CENG 

420 – Water Treatment    Lecture Note 

Chapter 5 Coagulation and Flocculation 
5.1. Introduction 
Surface water must be treated to remove turbidity, color, and bacteria. Some particle sizes
common to most surface waters are listed in Table 5-1, along with their terminal settling velocity
(assuming quiescent conditions and specific gravity of 2.65). From these values it’s obvious that
plain sedimentation will not be very efficient for the smaller suspended particles. Under
conditions normally encountered in settling basins, efficient removal of particles less than 50 µm
in diameter cannot be expected.
Table 5-1 Settling velocities of various size particles
Particle size, mm Type Settling velocity
10 Pebble 0.73 m/s
1 Course sand 0.23 m/s
0.1 Fine sand 0.6 m/min
0.01 Silt 8.3 m/day
0.0001 Large colloids 0.3 m/year
0.000001 Small colloids 3 m/million years

5.2. Coagulation 
The object of coagulation (subsequently flocculation) is to turn the small particles of color,
turbidity, and bacteria into larger flocs, either as precipitates of suspended particles. The term
coagulation comes from the Latin word coagulare, meaning to drive together. Coagulation is a
chemical process in which charged particles (colloids) are destabilized.
Colloid stability
Colloidal suspensions that do not agglomerate naturally are called stable. Most colloids are
stable because they possess a negative charge that repels other colloidal particles before they
collide with one another. The colloids are continually involved in Brownian movement, which is
merely random movement. the most important factor contributing to the stability of colloidal
suspension is the excessively large surface-to-volume ration resulting from their very small size.
Surface phenomena predominate over mass phenomena. The most important surface
phenomenon is the accumulation of electrical charges at the particle surface.
A negatively charged colloid with a possible configuration of ions around it is shown in Fig. 5-1.
The first layer of cations attracted to the negatively charged surface us “bound” to the colloid and
will travel with it. Other ions in the vicinity of the colloid arrange themselves as shown, with
greater concentrations of positive, or counter, ions being closer to the colloidal surface. This
arrangement produces a net charge that is strongest at the bound layer and decreases
exponentially with distance from the colloid.
When two colloids come in close proximity there are two forces acting on them.
- Electrostatic potential (Zeta potential) – a repelling force and,

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CENG 420 – Water Treatment  Lecturee Note 

- Vann der Waals force – an attraction

a forrce—inverseely proportioonal to the sixth power of
o the
disttance between the partiicles and alsso decays exxponentiallyy with distannce more raapidly
thann the electro
ostatic force.

Figure 5-1 Charge syystem in colloidal suspennsion

The summ of the two forces (see Fig. 5-2) is repulsive att greater disttance and beecomes attraactive
only afteer passing th
hrough a maaximum nett repulsive force
f called the energy barrier, at some
distance between collloids.
Colloid Destabilizat
D tion
As notedd earlier collloids are stabble because of their surfface charge. A means off overcominng the
energy baarrier to creaate agglomerration of parrticles could be:
- Broownian mov vement- ranndom moveement of smaller s collloids may produce ennough
momentum to overcome
o the energy barrrier and thuus collide.
- Meechanical agitation of thhe water- may
m impart enough
e mommentum to laarger particlles to
move them acrooss the energgy barrier.
These twwo processess are too slow w and cannoot be efficiennt means to remove parrticles. Thereefore,
in order to destabillize the partticles we must m neutralize the chaarges on thee particles. Such
neutralization can takke place by addition of an ion of oppposite chargge to the colloid. Since most
colloids found in water are neggatively charrged, the adddition of positively chharged ions (Na+,
Mg2+, All3+, Fe3+ etc.)) can neutrallize the collooidal negativve charges. The
T coagulatting power ofo tri-
valent ionns is much greater
g than those
t of monno-valent or divalent ionns.
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CENG 420 – Water Treatment  Lecturee Note 

Figure
F 5-2 Force
F fields between collloids of likee charges
Coagulaants
A coagulant is the substance
s (cchemical) thaat is added to the waterr to accompplish coagulaation.
There aree three key properties
p off a coagulantt:
1. T
Trivalent catiion. most effficient cation
2. Nontoxic.
N Forr productionn of safe watter
3. Innsoluble in neutral
n pH range.
r So thhat coagulants added cann precipitatee without leaaving
high concentrration of ionns in water.
Selectionn of the pro oper coagulaant dependss upon: 1) the characteeristics of thhe coagulannt, 2)
particulattes, 3) wateer quality, 4)
4 cost, and 5) dewateriing characteeristics of thhe solids thaat are
producedd. The selectted coagulannt should be non-toxic and
a relativelyy inexpensivve. It shouldd also
be insoluuble in neutrral pH rangee and do noot leave highh concentrattions of metaals in the trreated
water.
Commonnly used coag
gulants are:
• Alum: Al2(SO
A O4)3.14H2O
• Ferric chlorid
de: FeCl3
• Ferric sulfate: FeSO4
• Polyelectrolyytes (Polymers)
Aluminu um. Aluminu um can be purchased
p as either dry or
o liquid alumm. Alum is available
a eithher in
lump, graanular or po
owdered form m (dependinng on the loocal supplierr). Alum coontains a varriable
amount of water of crystalllization, depending onn the locaal method of manufaacture
(Al2(SO4)3.nH2O wh here n is usuually in the range
r 14 to 18. As liquid alum, it can
c be truckked or
piped to suitable storages if a trreatment plaant is near ann alum-prodducing plant.. Liquid aluum is

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CENG 420 – Water Treatment    Lecture Note 

often cheaper than crystalline alum but it requires acid-proof (stainless steel) tanks and piping for
storage and transport.
There is a limited pH range in which the insoluble aluminum hydrates, such as aluminum
hydroxide, will form from a dilute alum solution. If the pH is too low, a more soluble
compound, Al(OH)2+ will form. If it is too high, above pH8, the aluminum becomes complexed
into Al(OH)4-. Optimum pH is 5.5-6.5 and operating pH is 5 – 8.
when alum is added to a water containing alkalinity, the following reaction occurs:
Al2(SO4)3.14 H2O + 6HCO3- ⇔ 2Al(OH)3 (s)↓+ 6CO2 + 14H2O + 3SO4-2
such that each mole of alum added uses six moles of alkalinity and produces six moles of carbon
dioxide. The above reaction shifts the carbonate equilibrium and decreases the pH. However, as
long as sufficient alkalinity is present and CO2(g) is allowed to evolve, the pH is not drastically
reduced and is generally not an operational problem.
When sufficient alkalinity is not present to neutralize the sulfuric acid production, the pH may be
greatly reduced:
Al2(SO4)3.14 H2O ⇔ 2Al(OH)3 .3H2O(s)↓+ 3H2SO4 + 2H2O
If the second reaction occurs, lime or sodium carbonate may be added to neutralize the acid.
Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4 → CaSO4 + 2H2O
2Na2CO3 + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2NaHCO3
2NaOH + H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
If lime is added the total reaction becomes as follows
Al2(SO4)3⋅14H2O + 3Ca(OH)2 ↔ 2Al(OH)3(s) ↓ + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2 + 14H2O
Example: alkalinity calculation. If 200 mg/L of alum to be added to achieve complete
coagulation. How much alkalinity is consumed in mg/L as CaCO3?
Solution:
Al2(SO4)3.14 H2O + 6HCO3- ⇔ 2Al(OH)3↓+ 6CO2 + 14H2O + 3SO4-2
594 mg 366 mg

594 mg alum consumes 366 mg HCO3-

200 mg alum will consume (366/594) x 200 mg HCO3-
= 123 mg HCO3-
Equivalent weight of CaCO 3
Alkas CaCO 3 = 123 × −
Equivalent weight of HCO 3
= 123 x (50/61)
= 101 mg/L as CaCO3

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AAU, FoT, Department of Civil Engineering    Instructor: Zerihun Alemayehu 
CENG 420 – Water Treatment    Lecture Note 

Coagulation Theory
Although the exact method by which coagulation is accomplished cannot be determined, four
mechanisms are thought to occur. These include ionic layer compression, adsorption and charge
neutralization, entrapment on a flocculent mass, and adsorption and interparticle bridging.
Ionic layer compression. A high ionic concentration compresses the layers composed
predominantly of counter ions toward the surface of the colloid. If this layer is sufficiently
compressed, then the van der Waals force will be predominant across the entire are of influence,
so that the net force will be attractive and no energy layer will exist.
Adsorption and charge neutralization. As example in the ionization of aluminum sulfate in
water the produce aluminum cations (Al3+) react immediately with water to form a variety of
aquometallic ions and hydrogen. By nature the aquometallic ions formed have a great affinity
and are adsorbed onto the surface of the colloid where they neutralize the surface charge. Once
the surface charge has been neutralized, the ionic cloud surrounding the colloids dissipates and
the electrostatic potential disappears so that contact occurs freely.
Sweep coagulation. The last product formed in the hydrolysis of alum is aluminum hydroxide,
Al(OH)3. The Al(OH)3 forms in amorphous, gelatinous flocs that are heavier than water and
settle by gravity. Colloids may become entrapped in a floc as it is formed, or they may become
enmeshed by its “sticky” surface as the flocs settle. The process by which colloids are swept
from suspension in this manner is known as sweep coagulation.
Interparticle bridge. Synthetic polymers may also be used instead of, or in addition to, metallic
salts. These polymers may be linear or branched and are highly surface reactive. Thus, several
colloids may become attached to one polymer and several of the polymer-colloid groups may
become enmeshed, resulting in a settleable mass.
Optimum Coagulant Dosage
Two important factors in coagulant addition are pH and dose. The optimum dose and pH must be
determined from laboratory tests. The optimal pH range for alum is approximately 5.5 to 6.5
with adequate coagulation possible between pH 5 to pH 8 under some conditions.
In laboratory jar test is used to determine optimum dosage and pH value. The jar test has be
performed on each water that is to be coagulated and must be repeated with each significant
change on the quality of a given water.
In the jar test, different doses of coagulant, and of other chemicals if necessary, are added
simultaneously to several (often six) samples of the water to be treated. Each sample undergoes
the same rapid mixing and slow stirring until a suitable floc is formed. Each of the six jars are
filled to the 1-L mark with water whose turbidity, pH, and alkalinity have been determined. One
jar is used as a control, while the remaining five are dosed with different amount of coagulant(s)
at different pH values until the minimum values of residual turbidity are obtained. After
chemical addition, the water is mixed rapidly for about 1 min to ensure complete dispersion of
the chemicals, then mixed slowly for 15 to 20 min to aid in the formation of flocs. The water is
next allowed to settle for approximately 30 min, or until clarification has occurred. Portions of
the settled water are then removed and tested to determine the remaining turbidity. Test results
are used to calculate the type and quantity of coagulant to be used in the water-treatment plant.

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AAU, FoT, Department of Civil Engineering    Instructor: Zerihun Alemayehu 
CENG 420 – Water Treatment  Lecturee Note 

Alkalinitty-Coagulattion Relatioonship
As notedd earlier, thee coagulationn of metalliic salts releaases hydrogeen ions as well
w as coaggulant
species. These hydro ogen ions neutralize
n alkkalinity. Hyddrogen resuulting from thet addition of 1
mg\L of alum will neutralize
n 0.5 mg\L of alkalinity.
a Iff the initial alkalinity of a water is low,
further reeduction willl destroy its buffering caapacity and the pH will drop rapidlyy. Since optiimum
pH valuees must be maintained for best cooagulation annd since alkkalinity musst be presennt for
hydroxidde floc formmation, low alkalinity waters
w must be artificiallly buffered. This is ussually
accompliished by the addition of lime or sodaa ash.

Coagulaation-floccullation proceess overview

w
In practicce coagulation/flocculattion process is a two step process - the water firrst flows intto the
Flash mixx (Rapid mix x) chamber, and then ennters the flocculation bassin (Fig. 5.3)).

Figure 5-3 Coagulationn-flocculatioon process ovverview

In the flaash mixer, coagulant
c chhemicals are added to thhe water andd the water is mixed quuickly
and violeently. The purpose
p of thhis step is too evenly disttribute the chemicals
c thrrough the water.
w
Flash mixing typicallly lasts a minute
m or lesss. If the watter is mixedd for less thaan thirty seconds,
then the chemicals
c will
w not be prroperly mixeed into the water.
w Howeever, if the water
w is mixeed for
more thaan sixty seconds, then thee mixer bladdes will sheaar the newly forming floc back into small
particles..
After flaash mixing, coagulation
c occurs. Duuring coagulation, destabbilization off colloids occcurs,
allowing the paarticles to come closer toggether andd form large clum mps.
The finall step is floccculation. During
D floccculation, a process
p of gentle
g mixingg brings thee fine
particles formed by coagulationn into contacct with eachh other. Floocculation tyypically lastts for
about thiirty to forty--five minutees. The flocculation bassin often hass a number of compartm ments
with decrreasing mixiing speeds as the water advances
a thrrough the baasin. This coompartmentaalized
chamber allows increeasingly largge floc to forrm without being
b brokenn apart by thee mixing blaades.
The end product off a well-reggulated coaggulation/floccculation proocess is watter in whichh the
majority of the turbid
dity has beenn collected into
i floc, cluumps of colloids that havve come toggether
and form
med a clusterr. The floc will then seettle out in thet sedimenntation basinn, with remaaining
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CENG 420 – Water Treatment  Lecturee Note 

floc beinng removed in

i the filter. The best flooc size is 0.11 to 3 mm. Larger
L floc does
d not settle as
well and is more subjject to breakkup in the floocculation baasin. Smalleer floc also may
m not settlle.
Rapid mixing
m

Thoroughh mixing is essential

e if uniform
u coaggulation is too occur. Dessign parametters for rapidd-mix
units are mixing timee t and veloccity gradientt G. The veloocity gradiennt is a measuure of the rellative
velocity of two partiicles of fluidd and the disstance betweeen. As an example, tw wo water parrticles
moving 1 m/s relativve to each otther at a distance of 0.1 m apart woould have a velocity graadient
of:

1.0 /
10
0.1
A more useful
u conceept of velocitty gradients,, however, iss given in teerms of poweer dissipatioon per
volume.
⁄
5 1

Where G = velocity gradient,

g s-1
P = power inp put, W (N.m//s)
V = volume of mixing bassin, m3
μ = viscosity, N.s/m2
Rapid miixing can bee accomplishhed within a tank utilizinng a vertical shaft mixer (Fig. 5.4), within
w
a pipe ussing an in-lin
ne blender, or
o in a pipe using
u a staticc mixer. Othher methods,, such as Parrshall
flumes, hydraulic
h jummps, baffled channels, orr air mixing may also bee used.

Figure 5-4 Raapid mix tankk

Rapid-miixing tanks operate beest at G vaalues from 700 to 10000, with dettention timees of
approxim
mately 2 min
n. The most popular
p conffiguration off tanks and im
mpellers useed is square tanks
t

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neering Instructor: ZZerihun Alemaayehu 
CENG 420 – Water Treatment  Lecturee Note 

(a) (b)
Figure 5-5 Typiccal rapid-mixxing tanks: (a)
( back-mixx impeller annd (b) flat-bllade impellerr.
with backk-mix impelllers (Fig. 5-5a). A morre effective unit
u might be
b a square tank
t with baaffles
and flat blade
b impelleers (Fig. 5-55b).

In-line blenders
b are designed for
fo completee mixing in less than 1 s. Values of G for inn-line
blender, calculated frrom flow ratte and powerr input or head loss, rangge from 30000 to 50000 s-1.

Flocculaation
This termm is derived d from the Latin
L word flocculare,
fl m
meaning to ‘fform a floc’’. Flocculatiion is
stimulation by mecchanical means to aggllomerate deestabilized particles p intto compact,, fast
settleablee particles (o
or flocs). Thee objective of
o flocculatioon is to bringg the particlees into contaact so
that theyy will collidee, stick togetther, and groow to a size that will readily settle. The floccullation
process relies
r on turbbulence to promote
p collisions. Veloocity gradiennts are also a convenientt way
of measuuring this turbulence.
t Time is ann important factor, andd the desiggn parameteer for
flocculation is Gt, a dimension less numberr. The veloccity gradient must be coontrolled witthin a
relativelyy narrow ran nge in orderr to get goodd floc formaation and noot to shear of already foormed
flocs. Thhe heavier th he floc and thhe higher the suspendedd solids conccentration, thhe more mixxing s
required to keep the floc in susppension. Thiss is reflectedd in Table 5-2. Values of o Gt from 10 1 4 to
5
10 are commonly ussed, with t raanging from m 10 to 30 miin. It may bee advantageoous to vary the t G
values ovver the lengtth of the floccculation bassin. The smaall, dense floocs producedd at high G values
v
subsequeently combin ne into largeer flocs at the lower G values.
v Reduuction in G values
v by a factor
f
of 2 from
m the influen nt end to the effluent endd of the floccculator has been shown to be effectivve.
Flocculattion is norm
mally accom
mplished withh an axial-fl
flow impelleer, a paddle flocculator, or a
baffled chamber

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neering Instructor: ZZerihun Alemaayehu 
CENG 420 – Water Treatment    Lecture Note 

Table 5-2 Gt values for flocculation

Type G (s-1) Gt (unitless)
Low-turbidity, color removal 20-70 60,000 to 200,000
coagulation
High-turbidity, solids removal 30-80 36,000 to 96,000
coagulation
Softening, 10% solids 130-200 200,000 to 250,000
Softening, 39% solids 150-300 390,000 to 400,000

The G value for mechanically driven flocculators is calculated as follows.

First, the power input is determined by
P = Dvp (5-2)
Where P = power input, W (N.m/s)
D = drag force on paddles, N
vp = velocity of paddles, m/s
The drag force on the paddle is given by

5 3
2
Where CD = dimensionless coefficient of drag, 1.8 for flat blades
Ap = area of paddle blades, m2
ρ = density of water, kg/m3
Equation (5-2) now becomes

2
Substituting into Eq. (5-1)
⁄

2
The area of the paddle Ap refers to the combined area of the slats that are perpendicular to the
cylinder of rotation. This area should not exceed 40 percent of the total area encompassed by the
paddle. The velocity of the paddle tip vp is the velocity relative to the water and is about 75
percent of the actual paddle speed. Paddle velocity should be less than 1 m/s, and a minimum
distance of 0.3 m should be maintained between paddle tips and all other structures in the
flocculator to prevent local areas of excessive velocity gradients.

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AAU, FoT, Department of Civil Engineering    Instructor: Zerihun Alemayehu