M.Sc.

Clinical Psychology

Trimester III

Cognitive Psychology

PROBLEM SOLVING, CREATIVITY AND DECISION

MAKING:

1. Problem: Definition

2. Problem solving cycle, types, obstacles and aids.

3. Problem solving approaches – Algorithm; heuristics: means-end analysis computer

simulation, and analogy.

4. Definition of creativity, measurement creativity.

5. Reasoning and decision-making: Types of reasoning – Syllogistic and Conditional;

factors influencing decision-making.

6. Application: Artificial intelligence

Every day from the very moment we wake up till the time we retreat to bed, we come face to
face with ‘problems’ that we have to solve. We seldom wonder, what really qualifies to be a

problem? How do we go about solving the endless series of problems that we face? What makes

us perceive a problem as a ‘problem’? What steps are involved in the solving problems? The

attempt to find answers to the same has intrigued researchers from multiple disciplines. Because

of the centrality of problem solving, it has been studied extensively by psychologists interested in

the nature of thinking and cognition. In psychology early attempts to understanding problem

solving were made by Gestalt psychologists and later by Information processing theorists.

Definition

In the context of cognitive psychology, a problem is any situation in which we are trying to reach

a goal and we must find a means to reach that goal. Think of a problem that you may have

encountered in the recent past. How did you deal with the problem? Write step by step process of

thinking and acting on the problem. A problem can be as simple as, how did you ensure that you

will wake up on time to reach work or for your class? How did you decide how will you reach

your destination (may it be college, office, hospital or any other place)?

What will you eat and how will you procure your food?

Whether these will form the set of your current problems or any other issues such as seeking

employment, solving a mathematical notation, getting good grades, providing care for an elderly

member of the family, or making larger profits in business will all depend on your personal

context. But all these are problems that people have to ‘solve’.
Thus, each individual tries to solve problems on a day-to-day basis. Problem solving or creating

solutions to problems is a very important cognitive process or task that all of us engage in.

However, a problem may differ from previously encountered problems or it may be alike other

problems; it may put variable demands and also elicit different types of thinking in the person

trying to solve them.

Structure of Problem

Let us look at the problems mentioned above once again and try to come up with solutions for

the same. To be able to wake up on time you will have to decide whether you want to put up an

alarm on any devise such as phone, television or music system or ask anybody in the family to

wake you up; To reach a destination you are likely to plan in advance how long it will take to

reach there and what means of transport may be available for reaching there; to decide what you

will eat you will have to weigh endless options-whether to cook at home or bring cooked food

from outside home, if cooking at home then what resources and materials are available and what

and how much can be cooked from it. Likewise, if food is ordered from outside what can be

ordered and how much. You are also likely to weigh the financial aspect and a number of other

aspects (such as choice of cuisine, location etc) while solving the problem of what will you eat.
From the discussion above, one may conclude that solving a problem entails the goal (to eat

something) and the numerous paths that might be undertaken to reach the goal (from where and

what to procure for eating). Each path includes numerous sub-steps and sub-goals that fit

together to meet the larger goal. Thus, putting it in very simple terms, every problem has an

initial stage or a current situation that helps define and delimit the nature of the problem; a

desired outcome or the goal that needs to be achieved through a series of steps; and a path for

reaching that goal.

The problem space theory (Newell & Simon, 1972) states that problem solving is a search with

problem space. They define problem space as the set of states or possible choices that one the

problem solver faces at each of the steps in moving from the initial state to the goal state. The

problem solver moves through the space from state to state by various operations. Now let us

move to understanding the classes of problems.

The Problem Solving Cycle

Problem solving is a mental process that involves discovering and analyzing a particular issue,

developing strategies, and organizing skills and knowledge in order to overcome obstacles and

find viable solutions that best resolve the problem.The choice of an appropriate strategy depends

largely on the unique situation. In fact, there are many different problem solving processes.

However, all of them consist of a series of steps. It is useful to view problem solving as a cycle as

a problem often needs several attempts to be solved. In the following, we present a seven-step

problem solving model:

Step 1: Identify the problem

What is the problem? The first step consists in recognizing the existence of a problem that needs

to be solved. In order to find an appropriate solution, you need to identify and name the problem.

While it may seem like an obvious and simple step, finding the source of a problem is often the

most challenging part of the process. You may not be clear of what the problem is or feel anxious

and confused about what is getting in the way of your goals. Ask questions, which help you to

determine the difference between what is expected and what is occurring, like: What is the nature

of this special problem? Is it temporary or longer-term? Does the problem affect other persons or

only you? Will others need to be consulted? What do they know about it? What is hindering you
from completing this task? Do you need more time, information or experience?

Step 2: Explore possible strategies

The next stage is to research the problem as fully as possible and to explore possible problem

solving strategies. Think about the different elements of the problem by watching it from

different angles. You can ask yourself questions such as: How would another person perceive the

situation? What would he/she do? What were the best ideas that my competitors have had? Are

there existing solutions? Explore as widely as possible, e.g. through brain storming,

imaging/visualization or other creative and analytical tools in order to generate many potential

solutions. List and discuss them. Then, form possible problem strategies. The next step helps you

in doing this.

Step 3: Set goals

Goal setting is crucial to reach your strategic objectives. Goal setting is a powerful process for

thinking about your ideal future, and for motivating yourself to turn your vision of this future

into reality. Key questions are:

● What is it that you want to achieve?

● What would it be like without the problem?

● What do you want things to be like instead?

● It is important to solve a problem at the right level.

If you ask questions that are too broad, then you’ll never have enough resources to answer them

effectively. If you ask questions that are too narrow, you may end up fixing the symptoms of a

problem, rather than the problem itself. One effective tool to set goals at the right level is the

SMART criteria.

Step 4: Look at alternatives

How many different approaches can you think of that will solve the problem?

● What are the pros and cons of each approach?

● When you have decided what your goal is you need to look for possible solutions.

● The more possible solutions you find the more likely it is that you will be able to

discover an effective solution.

● You can brain-storm for ideas.

● The purpose of brain storming is to compile a list of possibilities. It does not matter

whether the ideas are useful or practical or manageable: just write down the ideas as they

come into your mind. Some of the best solutions arise from creative thinking during brain

storming. You can also seek ideas about possible solutions from friends, family, a partner,

a counsellor, books or the internet. The aim is to collect as many alternative solutions as

possible.

Step 5: Select a possible solution

Decide which of the available options you will choose. You should be prepared to give reasons
why and be able to show that this is the best of all options available. From the list of possible

solutions you can sort out, which are most relevant to your situation and which are realistic and

manageable. You can do this by predicting outcomes for possible solutions and also checking

with other people what they think outcomes might be. When you have explored the

consequences, you can use this information to identify the most relevant solution.

Step 6: Implement a possible solution

Once you have selected a possible solution put your plan into action. Create an action list, which

comprises the following elements:

● What needs to be done and by whom?

● Can you chunk your plan into smaller bites?

● Estimate how many time, money, and effort will be needed to realize your subgoals.

● An essential question to motivate yourself is: What rewards you will give yourself when

you have done it?

Step 7: Evaluate the result

After a solution has been reached, it is important to evaluate the results to determine if it is the

best possible solution to the problem. Decide how you will quantify the success of your problem

solving strategy. Questions are: How effective was that solution? Did I achieve what I wanted?

How do I know this?If the implemented strategy was successful in helping you solve your

problem and reach your goal, then you know that you have effectively solved your problem. If
you feel dissatisfied with the result, try alternative possibilities by beginning the problem solving

cycle again.

Problem Solving strategies

When you are presented with a problem—whether it is a complex mathematical problem or

abroken printer, how do you solve it? Before finding a solution to the problem, the problem must

first be clearly identified. After that, one of many problem solving strategies can be applied,

hopefully resulting in a solution.A problem-solving strategy is a plan of action used to find a

solution. Different strategies have different action plans associated with them.

1. Trial and error

A well-known strategy is trial and error. The old adage, “If at first you don’t succeed, try, try

again” describes trial and error. In terms of your broken printer, you could try checking the ink

levels, and if that doesn’t work, you could check to make sure the paper tray isn’t jammed. Or

maybe the printer isn’t actually connected to your laptop. When using trial and error, you would

continue to try different solutions until you solved your problem. Although trial and error is not

typically one of the most time-efficient strategies, it is a commonly used one.

2. Algorithm

Another type of strategy is an algorithm. An algorithm is a problem-solving formula that

provides you with step-by-step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome (Kahneman,

2011). You can think of an algorithm as a recipe with highly detailed instructions that produce

the same result every time they are performed. Algorithms are used frequently in our everyday

lives, especially in computer science. When you run a search on the Internet, search engines like

Google use algorithms to decide which entries will appear first in your list of results. Facebook

also uses algorithms to decide which posts to display on your newsfeed. Can you identify other

situations in which algorithms are used?

There are many different examples of how algorithms can be utilized in daily life. Some common

ones include:
 1. A recipe for cooking a particular dish

2. An algorithm used by a search engine to find information on the internet

3. Instructions for how to assemble a bicycle

4. Instructions for how to solve a Rubik's cube

5. A process to determine what type of treatment is most appropriate for certain types of

mental health conditions

The upside of using an algorithm to solve a problem or make a decision is that yields the best

possible answer every time. There are situations where using an algorithm can be the best

approach:

1. When accuracy is crucial: This is useful in situations when accuracy is critical or where

similar problems need to be frequently solved.In many cases, computer programs can be

designed to speed up this process. Data then needs to be placed in the system so that the

algorithm can be executed to come up with the correct solution.

2. When each decision needs to follow the same process: Such step-by-step approaches can

be useful in situations where each decision must be made following the same process and

where accuracy is critical. Because the process follows a prescribed procedure, you can

be sure that you will reach the correct answer each time.

3. Heuristic
A heuristic is another type of problem solving strategy. While an algorithm must be followed

exactly to produce a correct result, a heuristic is a general problem-solving framework (Tversky

& Kahneman, 1974). You can think of these as mental shortcuts that are used to solve problems.

A “rule of thumb” is an example of a heuristic. Such a rule saves the person time and energy

when making a decision, but despite its time-saving characteristics, it is not always the best

method for making a rational decision. Different types of heuristics are used in different types of

situations, but the impulse to use a heuristic occurs when one of five conditions is met (Pratkanis,

1989):

● When one is faced with too much information

● When the time to make a decision is limited

● When the decision to be made is unimportant

● When there is access to very little information to use in making the decision

Working backwards is a useful heuristic in which you begin solving the problem by focusing on

the end result. Consider this example: You live in Washington, D.C. and have been invited to a

wedding at 4 PM on Saturday in Philadelphia. Knowing that Interstate 95 tends to back up any

day of the week, you need to plan your route and time your departure accordingly. If you want to

be at the wedding service by 3:30 PM, and it takes 2.5 hours to get to Philadelphia without
traffic, what time should you leave your house? You use the working backwards heuristic to plan

the events of your day on a regular basis, probably without even thinking about it.Another useful

heuristic is the practice of accomplishing a large goal or task by breaking it into a series of

smaller steps. Students often use this common method to complete a large research project or

long essay for school. For example, students typically brainstorm, develop a thesis or main topic,

research the chosen topic, organize their information into an outline, write a rough draft, revise

and edit the rough draft, develop a final draft, organize the references list, and proofread their

work before turning in the project. The large task becomes less overwhelming when it is broken

down into a series of small steps.

4. Information processing and computer simulation approach to problem solving.

The development of the modern computer has influenced current ways of thinking about

cognition through computer simulation of cognitive processes for research purposes and through

the creation of information-processing models.These models portray cognition as a system that

receives information, represents it with symbols, and then manipulates the representations in

various ways. The senses transmit information from outside stimuli to the brain, which applies

perceptual processes to interpret it and then decides how to respond to it. The information may

simply be stored in the memory or it may be acted on. Acting on it usually affects a person’s

environment in some way, providing more feedback for the system to process.Information is

defined as a pattern that "rides" on matter or energy. In information sciences patterns and
structures are the primary focus of study. One entity can cause a change in another with only an

infinitesimal transference of energy. The causer or controller does it with a signal rather than a

push.

The General Problem Solver (GPS)

It is a theory of human problem solving stated in the form of a simulation program (Ernst &

Newell, 1969; Newell & Simon, 1972). This program and the associated theoretical framework

had a significant impact on the subsequent direction of cognitive psychology. It also introduced

the use of productions as a method for specifying cognitive models.The theoretical framework

was information processing and attempted to explain all behavior as a function of memory

operations, control processes and rules.The methodology for testing the theory involved

developing a computer simulation and then comparing the results of the simulation with human

behavior in a given task. Such comparisons also made use of protocol analysis (Ericsson &

Simon, 1984) in which the verbal reports of a person solving a task are used as indicators of

cognitive processes.GPS was intended to provide a core set of processes that could be used to

solve a variety of different types of problems. The critical step in solving a problem with GPS is

the definition of the problem space in terms of the goal to be achieved and the transformation

rules. Using a means-end-analysis approach, GPS would divide the overall goal into subgoals

and attempt to solve each of those. Some of the basic solution rules include:

(1) transform one object into another, (2) reduce the different between two objects, and (3) apply
an operator to an object.

While GPS was intended to be a general problem-solver, it could only be applied to

"well-defined" problems such as proving theorems in logic or geometry, word puzzles and chess.

Principles

Problem-solving behavior involves means-ends-analysis, i.e., breaking a problem down into

subcomponents (subgoals) and solving each of those.

Information processing systems

Simon and Newell: An analysis follows what happens from the beginning of a task, such as

being given a problem to solve, to the end with the problem solved. The basic theory is that much

of the sequence of events can be thought of as the movement, storage and transformation of

information.Major components and information flow

· Receptors—senses

· Processors--transform, interpret, integrate, select--attention, set, automatic and controlled

processes

· Memories--long term, short term, working, STSS.

· Effectors--muscles, glands

Information enters the system via the receptors and then is transformed and operated on by the

processors, some intervening outputs are temporarily stored and others are more permanently
stored in memory, outputs are generated which lead to behavior and interaction with the

environment.

Procedure

1) Identifying the problem space. The first stage of an analysis of a problem is to identify the

initial and goal states (Newell & Simon, 1972). These two states define the boundary of the

problem space. The larger the "distance" between the two states the larger the problem space.

2) Identifying some of the intermediate states between the initial and goal state. Only for trivial

problems can the solver go directly from the initial state to the goal state. There are usually going

to be relatively stable describable intermediate states which need to be reached. Both the problem

solver and the analyst may need to know of these.

3) Identifying what needs to be done; the "moves," which enable the problem solver to get from

one state to another. In order for a problem to be solved there has to be some procedure by which

the situation is transformed from one state to another.

4) Identifying the resources, e.g., knowledge, skills, materiel, personnel and time, needed to

execute each of the moves. What is needed in order to reach each of the states from the

immediately previous state?

The means-ends analysis process can be applied recursively for a problem. It is a strategy to

control search in problem-solving. Following are the main Steps which describes the working of

MEA technique for solving a problem.

a. First, evaluate the difference between Initial State and final State.
 b. Select the various operators which can be applied for each difference.

c. Apply the operator at each difference, which reduces the difference between the current

state and goal state.

The MEA process, we detect the differences between the current state and goal state. Once these

differences occur, then we can apply an operator to reduce the differences. But sometimes it is

possible that an operator cannot be applied to the current state. So we create the subproblem of

the current state, in which operator can be applied, such type of backward chaining in which

operators are selected, and then sub goals are set up to establish the preconditions of the operator

is called Operator Subgoaling.

The algorithm for MEA consists of the following steps:

 ● Step 1: Measure the current state of things by doing as is the study and capture the status

at a macro level and to a possible micro level.

● Step 2: Capture the deficiency in the current state and avenues for improvements (wish

list) and define the goal state (to-be state). Define the to-be state at a macro level and to a

possible micro level.

● Step 3: Compare the Current state and Goal state, and if they are at the same level, the

problem is resolved.

● Step 4: List the differences between the current state and goal state at macro and micro

levels.

● Step 5: Convert the differences into deletions/modifications to current state and new

additions.

5. Using Analogies for Creative Problem Solving

When you are stuck on a problem and need some new ideas, you can get creative ideas by

making analogies to some other field.An analogy is an abstract parallel between two quite

different things. For example, you might analogize driving to project management. In both cases

it helps to have a map (i.e., a plan) for where you're going.When you find one parallel, you can

often find others--which is why analogies help with creativity.For example, suppose you were a

manager with an employee who was causing problems, and you were looking for ways of dealing

with him. You might get some ideas by comparison to other human relationships. You might use
strategies that parents use to manage children, if they were appropriate. Or you might adapt

military management techniques for civilian use.

Authors: W. Gordon (1961), E. de Bono (1970).The analogy technique is based on identifying

typical features of the main problem, finding objects, situations or places which also have these

features; and using them as mental stimuli to solve the main problem. In the broad sense, the

method is the application of useful knowledge, technology, or facts from one field to another.To

use an analogy technique is to make an implied comparison between two things, processes or

fields that are essentially dissimilar but are shown through the analogy to have some similarity.At

its most basic, an analogy is a comparison of two objects, processes, situations, or actions to

show their similarities. This is the specific comparison of two things that are essentially

dissimilar but are shown through the analogy to have some similarity.At large, an analogy is an

abstract parallel between two quite different objects, processes or relationships. Besides an

analogy implies likeness or parallelism in relations rather than in appearance or

qualities.Analogical cognition is the centre of all mental tools, embraces all cognitive processes

and manifests itself as analogical reasoning and figure of speech. Analogical reasoning is

fundamental to human thought and a comparison between things that have similar features, often

used for the purpose of explanation or clarification.Analogy helps us to link an unfamiliar or a

new idea with common and familiar objects.Analogical thinking is what we do when we use

information from one domain, to help solve a problem in another domain.Creative problem

solving. Experts often use analogies during the process of problem solving, and analogies have
been involved in numerous scientific discoveries.At once analogies are widely recognized as

playing an important heuristic role, as aids to discovery. They play a significant role in problem

solving, as well as creativity, invention, prediction.The analogy is an effective technique and tool

to help in creative problem solving. Thus, analogies were central to the earlier forms of

Synectics, which were based on the use of a direct, personal, symbolic and fantastic analogy. For

example, the technique of direct analogy or analogy from nature is based on the idea that every

problem, however big or small, has already been solved in some way by nature. In addition, the

personal analogy involves envisioning yourself as the product or the problem and role-playing.

Making analogies to some other field can help to look at things differently, clarify a problem and

get creative ideas.Therefore, it is essential to look for analogies between elements that have

apparently nothing to do with one another by asking questions like:

“What else is like this object, process or problem?”,

“What works effectively in similar fields” and then copy what works.

Answers to these questions can lead to the transfer of a potential solution to the real problem.

Steps

1. Define the problem. Identify the root cause of the problem.

2. Generate analogies. Think of an analogy between your problem and something else. Try to

think of an unrelated object: thing, process, event, and field. Choose an analogy from nature in its

widest sense. Select an action you can compare your situation to. Examples: Going on holiday,

Driving a car, Cooking a meal… Use the root cause to generate a list of analogies.
3. Find similarities. Establish an analogy based between the subject and objects of analogy.

Describe the analogies, their positive features, how it works, how it is used. Use your

imagination and have some fun with it. Elaborate on the analogy by listing details such as

functions or uses. Make a list of useful properties of the various objects-analogy.

4. Select any of the analogies that look interesting, preferably, where the objects are from

different domains. List short descriptions or details about the chosen analogy.

5. Use description and similarities to generate ideas. Use this description to suggest ideas

relevant to your problem. What features we can use directly? Ask yourself what insights or

potential solutions the analogy suggests. Generate new interesting ideas and brainstorm creative

solutions.

PITFALLS TO PROBLEM SOLVING

Not all problems are successfully solved, however. What challenges stop us from successfully

solving a problem? Albert Einstein once said, “Insanity is doing the same thing over and over

again and expecting a different result.” Imagine a person in a room that has four doorways. One

doorway that has always been open in the past is now locked. The person, accustomed to exiting

the room by that particular doorway, keeps trying to get out through the same doorway even

though the other three doorways are open. The person is stuck—but she just needs to go to

another doorway, instead of trying to get out through the locked doorway. A mental set is where

you persist in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past but is clearly not

working now.
Functional fixedness is a type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for

something other than what it was designed for. During the Apollo 13 mission to the moon, NASA

engineers at Mission Control had to overcome functional fixedness to save the lives of the

astronauts aboard the spacecraft. An explosion in a module of the spacecraft damaged multiple

systems. The astronauts were in danger of being poisoned by rising levels of carbon dioxide

because of problems with the carbon dioxide filters. The engineers found a way for the astronauts

to use spare plastic bags, tape, and air hoses to create a makeshift air filter, which saved the lives

of the astronauts.

Cultural Impact

Researchers have investigated whether functional fixedness is affected by culture. In one

experiment, individuals from the Shuar group in Ecuador were asked to use an object for a

purpose other than that for which the object was originally intended. For example, the

participants were told a story about a bear and a rabbit that were separated by a river and asked to

select among various objects, including a spoon, a cup, erasers, and so on, to help the animals.

The spoon was the only object long enough to span the imaginary river, but if the spoon was

presented in a way that reflected its normal usage, it took participants longer to choose the spoon

to solve the problem. (German & Barrett, 2005). The researchers wanted to know if exposure to

highly specialized tools, as occurs with individuals in industrialized nations, affects their ability

to transcend functional fixedness. It was determined that functional fixedness is experienced in

both industrialized and nonindustrialized cultures (German & Barrett, 2005).

Anchoring bias

Anchoring bias is a cognitive bias that causes us to rely too heavily on the first piece of

information we are given about a topic. When we are setting plans or making estimates about

something, we interpret newer information from the reference point of our anchor, instead of

seeing it objectively.If I were to ask you where you think Apple’s stock will be in three months,

how would you approach it? Many people would first say, “Okay, where’s the stock today?”

Then, based on where the stock is today, they will make an assumption about where it’s going to

be in three months. That’s a form of anchoring bias. We’re starting with a price today, and we’re

building our sense of value based on that anchor.Anchoring bias is dangerous yet prolific in the

markets. Anchoring, or rather the degree of anchoring, is going to be heavily determined by how

salient the anchor is. The more relevant the anchor seems, the more people tend to cling to it.

Also, the more difficult it is to value something, the more we tend to rely on anchors.So when we

think about currency values, which are intrinsically hard to value, anchors often get involved.

The problem with anchors is that they don’t necessarily reflect intrinsic value. We can develop

the tendency to focus on the anchor rather than the intrinsic value.In order to make good

decisions, we use our knowledge and our reasoning. Often, this knowledge and reasoning is

sound and solid. Sometimes, however, we are swayed by biases or by others manipulating a

situation. For example, let’s say you and three friends wanted to rent a house and had a combined

target budget of Rs 30000.The realtor shows you only very run-down houses for Rs. 30000 and

then shows you a very nice house for Rs. 35000. Might you ask each person to pay more in rent

to get the Rs. 35000 home? Why would the realtor show you the run-down houses and the nice

house? The realtor may be challenging your anchoring bias. An anchoring bias occurs when you
focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem. In this case,

you’re so focused on the amount of money you are willing to spend that you may not recognize

what kinds of houses are available at that price point.

Confirmation bias

The confirmation bias is the tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing

beliefs.Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in

a way that confirms or supports one's prior beliefs or values. For example, if you think that your

professor is not very nice, you notice all of the instances of rude behavior exhibited by the

professor while ignoring the countless pleasant interactions he is involved in on a daily basis. For

example, if Maria expects her roommate to be friendly and outgoing, Maria may ask her if she

likes to go to parties rather than if she often studies in the library.

Hindsight bias

Hindsight bias leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even

though it really wasn’t. In other words, you knew all along that things would turn out the way

they did. hindsight bias, the tendency, upon learning an outcome of an event—such as an

experiment, a sporting event, a military decision, or a political election—to overestimate one's

ability to have foreseen the outcome. It is colloquially known as the “I knew it all along

phenomenon.”Hindsight bias occurs when new information comes to light about a past

experience—changing how we recall that experience. We selectively remember only the

information that confirms what we know or believe to be true. Then, if we feel we already knew

what would happen all along, we fail to carefully review the outcome (or the reason for the

outcome).Hindsight bias involves revising the probability of an outcome after the fact. After

knowing the outcome, a person will exaggerate the extent they predicted the outcome. These

biases can be found in just about any situation, including predicting the weather or elections.

Representative bias

Representative bias describes a faulty way of thinking, in which you unintentionally stereotype

someone or something; for example, you may assume that your professors spend their free time

reading books and engaging in intellectual conversation, because the idea of them spending their

time playing volleyball or visiting an amusement park does not fit in with your stereotypes of

professors.The representativeness heuristic involves estimating the likelihood of an event by

comparing it to an existing prototype that already exists in our minds. This prototype is what we

think is the most relevant or typical example of a particular event or object. The problem with

this is that people often overestimate the similarity between the two things they are comparing.In

their classic experiment, Tversky and Kahneman gave participants a description of a person

named Tom, who was orderly, detail-oriented, competent, self-centered, with a strong moral

sense. Participants were then asked to determine Tom's college major.What the researchers found

was that representativeness led people to believe that Tom was an engineering major. This was

despite the fact that there was a relatively small number of engineering students at the school

where the study was conducted.

Availability heuristic

Finally, the availability heuristic is a heuristic in which you make a decision based on an

example, information, or recent experience that is that readily available to you, even though it

may not be the best example to inform your decision. Biases tend to “preserve that which is

already established—to maintain our preexisting knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and hypotheses”

(Aronson, 1995; Kahneman, 2011).The availability heuristic describes our tendency to use

information that comes to mind quickly and easily when making decisions about the

future.Imagine you are considering either John or Jane, two employees at your company, for a

promotion. Both have a steady employment record, though Jane has been the highest performer

in her department during her tenure. However, in Jane’s first year, she unwittingly deleted a

company project when her computer crashed. The vivid memory of having lost that project likely

weighs more heavily on the decision to promote Jane than it should. This is due to the

availability heuristic, which suggests that singular memorable moments have an outsized

influence on decisions.
 How do you construct your own strategy for using a specific problem-solving aid

● Analyze the information to be attended to and determine how your students will best

attend. Are there some objects or materials that will be more effective than others?

● Present information to be attended to and learned.

● Model the use of the specific aid. Guide students as they use the specific aids.

● Reinforce (a) the students' learning of the material as well as (b) their ability to attend

based on the specific aids.

● If students select or create their own specific aid, monitor and reinforce this process and

their learning.

● To establish expertise is to establish the knowledge necessary to solve a problem—for

example, by reading the chapter in the psychology text before attempting to answer the

questions at the end of it.

● Insight is the sudden perception of the relationship between the components of a

problem—for example, suddenly thinking of the word that fits the spaces in a crossword

puzzle.

Creativity
From Human Motivation, 3rd ed., by Robert E. Franken:Creativity is defined as the tendency to

generate or recognize ideas, alternatives, or possibilities that may be useful in solving problems,

communicating with others, and entertaining ourselves and others.

Three reasons why people are motivated to be creative:

● Need for novel, varied, and complex stimulation

● Need to communicate ideas and values

● Need to solve problems

From Creativity - Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention by Mihaly

Csikszentmihalyi.

● Ways that "creativity" is commonly used:

1. Persons who express unusual thoughts, who are interesting and stimulating - in

short, people who appear to unusually bright.

2. People who experience the world in novel and original ways. These are

(personally creative) individuals whose perceptions are fresh, whose judgements

are insightful, who may make important discoveries that only they know about.

3. Individuals who have changes our culture in some important way. Because their

achievement are by definition public, it is easier to write about them. (e.g.,

Leonardo, Edison, Picasso, Einstein, etc.)

Guilford (1950: p.444) defined creativity as “the abilities that are most characteristic of creative

people”. That definition became dominant during the 1950s and it is popular among

creativity researchers (Amabile, 1996: p.21).Creativity is defined in as “the production of novel,

appropriate ideas in any realm of human activity, from science, to the arts, to

education, to business, to everyday life”, thus the ideas have to be new and

appropriate to the opportunity or problem presented (Amabile, 1997: p.40).Drazin et al. (1999)

defined creativity as an engagement process in creative acts regardless of whether the outcomes

are creative, novel and useful or not. A similar definition suggested by Dewett (2007: p.198)

termed creativity as “the production of novel and useful ideas, processes, or products by a person

or group”. Consequently, there is an agreement among researchers that creativity means

“something is both novel and valuable”. Creativity is commonly regarded as the production of

novel and useful ideas or problem solutions (Sternberg & Lubart, 1999; Dewett, 2004; Amabile

et al., 2005; Woerkum et al.,

2007)

Dimensions of creativity

Creativity includes two dimensions. The first dimension is the novelty notion; it is a phenomenon

in everyday life and therefore anyone can be creative as an essential aspect of his/her contribute

to the business environment and everybody has to be involved in creative processes. The second

dimension is the usefulness notion which refers to material or practical methods of assessing the

usefulness of novel ideas (Shalley et al., 2004).

Measuring Creativity

Novelty and originality are, after all, the foundation of almost every definition of creativity.

During World War II, psychologist J.P. Guilford developed tests that selected certain individuals

to enter a pilot’s training program. His interests on isolating different types of thinking for

different tasks continued after the war as he sought to understand human intelligence and talent.

His work led him into researching IQ tests, and he soon hypothesized that these tests did not

measure creativity – an unpopular belief during the middle of the last century. In fact, for most of

the 20th century, psychologists believed that IQ and creativity were linked: a high IQ meant high

creativity, and conversely, a lower IQ meant lower creativity.Guilford proved otherwise. In his

psychological model called the “Structure of Intellect,” Guilford used a factor analytic technique

to separate creative thinking skills from others. As part of this model, Guilford identified two

distinct forms of thinking: divergent thinking and convergent thinking.Divergent thinking is that

associated with creative thoughts, or the ability to access memory to derive unique, multiple, and

numerous answers to open-ended questions. Convergent thinking means coming up with

“one-right-answer” for each question, commonly associated with IQ tests.

In 1967, creative psychology pioneer J.P. Guilford developed a test to measure divergent

thinking, calling it Guilford’s Alternative Uses Task.

Test takers list as many possible uses for a common object, such as a cup, paperclip, or a

newspaper. Scoring is comprised of four components: originality, fluency, flexibility, and

elaboration.
 ○ Originality is based on each response compared to the total amount of responses from a

specific group of test takers. Responses that are given by 5% of the group are unusual (1

point), responses that are given by only 1% of the group are unique (2 points).

○ Fluency scores relevant answers.

○ Flexibility is based on the difference of categories.

○ Elaboration is based on the amount of detail given in the response. (i.e. 0= a brick as a

bed versus 2= a brick used as a bed for a child’s dolls when the child is playing outside)

The intent of the AUT is to have the test taker think creatively. It is generally used with a

time-constraint, and consists of someone thinking of one object to start. Then within that

time-constraint, that person thinks of as many objects as they can that are comparable to the

original object chosen

Psychologist E. Paul Torrance

Psychologist E. Paul Torrance built on Guilford’s research, developing the Torrance Tests of
Creative Thinking (TTCT), tests that attempt to psychometrically measure divergent thinking,

and other problem-solving skills. The reliability and validity of the TTCT has made Torrance

nationally and internationally known, and in the psychological literature he is routinely called the

“father of creativity research.” Psychologist E. Paul Torrance built on the work of J.P. Guilford in

designing his Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking TTCT. His scoring of answers included the

four factors developed by Guilford – originality, fluency, flexibility, elaboration – plus two

additional factors: abstractness of titles and resistance to premature closure.

The TTCT has two parts:

TTCT-Verbal. This part consists of five tasks: ask-and-guess, product improvement, unusual

uses, unusual questions, and just suppose.

For example, participants are shown a picture and asked to respond in writing. They might be

shown a situation and allowed to ask questions, or asked to improve products, or simply respond

to the prompt “just suppose”.

TTCT-Figural. This part consists of three tasks: picture construction, picture completion, and

repeated figures of lines or circles.

In picture construction, participants are given a pear or jellybean shape and they must make a

picture out of the shape.

Meaning of Reasoning:

It is one of the best forms of controlled thinking consciously towards the solution of a problem. It

is realistic in the sense that the solution is sought always in reference to the reality of the

situation. We can solve many problems in our day-dreams, dreams and imaginations but they are

unrealistic solutions.As Sherman defined, “reasoning is a process of thinking during which the

individual is aware of a problem identifies, evaluates, and decides upon a solution”.Reasoning is

used not only when we want to solve an immediate problem but also when we anticipate future

problems.Reasoning plays a significant role in one’s adjustment to the environment. It not only

determines one’s cognitive activities but also influences the behaviour and personality.

Definitions of Reasoning:
1. “Reasoning is a stepwise thinking with a purpose or goal in mind” —Garrett.

2. “Reasoning is the term applied to highly purposeful, controlled and selective thinking”—Gates

3. “Reasoning is the word used to describe the mental recognition of cause and effect

relationships, it may be the prediction of an event from an observed cause or the inference of a

cause from an observed event”—Skinner.

Thus reasoning is a highly specialized thinking which helps an individual to explore mentally the

cause and effect relationship of an event or solution of a problem by adopting some

well-organized systematic steps based on previous experience combined with present

observation.

Types of Reasoning:

Reasoning may be classified into two types.

1. Inductive reasoning:

It is a specialized thinking aimed at the discovery or construction of a generalized principle by

making use of particular cases, special examples and identifying of elements or relations.For

example, Mohan is mortal, Radha is mortal, Karim is mortal; therefore, all human beings are
mortal.

2. Deductive reasoning:

It is the ability to draw some logical conclusions from known statement or evidences. Here one

starts with already known or established generalized statement or principle and applies it to

specific cases. For example, all human beings are mortal you are a human being, therefore, you

are mortal.

Henry has categorized three types of deductive reasoning:

i. Conditioned reasoning:

It is the reasoning tied down by some specific condition such as the following.

For example, if there is a solar eclipse, the street will be dark. There is a solar eclipse

... The streets are dark.

ii. Categorical reasoning:

This type of reasoning is based on some categorical statements.

For example, all Robins are birds.

All birds lay eggs.

... All Robins lay eggs.

iii. Linear reasoning:

This type of reasoning involves straight forward relationships among elements.

For example, If Ram is taller than Mohan and Mohan is taller than Sohan, Ram is the tallest.

1. Syllogistic

A syllogism is a kind of logical argument in which one proposition (the conclusion) is inferred

from two others (the premises) of a certain form.

Basic structure

A syllogism (henceforth categorical unless otherwise specified) consists of three parts: the major

premise, the minor premise, and the conclusion. In Aristotle, each of the premises is in the form

"Some/all A belong to B," where "Some/All A' is one term and "belong to B" is another, but

more modern logicians allow some variation. Each of the premises has one term in common with
the conclusion: in a major premise, this is the major term (i.e., the predicate) of the conclusion;

in a minor premise, it is the minor term (the subject) of the conclusion. For example

Major premise: All humans are mortal.

Minor premise: Socrates is human.

Conclusion: Socrates is mortal.

Each of the three distinct terms represents a category, in this example, "human," "mortal," and

"Socrates." "Mortal" is the major term; "Socrates," the minor term. The premises also have one

term in common with each other, which is known as the middle term -- in this example, "human."

Here the major premise is universal and the minor particular, but this need not be so.

For example:

Major premise: All mortal things die.

Minor premise: All men are mortal things.

Conclusion: All men die.

Here, the major term is "die", the minor term is "men," and the middle term is "[being]

mortal things." Both of the premises are universal.

Types of syllogism

The premises and conclusion of a syllogism can be any of four types, which are labelled by
lettersas follows.

The letters standing for the types of proposition (A, E, I, O) have been used since the medieval

Schools to form mnemonic names for the forms. The meaning of the letters is given by the table:

Types of Syllogism

Categorical syllogisms follow an, "If A is part of C, then B is part of C" logic. Let's look at some

examples of categorical syllogisms.

● All cars have wheels. I drive a car. Therefore, my car has wheels.

○ A: Major premise: All cars have wheels.

○ B: Minor premise: I drive a car.

 ○ C: Conclusion: My car has wheels.

● All insects frighten me. That is an insect. Therefore, I am frightened.

○ A: Major Premise: All insects frighten me.

○ B: Minor Premise: That is an insect.

○ C: Conclusion: I am frightened.

Conditional Syllogism Examples

Conditional syllogisms follow an, "If A is true, then B is true" pattern of logic. They're often

referred to as hypothetical syllogisms because the arguments aren't always valid. Sometimes

they're merely an accepted truth like these examples.

● If Katie is smart, then she will get into a good college.

○ A: Major premise: Katie is smart.

○ B: Minor premise: Because she is smart, Katie will get good grades.

○ Conclusion: If Katie is smart, then she will get into a good college.

If Richard likes Germany, then he must drive an Audi.

○ A: Major premise: Richard likes Germany.

 ○ B: Minor premise: Richard likes all German things.

○ C: Conclusion: If Richard likes Germany, then he must drive an Audi.

Decision-making

In psychology, decision-making (also spelled decision making and decisionmaking) is regarded

as the cognitive process resulting in the selection of a belief or a course of action among several

possible alternative options. It could be either rational or irrational. The decision-making process

is a reasoning process based on assumptions of values, preferences and beliefs of the

decision-maker. Every decision-making process produces a final choice, which may or may not

prompt action.

1. The Single-Feature Model

This approach involves hinging your decision solely on a single feature. For example, imagine

that you are buying soap. Faced with a wide variety of options at your local superstore, you

decide to base your decision on price and buy the cheapest type of soap available. In this case,

you ignored other variables (such as scent, brand, reputation, and effectiveness) and focused on

just a single feature.

2. The Additive Feature Model

This method involves taking into account all the important features of the possible choices and

then systematically evaluating each option. This approach tends to be a better method when
making more complex decisions.For example, imagine that you are interested in buying a new

camera. You create a list of important features that you want the camera to have, then you rate

each possible option on a scale of -5 to +5.Cameras that have important advantages might get a

+5 rating for that factor, while those that have major drawbacks might get a -5 rating for that

factor. Once you have looked at each option, you can then tally up the results to determine which

option has the highest rating.

3. The Elimination by Aspects Model

In this approach, you evaluate each option one characteristic at a time beginning with whatever

feature you believe is the most important. When an item fails to meet the criteria you have

established, you cross the item off your list of options. Your list of possible choices gets smaller

and smaller as you cross items off the list until you eventually arrive at just one alternative.

Factors Influencing decision making

1. ** ERRORS :- Impact the decision making process.

2. Information Inputs

It is very important to have adequate and accurate information about the situation for decision­

making, otherwise the quality of the decision will suffer. It must be recognized, however, that on
the individual has certain mental constraints, which limit the amount of information that he can

adequately handle.Less information is as dangerous as too much information. Some highly

authoritative individuals do make decisions on the basis of comparatively less information when

compared to more conservative decision-makers.

3. Prejudice

Prejudice and bias are introduced in our decisions by our perceptual processes and may cause us

to make ineffective decisions. First, perception is highly selective, which means that we only

accept what we want to accept, and hence only such type of information filters down to our

senses.Second, perception is highly subjective, meaning that information gets distorted in order

to be consistent with our pre-established beliefs, attitudes, and values.For example, a

preconceived idea that a given person or an organization is an honest or deceptive, good or poor

source of information, late or prompt on delivery, and so on, can have a considerable effect on the

objective ability of the decision-maker and the quality of the decision.

4. Cognitive Constraints

A human brain, which is the source of thinking, creativity, and decision­making, is limited in

capacity in a number of ways. For example, except for some unique circumstances, our memory

is short term, having the capacity of only a few ideas, words, and symbols.Also, we cannot

perform more than a limited number of calculations in our heads and it is tough to compare all
the possible alternatives and make a choiceFinally, psychologically, we are always uncomfortable

with making decisions. We are never really sure if our choice of the alternative was correct and

optimal until the impact of the implication of the decision has been felt. This makes us feel

insecure.

5. Attitudes About Risk and Uncertainty

These attitudes are developed in a person, partly due to certain personal characteristics and partly

due to organizational characteristics. If the organizational policy is such that it penalizes losses

more than it rewards gains, then the decision-maker would tend to avoid the alternatives that have

some chances of failure.Thus a manager may avoid a potentially good opportunity if there is a

slight chance of a loss. The personal characteristics of a decision-maker regarding his attitudes

towards risk-taking affect the success of the decision. The risk-taking attitude is influenced by the

following variables:

A. The intelligence of the decision-maker: Higher intelligence generally results in highly

conservative attitudes and highly conservative decision-makers take low risks. There are others

who are more willing to take calculated risks if the potential rewards are larger and there is some

chance of success.

B. The expectation of the decision-maker: People with high expectations are generally highly

optimistic in nature and are willing to make decisions even with less information. The

decision-makers with low expectations of success will require more and more information to

decide upon a course of action.

C. Time constraints: As the complexity of the personal habits of the decision-maker and the

complexity of the decision variables increase, so does the time required to make a rational

decision.

Even though there are certain individuals who work best under time pressures and may

outperform others under severe time constraints, most people, require lime to gather all the

available information for evaluation purposes.However, most people under time pressure rely on

the ‘heuristic approach’, which relies on satisfactory rather than optimal decisions, thus limiting

the search for additional information, considering few alternatives and few characteristics of

alternatives, and focusing on reasons to reject some alternatives.This approach may also be in use

when the cost of gathering information and evaluating all such information is too high.