1.

WAYS OF KNOWING
(Fraenkel and Wallen, 2007)

Sensory Experience - Using our senses like seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting and touching is
the most immediate way of obtaining information from the world. However, our senses can
deceive us.

Agreement with Others - The opinions of others can be used to check on the accuracy and
authenticity of one’s sensations. The problem with common knowledge is that it can be wrong.

Expert Opinion - Consulting people who know a great deal about a topic of interest, is one
way of obtaining information. However, experts can still be mistaken.

Logic - Using knowledge to create new knowledge. The intellect – the capacity to reason things
out – allows a person to use sensory data to develop a new kind of knowledge. The fundamental
danger in logical reasoning is that it is only when the major and minor premises of a syllogism
are both true that the conclusion is guaranteed to be true.

The Scientific Method - A way of knowing that it is characterized by the public nature of its
procedures and conclusions and by rigorous testing of conclusions. The general order of the
scientific of the scientific method is as follows:
1. Identifying a problem or question
2. Clarifying the problem
3. Determining the information needed and how to obtain it
4. Organizing the information
5. Interpreting the results

2. PROBLEMS WITH SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH

(Best and Kahn, 2003)

Because human nature is so complex, it is difficult to develop theories of human behavior

than to predict occurrences in the real world. Research on human subjects has numerous problems:

1. No two persons are alike in feelings, drives and emotions. What may be a reasonable
prediction for one may be useless for another.

2. No one person is completely consistent from one moment to another. Human behavior is
influenced by the interaction of the individual with every changing element in his or her
environment, often in a way that is difficult to predict.
3. Human beings are influenced by the research process itself. They are influenced by the
attention that is focused on them when under investigation and by the knowledge that their
behavior is being observed.

4. The behavioral sciences have been limited by a lack of adequate definition. Accurate
operational definitions are essential to the development of a sophisticated science. Constructs
(traits) are not directly observable but can only be inferred by phenomena such as test scores
or by observation.

3. RESEARCH VS. EVALUATION

RESEARCH refers to the formal, systematic evaluation of scholarship, disciplined inquiry, and
most often the scientific method to the study of problems in order to discover or establish facts
and principles. (Fraenkel and Wallen, 2007)

The systematic investigation into the study of materials, sources etc. in order to establish
facts and reach new conclusions (Oxford Dictionary)

EVALUATION involves determining the worth, merit, or quality of an evaluation object

(Johnson and Christensen, 2008).

(Fraenkel and Wallen, 2007)

1. Statement of the research problem - Includes a description of the background of the problem
and a rationale or justification for studying it. Any legal or ethical ramifications related to the
problem are discussed and resolved.

2. Formulation of an exploratory question or a hypothesis - A hypothesis is a prediction, a

statement of what specific results or outcomes are expected to occur. Should clearly indicate
any relationships expected between the variables being investigated.

3. Definitions - All key terms in the problem statement and hypothesis should be defined as
clearly as possible.
4. Review of related literature - The literature review should shed light on what is already
known about the problem and should indicate logically why the proposed study would result
in an extension of this prior knowledge.

5. Sample - The subjects of the study and the larger group, or population should be clearly
identified. The sampling plan should be described.

6. Instrumentation - Each of the measuring instruments that will be used to collect data from
the subjects should be described in detail, and a rationale should be given for its use.

7. Procedures - The actual procedures of the study – what the researcher will use do from
beginning to end, in order in which they will occur – should be spelled out in detail. The
general design or methodology to be used should be stated. In addition, possible sources of
bias should be identified and how they will be controlled should be explained.

8. Data analysis - Any statistical techniques, both descriptive and inferential, to be used in the
data analysis should be described. The comparisons to be made to answer the research the
research question should be made clear.

9. Dissemination - Dissemination is now acknowledged as an important component of the

research process (Crosswaite and Curtis, 1994). It involves communicating research outcomes
to people. Among the possible methods of disseminating results are:

 Articles in peer-reviewed journals;

 Notes in special-interest newsletters or magazines;
 Topics for discussions in on-line forums;
 Face to face meetings and conference presentations;
 Articles and features in local mass media (e.g., radio, television, and newspapers);
 Materials (print and audio-visual) that can be shared with extension services;
 Discussion groups within communities;
 Discussion papers or briefs for policymakers.

(Fraenkel and Wallen, 2007)

A variable is any characteristic that can assume any one of several values, for example,
cognitive ability, height, aptitude, teaching method. It is a concept, a noun that stands for variation
within a class of objects.

Independent variable - A variable that affects (or is presumed to affect) the dependent
variable under study and is included in the research design so that its effect can be determined;
sometimes called the "experimental" or "treatment" variable
 Dependent variable - A variable affected or expected to be affected by the independent
variable; also called "criterion" or "outcome variable"

Extraneous variable - A variable that makes possible an alternative explanation of results; an

uncontrolled independent variable.

o Confounding variable - A type of extraneous variable that was not controlled for and is
the reason a particular “confounded” result is observed (Johnson and Christensen, 2008).

Categorical variable - Data (variables) that differ only in kind, not in amount or degree (i.e.
gender, religious preference, occupation, ethnicity).

Quantitative variable - A variable that varies in amount or degree, but not in kind. It exists in
some degree along a continuum from less to more and numbers can be assigned to different
individuals or objects to indicate how much of the variable they possess (i.e. height, weight,
aptitude scores).

Moderator variable - A variable that may or may not be controlled but has an effect on the
research situation. It is a secondary independent variable that has been selected for study in
order to determine if it affects or modifies the basic relationship between the primary
independent variable and the dependent variable.

Intervening/mediating variable - A variable that comes in between other variables ; helps to

delineate the process through which variables affect one another. (Johnson and Christensen,
2008).

Suppresor variable – Variables that substantially improve the prediction of a criterion through
the addition of a variable which is uncorrelated or relatively little correlated with the criterion
but is related to another predictor or set of predictors (Thompson and Levine, 1997).
o A suppressor variable (in Multiple Regression ) has zero (or close to zero) correlation with
the criterion but is correlated with one or more of the predictor variables, and therefore, it
will suppress irrelevant variance of independent variables.

(Fraenkel and Wallen, 2007)

 A hypothesis is a tentative, testable assertion regarding the occurrence of certain
behaviors, phenomena, or events; a prediction of study outcomes.

Null Hypothesis - A statement that any difference between obtained sample statistics and
specified population parameters is due to sampling error, or "chance."

Alternative/Research Hypothesis - A statement of the expected relationship between two or

more variables.

Nondirectional Hypothesis - A prediction that a relationship exists without specifying its

exact nature. It does not make specific prediction about what direction the outcome of a study
will take.

Directional Hypothesis - A relational hypothesis stated in such a manner that a direction, often
indicated by "greater than" or "less than," is hypothesized for the results. The particular
direction expected is based on what the researcher has found in the literature, from personal
experience, or from the experience of others.

1. Research question – the methodological point of departure of scholarly research in both

the natural sciences and humanities. It is the question which the research sets out to answer.

2. Hypotheses – State the null and alternative hypotheses.

3. Significance level or alpha – Set the cutoff level that will be used to decide when to reject
the null hypothesis.

4. Statistical treatment – Determine which statistics is appropriate, and compute it.

5. Probability value – Compare the probability value to the significance level.

a. If: probability value ≤ alpha, reject the null hypothesis.
b. If: probability value > alpha, fail to reject the null hypothesis.

6. Decision on the null – Rejecting or failing to reject (accept) the null hypothesis.

7. Conclusion – Answering the research question; determining the practical significance.