likely to move over time; less likely than younger
adults to move, and do not move far when they do move.
The dominance of trips within 1 km of respondent's place of
abode shows that majority of the elderly travel within short
distance. Similar studies in advanced countries established the
dominance of short distance trips in trip patterns of the elderly
especially among women (Rietveld, 2000).
Walking as travel mode dominated the elderly modal choice to
all trip destinations, most of which are usually less than 2 km from
114 M.O. Olawole, O. Aloba / Transport Policy 35 (2014) 105–116

Table 6
Transport problems by age group.

Item Response Age Group (in years)

60–64 65–69 70–74 75 and Above Total

No Percent No Percent No Percent No Percent No Percent

No 32 12.80 37 14.80 10 4.00 22 8.80 101 40.40

Yes 29 11.60 43 17.20 43 17.20 34 13.60 149 59.60
Poor road network/Traffic congestion
Total 61 24.40 80 32.00 53 21.20 56 22.40 250 100.00
χ2 ¼15.055, df ¼3, p ¼ 0.002

No 17 6.80 27 10.80 28 11.20 17 6.80 89 35.60

Yes 44 17.60 53 21.20 25 10.00 39 15.60 161 64.40
Lack of state owned urban transit system
Total 61 24.40 80 32.00 53 21.20 56 22.40 250 100.00
χ2 ¼9.244, df¼ 3, p ¼0.026

High cost of transport No 21 8.40 28 11.20 23 9.20 14 5.60 86 34.40

Yes 40 16.00 52 20.80 30 12.00 42 16.80 164 65.60
61 24.40 80 32.00 53 21.20 56 22.40 250 100.00
2
χ ¼4.106, df¼ 3, p ¼ 0.250

Boarding problem No 33 13.20 56 22.40 32 12.80 33 13.20 154 61.60

Yes 28 11.20 24 9.60 21 8.40 23 9.60 96 38.40
Total 61 24.40 80 32.00 53 21.20 56 22.40 250 100.00
χ2 ¼4.040, df¼ 3, p ¼0.257

Poor conduct of transport operators No 19 7.60 35 14.00 19 7.60 15 6.00 88 35.20

Yes 42 16.80 45 18.00 34 13.60 41 16.40 162 64.80
Total 61 24.40 80 32.00 53 21.20 56 22.40 250 100.00
χ2 ¼4.751, df ¼ 3, p ¼0.191

Poor condition of vehicle No 29 11.60 27 10.80 23 9.20 19 7.60 98 39.20

Yes 32 12.80 53 21.20 30 12.00 37 14.80 152 60.80
Total 61 24.40 80 32.00 53 21.20 56 22.40 250 100.00
2
χ ¼3.822, df¼ 3, p ¼0.281

Inadequate bus stop No 19 7.60 24 9.60 20 8.00 23 9.20 86 34.40

Yes 42 16.80 56 22.40 33 13.20 33 13.20 164 65.60
Total 61 24.40 80 32.00 53 21.20 56 22.40 250 100.00
χ2 ¼2.338, df ¼3, p¼ 0.505

Waiting time at bus stop No 33 13.20 37 14.80 27 10.80 17 6.80 114 45.60
Yes 28 11.20 43 17.20 26 10.40 39 15.60 136 54.40
Total 61 24.40 80 32.00 53 21.20 56 22.40 250 100.00
χ2 ¼7.65, df¼ 3, p ¼0.054

Table 7 empirical studies on urban mass transit in Nigerian cities

Elderly satisfaction with transport services by age groups.
Age group No. Mean
60–64 Years 61 2.34
65–69 Years 80 2.48
70–74 Years 53 2.79
75 Years and above 56 2.66
the elderly place of abode. This is in contrast to the situation in
advanced countries where the use of walking as a travel mode has
declined absolutely among the elderly especially in countries like
Australia, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, and the UK, as well as
the US (Rosenbloom and Morris, 1998).
The use of car by the sampled elderly as mode choice is very
low as compared with countries in Europe and North America.
Findings on this mode choice of the elderly in cities of North
America and Europe is in contrast with the findings of this study,
as most of the elderly in North America and Europe use car as
mode choice for 92% of all trips (Rosenbloom and Stahl, 2002;
DETR, 2001).
The absence of state-owned transport services identified by the
elderly as one of the constraints associated with transport services
in the city is not peculiar to Osogbo alone as most intra-urban
mass transit in many state capitals in Nigeria have collapsed over
the years. This finding is supported by evidences available from
(Ogunsanya, 1998; Ogunbodede, 2008; Olawole, 2012).
Std. dev.
The low level of satisfaction among the low income earners
confirm the findings of Grdzelishvili and Sathre (2011) in a study
1.55 of urban travel attitudes and behaviour of Tbilisi residents, where
1.57 majority of the low income group are unsatisfied with the fare of
1.84
transport services. Similarly, the low level of satisfaction with
1.59
transport services and their significant variations among different
age groups in Osogbo, implies that transport services in the city
call for improvement in the area of quality of service delivery
especially for the elderly.
7. Implication and recommendations
The importance of this research is that it has described in detail
the mobility characteristics of the elderly and their associated level
of satisfaction with transport services in the city of Osogbo. The
findings call for attention particularly at the state and federal
levels. At the state level, government should, among others, make
an effort to regulate commercial transport service provision in the
state by making it more attractive to commuters; plan and invest
in urban mass transit in the city, promote road safety in order to
safeguard the elderly; and enhance public service and customer
satisfaction by delivering efficient and innovative transport ser-
vices to the public.
 M.O. Olawole, O. Aloba / Transport Policy 35 (2014) 105–116
Fig. 5. Satisfaction with transport services by income group.
Another important policy area for consideration is the policy on
the preferred mode of travel. Walking and mini-buses are the
favored mode of travel of the elderly. The state should make the
city walkable for not only the elderly but the entire population
through the provision of pedestrian walkways and other road
safety measures such Zebra crossing especially in the high density
residential areas. The health, safety and sustainability of the
elderly would be preserved if the state government could make
the environment conducive for walking of the elderly. To this end,
government should establish policies to encourage walking to
places of short distances. In addition, bus stops with standard
facilities should be constructed at strategic location in the city and
be made mandatory for motorcycles and mini-buses operators to
use them for loading and off loading passengers.
The government at the Federal level should develop transport
policies aimed at improving mobility of the elderly in the country.
A national policy on transportation with care for mobility of the
elderly will influence the formulation of similar policies at State
and Local government levels.
8. Conclusion
The effective implementation of all these strategies at Federal
and State levels however, requires the availability of reliable data
on elderly mobility and transport need. The lack of reliable data at
the state and national-level on the situation and needs of older
persons have resulted in low appreciation of ageing and conse-
quently a lack of development of elderly-friendly transport policies
and programmes in the country. The need for detailed data, on the
elderly and their mobility characteristics, cannot be over empha-
sized. Strategies to discuss ageing issues holistically should be put
in place.
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