Irrig Sci (1996) 16: 101–105
O R I G I N A L PA P E R
B. Zur
Wetted soil volume as a design objective in trickle irrigation
Received: 13 February 1995
Abstract The restricted volume of wetted soil under
trickle irrigation and the depth-width dimensions of this
volume are of considerable practical importance. The vol-
ume of the wetted soil represents the amount of soil water
stored in the root zone, its depth dimension should coin-
cide with the depth of the root system while its width di-
mension should be related to the spacing between emitters
and lines. Thus, the volume and geometry of the wetted
soil under an emitter should become an objective rather
than an end result of the design process. The purpose of
this paper is to introduce and demonstrate an inverse de-
sign process, where a management-controlled wetted soil
volume, Vm, is estimated first. The parameters which in-
fluence the value of Vm are the available water holding ca-
pacity of the soil and the peak daily crop water use repre-
senting specific field conditions. The irrigation interval
and the management-allowed deficit are additional param-
eters which affect the wetted volume and could be changed
depending on crop sensitivity as well as water and irriga-
tion equipment accessibility. A truncated ellipsoid is as-
sumed to best represent the geometry of the wetted soil
volume under an emitter. Pairs of possible depth-width di-
mensions which satisfy the estimated volume of the wet-
ted soil are then computed using the equation of a trun-
cated ellipsoid. Finally, depth-width-discharge combina-
tions which can yield the estimated wetted soil volume are
computed using an equation proposed by Schwartzman and
Zur (1986). The most suitable combination based on local
irrigation practices and available emitters is then selected.
Computational examples for three soil types under the
same climatic conditions are presented and discussed.
B. Zur
Agricultural Engineering Department,
Technion – Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel;
Fax: +972-4-221529
© Springer-Verlag 1996
Introduction
The geometry of the wetted soil volume under trickle irri-
gation takes a spherical or ellipsoidal-like shapes when wa-
ter is applied from a point source or a cylindrical-like shape
when water is applied from a line source. The dimensions
of the wetted volume under a point source, its width and
depth, depend on the hydraulic properties of the soil, the
discharge of the emitter and the quantity of water applied.
The boundaries of the wetted soil volume are reasonably
well defined and are surrounded by drier soil. In addition,
soil water content distribution within the wetter volume is
not uniform, it decreases with the radial distance from the
water source. When a line of equally spaced emitters is
used to irrigate row crops the normal procedure is to space
the emitters in such a way so that a predetermined overlay
between adjacent wetted soil volumes is obtained. Thus,
the geometry of wetted soil under a point source is repre-
sentative of most practical situations in trickle irrigation
design. Such behavior is in sharp contrast to the geometry
and dynamics of the wetted soil volume under sprinkler ir-
rigation where the total soil surface area is wetted and the
vertical soil water content distribution is essentially con-
stant. Under sprinkler irrigation the wetted soil volume is
well represented by the wetted soil depth. This is certainly
not the case under trickle irrigation where estimation of the
wetted soil volume is problematic.
One approach to estimate the wetted soil volume under
a given trickle system is to use analytical or numerical solu-
tions of the two- or three-dimensional unsaturated flow equa-
tions such as those presented by Brandt et al. (1971) and
Bresler (1978). These methods are capable of computing
the position of the wetting front, and thus the extent of the
wetted volume under a range of soil, emitter discharge and
depth of water application. Emitter spacing can then be es-
timated, provided detailed information on the hydraulic
properties of the soil is available. However, these methods
are of limited practical value because of their relative com-
plexity, limited testing under field conditions and lack of suf-
ficient information on the hydraulic properties of field soils.
102
A more widely used procedure to account for the vol-
ume of wetted soil under trickle irrigation is to assume that
the wetted soil volume can be represented by the geome-
try of a rectangular column. The area of its base equals the
product of the spacing between emitters and the distance
between lines, while its height equals the depth of the root
zone. Keller and Bliesner (1990) present a table where the
spacing between emitters and between lines under an emit-
ter with a discharge of 4 L/h are given for a number of soils,
rooting depths and degrees of soil profile homogeneity.
Similar tables have been presented by Karmeli and Keller
(1975), Benami and Ofen (1983) and Solomon and Kad-
ema (1976). Equations for computing the wetted area as a
percent of the total crop area for a range of crop geometry
and lateral layouts based on the dimensions of the spacing
between emitters and lines are presented and demonstrated
by Keller and Bliesner (1990). Percent wetted area is then
used as a multiplier to reduce the depth of water applied
under sprinkler irrigation (Keller and Bliesner 1990). The
wetted soil volume under an emitter is than computed for
the purpose of estimating the available soil water as the
product of percent wetted area and depth of rooting.
Schwartzman and Zur (1986) studied the geometry of
wetted soil volume under trickle irrigation and developed
a series of empirical equations relating the width and depth
of the wetted soil volume to emitter discharge, saturated
hydraulic conductivity of the soil and volume of water in
the wetted soil volume. They computed empirical coeffi-
cients for these equations based on laboratory tests and on
solutions of the two-dimensional flow equation presented
by Bresler (1978). Using their equations Schwartzman and
Zur have shown that the ratio of the width of the depth of
the wetted soil volume would tend to decrease with an in-
crease in the hydraulic conductivity of the soil. An increase
in the depth of applied water would also decrease the width-
to-depth ratio; this is especially significant in light textured
soils. In addition, an increase in emitter discharge would
increase the width-to-depth ratio with a more pronounced
effect in medium-to-heavy textured soils. Schwartzman
and Zur (1986) proposed a procedure for selecting emitter
spacing and emitter discharge in order to obtain a desired
geometry of the wetted soil volume. Amir and Dag (1993)
published field data on the width and depth dimensions of
wetted soil volumes under moving emitters and reported
good agreement with the empirical model presented by
Schwartzman and Zur (1986).
The wetted volume and geometry of a given soil can be
controlled by the discharge of the emitter, by the spacing
between emitters and by the depth of water applied. This
fact creates an ideal situation for using an inverse approach
to the design process. The inverse approach would start by
estimating the magnitude of a desired wetted soil volume,
then compute a number of possibilities of its width-depth
relations and only then select possible combinations of
emitter spacing and emitter discharge to satisfy the pos-
sible width-depth combinations. The final step could
then be the selection of an optimal combination of emitter
discharge and emitter spacing for the given field situa-
tion.
The objectives of the present paper are to define a man-
agement-required wetted soil volume under trickle irriga-
tion, to develop methods for estimating its width and depth,
to select a method for computing emitter spacing and emit-
ter discharge and to demonstrate by calculation the advan-
tages of the inverse approach in the design of trickle irri-
gation systems.
Theory
It is assumed that the volume and geometry of the wetted soil under
a point source is best respresented by a truncated ellipsoid, Fig. 1.
The volume V of a truncated ellipsoid is expressed as follows:
π 2 h3 
V= d 2z + h −
12   (1)
(z − h) 2 
where d is the maximal width occurring at a depth h below the soil
surface, and z is the vertical extent of this volume. A graphical rep-
resentation of Eq. (1) for a range of specific values of z is presented
in Fig. 2. Clearly, a given volume of a truncated ellipsoid is charac-
terized by specific values of its depth, z, and its maximal width, d,
which are inversely related.
It is of interest to compare the volume of a truncated ellipsoid
with the volume of the often assumed geometry of a rectangular col-
umn where V = d2z. The ratios of the volume of the rectangular col-
umn to that of a truncated ellipsoid as a function of their depth, z,
are presented in Fig. 3, a value of 20 cm was used for the depth h in
the truncated ellipsoid. The results from these computations show
that the volume of the wetted soil under an emitter, assuming a rec-
tangular column geometry, is 1.7 to 1.8 larger than the wetted soil
volume assuming a more realistic geometry of a truncated ellipsoid.
If we correct the geometry of the auumed column by multiplying it
with an average percent wetted area of 35 we get a wetted volume
of about 0.6 compared to the wetted volume under a truncated ellip-
soid. These estimates of the wetted soil volume have direct bearing
on estimates of the available soil water.
We define a Management Controlled Wetted Soil Volume, Vm,
as the soil volume which must be wetted in order to store within the
Management Allowed Deficit fraction of the available soil water
enough water to sustain the peak seasonal evapotranspirational flux
between consecutive irrigations. The value of Vm for an area of one
square meter can be estimated by using the following relationship:
PDWU × PII
Vw = (2)
WHC × MAD
Fig. 1 A schematic presentation of a truncated ellipsoid
 103

Fig. 2 Volume of a truncated ellipsoid as a function of its maximal Fig. 3 Ratios of the volume of a rectangular column to that of a
width for specified values of its depth, z truncated ellipsoid as a function of their depth dimension, z

where PDWU is the seasonal peak daily crop water use in L/day-m2,
PII the Preferred Irrigation Interval in days, WHC is the Water Hold-
ing Capacity of the soil in m3 water per m3 soil and MAD is the Man-
agement Allowed Deficiency as a decimal fraction.
The width and depth dimensions of Vm are of critical importance
in the design of a trickle irrigation system. Maximal width of Vm dic-
tates the maximum spacing between emitters, without overlay, and
the distance between lines. The depth of the Management Controlled
Wetted Soil Volume would have to agree with the desired depth of
the root zone or with the leaching requirements. The width-to-depth
ratio of the wetted soil volume under a single emitter is expected to
depend on soil type, on emitter discharge and on the depth of water
applied (Schwartzman and Zur 1986). In addition, this ratio would
depend on the magnitude of Vm, as was demonstrated in Fig. 2. An
equation relating the maximal width of the wetted soil volume, d, to
its depth, z, to emitter discharge, q and to the hydraulic conductiv-
ity of the soil, ks, was developed by Schwartzman and Zur, Eq. (15),
(1986):
d = 1.32 z0.35 q0.33 ks–0.33 (3)
where q is in m3/s, ks in m/s, d and z are in m.
By combining equations (1) and (3), (the power of z was assumed
to be 0.33), a generalized equation for computing emitter discharge, Fig. 4 Emitter discharge as a function of the depth of the wetted
q is obtained: soil volume for specified values of its maximal width for a clay loam
soil
k s d12 Vm
q= . (4)
 h3 
2.3z π  2 z + h − 
 (z − h) 2 
Under given conditions of soil, crop and climate represented by val- Computed results and discussion
ues of ks and Vm, emitter discharge could be calculated for accept-
able combinations of z and d and a reasonable value of h.
Based on these considerations the proposed inverse design pro- The proposed inverse design process was tested and dem-
cedure should proceed as follows: onstrated using three numerical examples with three rep-
1. Estimate a Management Controlled Wetted Soil Volume, Vm, resentative soils.
Eq. (2)
2. Select acceptable combinations of d and z for the selected Vm,
Eq. (1) or Fig. 2.
3. Compute appropriate values of emitter discharge, q, for a given Example No 1
value of ks and the selected combinations of d and z Eq. (4).
4. Select an acceptable combination of emitter spacing, d and emit- A clay loam soil with an available water holding capacity,
ter discharge, q. WHC, of 0.19 cm3/cm3, a saturated hydraulic conductiv-
104
Table 1 Depth-width-discharge combinations for a clay loam soil lowing combinations of depth-width dimensions: 50–55,
70–45, 100–40, 120–35 cm. The solution of Eq. (4) for this
Interval, days Vm L z cm d cm q L/h
case is also presented in Table 1.
3 260 50 95 5 Taking as an acceptable practical combination where
70 80 1.5 the computed emitter discharge is in the range of 2 to 6 L/h,
100 65 0.5 then the preferred choice for the clay loam soil would be
120 60 0.2
an irrigation interval of three days, a range of 80 to 95 cm
1 90 50 55 1.0 spacing between emitters and a wetted soil depth in the
70 45 0.3 range of 50 to 70 cm. Such combinations could certainly
100 40 0.1 be defined as a wide and relatively shallow wetted soil
120 35 0.05 geometry. When a deep wetted soil volume is desired, emit-
ter discharge lower than 1 L/h would have to be used. Emit-
ter discharges lower than 1 L/h were also computed for the
Table 2 Depth-width-discharge combinations for a sandy loam soil case of daily irrigations. An attempt to increase wetted
Interval, days Vm L z cm d cm q L/h
depth by increasing the quantity of applied water by 20%
did not change the situation. The acceptable choice for the
3 415 70 100 10 clay loam soil would be a three day irrigation interval,
100 85 3.0 depth-width combinations in the range of 70–90 cm and
120 75 1.5 an emitter discharge of 2 L/h.
1 140 50 70 6.5
70 60 2.0
100 50 0.6 Example No 2
120 45 0.3
A sandy loam soil with a WHC = 0.12 cm3/cm3,
ks = 6.9 × 10–6 m/s or 25 mm/h MAD = 0.3, PDCWU =
Table 3 Depth-width-discharge combinations for a sandy soil 5 mm/d and PII = 3 days.
The wetted soil volume Vm is computed as follows:
Interval, days Vm L z cm d cm q L/h
Vm = 3 × 5 = 415 L.
2 400 70 100 35 0.12 × 0.3
100 85 10
120 75 5.5 Using Eq. (1) and Fig. 2 for Vm = 0.41 m3 we obtaine the
1 200 50 80 39
following combinations of depth-width dimensions:
70 70 12 70–100, 100–85, 120–75 cm. Equation (4) is then used to
100 60 3.5 compute values of emitter discharge q for the selected
120 55 2.0 depth-width combination. Results are presented in Table 2.
Shortening the irrigation interval to one day, Vm = 0.14 m3
selected combinations of depth-width-discharge were
computed and are also presented in Table 2.
Within the emitter discharge range of 2 to 6 L/h and
ity, ks, of 2.2 × 10–6 m/s (8 mm/h) and a management-al- under an irrigation interval of three days, emitter spacing
lowed deficit, MAD, of 0.3. Also, a peak daily crop water of 75 to 85 cm for wetted depth of 100 to 120 cm are se-
use, PDCWU, of 5 liters/day, equivalent to 5 mm/day for lected. Under daily irrigations narrower emitter spacing
a crop area of 1 m2, and a preferred irrigation interval, PII, (60 to 70 cm) and shallower wetted depths (50 to 70 cm)
of 3 days, are assumed. are selected. Deeper wetted depths could be obtained under
The value of the management controlled wetted soil vol- daily irrigations with emitter discharge smaller than 1 L/h.
ume, Vm, is computed using Eq. (2):

Vm = 3 × 5 = 260 l.
0.19 × 0.3 Example No 3

Using the curves in Fig. 2, the following combinations of
depth and width dimensions were obtained for a wetted soil
volume of 260 l 50–95, 70–80, 100–65, 120–60 cm.
Equation (4) is then used to compute the values of emit-
ter discharge, q, for the selected depth-width combinations.
A simple computer program was developed to solve
Eq. (4). The results are presented in Table 1. An example
of a graphical solution of Eq. (4) is presented in Fig. 4.
Using the same data for daily irrigations we compute a
wetted soil volume Vm of 90 l. From Fig. 2 we get the fol-
A sandy soil with WHC = 0.08, ks = 2.5 × 10–5 m/s or
75 mm/h, MAD = 0.3, PDCWU = 5 mm/d and PII = 3 days.
Vm = 3 × 5 = 625 L.
0.08 × 0.3
The computed wetted volume is too large. For a two-day
irrigation interval and a computed Vm of 0.4 m3, combina-
tions of depth-width-discharge were computed and are pre-
sented in Table 3. For daily irrigations, Vm = 0.2 m3, se-
lected combinations of depth-width dimensions and emit-

ter discharge were computed and are also presented in Ta-
ble 3.
For the preferred emitter discharge range of 2 to 6 L/h
and under a two-day irrigation interval an emitter spacing
of 75 cm and a wetted depth of 120 cm is selected. Under
daily irrigations, emitter spacing of 55 to 60 cm and wet-
ted depth of 100–120 cm are selected. To obtain shallower
wetted depths under irrigation intervals of one and two-
days emitter discharges larger than 10 L/h would have to
be used. Emitter discharges of that magnitude would also
result in a larger wetted width and as a result, wider emit-
ter spacing.
Summary and conclusions
The inverse trickle irrigation design process starts with an
estimate of the wetted soil volume, normally the end re-
sult of the design process. This initial estimate becomes
the objective of the design process. In estimating the wet-
ted soil volume required, specific field conditions are rep-
resented by the peak daily crop water use and by the avail-
able water-holding capacity of the soil. The value of Vm
could then be modified by changing the values of the Man-
agement-Allowed Deficit and of the Preferred Irrigation
Interval based on crop sensitivity, local experience and
management practices. Once a value for Vm is obtained a
number of possible geometries, represented by depth-
width dimensions, are computed. Equation (1) and Fig. 2
were used to compute values of maximal width, assuming
no overlap between adjacent wetted soil volumes, for se-
lected depth values of 50, 70, 100 and 120 cm, respectively.
Emitter discharge for each depth-width combination is then
computed using Eq. (4) in which the values of ks, Vm and
the selected depth-width combinations are used. A final se-
lection of depth-width-discharge possibilities could then
be made based on the requirement that emitter discharge
should be in the range of 2 to 6 L/h.
The three examples demonstrate the major effect of soil
type on the depth-width-discharge combination under
given climatic conditions. The influence of the available
water-holding capacity of the soild on Vm is obvious; under
given peak crop water use a sandy soil requires a much
larger wetted soil volume than a clay soil to satisfy crop
evapotranspiration.
The importance of ks stems from the dependence of the
soil water flow on the hydraulic conductivity of the soil.
Under a high ks value the depth-width ratio of the wetted
soil volume is expected to be high. Thus, for a sandy soil
under emitter discharge in the range of 2–6 L/h and a given
105
Vm value, the geometry of the wetted soil volume would
tend to be deep and narrow, 120–55 cm in example 3.
Under the same peak crop water use and range of emitter
discharge, the depth-width dimensions of the wetted vol-
ume in a clay loam soil would be almost spherical,
70–80 cm, for a three day irrigation interval, Table 1.
Changing to daily irrigations under the clay loam soil
would result in 50–55 cm depth-width dimensions and an
emitter discharge of 1 L/h. An increase in emitter discharge
would tend to decrease this ratio, making the geometry
shallower and wider in the three soils discussed, Ta-
bles 1–3.
For the selected emitter discharge the geometry of the
wetted soil volume is shallow under the clay loam soil and
deep under the sandy soil. To achieve a shallow geometry
for the sandy soil, for shallow rooted crops, daily irriga-
tions and emitter discharge of about 14 L/h could be used,
to get a 70–70 cm geometry, Table 3. A deeper geometry
of wetted clay loam soil is possible by changing to daily
irrigations and an emitter discharge of less than 1 L/h
100–40 cm, Table 1.
Emitter discharge values less then 2 L/h are undesirable
because of the length of the irrigation times needed in or-
der to apply the desired depth of water.
Equation (3) is of basic importance in the control of the
geometry of the wetted soil volume under trickle irriga-
tion. The coefficients used in Eq. (3) were extracted from
a rather limited volume of experimental data collected in
soil containers. Undoubtably field studies representing a
range of soils, emitter discharges and climatic conditions
should be performed in order to calibrate and field test
Eq. (3) and to gain more confidence in the inverse design
process.
References
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(1971) Infiltration from a trickle source: I. Mathematical mod-
els. Proc SSSA 35:675–682
Bresler E (1978) Analysis of trickle irrigation with application de-
sign problems. Irrig Sci 1:3–13
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ted soil volume. J Irrig Drainage Engr ASCE 112:242–253
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