B i col Un i v er si ty

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Electrical Engineering Department
EE Correlation Course 1
Legazpi City

SET THEORY, COMBINATORICS & PROBABILITY

VENN DIAGRAM
VENN DIAGRAM is a rectangle (the universal set) that includes circles depicting
the subsets. This diagram, named after the English logician John Venn (1834-1923)
in 1880, is a way of displaying the events or an experiment.

TWO EVENTS A AND B AND THEIR INTERSECTION

TWO MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS A AND B

The Venn diagram can be employed for any number of subsets, but more than three
defeats the purpose of gaining increased clarity.

SAMPLE PROBLEM #1:

A class of 40 students took examination in Mathematics and English. If

30 passed in English, 36 passed in Mathematics and 2 failed in both subjects, what is
the number of students who passed both subjects?

1
 Set Theory, Combinatorics & Probability

Let X = time required for the boy to finish the job alone

Total Number of Students = No. of students who passed Math only +

No. of students who passed English only +
No. of students who passed both subjects +
No. of Students failed both subjects

(36 − X) + (30 − X) + X + 2 = 40
(36 − X) + (30 − X) + 2 + X = 𝟐𝟖 𝐬𝐭𝐮𝐝𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬

SAMPLE PROBLEM #2:

The survey of seventy-one students reveals that:

50 take jeepney 36 take bus

33 take train 20 take jeepney and bus
18 take bus and train 22 take train and jeepney
12 take jeepney, bus, and train

(A) How many students take jeepney only?

(B) How many students take bus only?

(C)

(D) How many students take train only?

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 Set Theory, Combinatorics & Probability

From the data given and the drawn figure, it is clear that 𝐚 = 𝟏𝟐, the students who
take jeepney, bus and train.

For the students who take bus and train,

12a + b = 18
a12 + b = 18
12a + 𝐛 = 𝟔

For the students who take jeepney and bus,

12a + c = 20
a12 + c = 20
12a + 𝐜 = 𝟖

For the students who take train and jeepney,

12a + d = 22
a12 + d = 22
12a + 𝐝 = 𝟏𝟎

(A) For the students who take jeepney only,

12810a + c + d + g = 50
acd12 + 8 + 10 + g = 50
acd12 + 8 + 30 + g = 50
acd12 + 8 + 30 + 𝐠 = 𝟐𝟎

(B) For the students who take bus only,

1268a + b + c + f = 36
abc12 + 6 + 8 + f = 36
abc2 + 6 + 26 + f = 36
abc12 + 6 + 8 + 𝐟 = 𝟏𝟎

(C) For the students who take train only,

12610a + b + d + e = 33
abd12 + 6 + 10 + e = 33
abd12 + 6 + 28 + e = 33
abd12 + 6 + 10 + 𝐞 = 𝟓
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 Set Theory, Combinatorics & Probability

COMBINATORICS
Combinatorics is the branch of mathematics that concerns with the selection of
objects called elements. This branch of mathematics led to creation and development of
probability theory.

FUNDAMENTAL COUNTING PRINCIPLE

The Fundamental Counting Principle states that:
If a thing can be done in 𝑚 different ways and another thing can be done in 𝑛
different ways, then the two things can be done in 𝑚 × 𝑛 different ways.

Mathematically, 𝑁 = 𝑚×𝑛

PERMUTATION
Permutation is defined as an ordered arrangement of a finite number of elements,
either all of the available n elements or of a part of them. The permutation that contains
exactly the same elements but not in the same order are regarded as different.
The number of permutation of 𝑛 different things taken 𝑟 at time is

𝒏!
𝒏 𝐏𝒓 =
(𝒏 − 𝒓)!

CYCLIC PERMUTATION
Cyclic permutation is the shifting of an entire order of elements one or more
steps forward or backward – the first element taking the position of the last, or vice
versa, without changing the order of the elements in the sequence.

𝒏 𝐏𝒏 = (𝒏 − 𝟏)!

PERMUTATION WITH IDENTICAL ELEMENTS

The number of permutations is reduced when a collection contains identical
elements. The number of permutation 𝑛 objects, 𝑝 of one type, 𝑞 of another, 𝑠 of
another, etc., is given by:

𝒏!
𝒏 𝐏𝒏 =
𝒑! 𝒒! 𝒔! …

COMBINATION
Combination is an arrangement of the selection objects regardless of the order.

The number of combinations of 𝑛 different things taken 𝑟 at a time is

𝒏!
𝒏 𝐂𝒓 =
(𝒏 − 𝒓)! 𝒓!
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 Set Theory, Combinatorics & Probability

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PERMUTATION AND COMBINATION

The relation between permutations of 𝑛 thing taken 𝑟 at time to the combination of 𝑛
things taken 𝑟 at a time is expressed mathematically as follows:

𝒏 𝐏𝒓 !
𝒏 𝐂𝒓 =
𝒓!

PROBABILITY
Probability is simply defined as the numerical assessment of likelihood. It is
expressed as a number between 0 and 1, where 0 means an event is impossible while 1
means it is surely or certainly to occur or happen.

The total probability of favorable and unfavorable outcomes is 1.

The following are some of the important terms used in probability:

A. EXPERIMENT – is a controlled study whose outcome is uncertain but not entirely
unknown.

B. TRIAL – a recorded result of an experiment.

C. OUTCOME – is one of the possible results from an experiment trial. It also refers
to the basic unit of possible occurrences. For example, in tossing a coin, the
outcomes are heads and tails.

D. EVENT – is some combination of possible outcomes in one experiment trial. In

picking a card from an ordinary deck of cards, the outcomes are the
52 cards themselves. Examples of events are:

Pick a 5 (one of the four cards numbered 5)

Pick a heart (one of the 13 cards in the suits of heart)
Pick a face card (one of the 12 cards showing a face i.e king, queen or jack)

E. FREQUENCY OF THE OUTCOME – refers to the number of times a certain

outcome will occur. For example, if you roll a die 50 times, you are conducting 50
trials of the same experiment. The number of times a 6 comes up is known as
frequency of the outcome.

F. SAMPLE SPACE – the set of all possible outcomes.

The relative frequency of the outcome is the ratio of the frequency of the outcome to
the number of trials mathematically,

𝐍𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐬
𝐑𝐅 =
𝐍𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐥𝐬
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PRINCIPLE OF PROBABILITY
If an experiment has a set of distinct outcomes, each of which is equally likely to
happen, then the probability of an event E, is the ratio of the number of outcomes to the total
number of possible outcomes.

𝐍𝐨. 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬
𝐏𝐄 =
𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐨𝐮𝐭𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐬

NOTE: The probability that it is not E is Pnot E = Q E = 1 − PE .

MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE EVENTS

Two or more events are said to be mutually exclusive if no two of them can possibly
happen in the same trial.
For example, in picking a card from a deck of cards, it is not possible to pick a card
that is diamond and a heart at the same time.
If two or more events are mutually exclusive, the probability that either one or the
other will occur is the sum of their probabilities.
The probability for a mutually exclusive event (A or B) is:

𝐏𝐀 𝐨𝐫 𝐁 = 𝐏𝐀 + 𝐏𝐁

INDEPENDENT EVENTS
An event is independent if the outcome of one trial has no effect on the outcome of
any other trial.
If two events are independent, the probability that the two events occur is the product
of their individual probabilities.
The probability of independent events (A and B) is:

𝐏𝐀 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐁 = 𝐏𝐀 × 𝐏𝐁

DEPENDENT EVENTS (CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY)

An event is dependent if the outcome of one trial has an effect on the outcome of
any other trial or the occurrence of an event depend on the other outcomes.
Bayes’ Rule is useful because it has the ability to “flip” conditional probabilities or we
can solve for the reverse property of conditional probability.
Mathematically,

𝐏(𝐀 ∩ 𝐁)
𝐏(𝐀|𝐁) =
𝐏(𝐁)
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 Set Theory, Combinatorics & Probability

PROBABILITY OF REPEATED TRIALS (BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION)

If there are two possible outcomes of an event and the possibilities of the outcome are
independent and constant, the distribution of probabilities is called binomial distribution.

𝐏 = 𝐧 𝐂𝐫 𝐩𝐫 𝐪𝐧−𝐫

where p = probability of success

q = probability of failure = 1 − p
n = number of trials
r = number of successful trials

ODDS
The term “odd” is an ambiguous word that may refers to the probability that an event
occurs, or it can be used to indicate the payoff on a winning bet. It sometimes may mean or
is synonymous to the word “chance”.

If a coin tossed, the probability of coming up head is 50% and the probability of coming
up tail is also 50%. This is an example of 1-to-1 odds or even odds. For a game with even odds,
a one-peso bet is paid exactly one peso upon winning. This is known as the “true odds”.
However, there are instances that 90 centavos is paid instead to a one peso bet, which would
give it an advantage on each game. This refers to the payoff odds are not always the same as
true odds.

The odds of an event occur is the ratio of the probability that will be occur to the
probability that it will not occur.

𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐛𝐚𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐄 𝐨𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐬

𝐨𝐝𝐝𝐬 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐄 =
𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐛𝐚𝐛𝐢𝐥𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐄 𝐝𝐨𝐞𝐬 𝐧𝐨𝐭 𝐨𝐜𝐜𝐮𝐫

MATHEMATICAL EXPECTATION
A mathematical expectation is the average amount a player can expect to win or
lose on one play in any game of chance. It can be found by multiplying the probability of each
possible outcome by its payoff, and then adding these results. If the expectation is positive,
the player will win in the long run and lose if the expectation is negative.

SAMPLE PROBLEM #1:

In tossing a single coin, P 100 bet is placed on heads i.e., if heads come up; the
player wins P 100 and if tails come up. The player loses P 100. What is the expectation?

1 1
ME = (100) + ( ) (−100) = 𝟎
2 2
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 Set Theory, Combinatorics & Probability

SAMPLE PROBLEM #2:

In Casino Filipino, roulette offers winning a bet on a single number pays

35 to 1. The actual probability is 1 in 38. What is the mathematical expectation?

The 35 to 1 is a house (payoff) odds of Casino Filipino.

1 37 𝟐 𝟏
ME = 35 ( ) − 1( ) = − =− ≈ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟐𝟔
38 38 𝟑𝟖 𝟏𝟕

Thus, a player expects to lose to Casino Filipino an average of 5.26 centavos for
every peso bet.

CARD GAMES
Card games are games which are played using standard deck of cards.
A standard deck of cards contains 52 cards divided into 4 suits; spades, hearts, diamonds and
clubs. Each suit contains 13 card labeled ace, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, jack, queen, and king.
Each four kings in a deck represent a great leader from a history; Charlemagne (hearts),
Alexander the great (club), Julius Ceasar (diamonds), and King David (spades).

The playing cards were used also to describe a calendar year. The 52 cards represent 52
weeks in a year. The 4 suits represent the four seasons of the year and 12 face cards (4 kings,
4 queens, and four jack) represent the 12 months of the year.

Poker Hand with corresponding number of ways, probability with corresponding expected
frequency:

Hand No. of ways Probability Expected frequency

Royal Flush 4 0.00000154 1 in 649740 hands

Straight Flush 36 0.00001385 1 in 72192 hands

Four of a kind 624 0.0002401 1 in 4165 hands

Full house 3744 0.0014406 1 in 694 hands

Flush 5108 0.0019654 1 in 509 hands

Straight 10200 0.0039246 1 in 255 hands

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 Set Theory, Combinatorics & Probability

Three of a kind 54912 0.0211285 1 in 47.33 hands

Two Pair 123552 0.047539 1 in 21 hands

Pair 1098240 0.422569 1 in 2.37 hands

None of the above 1302540 0.5011774 1 in 2 hands

Total 2598960 1.00000000

PROBABILITIES WITH DICE

Dice were invented for sole purpose of gambling. As a matter of fact, dice games have
so little intrinsic interest that in the absence of wagering they would hardly be worth playing.
Dice were first used by Chinese. The sum of the opposite faces of a die is always equal
to 7. And the sum of all the vertical faces of a die, no matter how it rolls is always equal to
14. When two dice are rolled and both will face up 1, this is known as snake’s eyes.

Two-dice Sum Probability

2 1/36
3 2/36
4 3/36
5 4/36
6 5/36
7 6/36
8 5/36
9 4/36
10 3/36
11 2/36
12 1/36
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 Statistics

STATISTICS

SUMMATION NOTATION

∑ Xi = x1 + x2 + x3 + … . . + xn
i=1

Where: ∑ = Greek capital letter “Sigma” denoting “sum”

i = index of summation
Xi = variate
n = number of observation (sample size)

SUMMATION FORMULAS

𝑛
n S4. ∑ k = nk
S1. ∑i 𝑖 =1
i =1
n (n + 1) where k = constant
=
2

𝑛 n n
n (n + 1)(2n + 1) S5. ∑ kai = k ∑ ai
S2. ∑ i2 =
6 i =1 i =1
𝑖 =1

n n n
𝑛 2
n(n + 1) S6. ∑(ai + bi ) = ∑ ai + ∑ bi
S3. ∑ i3 = [ ] i =1 i =1 i =1
2
𝑖 =1
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MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

ARITHMETIC MEAN (𝐱
̅ or 𝐌 or 𝐀𝐌)
- the arithmetic average of all scores or group of scores in a distribution.

FOR UNGROUPED DATA

∑x
x̅ =
n

where: x̅ = arithmetic mean (or simply mean)

x = score (or value of variate)
n = number of observations

FOR GROUPED DATA

∑ fx
x̅ =
n

where: x̅ = mean
f = frequency
n = ∑ x = total frequency
x = class mark

WEIGHTED MEAN
- the arithmetic mean in which each value is weighted according to its importance
in the overall group.

∑ wx
x̅ =
∑w

where: x̅ = mean
w = weight

MEDIAN (Md)

FOR UNGROUPED DATA

1. When there is an odd number of observations in array, the median

n+1 th
corresponds to the ( ) observation.
2
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 Statistics

2. When there is an even number of observations in array, the median

n th n th
corresponds to the midpoint between the (2) and (2 + 1) observations.

FOR GROUPED DATA

n
−F
Md = L + (2 )i
f

where: Md = median
L = lower class boundary of the median class
n = total frequency
f = frequency of the median class
n
F = cumulative frequency less than
2

i = size of the class interval

MODE (Mo)

FOR UNGROUPED DATA

Mo = the value or score which occurs the greatest frequency

FOR GROUPED DATA

D1
Mo = L + ( )i
D1 + D2

where: Mo = mode
L = lower class boundary of the modal class
D1 = difference between the frequency of the modal class and the
frequency of the preceding class
D2 = difference between the frequency of the modal class and the
frequency of the succeeding class
i = size of the class interval

NOTE : For asymmetrical distribution, the empirical relation between the mean (M), mode
(Mo) and the median (Md) is given by

𝐌– 𝐌𝐨 = 𝟑(𝐌– 𝐌𝐝)
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 Statistics

For symmetrical distribution,

𝐌 = 𝐌𝐝 = 𝐌𝐨

GEOMETRIC MEAN (GM)

FOR UNGROUPED DATA

GM = n√x1 ⋅ x2 ⋅ x3 ⋅ … ⋅ xn

or

∑ log x
log GM =
n

where: GM = geometric mean

x = value or score
n = number of observations

FOR GROUPED DATA

∑ f(log x)
GM =
n

where: GM = geometric mean

x = class mark
f = frequency
n = total frequency

HARMONIC MEAN (HM)

FOR UNGROUPED DATA

n
HM =
1
∑
x

where: HM = harmonic mean

x = value or score
n = number of observations
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FOR GROUPED DATA

n
HM =
f
∑
x

where: HM = harmonic mean

x = class mark
f = frequency
n = total frequency

RELATION BETWEEN ARITHMETIC MEAN (AM), GEOMETRIC MEAN (GM) AND

HARMONIC MEAN (HM)

HM ≤ GM ≤ AM

ROOT-MEAN-SQUARE (RMS) OR QUADRATIC MEAN (QM)

FOR UNGROUPED DATA

∑ fx 2
RMS = √
n

where: RMS = root-mean-square

x = class mark
f = frequency
n = total frequency

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY

RANGE (R)

FOR UNGROUPED DATA

R = HS − LS

where: R = range
HS = highest score
LS = lowest score
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FOR GROUPED DATA

R = (UCB)H − (LCB)L

where: R = range
(UCB)H = upper class boundary of the highest class interval
(LCB)L = lower class boundary of the lowest class interval

MEAN DEVIATION (MD) OR AVERAGE DEVIATION (AD)

FOR UNGROUPED DATA

∑d
MD =
n

where: MD = mean deviation

d = deviation = |x − x
̅|
x = class mark
∑x
x̅ = mean =
n

n = number of observations

FOR GROUPED DATA

∑ fd
MD =
n

where: MD = mean deviation

f = frequency
d = deviation = |x − x
̅|
x = class mark
∑x
x̅ = mean =
n

n = number of observations
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 Statistics

STANDARD DEVIATION (SD or s)

FOR UNGROUPED DATA

∑(x − x̅)2
SD = √
n

where: SD = standard deviation

x = class mark
∑x
x̅ = mean =
n

n = number of observations

FOR GROUPED DATA

∑ f(x − x̅)2
SD = √
n

where: SD = standard deviation

f = frequency
x = class mark
∑x
x̅ = mean =
n

n = number of observations

VARIANCE (s2)
- the square of the standard deviation

COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION (V)

s
V=
x̅

where: V = coefficient of variation

s = standard deviation
x̅ = mean
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 Statistics

STIRLING’S APPROXIMATION

n! = √2πn nn e−n

where: n = positive integer (large value)

e = natural logarithm base

NOTE : To evaluate n!, use logarithm base 10.

1 n
log n! = log 2πn + n log
2 e

MATHEMATICAL EXPECTATION

E(X) = ∑ pX

where: E(X) = expected value or mathematical expectation

X = discrete random variable
p = probability of obtaining X

NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

x − x̅
s=
v

where: s = standard deviation

x = score
x̅ = mean
v = standardized variable or standard score

BINOMIAL DISTRIBUTION

The binomial distribution (Bernoulli Distribution) is a discrete probability distribution.

It is a sampling process in which:
1. There are two mutually exclusive outcomes (success and failure) on each trial.
2. The series of trials constitutes independent events.
3. The probability of a success remains constant from trial to trial.
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 Statistics

BINOMIAL PROBABILITY FORMULA

N!
p(X) = px qN−x
x! (N − x)!

where: p(X) = binomial probability

x = number of success
N = number of independent trials
p = probability of success
q = probability of failure

THEORETICAL MEAN

μ = Np

where: μ = binomial probability

N = number of independent trials
p = probability of success

STANDARD DEVIATION

σ = √Npq

where: σ = standard deviation

N = number of independent trials
p = probability of success
q = probability of failure

POISSON DISTRIBUTION

λX e−λ
p(X) =
X!

where: p(X) = probability

λ = constant = Np
X = number of success

NOTE : The Poisson distribution is used as an approximation to the binomial distribution.

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