ROLE OF THE ENGINEER

- Preliminary investigation
- Detailed geological survey
- Geophysical surveys
- Boring, drilling and excavation
- Testing of soils and rocks

Geology -study of the solid Earth

Geochemistry - study of the chemistry of rocks and the distribution of major and trace elements in rocks,
rock suites, and minerals.
Stratigraphy - The interpretation of rock layers as Earth history
Sedimentology - study of the processes leading to the formation of sedimentary rocks
Paleontology - study of fossils

THE COMMON ROCK-FORMING MINERALS

A. The Properties of Minerals

Mineral - a naturally occurring inorganic substance which has a definite chemical composition

2 Techniques Employed to Identify Minerals

1. Study of a hand specimen of the mineral
2. Examination of a thin slice of the mineral

Crystallography - The study of this regularity of form, and of the internal structure of the mineral.

3 elements of symmetry
Centre of symmetry - a crystal possesses when all its faces occur in parallel pairs on opposite sides of the
crystal
Axis of symmetry - a line through a crystal such that a complete rotation of 360° about it produces more
than one identical view.
Plane of symmetry - divides the crystal into halves, each of which is a mirror image of the other without
rotation.

Twinning - crystals occurs where one part of a crystal has grown or has been deformed such
that its atomic structure is rotated or reversed compared with the other part.

Important Properties Used to Identify Minerals in Hand Specimens

Color and Streak - Color mineral is that seen on its surface by the naked eye. Streak is the color of the
powdered mineral.
Cleavage - directions are usually, but not always, parallel to one of the crystal faces.
Parting - When a cleavage is poorly developed.
Fracture - A surface formed by breaking the mineral along a direction which is not a cleavage
Conchoidal - A curved, rippled fracture
Hardness - The relative hardness (H) of two minerals is defined by scratching each with the other and seeing
which one is gouged.
Lustre - Light is reflected from the surface of a mineral, the amount of light depending on physical qualities of
the surface
Crystal Habit - The development of an individual crystal or an aggregate of crystals, to produce a particular
external shape depends on the temperature and pressure during their formation.
Specific Gravity - mineral can be measured easily in a laboratory, provided the crystal is not too small.
Transparency - measure of how clearly an object can be seen through a crystal
Reaction with Acid - When a drop of cold 10% dilute hydrochloric acid is put on certain minerals, a reaction
takes place.
Tenacity - measure of how the mineral deforms when it is crushed or bent

B. Silicate Minerals

eight abundant elements at the earth’s surface

Oxygen (O)
Silicon (Si)
Aluminum (Al)
Iron (Fe)
Calcium (Ca)
Sodium (Na)
Potassium (K)
Magnesium (Mg)

Two Principal Groups of Rock-Forming Silicates

a. Dark-Coloured Silicate Minerals

Olivine
Pyroxene
Hornblende
Biotite
Garnet

b. Light-Coloured Silicate Minerals

Feldspars.
Quartz
Chert and flint
Muscovite

Alteration Minerals

Serpentine
Chlorite
Clays

C. Non-Silicate Minerals

Two Main Groups of Non-Silicate Minerals

a. Metallic Ore Minerals

Sulphides
Pyrite (iron sulphides)
Magnetite
Haematite

b. Non-Metallic, Non-Silicate Minerals

Calcite
Gypsum
Halite
Barite

ROCKS

A. The Nature of Rocks

Rocks - are aggregates of one or more mineral.

Three main types of rocks

Igneous Rocks - are formed from magma
Sedimentary Rocks - are formed by the accumulation and compaction of (a) fragments from pre-existing
rocks (b) organic debris (c) material dissolved in surface waters
Metamorphic Rocks - are formed from pre-existing rocks of any type, which have been subjected to
increases of temperature (T) or pressure (P) or both, such that the rocks undergo change
B. Igneous Rocks

MINERALOGY OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Mineral occurs in igneous rocks

Quartz
Orthoclase
Plagioclase
Muscovite
Biotite
Homblende
Augite
Olivine

TEXTURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Extrusive igneous rocks - formed (as lavas) by rapid cooling of magma at the surface,
and are fine grained.
Hypabyssal igneous rocks - form minor intrusions which have solidified below the surface, and have
cooled more slowly than extrusive rocks
Plutonic igneous rocks have formed by the slow cooling of great volumes of magma.

Porphyritic texture - exists were larger and smaller crystals

Vesicular and amygdaloidal textures - occur most commonly in extrusive rocks.
Ophitic texture - is produced when plagioclase feldspar and augite crystalize
Pegmatitic texture - is produced where the concentration of water and other fluxes

C. Igneous Structures and Forms

EXTRUSIVE ROCKS
Extrusive rocks - are formed when molten rock (magma) reaches the surface, along either
wide vertical fissures or pipe-like openings in the Earth’s crust.
pyroclastic rock - The collective term for this ejected material

INTRUSIVE ROCKS
Minor (hypabyssal) intrusions - are relatively small igneous structures formed from magma
Volcanic plug - The body of mixed igneous rock, roughly circular in plan and anything from about 100 m to a
few kilometers across
Sill - A concordant hypabyssal intrusion injected along the layering in the country rocks
Dyke - A discordant hypabyssal intrusion cutting steeply across the layering
Transgressive sill - An intrusion consisting of several segments, mostly concordant but at different levels in
the column of strata and linked by discordant segments
Plutonic sheet intrusions are of basic composition in bulk, with a gradation from ultrabasic near the base
to a small amount of acid rock at the top.
Batholith - The second type of major plutonic intrusion is a great body of granodiorite and granite
Thermal aureole - Heat from the crystallizing magma affects a zone of country rocks surrounding the
intrusion.

D. Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed from the solid debris and the dissolved mineral matter
produced by the mechanical and chemical breakdown

4 Major Groups of Sedimentary Rocks

(a) terrigenous sedimentary rocks - formed from minerals or rock fragments derived from the breakdown
of preexisting rocks
(b) chemical sedimentary rocks - formed from the precipitation of salts dissolved in water
(c) organic sedimentary rocks - formed from the skeletal remains of plants and animals and include coal
and oil
(d) limestones and dolomites - which are sedimentary rocks consisting of more than 50% carbonate, and
can include chemical, clastic and biological material.
TEXTURES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Chemical sedimentary rocks generally have a crystalline texture.

size of grains
degree of roundness of grains
relative homogeneity of a rock

E. Metamorphic Rocks

Dynamic metamorphism - increased stress is the dominant agent, extra heat being relatively unimportant.
Thermal metamorphism - increased temperature is the dominant agent producing change,
and the degree of recrystallization of the original rocks
Thermal aureole of the granite mass - large masses of granite, the changes extend outwards from the
granite for distances of the order of 2 km.
Degree of metamorphism - is related to the conditions of temperature and pressure under which the new
metamorphic rock
Migmatite - derived from melted material, leaving a finer grained matrix which is relatively rich in mica.

SOILS
A. Regolith - used to include the mantle of surface deposits and soils overlying the bedrock.
B. Soils - Geologists use the term to refer to any rock waste, produced by the disintegration of rocks while
engineers would regard ‘soil’ as including water-transported

WEATHERING
A. Introduction
mechanical disintegration
chemical reactions
biological activity

B. Mechanical Weathering

leads to a physical disaggregation of the original rock mass into smaller particles.

C. Chemical Weathering

Hydration - is a reaction in which water combines with a rock constituent producing a Mineral
Carbonation - is a reaction involving carbonic acid and limestone. Carbonic acid is formed
when carbon dioxide from the atmosphere dissolves in water
Reduction - takes place in environments deficient in oxygen, and the products of such a
reaction contain relatively little oxygen

D. Biological Weathering

Organic matter in soils is broken down by micro-organisms to give water and either
carbon dioxide or methane and small quantities of ammonia and nitric acid.
Carbon dioxide - is produced by aerobic micro-organisms, which require oxygen to survive
Methane - is produced by anaerobic micro-organisms which flourish in environments that are deficient in
oxygen, referred to as reducing environments.
Decay and decomposition - take place much more quickly where oxygen is present
Lichens - combinations of fungi and algae and contribute to weathering of rocks

E. Role of Vegetation

The macroflora of a region reflects its climatic conditions.

Geological conditions may be revealed by plants.

F. Influence of Climate

The processes of weathering and erosion depend very much on climate, and there is a
correlation between soil type and local climatic effects, such as ground temperature
MODERN RESIDUAL SOILS
A. Soil Development and Engineering Grades of Weathering

Most modern soils are developed on top of other superficial deposits, which are either
transported or residual. In the latter case, the present-day soil is developed from an older one

B. Soil Description

The decomposition of the organic matter produces a variety of acids, the most
important of which is carbonic acid.

C. Soil Terminology

Term width of boundary

Abrupt <25
Clear 25-62.5
Gradual 62.5-125
Diffuse >125

D. Classification of Residual Soils

Most modern soils develop profiles related to the climatic and vegetational zones in which they occur, and for
this reason they are referred to as zonal soils.
Intrazonal soils - are produced by unusual local climatic or geological conditions

TRANSPORTED SUPERFICIAL DEPOSITS

A. Introduction
Transported superficial deposits are formed of rock debris which has been carried by some natural
agent from where it was formed by weathering and erosion to where it now occurs

B. Aeolian (Windborne) Deposits

A strong wind blowing across rock debris or soil can lift and carry fine material as dust, and can move
the larger sand grains by rolling them and making them bounce across the surface.

C. Alluvial (Riverborne) Deposits

Lateral erosion by a river into its banks eventually produces a valley which is much wider than its
course.

D. Erosion and Deposition at The Coast

The sea erodes by the pounding action of waves on the base of cliffs, and also by compressing air
present in crevices and so causing further explosive impact within them.
Erosion - usually takes the form of sporadic and alarming inroads by cliff falls after storms

LANDFORMS

A. Erosional Landforms

SCARP AND DIP SLOPE - a scarp and dip slope indicate the presence of a relatively resistant layer, such
as a bed of sandstone in shales or a dolerite sill in sediments, dipping at a low angle in the direction of the dip
slope. The scarp trends in the strike direction

RIDGE - Where a resistant layer dips steeply, the dip slope is as steep as the scarp, producing a ridge. In an
area of gently dipping strata, a ridge may indicate the presence of a dyke.

STEP FEATURING - The uppermost part (about 1 m) and the base of many individual basaltic lava flows are
comparatively weak because of the concentration of vesicles.

EROSION HOLLOWS - A steeply inclined weak layer, when etched out by erosion, produces a straight
shallow depression. If it trends parallel to adjacent ridges, it is probably produced by a bed within the local
sequence of strata.

COLLAPSE STRUCTURES AND SWALLOW HOLES - a steady trickle along a major joint or fault will
leach away the rock until a tunnel or line of caverns is formed.

B. Depositional Landforms

DRUMLINS - is a measure of the thickness of the superficial deposit.

MORAINIC MOUNDS - These deposits from glacial melt waters are laid down close to the ice front to form
low mounds typically 5–15 m high and about 10–30 m wide. The length and regularity of a particular mound
depend on the persistence of flow of melt water from which they were deposited.

LAKE FLATS AND PEAT HOLLOWS - Flat, featureless, often poorly drained ground usually indicates that
the area has been ponded and that deposits have been laid down in standing water. The dam may have been
morainic mounds, ice or the coalescence of drumlins. Other natural lakes occur in rock basins which are
obliterated by being filled in completely with sediment and peat.

GEOLOGICAL MAPS AND SECTIONS

Exposures - are parts of the outcrop where rock is visible at the surface, and where observations may be
made.
Outcrop - of a body of rock, such as a layer of shale, is the area that emerges at the surface where the rock
is present, or lies immediately below a cover of vegetation, soil, or other superficial deposit.
Geological Map - an Ordnance Survey map, showing locations and topography, on which is superimposed
geological information.
Arrow - is used to indicate the precise location of an exposure and the inclination (dip) of any
original layering (stratification).
Outlier - An outcrop of younger strata completely surrounded by older strata
Inlier - An outcrop of older strata surrounded by younger
vertical geological section or section - The distribution of rocks on a vertical plane below a particular line at
the surface
topographic profile - shows the rises and falls along the same line.

NATURE AND USES OF STRATIGRAPHY

A. Rock Type and Past Environment

A guiding principle of geology is that ‘the present is the key to the past’. This concept is expressed
more formally, and more fully, as the Doctrine (or Principle) of Uniformitarianism

Principle of Uniformitarianism - a particular version of one of the foundation stones of scientific thought;
that is, the premise that the same laws can be applied to understanding the distant parts of our Universe, the
frontiers of both space and time, as those derived from observations on Earth at the present time.

Each different rock layer is a record of a past event, and the sequence of events may be inferred using
the Principle of Superposition.

The idea that rocks and fossils can reveal the past history of the Earth and that rock layers may be
understood and interpreted in terms of past environments is an important and central concept in geology.

B. The Geological Timescale

A timescale on which local events can be dated must be based on happenings and changes that can
be recognized in widely separated places

The interval of Earth history after 590 Ma

Phanerozoic eon of time

Palaeozoic - when ‘old life’ such as the first primitive fish existed
Mesozoic - when ‘middle life’ forms such as the dinosaurs were dominant
Cenozoic (or Cainozoic) - when ‘new life’ forms such as mammals and grasses flourished.

The pre-Phanerozoic interval of Earth history from its formation up to c. 590 Ma is known as
the Precambrian.
Priscoan - from the Earth’s origin (c. 4600 Ma) to 4000 Ma;
Archaean - from 4000 Ma to 2500 Ma;
Proterozoic - from 2500 Ma to the beginning of the Phanerozoic eon

C. Stratigraphic presentation of Rocks in Maps and Reports

The boundaries on a geological map sometimes define the outcrop of a single, highly distinctive rock
mass such as a layer of coal or limestone or a dolerite dyke.
DEFORMATION OF ROCKS (STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY)

A. Outcrops and Subsurface Structure

the distribution of rocks on any two dimensional section across it. A geological map is, generally
speaking, such a section, and the distribution of rocks in this case is the pattern of outcrops

B. Layers of Uniform Dip (horizontal, vertical and inclined strata)

Original layering in sediments is called stratification or bedding

C. Folds
If subjected to stresses beyond those that their strength can resist, strata are permanently deformed by
either buckling or fracturing.

Classification of Folds

1. Concentric Folds - produced by simple buckling and the beds are curved concentrically by the same
amount.
2. Similar (Shear) Folds - deformed to a similar shape, and the bed thicknesses are constant in a direction
parallel to the axial plane
3. Flow Folding - produced when incompetent rocks flow in a complex pattern of movement to
accommodate either the local stresses related to the buckling of competent beds or lateral changes in the
loads of overburden compressing them

D. Fractures in Rocks
Brittle rocks deform by fracturing, especially if stress is applied rapidly. Whether or not a given rock is
brittle depends not only on its texture and composition

E. Faults
A fault is described by its geometry in two different ways: (a) by the relationship of its strike to the
strike of the strata it affects, and (b) by the relative magnitudes of its components of
slip.
F. Joints
The presence and orientation of joints have significant effects on the bulk properties of rocks, and their
description is an important stage in most site investigations
master joints - Prominent joints which are continuous as a single plane surface for hundreds of meters
Minor joints - are confined to one layer

PLATE TECTONICS AND SEISMICITY

A. Earth’s Layer and Plates

Earth is comprised of three main concentric layers

(1) outer crust, ranging in thickness from 5 to 10 km beneath the oceans and more than 40 km beneath the
continents.
(2) mantle, 2900 km thick, which is separated from the crust by the Mohorovičić discontinuity (called Moho or
M discontinuity). The mantle contains several layers.
(3) core is separated from the mantle by the Gutenberg discontinuity, and is also layered with an inner and
outer core, the whole core being about 3500 km in thickness

B. Magnitude and Intensity of Earthquakes

Seismic waves are generated when there is a sudden release of energy because rocks which have been
strained elastically suddenly fail and move.
Focus - The center at which this happens, and from which waves are transmitted in all directions
Epicenter - The position on the ground surface vertically above it
magnitude (M) - is a measure of the energy generated at its focus
Earthquake intensity - is a measure of the amplitude of ground vibration at one locality

C. Relationship of Earthquakes to Faults

The commonest sources of shallow earthquakes are active faults, and many epicenters are located
close to the outcrop of a fault. The relationship is explained by the Elastic Rebound Theory.
a pattern of compressional (extension) and dilational (contraction) waves are generated, and the
pattern can be used to define the movement along the fault plane.
D. Prediction of Earthquakes

Prediction of seismic risk can be assessed from general theory and from past records of an area. It is
used for planning and for laying down building codes.

E. Seismic Risk and Problems for the Engineer

Seismic risk from ground movements must be foreseen, understood and dealt with in
planning and design

three main types.

Circular shear failure

rotational failure of the embankment
planar base failure

THE CONTINENTAL CRUST

A. Major Crustal Features

(a) continental shields or cratons - Precambrian age including igneous and high-grade
metamorphic rocks;
(b) continental platforms - where a cover of younger sedimentary or metamorphosed sedimentary
rocks
(c) younger fold mountain belts - several ages These mobile belts contain rocks of different ages,
including younger igneous rocks.