VOTING SYSTEMS

Voting - is a tool used by groups of people in making a collaborative decision. It can be

presented conveniently in terms of an election system in which one can select a particular
candidate out of a set of candidates on the basis of ballots cast by votes

THE MAJORITY SYSTEM AND PLURALITY OF VOTING

- The Majority system is the most common voting system applied to an election with
only two candidates.
- The winner in the majority system requires more than 50% of the total voters or all the
other votes combined.
- In an election process consisting of two candidates and 100 votes, the candidates with
51 votes or higher wins the election.
- 50% of the votes + 1
- For more than 2 candidates, It is possible that the one with the most votes may not
constitute a majority. In this case, the winner of this election will be based on the
Plurality method.
- The winner of the plurality method is the candidate with the most votes or most
first-place votes for ranked candidates.
- In the Plurality system, alternative choices are not considered.

BORDA COUNT METHOD

- In this method, each candidate is assigned a weight according to their rank in their
preference list
- For n number of candidates the highest rank (most favorite) will have n points while
the lowest rank (the least favorite) will have 1 point.
- The Borda Count is the sum of these weights given to a candidate.
- The candidate who receives the highest Borda count will be declared the winner

PLURALITY WITH ELIMINATION

- Plurality with Elimination is a variation of the plurality method in which the alternative
of choices of the voters are taken into consideration.
- The candidate with the fewest number of first-place votes is first eliminated.
- In case there are two alternatives with the same lowest votes, then both are
eliminated.
 - The remaining candidates are re-ranked with the assumption that voters’ preferences
do not change from round to round.

THE TOP TWO RUN OFF METHOD

- The two candidates with the most number of first-place votes are removed from the
preference list and are re-ranked for a new preference list.
- The one with the higher-first place votes in the new preference list between these two
candidates will be declared the winner.
- The top two run off method satisfies the majority criterion.

APPROVAL VOTING SYSTEM

- In this type of voting, a voter may choose more than one option or candidate.
- Each vote coming from one voter will be counted as one vote, and the one with the
most number of total votes will be declared the winner.
- For large elections, approval voting may be considered a better method because it
measures the overall support for a candidate

THE METHOD OF PAIRWISE COMPARISON

- In the method of pairwise comparison, each candidate is compared head-to-head
with each of the candidates.
- The candidate with the most number of wins from these comparisons will be declared
the winner.
- This method satisfies the majority, Condorcet, and monotonicity criteria of fairness in
voting.
GEOMETRIC DESIGNS

INTRODUCTION
- Shapes and designs can be used as symbols that define the cultural and artistic spirit
of a society.
- The tattoo industry for example, has become the trademark of indigenous culture and
tradition.
- Designs etched on the skin by traditional tattoo artists (locally known as the
mambabatok in Kalinga) do not only exhibit aesthetic and cultural values but also
display a certain level of Mathematical Ingenuity.
- The work of T’boli weavers has earned not only national attention but also worldwide
recognition.
- The process of making weave designs through weaving is believed to involve
“unusual” mathematical operations.

TRANSFORMATION
- The aesthetic appeal and mathematical value of a shape is usually determined by
the symmetries it exhibits.
- Symmetry is a type of "transformation" or movement which leaves the shape of a
given figure unchanged.
- In the present context, only transformations that do not change the size and shape of
a given geometric figure are considered. These are often called rigid motions or
isometries.
- Transformations of these types fall into four classes: translation, rotation, reflection,
and glide reflection.

Given two identical figures F and F', F' is said to be a symmetric image of F if F' can be
obtained by any of the four transformations mentioned. In a functional context, F is called
the preimage of F'. In visual arts, an element of a design that is repeated in a pattern is
called the motif. Examine how the four transformations differ when applied to a geometric
figure.
TRANSLATION
- In translation, an image is moved or shifted without changing its form.
- First identify the length and direction of the translation (called the translation vector).
Each point in F is then translated according to the vector.

ROTATION
- In rotation, the center of rotation is identified as well as the amount of rotation
(angular measure). The next figure shows the rotation of figure F in three angular
measures: 90° to get F'; 180° to get F"; and 270° to get F"".
Note that all angles are traced in a counterclockwise direction. Point C is the common center
of rotation for all the resulting images.

REFLECTION
- Reflection is a transformation that moves figure F into a new position such that the
resulting image F' is a mirror image of F with respect to a line.
- This line is called the line of symmetry. The diagrams below show the different
symmetric images of F' obtained from a vertical line (a), a horizontal line (b), and an
arbitrary slant line (c).
GLIDE REFLECTION
- Glide reflection combines translation and reflection.
- This being the case, glide reflection must be determined by the line of symmetry and
the translation vector.
- Also, note that the line of symmetry and the translation vector are necessarily parallel.
Operationally, the order by which the reflection and translation are performed does not
matter. The image F' of figure F is the same whether you begin with reflection followed by
translation or with translation followed by reflection. This observation can be verified in the
next diagrams. Diagram (a) proceeds with a reflection first followed by a translation to
obtain the image F'. Diagram (b) starts with a translation followed by a reflection, generating
the same image F'.

SYMMETRY
- The role of symmetry in nature is best conveyed by 20th century-German
mathematician Hermann Weyl when he said that symmetry "is one idea by which
man through the ages has tried to comprehend and create order, beauty, and
perfection."
 - Understanding symmetry provides an opportunity for mathematical thinking that is
distinct, but never detached, from the concept of numbers. Other than improved
aesthetic appreciation of things Disting seen in the environment, knowledge of natio
symmetry enhances the understanding of 191 the systems that govern human
existence.
- In simple terms, symmetry pertains to a sense of harmonious and balanced
configuration.
- It occurs when a figure is not altered through any geometric transformation. It makes
sense to associate symmetry with the four geometric transformations, instituting
translational symmetry, reflection (or flip) symmetry, rotational symmetry, and glide
symmetry. To systematically understand these concepts, consider three types of
designs: finite designs, one-dimensional designs, and two-dimensional designs.
- Finite designs are the simplest designs. They usually occur in glassware ornaments
and pottery designs, company or business logos, or on familiar artifacts.

Consider the square ABCD shown on the next page. What symmetries does this figure have?
Definitely, there is no translation as there is only one figure. First, note that the figure is
preserved if you flip it along the line L, as shown. Vertices B and C will simply switch, so with A
and D, but the square will retain its shape. In the same manner, flipping through L₂ switches D
and C as well as A and B

Note that aside from L, and L₂, there are two other lines of symmetry that can be observed, L,
(diagonal through A and C which switches the vertices D and B while keeping vertices A and
C fixed) and L (diagonal through B and D which switches A and C and keeps B and D fixed).
Now, locate the center of the square, say at point P. Rotate the square at this point through
some amount of rotation. If the rotation is done at 90° counterclockwise, then point A moves
to point B; point B moves to C; point C moves to D; and point D moves to A. The shape of the
square, however, remains unchanged. Similarly, a 180° rotation moves A to C, B to D, C to A,
and D to B. These symmetries are called rotational symmetries. Actually, there are two other
rotational symmetries of the square. Can you identify them? What effect do they have on the
vertices of the square?

Interestingly, it is Leonardo da Vinci, renowned in the field of visual arts, who is credited for
the discovery that there are only two classes of symmetries of finite designs, those that
contain only rotation, and those that contain both rotation and reflection. The square
contains both rotation and reflection. The figure shown below contains only rotational
symmetry.
The next designs are one-directional designs, also called border designs or Frieze patterns.
These designs involve translation but only in one direction that is usually horizontal. The
figure below illustrates a simple border design using a right triangle as a basic design.

Symmetry can improve the artistic appeal of a design. Other than translation, a border
design can have the three other symmetries such as reflection, rotation, and glide reflection.
The figure below incorporates vertical reflection.

Horizontal reflection may be combined with other symmetries. Harold Scott MacDonald
Coxeter gave an extensive proof that there are only seven types of symmetry classes for
one-directional designs.
The last type of design on a flat surface is the so-called wallpaper designs. Generally,
wallpaper designs have two-directional symmetries. Consider the basic design (or motif)
shown below. You can replicate this symmetrically through a vertical, horizontal, and even a
slant translation.

Historically, it was Camille Jordan who made an extensive study of wallpaper designs. He
devised a general method of identifying all of the possible ways of repeating identical
groupings of points. He discovered 16 distinct wallpaper groups based on the movements of
two-dimensional figures. In the latter part of the 19th century, Federov, Schoenflies, and
Barlow classified the 17 wallpaper groups.
FINANCE

When a person borrows money from a lending company or a bank, he or she usually pays a
fixed rate of interest on the principal for using that money.
- The amount paid by the borrower is called interest
- The amount of money that is loaned is called the principal or the present value.

SIMPLE INTEREST
The simple interest is given by

I = Prt

- where P is the principal

- r is the interest rate per year
- t is the number of years.

If the number of days used is 360 days in a year, the interest is called ordinary simple interest.
If it uses 365 days in a year or 366 days for a leap year then the interest is called exact simple
interest.

COMPOUND INTEREST
- The compound interest is computed based on the principal amount and the total
accumulated interest earned.
- The total accumulated amount on the principal P for n periods at an interest rate of i
per period is given by
F = P(1 + I)n
Where n = mt and i = j/m
N = periods ; m = number of compounding periods per year
T = years ; i = interest rate
j= nominal rate ; m = number of compounding periods in a year
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

MEAN
- the sum of the values divided by the number of values
- Denoted by the symbol : x̄

MEDIAN
- The "median" is the "middle" value in the list of numbers.
- To find the median, your numbers have to be listed in numerical order from smallest
to largest.

MODE
- refers to the most frequently occurring number found in a set of numbers.

STANDARD DEVIATION
- The standard deviation is a measure of the amount of variation or dispersion of a set
of values. A low standard deviation indicates that the values tend to be close to the
mean of the set, while a high standard deviation indicates that the values are spread
out over a wider range

Sample Standard Deviation Formula: Population Standard Deviation Formula:

VARIANCE
- variance measures variability from the average or mean. It is calculated by taking the
differences between each number in the data set and the mean, then squaring the
differences to make them positive, and finally dividing the sum of the squares by the
number of values in the data set.
 Sample Variance Formula: Population Variance Formula:

RANGE
- the difference between the lowest and highest values.

PEARSON’S CORRELATION COEFFICIENT (PEARSON’S R)

- The test statistics that measures the statistical relationship, or association, between
two continuous variables.

a. State the Null and Alternative Hypothesis

CALCULATING THE CORRELATION COEFFICIENT

1. Find the Mean of X and Y
2. Calculate Deviation Scores
X = X - MEAN OF X
Y = Y - MEAN OF Y
The deviation scores for a variable should always add to zero by definition.
3. We need to square each values
To get rid of negative numbers
4. Add up the squared values
SUM OF THE SQUARED DEVIATION SCORES (SS)
5. Find the cross products
Then add them, that will be your SP (Sum of the Cross Products)
6. Calculate Pearson’s R
In google:

In simpler terms
𝑆𝑃
𝑟 =
( 𝑆𝑆𝑥)( 𝑆𝑆𝑦)