ANAPHY111

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: HUMAN ANATOMY
ANAPHY111 : REVIEWER

Anatomy
-the study of the structure of the body
(means to dissect, or cut apart and separate
ANA- up
TOMY- To dissect.
Physiology
-the study of the function of the body
Chemical level
-represents the atoms and molecules that make up cells (Consists of Atomic level and molecular level)
Cellular level
-represents the basic unit of all living things
Tissue level
-a group of cells with similar or common function
Organ level
-a group of tissues with similar or common function
Organ system level
-a group of organs with similar or common function
Organismic level
-the entire body consisting of the various organ systems.
Organization- a group that performs a specific function
Metabolism- where chemical reactions take place in the body.
Responsiveness- Capability to react or adjust,whether the stimulus or a change (e.g respiration process.
Growth- Changes or an increased number of body length.

ORGAN SYSTEM
 Integumentary System
-controls body temperature & protects body from environmental hazards
 Skeletal System
-supports and protects soft body or muscles, stores minerals, forms blood cells
 Muscular System
-movement, posture and produces heat to the body
 Nervous System
-controls immediate responses to stimuli
( nerve impulse,detection and interpretation
 Endocrine System
-controls long-term responses in body
-regulation of the body activities through hormone secretion).
 Cardiovascular System
-internal transport of nutrients, wastes, oxygen, carbon dioxide and cells
 Lymphatic & Immune Systems
The defense, immunity and lipid carrier from G.I tract
 Respiratory System
-exchange of air and delivery of
blood gasses
-Transfers oxygen(Inhale) to the blood and eliminates carbon dioxide(exhale) from the blood.
 Digestive System
-ingestion, breakdown and absorption of food & elimination of indigestible(metabolism).
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 Urinary System
-filtration of blood to maintain proper water and salt balance and to eliminate waste products
 Reproductive System
-produces sex cells and hormones related to reproduction.

Homeostasis
-condition in which body's internal environment remains within certain narrow physiological limits
(homoios -similar , stasis - standing still)
Homeostatic regulation
-adjustment of physiological system to maintain homeostasis
Receptor
-monitor changes in controlled condition (stimulus) and sends input to the control center.
Control (integration) center
-receives input from receptor & determines appropriate response
Effector
-cell or organ that receives information (output) from the control center and produces a response (effect).

(STIMULUS>RECEPTORS>CONTROL CENTER>EFFECTORS>RESPONSE)

Interactions of a feedback system
-stimulus -> receptor -> input (afferent pathway) -> control center -> output (efferent pathway) -> response

Positive feedback
-amplifies the result of a reaction to make it occur more quickly.
-the response by the effector to the initial change is to further exaggerate the change.
ex:
1. BACTERIAL INFECTION
 IMMUNE( BRAIN)>INCREASE BODY TEMP FEVER> NORMAL STATE
2. WOUND
 BENEFICIAL>CUT> H PLATELETS>STOP BLOOD OR BLEEDING
3. BIRTH
 CERVIX CONTRACTS>TO INCREASE HORMONE> TO GIVE BIRTH

LACTATION- milk production,causes further feeding until the child stops.

BLOOD SUGAR REGULATION
 Insulin lower when glucose levels are high
 Glucagon rises when glucose levels are low.

BLOOD CLOTTING- Platelets release clotting to aggregate the site of injury

Negative feedback
-reverses the changes in a controlled condition
-the response by the effector to counter or reduce the changes in our body, thus bringing the system back to its "normal" state. (e.g
When blood sugar level rises, the pancreas secretes.)
ex;
1. COLD
2.
HIGH TEMPERATURE
 SWEAT> REDUCES TEMP> NORMAL STATE
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LOW TEMPERATURE
 SHIVERS> TO PRODUCE HEAT> NORMAL STATE

3. GLUCOSE
 HIGH GLUCOSE>LACK OF INSULIN
 LOW GLUCOSE>TOO MUCH GLUCAGON

DIRECTIONAL TERMS:
1. Medial - towards the body’s midline
ex: the chest is medial to the arms
2. Lateral- away from the midline
ex : left ear is lateral to the left eye
3. Proximal- closest to the point of origin
ex : the shoulder is proximal to the elbow
4. Distal - farthest from the point of origin
ex: Hand is distal to the shoulder
5. Posterior- Towards the back of the body
ex: the esophagus is posterior to the trachea
6. Anterior - Towards the front of the body
ex : the sternum is the anterior to the heart.
7. Superficial- at or near in the body surface
ex : ribs,superficial to the lungs
8. Deep- away from the body surface
ex: ribs are deep to the skin of the chest and back.

ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGIES

CEPHALIC - consist of skull and the face(the head)
CRANIAL= upper portion of head surrounding brain
CERVICAL = Support the head and attaches it to the truck(neck)
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TRUNK = consist of the chest,abdomen and pelvis
UPPER LIMB =Attaches to the trunk and it consists of shoulder,axilla,arm,forearm,wrist,shoulder.
LOWER LIMB
=Attaches to the trunk and consist of buttock,thigh,leg,ankle,and foot

Sagittal/Midsagittal
-median = separates the body into equal parts the right and left parts
Parasagittal
-separates the body into unequal right and left parts
Frontal/Coronal
-divides the body into lengthwise anterior posterior and posterior portions.
Transverse
-horizontal - cross-sectional -separates the body horizontally, superior and inferior parts (Mananangal style).

BODY CAVITIES
-Spaces enclosing internal oragns

Dorsal body cavity
-surrounds the brain and spinal cord.

>The cranial cavity surrounds the brain and the spinal cavity surrounds the spinal cord.

Ventral body cavity
-includes the thoracic cavity and the abdomino pelvic cavity.

Thoracic cavity
-is the cavity superior to the diaphragm and the abdomino pelvic cavity is inferior to the diaphragm.
-the thoracic cavity is further subdivided into two pleural cavities, which contain the lungs, one pericardial cavity, which contains the
heart, and the mediastinum, which is the central region of the thoracic cavity containing the esophagus and trachea.

Abdominopelvic cavity
-these are the abdominal cavity that contains primarily the digestive organs the pelvic cavity, which contains primarily the reproductive
and urinary organs.

Serous membranes (also called serosae)
-doubled layered membrane that covers the thoracic and abdomino pelvic viscera
-membrane with fluid =(called “serous fluid”) in between the two layers.

 Inner layer
-which is closest to the organ, is called the visceral layer.
 > Outer layer
- which is closest to the body wall, is called the parietal layer.

Pleura
-serous membranes surrounding lungs
 >Parietal pleura
-outer serous membrane surrounding lungs
 >Visceral pleura
-inner serous membrane surrounding lungs

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Pericardium
-serous membranes surrounding heart
 >Parietal pericardium
-outer serous membrane surrounding heart
 >Visceral pericardium
-inner serous membrane surrounding heart

Peritoneum
-serous membranes lining organs in the abdominopelvic cavity (surrounding digestive, reproductive and urinary organs)
 >Parietal peritoneum
-outer serous membrane surrounding organs in the abdominopelvic region
 > Visceral peritoneum
-inner serous membrane surrounding organs in the abdominopelvic region

Imagine drawing a cross in the abdominopelvic region with the lines intersecting at the umbilicus. These represent the quadrants.
Remember when naming the quadrants and regions that right and left refer to the patient's right and left. The quadrants are as follows:
-Right Upper Quadrant Left Upper Quadrant
-Right Lower Quadrant Left Lower Quadrant

Now imagine drawing a "tic tac toe" in the abdominopelvic region with the umbilicus in the center of the middle square. The nine
regions are as follows:
-Right Hypochondriac Epigastric Left Hypochondriac
-Right Lumbar Umbilical Left Lumbar
-Right Iliac Hypogastric Left Iliac

Oral = cavity of mouth
Digestive = cavity inside the digestive tract
Nasal = cavity inside nose
Orbital = cavity around eyes
Middle ear = cavity between eardrum and inner ear
Synovial = cavity surrounding some types of joints

Homeostasis
-is the maintenance of a steady state within the body.
Disease
-is the state of functional disequilibrium that may be resolved by recovery or death.
Pathophysiology
- is the study of the physiological processes leading up to disease.
Signs
-are the objective evidence of disease observed on physical examination, such as abnormal pulse or fever.
Symptoms
-are an indication of disease perceived by the patient, such as pain, dizziness, and itching.
Diagnosis
-is the determination of the nature of a disease based on many factors, including, signs, symptoms, and oftentimes lab results.
Prognosis
-is the predicted course and outcome of a disease.

>A sudden onset and short duration is an example of an acute disease/condition.
>A disease that has a slower, less severe onset and a long duration in an example of a chronic disease or condition.
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PATHOPHYSIOLOGY

Terminal
-diseases that will end in death
Remission
-is the period of chronic disease when signs and symptoms subside.
Exacerbation
-is when signs and symptoms recur in all their severity.
Relapse
-is when a disease returns weeks or months after its apparent cessation.

Complication
-is a disease or other abnormal state that develops in a person already suffering from a disease.
Mortality
-is a measure of the number of deaths attributed to a disease over a given period of time in a given population.
Morbidity
-is a measure of the disability and extent of illness caused by a disease.

Epidemiology
- is the study of occurrence, transmission, distribution, and control of a disease.
Etiology
-is the cause of disease.
Idiopathic
-cause of disease that’s unknown

> A treatment is said to be palliative, when it is designed to manage or relieve symptoms.

Immunity
-the ability of the body to defend itself against infections
Phagocytosis
-means cell eating or swallowing
Leukocytes
-white blood cells
Fever
-raised body temperature, a sign of infection fighting
Neutrophils
-specialized WBC's that engulf cell debris in injured tissue
Histamine
-damaged tissue releases this substance that causes capillary walls to become more permeable
Leukocytosis
-excessive production of WBC's

Monocytes
-follows the neutrophils in the process of clearing debris
Pyogenic
-pus forming bacteria
Lymphocytes
-WBC produced by the lymph nodes, responds to bacteria
Antigen
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-specific immunity against antigens antibodies
Humoral immunity
-specific immunity that includes antibodies
Autoimmunity
-occurs when individuals develop antibodies called autoantibodies
Lupus
-chronic inflammatory disease that can affect various parts of the body

Scleroderma
-autoimmune disease of the connective tissue
AIDS
-destroys the individual's immune system, making the patient very susceptible to infection
HIV
-a retrovirus, it carries its genetic information as RNA rather than DNA
Active immunity
-the patient receives immunity through a vaccine
Passive immunity
-patient receives immunity through a dose of preformed antibody
Pathogen
-disease-causing organism
Contagious
-diseases transmitted by human contact
Noncommunicable
-diseases that cannot be transmitted directly person to person
Epidemiology
-study of the transmission, occurrence, distribution of disease

Endemic
-when a disease always occurs at low levels in a population
Epidemic
-when a disease occurs in unusually large numbers over a specific area
Pandemic
-when an epidemic has spread to include several large areas worldwide
Notifiable diseases
-diseases that are under constant surveillance physicians are suppose to report

Horizontal transmission
-type of transmission transmitted directly from an infected human to a susceptible human
Vertical transmission
-type of disease transmission, mother to child

Parenteral
-microorganisms like HIV and Hep.B use this portal of entry
Isolation
-in order to reduce the risk of infection spreading, for example: staying home in bed

Quarantine
-the separation of persons who may or may not be infected from healthy people until the infectious period has ended
Endotoxin
-a potent toxin that causes life-threatening shock
Protozoa
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-examples are; amoeboids, flagellates, ciliates, and sporozoans
Fungi
-examples are; chitin, mycelia, spores, and mycoses
Helminths
-parasitic worms
Nosocomial
-hospital acquired infection

Occupational Exposure to blood
-most common types of infectious diseases that healthcare workers can be exposed to, HIV, HBV, and HCV
Antibiotic resistance
-Incorrect usage of antibiotics leads to this problem
Common childhood vaccines
-polio, measles, mumps, rubella, and diphtheria
CELLULAR STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

Nucleus
Structure: Surrounded by a nuclear envelope (double membrane) and includes genetic info. (DNA/RNA)
Function: Contains most of the cells genetic material which regulates activities within the cell- "control center of the cell"
IT IS IN ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS

Nuclear Pores
Structure: Holes in the nuclear membrane
Function: Substances made in the nucleus move into a cell's cytoplasm through these pores.
PRESENT IN ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS

Nuclear Membrane/Envelope
Structure: Double membrane with nuclear pores.
Function: Surrounds the nucleus and controls what moves into and out of the nucleus.
Nucleolus
Structure: Dark region of chromatin in nucleus
Function: Produces RNA to help make proteins (where the assembly of ribosomes begin)

Nucleoid Region
Structure: Location of hereditary info.
Function: Contains DNA of bacteria
PRESENT IN BACTERIA

Mitochondria
Structure: Rod shaped organelle bounded by a double membrane. The inner layer is highly folded to forn partitions called cristae.
Function: Converts energy stored in food into chemical energy that the cell can use (ATP)- "power house" of the cell
*can contain DNA

Golgi Apparatus (Bodies)
Structure: Stack of flattened, membranous sacs called cisternae.
Function: Modifies, packages, sorts, and transports proteins and lipids.

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Ribosomes
Structure: Small particles of ribosomal RNA and protein-composed of 2 subunit (a larger and a smaller one)
Function: Synthesis of polypeptides (proteins)
PRESENT IN ALL CELLS

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (rER)
Structure: Network of membranes with ribosomes and connected to the smooth ER
Function: Synthesis and transport of proteins

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (sER)
Structure: Network of membranes without ribosomes
Function: Synthesis and transport of lipids (fats)

Vesicles
Structure: Small membrane bound sacs
Function: Store and transport substances

Vacuole
Structure: Single membrane compartment. In animal cells there are numerous small vacuoles and in plant cells there is 1 large central
vacuole.
Function: Digestion, chemical storage (salts, proteins, carbohydrates) and maintaining water balance.

Cell Wall
Structure: Cellulose fibers surrounding the outside of the cell membrane
Function: Maintains cell shape and protects the cell
PRESENT IN PLANT AND BACTERIA

Cell Membrane (plasma membrane)
Structure: Semi-fluid phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, carbohydrates, and cholesterol.
Function: Regulates movement of substances in and out of the cell. Forms a boundary between cell and extracellular environment.

Extracellular Matrix (ECM)
Structure: Meshwork of proteins and polysaccharides outside the cell membrane.
Function: Provides support and anchorage for the cells and regulates intercellular communication. Substance in which animal cells are
embedded-made up of proteins and carbohydrates.

Chloroplast
Structure: Specialized double-membrane compartment containing the green pigment chlorophyll.
Function: Converts light energy into chemical energy (sugar)
*can contain DNA
PRESENT IN PLANT AND CYANOBACTERIA

Lysosome
Structure: Small vesicles (single membrane compartment) filled with enzymes.
Function: Contains enzymes to digest nutrients, bacteria, and damaged organelles.
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PRESENT IN ANIMAL CELLS ONLY

Peroxisome
Structure: Small vesicle (single membrane compartment) filled with enzymes.
Function: Involved in fatty acid metabolism

Flagellum
Structure: Membrane bound cylinder with core of microtubules (protein cylinders)
Function: Long tail like projection that moves the cell itself or to move substances over or around the cell
PRESENT IN SOME ANIMAL CELLS BUT ALL BACTERIA

Cytosol
Structure: Semi-fluid solution
Function: Semi-fluid between nucleus and cell membrane

Centrosomes
Structure: Microtubule organizing center (including 2 centrioles in animal cells)
Function: Spindles form from them

Centrioles
Structure: Short cylinders of microtubules in centrosomes
Functions: Helps organize cell division (mitosis)
PRESENT IN ANIMAL CELLS

Cytoskeleton
Structure: Complex network of proteins bonded (extensive network or lattice of protein fibers)
Function: Maintains cell shape, regulation of cell activities, and assists movement (mobility) of cell parts).

Cilia
Structure: Membrane bound cylinder with core of microtubules
Function: short hair like projections that moves the cell itself or to move substances over or around the cell
PRESENT IN ANIMAL CELLS

Plasmodesmata
Structure: Membrane lined channels between cells
Function: A channel between adjacent cells, used for cell communication between plant cells, ensures that water and small solutes can
pass freely from cell to cell.
PRESENT IN PLANT CELLS

Cytoplasm
Structure: Semi-fluid solution outside the nucleus INCLUDING the organelles
Function: Semi-Fluid between the nucleus and the cell membrane and includes the organelles (cytosol+organelles)

THE TISSUES AND THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

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Epithelial Tissue
-cover body surface, cover and line internal organs, compose glands;lack blood vessels, cells readily divide, cells tightly packed;
protection, secretion, absorption, excretion

Connective Tissue
-widely distributed throughout body; mostly good blood supply, farther apart than epithelial cells, ECM between cells; bind, support,
protect, fill spaces, store fat, produce blood cells

Muscle Tissue
-movement, attached to bones, in walls of hollow internal organs, heart; able to contract in response to specific stimuli

Nerve Tissue
-transmit impulses for: coordination, regulation, integration, sensory reception; brain, spinal cord, nerve; cells communicate with each
other and other body parts

Tight Junctions
-close space between cells by fusing cell membrane; among cells that form a lining

Desmosomes
-bind cells by forming "spot welds" between cell membranes; outer skin cells.

Gap Junctions
-form tubular channels between cells; muscle cells of heart and digestive tract

Unicellular Glands
-a single secretory cell; a mucous secreting goblet cell

Multicellular Glands
-glands that consist of many cells; sweat glands, salivary glands

Merocrine Glands
-a fluid product is released by exocytosis; salivary glands, sweat glands, pancreatic glands

Apocrine Glands
-portion of cell in secretion; mammary glands, ceruminous gland

Holocrine Glands
-entire cell secreted; sebaceous glands of skin (think acne)

Simple Squamous
-substances pass through easily; lines air sacs of lungs, blood and lymph vessels; easily damaged because so thin

Simple Cuboidal
-secretion, absorption; covers ovaries, lines kidney tubules, lines ducts of of certain glands

Simple Columnar
-protection, secretion, absorption; lines uterus, stomach, intestines; sometimes has cilia and microvilli, often has goblet cell

Pseudostratified Columnar
-appears stratified because nucleus at at 2 or more levels; often has cilia and goblet cells (debris); lines respiratory passages
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Stratified Squamous
-protection; outer layer of skin, oral cavity, anal cavity, vagina

Stratified Cuboidal
-better protection than single layer; mammary glands, sweat glands, salivary glands, pancreas

Stratified Columnar
-lines male urethra and part of pharynx

Transitional
-called such because they can stretch; lines urinary bladder, ureters, urethra; keeps contents of urinary tract from diffusion out

Glandular
-composed of cells that are specialized to produce and secrete substances; unicellular or multicellular

Fibroblasts
-widely distributed, large, star-shaped; secrete proteins that become fibers

Macrophages
-motile cells sometimes attach to fibers; clear foreign particles from tissues by phagocytosis

Mast Cells
-large, located near blood vessels; heparin and histamine
Collagenous Fibers
-thick, thread-like, great tensile strength; hold structures together

Elastic Fibers
-bundles of microfibrils embedded in elastin; provide elastic quality to parts that stretch

Reticular Fibers
-thin fibers of collagen; form supportive networks within tissues

Areolar Connective Tissue
-fluid-gel matrix; binds organs, holds tissue fluids; beneath skin, between muscles, beneath epithelial tissues

Adipose Tissue
-fluid-gel matrix; protects, stores fat, insulates; beneath skin, around kidneys, behind eyeballs, on surface of heart

Reticular Connective Tissue
-fluid-gel matrix; support; walls of liver, spleen, lymphatic organs

Dense Regular Connective Tissue
-fluid-gel matrix; binds body parts; tendon, ligaments

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
-fluid-gel matrix; sustains tissue tension; dermis

Elastic Connective Tissue
-fluid-gel matrix; provides elastic quality; connects parts of spinal column, in walls of arteries and airways
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Elastic Cartilage
-solid-gel matrix; supports, protects, provides flexible framework; framework of external ear and part of larynx

Fibrocartilage
-solid-gel matrix; supports, protects, absorbs shock; between parts of spinal column, parts of pelvic girdle, knee

Bone
-solid matrix; supports, protects, provides framework; skeleton, middle ear

Blood
-fluid matrix; transports gasses, defends against disease, clotting; throughout body in blood vessels and heart chamber

Skeletal Muscle Tissue
-long, striated, many nuclei; voluntary movements; muscles attached to bone

Smooth Muscle Tissue
-shortened, single cells; involuntary; hollow internal organs

Cardiac Muscle Tissue
-branched, striated; heart movements, heart muscle

Nervous Tissues
-cytoplasmic extensions; sensory reception and conduction of nerve impulses; brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves

Stratum Corneum
-outermost layer; keratinized, dead epithelial cells, flattened and non nucleated

Stratum Lucidum
-between st. corneum and st. granulosum; on palms and soles

Stratum Granulosum
-beneath st. corneum; 3 to 5 layers of flattened cells that contain shrunken keratin fibers and shriveled nuclei

Stratum Spinosum
-beneath st. granulosum; cells becoming flattened, developing fibers of keratin

Stratum Basale
-deepest layer; single layer of cells that divide and grow; melanocytes located here

Heparin
-a compound that prevents blood clotting

Histamine
-a substance that promotes some of the reaction associated with inflammation and allergies (asthma, hay fever)

> Genetic Factors Determining Skin Color
-varying amount of melanin; varying size of melanin

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>Environmental Factors Determining Skin Color
-sunlight, X-rays, UV light from sun lamps; darkens melanin

>Physiological Factors Determining Skin Color
-dilation or constriction of dermal blood vessels; accumulation of carotin; Jaundice

Epidermis
-keratinized, thickest on palms and soles (O.8-1.4), melanocytes produce melanin

Dermis
-made of dense irregular CT, binds epidermis to underlying tissues

Papillary Layer
-thin, superficial, dermal papillae

Reticular Layer
-80% of dermis, cleavage, tension/Langer's lines

Subcutaneous
-loose CT and adipose tissue; insulates; major blood vessels present

Hair Follicles
-dead epidermal cells; three parts: root, shaft, papilla; tube-like depression

Nails
-protective covering, three parts: plate, bed, lunula

Sebaceous Glands
-associated w/hair follicles; type of holocrine gland; secrete sebum; absent on palms and soles

Sweat Glands
-(sudoriferous gland); widespread throughout skin; absent on palms and soles; originate in deeper dermis or hypodermis

Primary losses of Heat
-radiation, conduction, convection, evaporation

Hypothermia
-abnormally low body temp.

Hyperthermia
-abnormally high body temp.

THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Integument
-skin (covering)

Hypodermis
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-the subcutaneous tissue just deep to the skin made up of mostly adipose tissue
-stores fat, anchors the skin, and acts as a shock absorber

Epidermis
-the outer layer of the skin made up of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
keratinocyte
-epidermal cell that produces keratin

Keratin
-the fibrous protein that makes skin waterproof and keeps it strong, also found in hair and nails
-Greek meaning of "kera" - "horn"

Melanocyte
-epidermal cell that produces the brown pigment melanin

Langerhans' cell
-epidermal cell that acts as a macrophage to activate our immune system to destroy foreign substances

Stratum Basale
-deepest epidermal layer made of a single row of cells that undergo rapid cell division

Merkel Cell
-epidermal cell functions as touch receptors in association with sensory nerve endings
epidermis, dermis, hypodermis

THREE REGIONS OF THE SKIN
1.Epidermis
2.Dermis
3.Hypodermis

5 layers of the epidermis in order from the superficial to Deepest Layer
-stratum corneum
-stratum lucidum
-stratum granulosum
-stratum spinosum
-stratum basale

Stratum Lucidum
-layer of the epidermis found only in thick skin

Stratum Basale
-layer of the epidermis consists of a single row of cells where rapid cell division occurs

Stratum Spinosum
-layer of the epidermis made up of a weblike system of intermediate filaments with flattened keratinocytes that appear "spiny"

Stratum Granulosum
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-layer of the epidermis that consists of three to five cell layers with keratinocytes that accumulate granules that form keratin and lipids
that provide waterproofing

2 Layers of the dermis
papillary and reticular

Dermal Papillae
-peglike projections on the superior surface of the dermis that indent the overlying epidermis

Pacini corpuscle
-cell deep in the dermis that is capable of detecting pressure

Meissner's corpuscles
-sensitive touch receptors in the dermis

Stretch Marks
-silvery white scars caused by extreme stretching of the dermis during pregnancy

Blister
-the separation of the epidermal and dermal layers by a fluid-filled pocket
melanin pigment that ranges in color from yellow to reddish-brown to black that is produced when the skin is exposed to sunlight

Carotene
-yellow to orange pigment that is most obvious in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet

Hemoglobin
-pink-red pigment

Cyanosis
-A condition that occurs when hemoglobin is poorly oxygenated causing the skin to appear blue

Sudoriferous
-term that means "sweat"

eccrine (merocrine) sweat gland
-produces true sweat; abundant on the palms of hand, soles of the feet, and forehead

apocrine sweat glands
-produce true sweat plus fatty substances and proteins; found in the axillary (armpit) and anogenital areas of the body

ceruminous glands
-modified apocrine glands found in the lining of the external ear canal; produce sticky, bitter substance called cerumen (earwax)

mammary glands
-specialized sweat glands that secrete milk

sebaceous glands = oil glands
Sebum = oil

Hormones
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-stimulates sebum production

Acne
-an active inflammation of the sebaceous glands accompanied by pimples on the skin

Pili Hair
-Hair on skin senses insects before they sting or bite; Hair on scalp protects from physical trauma, heat loss, sunburn; eyelashes shield
eyes; nose hairs filter particles in the air

shaft and root
-function of hair

hair shaft
-chief region of the hair

hair root
-portion of the hair that projects beyond the skin

vellus and terminal
-is the part of, the part of the hair contained within the follicle, below the surface of the skin

Two types of Hair
> vellus hair
-fine hair found on children and adult female
> terminal hair
-coarse, long hair found on the head, eyebrows, axillary and genital areas: growth stimulated by male sex hormones

Alopecia
-hair thinning and balding

True or Frank Baldness
-male pattern baldness genetically determined

Nail
-scalelike modification of the epidermis that forms a clear protective covering on the dorsal surface of a finger or toe

Functions of Skin:
Regulates body temperature; Produces Vitamin D; Protection from chemical and physical injury: Blood reservoir; Excretion of
nitrogenous wastes

Three Types of Skin Cancer
1.basal cell carcinoma
2.squamous cell carcinoma
3.melanoma

Basal Cell Carcinoma
-the least malignant and most common type of skin cancer

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Melanoma-the most dangerous skin cancer

ABCD(E) rule
Asymmetry, Border irregularity, Color, Diameter, (Elevation)
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ANATOMY: According to (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)
 Scientific Discipline
 Structure of the Body.
 To dissect, or cut apart & separate.
 The parts of the body for study.
REGIONAL ANATOMY:
 Study of the interrelationships of all structures in a specific body region.
Superior/Inferior - Equivalent to above and below when moving along the long axis of a
body in anatomical position.
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Medial/Lateral - Equivalent to towards the middle or towards the edge.
Anterior/Posterior - Equivalent to belly-side and back-side of a body in anatomical position.
Cephalic/Caudal - Equivalent to closer to the head and closer to the tail.
AnteriorView:(a)
1. Cranial (skull) 6. Otic (ear)

2. Facial (face) 7. Buccal (cheek)
3. Frontal (forehead) 8. Nasal (nose)
4. Temporal (temple) 9. Oral (mouth)
5. Orbital or Ocular 10. Mental (chin)
(eye)
PosteriorView:(b)
1. Occipital (base of skull)
Thoracic (Trunk) – Medical term for Chest, located in the upper and middle part of the back.
AnteriorView:(a)
1. Sternum/Sternal (breastbone) – Bone that protects our heart
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2. Mammary (breast)
PosteriorView:(b)
1. Acromial (shoulder)
2. Scapular (shoulder blade)
3. Vertebral (spinal column) – Common name; Backbone
4. Olecranal or cubital (back of elbow
5. Sacral/Sacrum (between hips)

6. Coccygeal/Coccyx (tailbone) – Located in-between upper and lower
limb a.) Abdominal Region (Abdomen)
AnteriorView:(a)
1. Umbilical (navel)
2. Coxal (hip) – Coxae (Plural
form) a.) Pelvic (Pelvis)
AnteriorView:(a)
1. Inguinal (groin)
2. Pubic (pubis) – Connects the two hip bones.
b.) Perineal Region (Perineum) – Between anus and external genitals
Upper Extremities - It consists of three sections, the upper arm, forearm, and hand.
Lower Extremities - It consists of three sections, the leg, ankle, and foot.
Fore limb - The ones that are found in the front part of the body i.e arms.
AnteriorView:(a)
1. Axillary (armpit)
2. Brachial (arm)
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3. Antecubital (front of elbow)
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4. Antebrachial (forearm)
5. Carpal (wrist)
6. Palmar or Volar (palm)
7. Digital or Phalangeal (fingers) – Phalanx (Singular) Phalanges (Plural)
Hind limb - The ones that are found in the back part of the body i.e legs.
AnteriorView:(a)
1. Femoral (thigh)
2. Patellar (anterior surface of the knee)
3. Crural (leg)
4. Tarsal (ankle)
5. Pedal (foot)
6. Digital or Phalangeal (toes) - Phalanx (Singular) Phalanges (Plural)
7. Dorsum (top of foot)
8. Hallux (great toe)
PosteriorView:(b)
1. Gluteal (buttock)
2. Popliteal (hollow behind knee)
3. Sural (calf)
4. Plantar (sole)
5. Calcaneal (heel)
WEEK 2
PHYSIOLOGY – According to (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)
 Processes or functions of living things

 Therefore physiology is the science of body functions
Chemical Level - It includes the building blocks that make life possible – atoms.
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Cell – Basic structural and functional unit of life.
Tissue - A group of cells that have similar structure and that function together as a unit.
Human Organs – It is a collection of tissues that structurally form a functional unit specialized
to perform a particular function.
1. Circulatory System - Made up of blood vessels that carry blood away from and
towards the heart.
2. Nervous System - Originating from your brain, it controls your movements,
thoughts and automatic responses to the world around you.
3. Respiratory System – It is the network of organs and tissues that help you breathe.
4. Digestive System – It is made up of the digestive tract and other organs that help
the body break down and absorb food.
5. Skeletal System - Includes all of the bones and joints in the body
6. Muscular System - It is composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE; VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, (2016).
1. Organization – Specific interrelationships for it to perform functions essential for

living organism to thrive.
2. Metabolism – Chemical reactions taking place in an organism.
3. Responsiveness – Capability to react or adjust to whether a stimulus or a change.

Ex; body respiration process.
4. Growth – An increase in number or length.
5. Development – Organism changes through time (functional capability).

6. Reproduction – Ability to form new organism, giving possibility to tissue repairs
and continuity.
7. Homeostasis (CamefromAncientGreek;homoios,meaning“similar”,histemimeans
“standingstil”,andstasismeans“standing”)– Is the ability to maintain balance despite
changes in the internal and external environment.
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HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS (In Order: 1 > 2 > 3 > 4 > 5)
1. Stimulus/Stimuli
 Anything that can trigger a physical or behavioral change.

 Change occur in our internal body that sends signals in our body.
2. Receptors
 Controls condition that sends information or input to control system.
3. Control Center
 Change is compared to the set point, the sensory receptor or sensor provides
input to the control center.
 It sends output in where we regulate our body condition, it signals the

effectors to respond to the stimuli.
4. Effectors (Muscles or Glands)
 Produce a response or output to a detected stimulus.
5. Response
 Change is corrected.
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NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
 Occurs to reduce or slow down the change or output help to maintain

stable environment
Examples:
1. Cold
 High Temperature - Sweat > Reduce Temperature > Normal
 Low Temperature - Shiver > Produce Heat > Normal
2. Glucose
 High Glucose > Insulin

 Low Glucose > Glucagon
POSITIVE FEEDBACK
 Occurs to increase the change or output: the result of a reaction is amplified to

make it occur more quickly.
Examples:
1. Bacteria Infection – Immune (brain) > Increase Body Temperature (fever) > Normal
2. Wound – Beneficial > Cut > H Platelets > Stop Blood
3. Birth – Cervix contraction > Increase hormone > Birth
WEEK-3
TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN
1. BODY POSITIONS/ANATOMICAL POSITION
a.) DIRECTIONAL TERMS
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 Directional terms describe parts of the body relative to each other
 Directional terms are generally grouped in pairs of opposites. (Thompson, 2015).
- Medial - Posterior
- Lateral - Anterior
- Proximal - Superficial
- Distal - Deep
According to; (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016) Reclining
Body (Dorsal) – The body is lying face down. Supine
(Ventral) – The body is lying face up.
PROXIMAL
Medial – Toward the body’s midline. Distal – Farthest from the point of origin.
Lateral – Away from the body’s midline. Proximal – Closest to the point of origin.
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Anterior (Ventral) – Toward the front of the Deep – Away from the body’s surface
body.
Posterior (Dorsal) – Toward the back of the
Superficial – At or near the body’s surface. body.
ESOPHAGUS
 Passage way of food.
STEPS:
- Starts from the mouth (with the help of teeth and saliva) to the Pharynx.
- It will then go to the stomach (temporary storage of food)
- It will then go to the Small Intestine that continuously absorb nutrients from the food.
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- From Small Intestine it will go down to the Large Intestine or the Ascending Colon
down to the Transverse Colon until it is fully digested
- It then comes to the Descending Colon (as a waste material) until it is finally excreted
as waste material.
TRACHEA
 It is a windpipe; tube from the nose.

 It is under the respiratory system.
 It is anterior to the Esophagus.
STEPS:
- Inhale air from nose/mouth to the Pharynx, down to the trachea.

- It will enter the bronchioles and lastly to the lungs.
DIAPHRAGM
 Muscle for respiration
RIBS
 Protects the entire Thoracic Cavity.
BODY PARTS ANG REGIONS
 This will help you to properly identify specific area/s of a patient body to be evaluated
upon.
1. CENTRAL BODY REGION
- Head - Truck
- Neck
a.) Head
- Frontal (forehead) - Nasal (nose)

- Orbital (eye) - Oral (mouth)
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- Otic (ear) - Mental (chin)
- Buccal (cheek)
b.) Neck
- Cervical
c.) Trunk (From Pectoral to

Pubic)
UPPER LIMB
THORACIC (THORAX) (Consists of Pectoral, Sternal, and Mammary)
- Pectoral (chest) - Abdominal (abdomen)

- Sternal (breastbone) - Umbilical (navel)
- Mammary (breast) - Pelvic (pelvis)
- Clavicular (collarbone) - Inguinal (groin)
- Axillary (armpit) - Pubic (genital)
- Brachial (arm) - Carpal (wrist)
- Antecubital (front of - Palmar (palm)
elbow)
- Digital (fingers)
- Antebrachial (forearm)
LOWER
LIMB
PEDAL (FOOT) (Consists of Talus, Dorsum, and Digital)
- Coxal (hip) - Talus (ankle)

- Femoral (thigh) - Dorsum (top of foot)
- Patellar - Digital (toes)
(kneecap)
- Crural (leg)
ABDOMINAL REGIONS AND QUADRANTS
 Determining exact location of possible problems concurrent to different organ/s
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can be difficult
 For this reason, it was subdivided further into regions and quadrants.
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PLANES
 Body planes divide the body, even organs, into sections.
1. Sagittal Plane
 Divides the body lengthwise into right and left sides.

 Called a midsagittalplane if the section is made exactly at midline.
 Often used in illustrations to reveal the organs in the head or pelvic cavity.
2. Frontal Plane
 Divides the body lengthwise into anterior and posterior portions.
 Also called a coronalplane.
 Often used in illustrations to show the contents of the abdominal thoracic cavities.
3. Transverse Plane
 Divides the body horizontally into upper (superior) and lower (inferior) portions.
 Also called a horizontalplane.
 Used by CT scanners to reveal internal organs.
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WEEK-4
CELL
 Came from the Latin word “Cellular/Cella” means small room

 Smallest/Basic unit of life
 Basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known organisms.
 Contains many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids.
THE CELL SHAPE OF HUMAN BODY IS IRREGULAR.
FOUR FUNCTIONS OF CELL
1. Cell metabolism and energy use
 Combination of chemical reactions that are spontaneous and release energy and
chemical reactions that are non-spontaneous and require energy in order to proceed.
Living organisms must take in energy via food, nutrients, or sunlight in order to carry out
cellular processes.
2. Synthesis of molecules
a. Nucleic Acid – Came from the Nucleus, expression of genetic information. Composed
of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic Acid).
b. Carbohydrate – This will give us energy, most abundant in the body.
c. Lipid – Also known as fats, too much lipid will turn into Glycerol.
d. Protein – Most important bio-molecules in the cell.
3. Communication
 Typically communicate using chemical signals. These chemical signals, which are
proteins or other molecules produced by a sending cell.
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Ex: Nerve Cells > Muscle Cells > Which Causes muscles to contract
4. Reproduction and inheritance
 Female has Oocytes which comes from ovary, while Male has sperm from the
testes. Both of these are called Gametes.
2 TYPES OF ANIMAL CELL
1. Somatic Cell – Any cell of the body except sperm and egg cells. Body cells.
Ex: Blood cell, bone cell (Osteocytes), Neuron (Brain Cell)
If a blood extraction happening we can see these following blood cells:
- Erythrocytes (Red Blood - Basophils (Leukocytes)

Cells)
- Eosinophils (Leukocytes)
- Platelets (Leukocytes)
- Neutrophils (Leukocytes)
- Monocytes (Leukocytes)
- Lymphocytes (Leukocytes)
 Red Blood Cells should make up at least 40-45% of the body volume (the remainder
55% is plasma and less than 1% consist of other cells: thrombocytes and
leukocytes).
 Otherwise, a condition called Anemia will develop if the number of red blood cells
or the hemoglobin concentration within them is lower than normal.
2. Germ Cell – Sex cells, both egg and sperm cells are called ‘Gametes’.
Ex: Egg cells and sperm cell
CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS
1. Cell Membrane
 Barrier – Separation of Internal and external in Cytoplasm.

 Control - It is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules.
Controls the substances in and out of the cell.
 Signaling – Cells have proteins called receptors that bind to signaling molecules
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and initiate a physiological response.
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Hydrophilic “heads” (polar) can mix with water. An example of this is alcohol with water.
Hydrophobic “tails” (non-polar) cannot mix with water. An example is oil with water.
2. Cytoplasm and the Organelles
 Viscous fluid containing organelles  Fluid = Cytosol

 Components of cytoplasm  Organelles (not nucleus)
 Interconnected filaments and fibers  Storage substances
ORGANELLES
1. Ribosomes – Protein synthesis, non-stop creation of protein.
2-3. Smooth & Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – SERis known for lipids synthesis. It toxifies the
substances of chemicals. Meanwhile RERhas ribosomes in it which function is for protein synthesis.
4. Golgi Apparatus – Packaging center of the cell. This will modify the lipids, protein,
and carbohydrates to convert it to energy.
5. Lysosome – also known as ‘Suicidalbag’of the cell. It is a bag of enzymes for cellular
digestion and degradation. Because it is capable of destroying its own cell in which it is
present. This happens when either the cell is aged or gets infected by foreign agents like any
bacteria or virus.
- Phagocytosis - a cellular process for ingesting and eliminating particles.
Lysosomal Enzymes – Phosphate esters: acid phosphatase. (-ase means enzyme)
- Nucleases: DNase, RNase

- Protein digesting enzymes: collagenase, cathepsins, other proteases
- Carbohydrate digesting enzymes: B-glucosidase, hexosaminidase A, a-mannosidase,
a- fucosidase, sialidase, etc.
- Lipid digesting enzymes: sphingomyelinase, esterases
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6. Mitochondria – (Mitochondrion, singular) Powerhouse of the cell. It is responsible
for the production of ATP (Adenosine triphosphate is the primary carrier of energy in
cells).
7. Peroxisome – It is a sack containing oxidase enzymes so that it can detoxify

harmful substances.
8. Vacuoles – They have cavity filled with fluids and granules to help sequester/dispose
of various substances.
9. Cytoskeleton Microfilaments – Cyto means cell, skeleton means framework. Their

purpose is to provide strength and to maintain the structure of the cell.
9.2 Cilia – For movements or locomotion.
10. Centrioles – Involved with in the process of cell cycle specifically in Mitosis. It appears
in the cellular reproduction where it plays a big role. It organized microtubules for the
Asters to have spindle fibers.
- Centrioles are only active during cell division. They produce spindle fibers which
attach to chromosomes. Fibers will then pull a copy of each chromosome to opposite
sides of the cell so that when it splits, each new daughter cell has the DNA it needs.
Microvilli – Function and Structure
Function: Increase surface are of plasma membrane for absorption and secretion; modified
form of sensory receptors.
Structure: Extensions of plasma membrane containing microfilaments.
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3. NUCLEUS has 3 distinct parts:
1. Nuclear envelope 2. Nucleolus 3. Chromatin
- Carries the genetic material that contains information for cell activities and cell division
ROBERT BROWN (1831) is the one who discovered the Nucleus.
THREE MAIN FUNCTION OF THE NUCLEUS:
1. Cellular Reproduction –
2. Protein Synthesis –
3. Transmitter of Hereditary Characteristics –
CELL TRANSPORT
1. Solute – a substance that is being dissolved in the various fluids.

2. Solvent – a fluid or gas in which solute is being dissolved.
3. Concentration – the amount of solute dissolved in given volume of solvent.
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4. Concentration Gradient – the difference in concentration of a substance between
two areas.
Requires Energy (Active Transport)
- Bulk Transport (Ex: Endocytosis)
Does Not Require Energy (Passive Transport)
- Osmosis - Facilitated Diffusion

- Diffusion
A. Passive Transport
 Molecules move to equalize concentration
DIFFUSION
 Process wherein solutes moves from an area of high concentration to areas of

low concentration.
OSMOSIS
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 Fluid flows from lower solute concentration – Often involves movement of water –
into cell – out of cell.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION
 Protein binds with molecule

 Shape of protein changes
 Molecule moves across membrane
B.Active Transport
ENDO & EXO
CITOSIS
 Molecular movement
 Requires energy (against gradient)
 Example is sodium-potassium pump
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DEPHOSPHORYLATION
 It is the process by which phosphate groups are removed from a molecule by

a phosphatase.
ENDOCYTOSIS
 Plasma membrane sorrounds material

 Edges of membrane meet
 Membranes fuse to form vesicle
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CELL CYCLE
 It is a series of events that takes place in a cell as it grows and divides. The cell then
leaves interphase, undergoes mitosis, and completes its division. The resulting cells,
known as daughter cells, each enter their own interphase and begin a new round of
the cell cycle.
Structures of Chromosomes
1. Diploid – A cell possessing two copies of each chromosome (human body cells).
2. Homologous chromosomes – Are made up of sister chromatids joined at
the centromere.
3. Haploid – A cell possessing a single copy of each chromosome (human sex cells).
Importance of Cell Division > Cell Theory
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 You are a living organism, made of cells.
 In order to keep living, your cells must stay alive.
 In order for cells to keep living, they must divide and multiply.
PHASES OF THE CELL CYCLE
INTERPHASE – G1, S, G2 phases
1. G1 – Cells undergo majority of growth

2. S – Each chromosome replicates (Synthesizes) to produce sister chromatids.
3. G2 – Chromosomes condense – Assemble machinery – for division such as centrioles
MITOSIS (M)
CYTOKINESIS (C)
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MEIOSIS
 A type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of
chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores.
During Meiosis, Gamete (Sex) cells undergo a “double division”, maintaining the DNA, but
reducing the chromosomal count to 23.
SPERM (23) + EGG (23) = FERTILIZED CELL (46)
Start with 46 double stranded chromosomes (2n)
 After 1 division – 23 double stranded chromosomes (n)

 After 2nd division – 23 single stranded chromosomes (n)
 Occurs in our gem cells that produce gametes
WEEK-5
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THE BODY TISSUES
Histology
 Study of cells through the use of microscope. We use microscope to see

different structures of the cell.
Cells organize into three layers:
Ectoderm (Columnar) – (forms the exoskeleton) Will form epidermal layer of skin.
Endoderm (Cuboidal) – (forms the inner lining of organs) Will form the lining of the gut,
the liver, and the lungs.
Mesoderm (Squamous) – (develops into organs) Will form muscle, bone, kidneys, blood, gonads,
and connective tissus
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FERTILIZATION
1. Zygote – Fertilized egg cell that results from the union of a female gamete
2. Morula – Early-stage embryo consisting of 16 cells called blastomeres.
3. Blastula – Produced during the development of an embryo by repeated

cleavage of a fertilized cell.
- Blastocoel - The fluid-filled cavity of a blastula.
4. Gastrula - Early multicellular embryo, composed of two or more germinal layers of cells
from which the various organs later derive.
- Gastrulation – Secretion and absorption of substances.
Epithelial Tissue
 This type of tissue covers body surfaces, forms glands, and lines body cavities,
hollow organs, and ducts.
BSAPA - Barrier, Secretion, Absorption, Protection, Passage Cell
Shape
- Squamous
- Cuboidal
- Columnar
- Transitional
Cell Layers
- Simple epithelium (1 Layer)

- Pseudostratified epithelium (1 Layer but appears many)
- Stratified epithelium (multiple layer)
Urothelium – The lining of the urinary tract, including the renal pelvis, ureters, bladders, and
urethra
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Connective Tissue
 This type of tissue protects and supports the body and its organs, binds organs together,
stores energy reserves as fat, and provides immunity.
PESTCC – Protection, Enclosing and separating other tissues, Storing compounds,

Transportation, Cushioning and insulating, Connecting tissues to one another.
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Muscular Tissue
 This type of tissue generates the physical force needed to make body structures move.
Muscular Tissue > Muscle Cells > Muscle Fibers
Cardiac Muscle cell - Cylindrical, Intermediate-sized cells that make up this tissue are
connected to one another by cell junctions called intercalated disc.
Function: Pumps the blood, under involuntary (unconscious) control.
Location: In the heart.
Skeletal Muscle cell – Helps in the generation of force during voluntary commands.
Skeletal muscles can be found attached to the skeleton.
Function: Movement of the body, under voluntary control.
Location: Attached to bone or other connective tissue.
Smooth Muscle cell – Contains group of small cells with one nucleus that are capable of
stretching and are part of blood vessels, the stomach, intestines, uterus, and bladder. Unlike
skeletal muscles, smooth muscle tissue has no striations and contracts involuntarily.
Function: Regulates the size of organs, forces fluid through tubes, controls the amount of
light entering the eye, and produces “goose bumps” in the skin; under involuntary
(unconscious) control.
Location: In hollow organs, such as the stomach and intestine, skin, and eyes.
Nervous Tissue
 This type of tissue detects changes inside and outside the body and generates
transmits nerve impulses that coordinate body activities to help maintain homeostasis.
Neurons – Action potential, (also called nerve cells) are the fundamental units of the brain
and nervous system, the cells responsible for receiving sensory input from the external
world, for sending motor commands to our muscles, and for transforming and relaying the
electrical signals at every step in between.
Location: In the brain, spinal cord, and ganglia
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Neuroglia – Homeostatic control, also called glial cell or glia, any of several types of cell
that function primarily to support neurons. Neuroglial cells provide homeostatic support,
protection, and defense to the nervous tissue.
 The four types of neuroglia found in the central nervous system are astrocytes,
microglial cells, ependymal cells, and oligodendrocytes. The two types of
neuroglia found in the peripheral nervous system are satellite cells and Schwann
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cells.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
Skeleton - Framework of the body
Bones – Principal organs of support and passive instruments for locomotion.
 All the bones in the human body together are called the skeletal system.
 A rigid framework of bones that serves man important functions.
5 Functions of the Bones
1. Support of the body

 There are 206 bones in an adult human body.
2. Protection of soft organs
 Certain bones in your body protect organs. Your skull protects your brain and
your rib cage protects your heart and lungs.
3. Movements due to attached skeletal systems
4. Storage of minerals and fats
 Bone marrow makes red blood cells.
 Yellow marrow is mostly fat
 Red marrow makes blood.
5. Blood cell formation (Hematopoiesis)
 Red bone marrow > Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) > Red blood
cells/White blood cells/Platelets.
COMPONENTS OF THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
1. Bones
 A specialized connective tissue that provides a point of attachment for

muscles and transmits the force of muscle contraction.
2. Cartilage
 A specialized connective tissue that provides site for muscular

attachment, support aids in movement at join.
3. Tendon
 Fibrous connective tissue that connects muscle to bone.
4. Ligaments
 Cords or fibrous connective tissue that binds the bone to one another.
5. Joints
 Are places where two or more bones meet to join together are called joints.
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 Most of the joins are movable except the joints in the tooth socket and in
the skull
4 TYPES OF JOINTS
There are four types of movable joins:
1. Hinge joint – Allows movement in one direction only similar to the hinges of a door
2. Ball and socket joint – In the ball and socket joint, the ball-like end of one bone fits
into a cup-like (socket) of the other bone.
3. Pivot joint – allows rotation only.
4. Gliding joint – Allows the bones to glide over each other.
4 CLASSIFICATIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM (According to -)
1. Shapes
a. Long bones
 Cylindrical in shape, that are longer than wide

 Consists of narrow elongated shaft (diaphysis), and expanded ends
(epiphyses) containing a marrow cavity (medullary canal).
b. Short bones
 cuboidal in shape
 consists of spongy bone within compact bone
c. flat bones
 Sheet like in shape but usually curved rather than absolutely flat
 Consists of 2 thin plates of compact bone enclosing a layer of spongy
bone known as ‘diploe’.
d. Irregular bones
 Various or no definite shapes

 Example: vertebrae and the ossicles of the ear
2. Development and formation
a. Intramembranous ossification
 The process bone development is from membrane and develops

immediately into a hard bone.–Involved in the formation of flat bones of
the skull, mandible, and the clavicles.
 Example: Flat bones of skull and face
 OSSIFICATION – The process in which bone forms in the body.
b. Endochondral ossification
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 Bone development is from the cartilage, from which there is a conversion
of cartilage into bone giving rise to a ‘replacement bone’
By means of a process known as ‘apposition’ (external addition)
1. Length
 by continual thickening of epiphyseal cartilage followed by ossification.
2. Diameter
 Osteoclasts (bone dissolving cells) destroy bone surrounding the marrow

cavity, thereby enlarging the cavity and at the same time the osteoblasts (bone
producing cells) add new bones around its outer surface.
BONE GROWTH:
 In Length, by continual thickening of epiphyseal cartilage followed by ossification.

 In diameter, osteoclasts (bone dissolving cells) destroy bone surrounding the marrow
cavity thereby enlarging the cavity and at the same time osteoblasts (bone producing
cells) add new bone around its outer surface.
BONES CELLS:
1. Osteoblasts – active in bone formation
2. Osteoclasts –active in bone resorption
3. Osteocytes – principal cells of mature bone
Stages in the Healing of a Bone Fracture
1. Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed
2. Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a callus
3. Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony callus
4. Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent patch
3. Histological structure
1. Spongy Bone – made up bony spicules within the marrow cavity
2. Compact Bone – made up of compactly arranged concentric bony lamellae,

covered by dense fibrous membrane called periosteum.
4. Location
1. Axial skeleton
 Bones located at the center or axis of the body

 Consists of 80 bones.
2. Appendicular skeleton
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 Bones located laterally or attached to the axis of the body.
 Consists of 126 bones.
Divisions of the Skeletal System
a) Axial skeleton
b) Appendicular skeleton
Axial Skeleton
 Skull
 Laryngeal Skeleton
 Vertebral Column
 Thoracic Cage
1. Head (28 Bones)
 Cranial/Cranium Bones – 8
 Sphenoid Bone – 1
 Ethmoid Bone – 1
 Facial Bones – 14
 Lacrimal Bones – 2
 Inferior nasal concha bone - 2
 Ossicles – 6
 Melleus – Hammer
 Incus – Anvil
 Stapes – Stirrups, smallest bone in the body
2. Hyoid Bone (1 Bone)
 Unpaired, u-shaped bone found in the anterior part of the neck and support
the tongue.
 Unique part of the skeleton because it does not attached directly to any other bone.
3. Vertebrae Column (26 Bones)
 Cervical (7) – Smallest vertebral bones, characterized by the presence of

transverse foramen. Composed of 7 Bones.
 Thoracic – 12 Bones, articulating with 12 pairs of ribs.
 Lumbar – 5 Bones, the largest and heaviest
 Sacrum – 1 large bone, triangular bone which articulates with 2 pelvic bones
laterally and lumbar above.
 Coccyx – 1 “tail bone”, forms the lower end of the vertebralcolumn.
4. Thoracic Bones (25 Bones) Ribs/Rib Cage (24 Bones)
 Form a partially flexible, protective shield for the heart, lungs and other
thoracic organs.
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 The Sternum (1) – Also known as breastbone, a dagger shaped bone plate
consisting of 3 separate bones
a) Manubrium Sterni – Most superior bone
b) Body (gladiolus) – Intermediate bone
c) Xiphoid Process – Most inferior bone
1. Ribs – Thin, narrow, bony arches articulates with the vertebral column. Composed of
24 bones.
Classification of Ribs:
a) true/sternal (vertebra-sternal)
b) false/asternal (vertebra-chondral)
c) floating/vertebral ribs
C1 – Atlas
C2 - Axis
C3 to C6 – Spinus Process
C7 - Atypical because it connects to T1 to T12
35
APPENDICULAR SKELETON
 There are 126 bones.

 Includes the skeletal elements within the
limbs, as well as supporting shoulder girdle
pectoral and pelvic girdle.
The Two Girdles:
1. Pectoral Girdle = 64 bones
 Supports the Arms

 Clavicle and Scapula
1. Clavicle - 2
2. Scapula - 2
3. Humerus - 2
4. Radius - 2
5. Ulna - 2
6. Carpals - 16
7. Metacarpals - 10
8. Phalanges - 28
2. Pelvic Girdle = 62 bones
 Supports the Legs

 Pelvis (coxae)Ilium, Ischium, Pubic bone
1. Pelvis - 2
2. Femur - 2
3. Patella - 2
4. Tibia - 2
5. Fibula - 2
6. Tarsals - 14
7. Metatarsals - 10
8. Phalanges – 28
SUMMARY OF THE BONES (APPENDICULAR)
1. Pectoral Girdle = 64 bones
 Supports the Arms

 Clavicle and Scapula
2. Pelvic Girdle = 62 bones
 Supports the Legs
36
 Pelvis (coxae)Ilium, Ischium, Pubic bone
Total = 126 Bones
SUMMARY OF THE BONES (AXIAL)
1. The Head = 28 bones–cranial bones 8
 Facial bones 14
 Ossicles 62
2. Hyoid Bone 13
3. The Vertebrae Column = 26 bones
 Cervical 7
 Thoracic 12
 Lumbar 5
 Sacrum 1
 Coccyx 14
4. The Thoracic bones = 25 bones
 Ribs/Rib Cage 24
 The sternum 1
Total = 80 Bones
37
38

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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY: HUMAN ANATOMY

ANATOMY: According to (VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, 2016)

 Study of the interrelationships of all structures in a specific body region.

Anterior/Posterior - Equivalent to belly-side and back-side of a body in anatomical position.

Cephalic/Caudal - Equivalent to closer to the head and closer to the tail.

1. Cranial (skull) 6. Otic (ear)

1. Occipital (base of skull)

1. Sternum/Sternal (breastbone) – Bone that protects our heart

5. Sacral/Sacrum (between hips)

limb a.) Abdominal Region (Abdomen)

form) a.) Pelvic (Pelvis)

b.) Perineal Region (Perineum) – Between anus and external genitals

PHYSIOLOGY – According to (Tortora & Freudenrich, 2011)

 Processes or functions of living things

6. Muscular System - It is composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE; VanPutte, Regan, & Russo, (2016).

1. Organization – Specific interrelationships for it to perform functions essential for

3. Responsiveness – Capability to react or adjust to whether a stimulus or a change.

5. Development – Organism changes through time (functional capability).

“standingstil”,andstasismeans“standing”)– Is the ability to maintain balance despite

changes in the internal and external environment.

HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS (In Order: 1 > 2 > 3 > 4 > 5)

 Anything that can trigger a physical or behavioral change.

 Controls condition that sends information or input to control system.

 It sends output in where we regulate our body condition, it signals the

4. Effectors (Muscles or Glands)

 Produce a response or output to a detected stimulus.

 Occurs to reduce or slow down the change or output help to maintain

 High Temperature - Sweat > Reduce Temperature > Normal

 Low Temperature - Shiver > Produce Heat > Normal

 High Glucose > Insulin

 Occurs to increase the change or output: the result of a reaction is amplified to

2. Wound – Beneficial > Cut > H Platelets > Stop Blood

3. Birth – Cervix contraction > Increase hormone > Birth

TERMINOLOGY AND THE BODY PLAN

1. BODY POSITIONS/ANATOMICAL POSITION

a.) DIRECTIONAL TERMS

Body (Dorsal) – The body is lying face down. Supine

(Ventral) – The body is lying face up.

Superficial – At or near the body’s surface. body.

 Passage way of food.

 It is a windpipe; tube from the nose.

- Inhale air from nose/mouth to the Pharynx, down to the trachea.

 Muscle for respiration

 Protects the entire Thoracic Cavity.

BODY PARTS ANG REGIONS

1. CENTRAL BODY REGION

- Frontal (forehead) - Nasal (nose)

c.) Trunk (From Pectoral to

THORACIC (THORAX) (Consists of Pectoral, Sternal, and Mammary)

- Pectoral (chest) - Abdominal (abdomen)

PEDAL (FOOT) (Consists of Talus, Dorsum, and Digital)

- Coxal (hip) - Talus (ankle)

ABDOMINAL REGIONS AND QUADRANTS

 Determining exact location of possible problems concurrent to different organ/s

 Divides the body lengthwise into right and left sides.

 Came from the Latin word “Cellular/Cella” means small room

THE CELL SHAPE OF HUMAN BODY IS IRREGULAR.