Creative Film Making

Kirk Smallman
A concise introduction to the fundamentals of film-making and how they can be employed for personal
cinematic expression expense
at little
Including simple and systematic discussions of:
FILM, CAMERAS, LIGHTING AND EXPOSURE, LENSES, EDITING, RECORDING AND

MIXING SOUND, SPECIAL EFFECTS, USING NON-ACTORS
Plus a complete sample script, indicating how various techniques can produce desired effects, feelings
and ideas within a budget of only $198
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creative
film-making
KIRK SMALLMAN
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creative
film-making
Collier Books
C oilier- Macmillan Ltd., London

Copyright © 1969 by Kirk Smallman
All rights reserved. No part of this book may
be reproduced or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic or mechanical, includ-
ing photocopying, recording or by any infor-

mation storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the Publisher.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:

69-18815
First Collier Books Edition 1969
Creative Film-Making is published in a hard-
cover edition by The Macmillan Company.
The Macmillan Company
Collier-Macmillan Canada Ltd.,
Toronto, Ontario
Printed in the United States of America
Many thanks to all the people
who appear in the illustrations:
Steve Phillips
Sandy Ogsbury
Bruce Brown
Joan Brown
Mark Sadan
Amalie Rothschild
Arnold Leo
Charlotte Louise Farrugia
Ann Wakefield
Donald Gangemi
Jo Gangemi
Carol Launer
Christine Harvey
1 the illusion of motion 3
2 film stock formats 8
3 camera features 12
4 lighting 22
5 film stock emulsions 39
6 exposure control 46
7 looking at action 55
8 moving camera 66
9 lenses and perspective 76
10 matching the action in cuts 95
11 expanding and compressing time 112
12 slow, fast, and reverse motion 119
13 animating real objects 126
14 superimposed images 130
15 special visual effects 144
16 directing non-actors 163
17 ways of recording sound 174
18 editing sound and picture 188
19 mixing sounds together 202
20 preparing for composite prints 211
21 filmic expression 227
contents
creative
film-making
1
t I
sense -of
he mind
the
tries very hard to
world. When
make
con-
there
that
is
it is
only one light involved, and
moving very rapidly back
fronted with sensory data the mind and forth at regular intervals. My
tries to find a pattern or a design re- theory of how the mind goes about
lating the pieces of data to each setting up this illusion is this: Since
other. This insistence on finding both lights are identical it is simpler

meaningful patterns or designs, even to think of them as one light, thus
in very random data, is one of the reducing the number of factors to be
major reasons why motion pictures fit into a pattern. But since this light
seem to move. appears in two different positions, it
Let us examine one of the simplest must be moving back and forth to
possible cases. In a dark room we see get to those positions. The notion of
a yellow light on the opposite wall. the light moving back and forth is
It goes out, but at the same time an- really much simpler than the notion
other identical light goes on two feet of two lights going off and on at
to the right of the first. Now, if the exactly opposite times in relation to
left and right lights alternate being each other. Notice that even the ver-
on at a steady and fairly rapid rate, bal explanation of the two-light set-
we will soon have the sensation that up is much more complicated than
the illusion of
motion
creative film-making
the explanation of the single light our mental reaction to it is quite sim-
moving back and forth. To create ilar. Let us-suppose the movie we are
the illusion of movement, in this looking at now is of an Indian shoot-
case, may well be the quickest, easiest ing an arrow at a bear. The first still
for the mind to make a pattern of the photograph of the Indian shows him
sensory data of the lights. holding the bow with arrow pulled
A reel of motion-picture film con- back. The next still photograph pro-
tains a very large number of still jected onto the screen is identical,
photographs. When we see these except that the arrow has moved
projected onto a screen in very rapid (moved?) one inch forward on its
succession, the illusion that the im- flight. The third photograph is iden-
ages are moving is overwhelmingly tical, except that now the arrow is in
real. This illusion is often attributed a position two inches ahead of where
to the physiological phenomenon of it was in the first photograph. Twen-
persistence of vision, but this in it- ty-four photographs later the arrow
self is quite unable to account for our is in a position just touching the bear.
thinking we see motion; it only ac- The standard amount of time taken
counts for our being unaware of the to project all of these still photo-
blank screen between each successive graphs in a motion-picture theater is
frame of the movie. The reason that one second. We could, perhaps, think
we think we see motion is to be found of what we have seen as 24 pictures,
in the mind, not in the eye. We are each with an arrow in a different po-
presented with a situation very much sition, but that would be taking real-
like that of the two yellow lights, and ity at face value, without trying to
. Tt*C
The illusion of motion is created by the mind

interpreting the successive changes of image
position.
find order and simplicity in it. It is delity. In order to maintain lower

much neater to think of what we costs for those making home movies,
have seen as a single photograph the standard frame-per-second rate
with a single arrow Moving across it for amateur equipment has been set
toward the bear. It is also a lot more at 18 frames per second (a recent
fun. revision from the former 16 per sec-

The mechanics of the projection ond). Films which are to have an
and perception of film are interesting integrated sound track and be shown
in themselves, but they have even either in theaters or on television
more importance in relation to cre- must be photographed at the rate of
ative possibilities in film, which will 24 frames per second.

be explored in following chapters. When we see a two-hour film, we
For this reason it is important to have actually been looking at a blank
know the basic mechanics. screen for a total of nearly an hour.
The standard number of frames The explanation for this is that while
(still photographs) projected onto the the film is running, each successive
screen in motion-picture theaters all frame is pulled into position for pro-
over the world is 24 per second. This jection by a claw, and then left sta-
frame rate was arrived at by experi- tionary while the projector's light
ence with how fast the pictures had beam projects it onto the screen.
to be replaced in order to make the Then a shutter blocks off the beam
illusion smooth, and how fast the during the time it takes to pull the
sound track on the film had to pass next frame into position. Thus the
in order to get reasonable sound fi- light beam is blocked to hide the view
the illusion of motion
of the next frame being brought in- continues to remain excited by the
to position. However, since screen image for about a thirtieth of a sec-
flicker occuring at the rate of 24 ond. Since we are projecting subse-

times per second is objectionable, the quent frames at a faster rate than
shutter is designed to interrupt the that, the after image (persistence of
light beam three times during the vision) does not have time to disap-
time each stationary frame is being pear entirely before the image of the
projected. Although this causes more next frame takes its place, and we
flickers per second, the subjective therefore don't perceive the blank
effect is one of smoother continu- screen between frames. During the
ity. projection of the 172,800 frames of
When the projector shutter cuts a two-hour film, the projector shutter
off the beam of light to the screen, has been closed for a total of about
we do not immediately cease to see one hour, and during that time we
the image of the frame that was just have been seeing only our retinal
there. The retinal surface of our eyes afterimages.

I ost of the films you see
2
were films the 70mm format has been used
photographed and projected in a film in recent years. Using a film stock
size 35 millimeters wide. This film this wide means that a very large
is of the same dimensions as 35mm screen can be filled with very good
still-camera film. But since the film photographic fidelity. Most of the
runs vertically through a motion-pic- special film presentations at recent
ture camera, rather than horizontally World's Fairs have been presented in
as in a still camera, the individual this format. Using a film stock this
frames of a 35mm theatrical film are wide also affords room alongside the
less than half the size of a 35mm edge for more than one optical sound
color slide —yet they must be pro- track, so that it is quite feasible to
jected onto screens that are from have different parts of the sound
forty to sixty feet wide. This demands come from different parts of the the-
a very high degree of precision in ater, or — to have stereophonic sound.
optics and mechanical registration There are several interesting vari-
from both cameras and projectors, ations on the 35mm format for theat-
and is part of the reason why motion- rical films. One of the most ambitious
picture equipment is so expensive. was Cinerama, in which three cam-
For large-budget extravaganza eras running simultaneously could
film stock
formats
film stock formats
film a scene of very wide dimensions, 35mm gauge is the Techniscope for-
each camera covering one-third the mat. This uses standard 35mm film,
angle of view. To screen this required but forms images of only half the
three projectors running in synchro- normal height. Thus the ratio of
nization, each covering one third of height to width is about two to one,
a very wide screen area. The overlap and is directly suitable for wide-
between the sections was always screen presentation. By various meth-
visible and distracting, and the whole ods of reproduction, a film shot in
setup, while a great novelty, was very the Techniscope format can be
clumsy and expensive. printed into at least eight different
The first great improvement in release-print forms, including 16mm
wide-screen presentation was Cine- prints, prints for television, standard
mascope, which made use of a very prints, wide-screen prints, and even
ingenious lens design which can 70mm prints. Also, since each frame
"squeeze" an image horizontally to is only half as high as normal, film
half its normal size, and thus only runs through the camera at only half
one camera can record a very wide the rate, effecting substantial cost
view on the standard-size 35mm reductions during shooting. Many
film. A special lens is then used on 35mm cameras are now being built
the projector which "unsqueezes" the or modified to shoot in the Techni-
image, and the resulting image is scope format.

twice the screen width of the normal The 16mm format was designed
35mm lens system. originally as an inexpensive film size
An important new variation on the for home movies. The quality was
10 poor, and the equipment available in total screen time any of the other
for 16mm was rather crude. During gauges.
World War II there was a tremen- As film emulsions were improved,
dous need for training and propa- it became feasible to market an even
ganda films. Since 16mm was so much smaller gauge, 8mm film, for home
smaller, lighter, cheaper and more movie use. The technical improve-
portable than 35mm, it was utilized ments in 8mm cameras and projec-
in great quantities, and for the first tors have been significant. Combined
time some effort was made to en- with the new high-quality color film
gineer equipment that would be rug- stocks, the projection quality is quite
ged and capable. Business, industry, satisfactory for small showings.
education, medicine and Government However 8mm is now being replaced
started using the 16mm format ex- by Super 8, which, happily, is one of
tensively. Then television networks those highly touted improvements
began shooting many of their docu- that actually turns out to be a lot bet-
mentary specials in 16mm, as well ter. Super 8 is still 8 millimeters wide,
as their news footage. Most of the but because the sprocket hole is in a
serious "underground," experimental vertical shape, the picture width on

and independent film-makers work the 8mm strip can be made wider. At
in 16mm, and increasing numbers of the same time the height is increased
film festivals are being established proportionately, and the resultant
that feature 16mm production. Ac- area of each frame is about 50 per
cording to Eastman Kodak Company cent greater, resulting in better im-
the sale of 16mm film stock exceeds age and color quality, as well as al-
film stock formats
lowing more light to reach the screen out for home use and then became
for a brighter image. Sound-on-film useful for professional purposes.
systems for Super 8 are in the trial In the 35mm gauge, 90 feet of film
stages; but it is only a matter of time run through the projector per min-
before its quality and versatility lev- ute; in 16mm, 36 feet per minute are
els will reach those required for com- run through; in Super 8, 14.8 feet are
mercial distribution and Super 8 will passed per minute, and in regular
join 16mm as a gauge that started 8mm the rate is 13.5 feet per minute.
Standard 35mm, 16mm, Super 8, and 8mm.

12
b 'y far the most important fea-

3 sees will be shown in the viewfinder,
ture of any motion-picture camera is and when you focus the lens on an
the viewfinding system. The ideal object you will see the image in the
viewfinder would, of course, show us viewfinder likewise come into focus.

the image as it would appear on the Since the reflecting mirror is located
projection screen. The nearest thing in front of the opening and closing
to this at the present state of tech- shutter, there is no flicker in the
nology is the true reflex finder. There viewfinder as the camera runs. As
are two basic ways of making it pos- the lens opening is changed, the im-
sible to see through the viewfinder age in the viewfinder will get dimmer
the image actually formed by the tak- or brighter. The 16 per cent loss of
ing lens. One is to insert a partial light to the film surface because of
reflection mirror into the image beam the diversion to the viewfinder has
just before it reaches the camera only a very slight effect on the ex-
shutter. This mirror will reflect about posure of the film.
16 per cent of the light into the view- The other method of reflex view-
finding optics, and yet allow the rest ing involves the use of a shutter
to pass straight through to the film which has its front surface mirrored.
emulsion. Thus, whatever the lens The beam of light from the lens
camera features
camera features
passes directly to the film surface

13
ing a shot without previous rehearsal.
when the shutter is open, but when When we explore other elements of
it closes, interrupting the beam, the film making in later chapters, the tre-
mirrored surface reflects the image mendous value of the reflex system
into the viewfinder. Thus the light will become even more apparent.
image is directed alternately onto the Most professional cameras are

film and into the viewfinder. In driven by electric motors. There are
this way 100 per cent of the light two major types of motors available,
goes into the viewfinder, making a and professional cameras are built to
brighter image than the partial-mir- use either one interchangeably. When
ror system does; but the image, in you are shooting silent footage, you
this case, flickers as the shutter opens need the versatility of a variable-
and closes, and thus there is, in effect, speed motor, so that you can make
only about 50 per cent light trans- slow-motion and accelerated-motion
mission. shots. When you are shooting syn-
A true reflex system makes the chronous sound footage, some kind
camera tremendously versatile, and of "sync" motor is required. If you
also gives assurance at the time of are shooting where standard AC
shooting that you are actually get- power is available, the easiest thing
ting what you are seeing. It enables to do is use a sync motor which runs
the cameraman to see directly the ef- at exactly 24 frames per second by
fects of using special prisms, filters relating to the 60-cycle pulses of the
and special lenses, and to change AC power. This is the same principle
focus from one object to another dur- by which an electric clock keeps ac-
to view finder
i
((
film
glass U
partial
Beamsplitter reflex
curate time. If you are shooting out little bit by hand into the positions
in the field and must run the camera we want. Then a boy and girl are
on battery power (which has no built- talking and we must hear their words
in 60-cycle timing pulse), then a tran- synchronized to their lip movements,
sistorized timing device must be so we need a camera that will run at
used. These will be explained clearly exactly 24 frames per second, and
in the chapter on synchronizing that also will not make any noise
sound to picture. while it is running, since this would
It is probably apparent at this mar the sound recording of the con-
point that what kind of camera and versation. Then there is a shot of the
accessories you use depends on what interior of a cathedral where there

the specifics are of the film you are is not enough light for a good expo-
making. It is frequently the case that sure; bringing in lights is out of the
different cameras are used for differ- question, so for this we need a cam-
ent parts of a film. Let us imagine era that will not only take single
some situations that will arise in a frames at a time but will allow the
hypothetical film we are making and shutter to be held open long enough
see what camera features we will to get enough exposure on each
need. The title of our film requires frame. Following this scene is one
letters to assemble themselves into where the shot starts out on a large
the various words, so we will need a yellow daisy, then the focus changes
camera that can take a single frame very smoothly to the girl in the field
at a time; and between each taking ten feet farther away, and then she
of a frame we will move the letters a slips out of focus and a figure is seen
Mirror-shutter reflex
camera features
in a tree beyond her. For this we human eye fades into a superimposi- 15
clearly need a true reflex viewfinder tion upon the wave scene and then
to see what the focus is doing, and slowly fades away. For the slow-
a camera capable of accepting a very motion effect to be pronounced, a
long telephoto lens. Then comes the camera running speed of at least 48
long continuous shot where the cam- frames per second will be required.
era takes the place of the person's The beach may be made purple by
eyes and runs along the sidewalk, means of a gelatin filter of that color,
into a tall building, gets into an ele- which on some cameras can be in-
vator, goes to the top floor, and walks serted behind the lens in a special
into an executive office for a con- slot. For the eye to materialize as a
frontation. This requires a camera superimposed image requires three
which will accept an oversize maga- features. First, the camera has to al-
zine of film so that the film will not low for winding the film of the waves
run out in the middle of the shot; an back to the starting point so that the
automatic-exposure system would be eye shot can be double-exposed onto

very good here in addition, since the it. Second, in order for the eye to
light levels will vary greatly, and try- gradually appear and to fade away
ing to change exposure manually smoothly, a variable shutter is re-
while running with the camera is go- quired which can smoothly increase
ing to be very difficult. Our final the amount of exposure from noth-
scene is of ocean waves breaking in ing to full and then back again.
slow motion on a purple beach, and Third, the camera must be one in
during this shot a closeup of a single which the normal lens can be taken
off and a special macro lens substi- Following are the cameras most
tuted for such an extreme closeup. often used for professional film work
Some professional cameras are in the United States, along with com-
equipped with mechanisms known ments on their special features and
as registration pins. These are ex- their approximate cost. Almost all of
tremely close tolerance pins which this equipment can be rented from
engage each frame by the sprocket suppliers in major cities.
holes after the transport claw has The standard camera of the 35mm
pulled that frame into shooting posi- theatrical industry is the Mitchell
tion. Thus, each frame is held rock- BNC. It runs silently, can now be
steady during its exposure, and each obtained with reflex viewing, has a
frame is held in precisely the same variable shutter, can run at speeds
position as the previous one. For gen- up to 128 frames per second, has
eral-purpose work, registration pins provision for interchangeable mo-
are not required, as the frames are tors and lenses, has registration pins
positioned with sufficient accuracy which hold each frame absolutely

by the claw-transport mechanism. steady during its exposure, will run
Registration pins are desirable when backward, accepts different-sized
the type of multiple exposure to be magazines of film, and has a huge
made in the camera requires that the range of accessories available for spe-
alignment between elements in the cial purposes. It is a very large cam-
first exposure and the second expo- era, too heavy for one man to lift.
sure cannot be allowed to vary, how- Prices run above $20,000. It can
ever slightly. be rented for about $100 per day.
Mitchell 35mm camera, model BNC-VTR Reflex.

The Sony TV pickup will send the viewfinder
image to a video-tape recorder, thus providing 35mm camera, model 35 lie, showing
Arriflex
instant replay of scenes just shot. (Courtesy sync pulse circuit inside. (Courtesy Arriflex Cor-
F&B/Ceco, Inc.) poration, Inc.)
camera features
Mitchell cameras are also available its small size can sometimes be very
in non-silent and non-reflex versions useful. Rental is about $10 per day.
for about $30 per day. The range of 16mm cameras in use
For silent shooting in 35mm a is quite wide. For portable sound
great favorite is the Arriflex 35, shooting an" excellent choice is the
which features, above all, hand-held Eclair NPR. This camera runs very
portability. It can be run from a bat- quietly (not silently), is designed for
tery pack worn as a belt, has mirror hand-held shooting, has mirror-reflex
shutter reflex viewing, variable run- viewing of very high quality, has a
ning speeds, a three-lens turret, in- two-lens turret, interchangeable mo-
terchangeable motors, will not nor- tors for battery or AC operation, a
mally run backward, can be obtained viewing eyepiece that will swivel in
with a variable shutter, and can be several directions, making unusual
fitted with an accessory single-frame angle shots much easier, 400-foot
motor. The price is about $3,000, magazines, a semivariable shutter
plus lenses. Rentals are about $25 (this cannot be operated during cam-
per day. era running), automatic clapper sys-
There are various models of Bell tem and sync pulse generator for
and Howell 35mm cameras available, faster and easier sound shooting,
and perhaps the most unusual of any magazines can be changed in five sec-
of them is the old "Eyemo" combat onds for minimum delay during fast-
camera, which takes 100-foot rolls of breaking action; it also has a very
film and can be easily held in one low profile without the usual Mickey
hand. This has no fancy features, but Mouse ears type of magazine on top
Bell & Howell 35mm Eyemo camera, custom

fitted with a beam splitter reflex viewing system. Eclair 16mm noiseless camera, fitted with
("Courtesy F&B/Ceco, Inc.) zoom lens. (Courtesy F&B/Ceco, Inc.)
18 of the camera. Price is about $4,800, lieu R-16 Auto. It weighs about five
without lenses. Rental is about $50 pounds and is battery operated by a
per day. motor that compares its own running

One of the most versatile cameras speed to an accurate standard pro-
is the Bolex Reflex 16. This cam- vided by a transistor circuit in the
era uses the partial mirror or "beam camera —any variations are self cor-
splitter" type of reflex viewing, has rected. The camera has a mirror-
a built-in and extremely reliable shutter-reflex viewing system, an au-
spring-powered motor, will run at tomatic-exposure system that reads

speeds from 12 to 64 frames per sec- the amount of light falling on the
ond, has a variable shutter for fades viewfinder ground glass for ex-
and dissolves, a single-frame release, tremely versatile exposure control
film windback with a frame counter under unusual conditions. The cam-
to keep accurate track of where you era will take 200-foot accessory
are on the film, time exposure of sin- magazines and has a built-in sync
gle frames built in, and it will accept pulse generator for sound shooting.
a sync pulse battery-powered motor It will run at speeds of two to 64
for sound shooting. The Rex V model frames per second. Price, with three
has a 400-foot magazine. The camera lenses on the turret, is about $1,400.
is very compact, weighing about six One of the most widely used cam-
pounds. Prices with a set of three eras is the Arriflex 16 5. It has mir-
lenses on the turret run about $1,000. ror-shutter-reflex viewing, a three-
Rental is around $15 per day. lens turret featuring quick-change
An even lighter camera is the Beau- lens mounts, interchangeable motors,
Bolex 16mm reflex, model Rex V, fitted with an

automatic exposure control zoom lens, and with
a mount for a 400-foot film magazine on top of Bolex 16mm Pro, a radical new camera for sync
the camera. (Courtesy Paillard, Inc.) sound shooting. ("Courtesy Paillard, Inc.)
camera features
registration-pin movement, a ta- the other cameras described. This 19

chometer for direct reading of the method of recording sound is called
actual running speed (which can be single-system, and is useful in re-
varied between and 50 frames per cording speeches, and interviews of
second), a frame counter, is able to which there will be virtually no later
run backward, will accept 400-foot editing done. For use in more com-
magazines, and weighs about eight plex types of film, where there is dra-
pounds with lenses. With one motor matic dialogue and where freedom of
and three lenses, the price is about editing choice in picture and sound
$3,000. Rental is about $20 per day. relationship is required, this type of
Arriflex also makes a special quiet camera is totally unsuitable, due to
camera for sync sound shooting, the limited fidelity of the sound, and due
16 BL. It comes complete with a to the fact that recording picture and
wide-range zoom lens, sync pulse sound on the same strip of material
generator and, on special order, a makes it impossible to edit them in-

variable shutter for dissolves. The dependently. Auricons are very
price for this camera is a little under often converted to double-system
$5,000. Rental is about $55 per day. operation (separate camera and re-
For network news filming, cam- corder) and improved with the addi-
eras made by the Auricon Company tion of 400-foot film magazine,
are often used. These cameras are ca- quieter running gears, special motors,
pable of recording sound along the etc. The basic camera does not have
edge of the film, instead of requiring reflex viewing, but is usually used
a separate recording machine as do with a zoom lens containing its own
Beaulieu 16mm reflex, model R16B auto, fitted

with a zoom lens and a 200-foot accessory film Arriflex 16S. fitted with a matte box in front of
magazine. (Courtesy Cinema Beaulieu, Inc.) the lens. (Courtesy of Arriflex Corporation, Inc.)
viewing optics. The cost of a basic Fujica, which, unlike the Kodak car-
Auricon with improvements needed tridge, allows for winding the film
to make it a fully professional camera back for making dissolves and mul-
range between $2,000 and $3,000. tiple exposures. The Fujica Z-2 costs
Rental of such is about $35 per day. under $200.

Few 8mm cameras these days are Bolex makes a Super 8 camera, the
designed for versatility. The person Model 155, which incorporates an

who wants to use 8mm as a serious incredible new zoom lens capable of
medium of exploration and visual ex- focus from infinity to as close as one
pression will be frustrated by the de- inch. The previous limit of similar
gree to which 8mm cameras are lenses had been about four feet. With
automated. Therefore the Fujica such unusual closeup ability, this
Z-2 is welcome, because it allows for camera is an especially good tool for
considerable visual manipulation. It films that must show small detail
features semireflex viewing using a clearly, such as laboratory processes,

split-image rangefinder in a through- architects' models, dental techniques,
the-lens viewfinding system. It has a biological specimens, and the like.
high-quality zoom lens, an auto- With this camera a closeup of a
matic-exposure system with manual penny filling the entire screen is quite
override, a variable shutter for easily filmed. The viewfinding sys-
fades, a rewind facility for running tem is semireflex, using a rangefinder

the film back in order to make multi- superimposed on the through-the-
ple exposures. This camera will ac- lens viewing system. The camera
cept only the film cartridge made by uses the Kodak Super 8 cartridge.
Auricon Cine-Voice 16mm camera after extensive

Arriflex16BL, a noiseless 16mm camera, fitted modification. A crystal circuit controls the run-
with matte box and a 400 foot magazine.
a ning speed exactly at 24 fps. (Courtesy F&B/
CCourtesy Arriflex Corporation, Inc.) Ceco, Inc.)
camera features
List price is $300. tape recorder automatically starts. 21

Bell & Howell offers a synchronous During projection the tape recorder is
sound system in Super 8 which uti- plugged into the projector, and pic-
lizes a very small tape recorder, ture and sound are presented in sync.
whose sync cable is plugged into the The cost for camera, recorder, and
camera. When the camera is run, the projector is about $450.
Fujica 12, a Super 8 camera. Bolex 155 equipped with a macro zoom lens.
22
i t often happens that the natural

4 many yards of canvas, to the film-
play of light on a scene before us maker it is just as readily a white
is quite beautiful. Perhaps it is a triangle, because when he photo-
sailboat heading into a mist, or beams graphs it that's all he will get on film
of sunlight filtering down through —no canvas, just a white shape. This
tall trees, or candlelight on a girl's has meaning in relation to what
face, or the pattern of highlight and shapes will follow in succeeding
shadow on the side of an old barn. scenes and in relation to how a dou-
Each of these scenes is visible only ble-exposed image will photograph

because of the light it reflects and on top of the sailboat scene, and in
is photographable only by that light. the present instance it opens the

Thus it makes sense to think of the thinking as to how we will light this
objects in a scene as modifiers of sailboat scene. Our lighting unit in
light, and not so much as objects this case is the sun, and we need to
in themselves. This seeming compli- figure out where we want to put it.
cation in regarding the visible world We might well start the shot with
is really a simplification enabling the the camera looking up at the sail
film-maker to deal more deftly with against the sky, with the sunlight
his images. To the sailor the sail is coming over from behind the cam-
lighting
lighting
era. This would yield an opaque The movement of the sun is accom- 23
white sail. By bringing the sun plished by smoothly turning the boat
around toward the front of the boat a half circle so that it ends up going
while the camera is still running, we in the opposite direction. But the
will cause the sail to darken gradu- shot itself does not show this, since
ally as the side toward the camera the sail is shown only against the
becomes shaded. By continuing to sky.
bring the sun around behind the sail Now let us consider a scene of a
so that it glows through the sail and few people sitting in the grass on a
is seen by the camera, we have a bright, sunny day. We want to film
fairly dark sail with a very diffused, them in such a way as to flatter their
hazy, dim sun moving across it. If looks and to make the scene look
we now get a shot of the sailboat en- very pretty and pleasant. As we look
tering into the bank of mist (shot at these people, we notice that those
from another boat) we will have a facing the sun are illuminated in
very good visual sequence compris- a glaring and flat-surfaced way.
ing a bright, white sail against the Those turned away from the sun
blue sky, changing smoothly into a have their faces in deep shadow.
darker sail, with a diffused and misty And finally, the faces of those at
white sun moving across the sail tex- right angles to the sun are bright on
ture, and finally, the diffused white one side and dark on the other. The
sailboat itself moving into the mist. scene as it is will not photograph as
In this case the lighting of the scene we want it at all. As we look, with
is what gives it most of its value. the camera, at the faces turned
24 Direct sunlight without any diffusion.
Side light with no fill light for the shadow side of

the face.
Back lighting with no fill on the face.

lighting
By putting a diffusion scrim into the light path

the shadows are softened and the skin tone is
mellowed.
The shadow can be filled with a reflector for ,
more pleasing balance.
By using a reflector the skin tone can be im-

proved and catch light put in the eyes.
26 toward the sun, the first thing that sure in order to bring out detail, the
happens is the loss of three-dimen- area of the shot around the face,
sionality, since the camera has only which is in bright sunlight, will
one eye. This causes the faces to blend be washed out from overexposure.
in with the background and thus lose What we need to do is reduce the
their sense of specialness. Also, be- contrast between the shadowed face
cause there are no shadows on the and the bright background. This can
front-lit faces, they look flat, as be done by reflecting sunlight onto
though cut of paper. The whole effect the face in shadow, by means of a
of a shot like this is visually banal or reflector. These can be rented or pur-
plain-looking. To improve this shot chased, but they can also be home-
we need to diffuse the sunlight hit- made. Cover a piece of stiff card-
ting the faces so that the skin tone board with household aluminum foil,
will be more glowing and less glary. placing the dull, matte side of the
A yard or two of sheer white nylon foil on the surface. A reflector two or
held in the path of the sun's rays a three feet square will throw an amaz-
few feet from the subjects will take ing amount of light. The direct sun-
care of this. light coming from above and behind
Now let's look at the faces turned the head of the subject, gives a very
away from the sun. The camera eye, good-looking "rim light," which
because of the characteristics of the shows off the sheen of the hair and
film stock itself, will have difficulty outlines the head for good back-
in seeing any detail at all in the ground separation.
shaded face. If we increase the expo- The faces at right angles to the sun
lighting
need some reflected light to fill in the kinds of lighting effects possible en- 27
shadow sides, and perhaps some dif- large considerably. The first thing to
fusion of the direct sunlight on the do is notice where the light already
bright sides. in an interior is coming from. If, for
With these modifications, the the most part, you like the effect that
quality of the images of the people it gives but measure it as insufficient

undergoes an amazing change for the for good exposure, you can boost it
better. The shots become a sensual with small lighting units that throw
pleasure to look at, and give a feel- light in the same direction as the nat-
ing of grace and beauty. The effort ural source, and thus get plenty of
involved in making these improve- exposure without spoiling the orig-
ments is very small, and the aesthetic inal effect. Let us suppose there are a
reward great. couple of large table lamps with
In feature film production, it is large lampshades. We can take out
more common to use arc lights than the bulbs and replace them tempo-
reflectors, and special silks instead of rarily with 500-watt photoflood
nylon. But arc lights require heavy- bulbs. These cost about a dollar
duty DC generators to run them and apiece. They will only burn for about
trained men to operate the equip- three or four hours, but that is a
ment, so shortcuts such as the reflec- small price to pay for a light output
tor are much appreciated on small- of roughly ten times as much as the
budget productions. normal household bulb. The next

Once we move indoors where elec- thing to do is figure where the peo-
tric power is readily available, the ple in the scene will be sitting or
28 standing. Then you can put up a exposure. There is no need to flood
small rim light for each one. This an entire scene with a full-exposure
back-light effect is the same as we level of light. Doing so actually
got in the outdoor sequence. The makes the scene less interesting to
lighting unit itself should be put up look at. As the people move from
on the wall behind the person being area to area of light, the eye is enter-
filmed, and usually as high up as pos- tained as they move through the
sible so that it won't be seen by the shadow in between.
camera. In cases where a person in Although there are no formulas

the scene is not near enough to one for lighting scenes, some general ap-
of the modified photoflood lamps, we proaches can be described. It is im-
will need a lighting unit aimed at portant to place the lighting units
them. If this light comes from the high off the floor. This accomplishes
direction of the nearest photoflood several things at once. It creates a
table lamp, then it will appear to be shadow pattern on faces that tends
the light from the lamp itself, and to be flattering, since the eye sockets
thus the natural effect can be main- are in slight shadow, the cheekbones
tained. When a person is moving are highlighted, the mouth is mod-
around from one lit place in the room eled by slight shadow, and the
to another, it may not be necessary shadow created by the nose is kept
to use additional lights because there short and downward on the face. At
is probably enough illumination the same time, since the lights are
spilling from the sources and bounc- well above eye level of the actors, the
ing around the room for adequate problem of the lights' causing them
lighting
to squint is minimized. If the lights and may be a half or a third as bright 29

are high up toward the ceiling, they as the main light. The third light
will not often be in the camera's field used is a rim light, which shines from
of view; this allows much more free- behind and above the actor. This, es-
dom of camera angle with a given pecially in the case of blondes, gives
light setup. There is also the advan- a highlight sheen to the hair, and an
tage of a single lighting unit's doing edge of light delineating the head
the work of two in some cases, since from the background.
a main light shining on one actor Lighting for color shooting is in
can also provide rim lighting for an some ways easier than for black and
actor facing him. white, because the differences in
In black-and-white photography it color of subjects and their back-

is traditional to use three lighting grounds help to give them spatial sep-
units for a person. The main light aration. A favorable lighting setup
comes from in front of the person for faces is the use of the very dif-
and somewhat to one side. This pro- fused main source from up high and
vides the chief illumination and, be- roughly 45 degrees to either side
cause it is toward one side of the of the camera, then a bright "kick-
face and figure, gives a three-dimen- er" light from behind to the opposite
sional modeling. The shadow side of side of the head. This gives three-
the face and figure is illuminated just dimensional modeling and a bright
enough to show surface detail in the edge delineating one side of the face.
shadow areas caused by the main Architectural details such as brick

light. This light is called a fill light, walls, mantels, door frames, paneled
30 walls, etc., can best be shown off by ple is that of a large factory interior
a light source placed so that the beam in which a chase sequence is to occur.
skims along the surface creating tex- If it is desired to have light only in
tures of light and shadow to empha- certain key areas of the action, and
size the details of the surface being if many of the shots will be in wide
skimmed. A very good use of this angle, showing the rear wall and the
technique would be in lighting a walls at each side, then hiding the
beamed ceiling with a light aimed at lights in the scene would be the only
right angles to the camera-lens axis, feasible solution. The lighting units
and just touching the lower surfaces can be placed behind air ducts, be-
of each of the beams, thus creating hind vertical columns, behind pack-
contrasting shadows that cause the ing crates; and, in cases where there
beams to stand out strongly. is no convenient spot to hide a unit,
Sometimes the film-maker is con- you can always put a suitable prop
fronted with what seems like an im- into the scene and then put a light
possible situation to light well. He behind that. Many a time a large

needs to put light in certain places in book or vase has been placed on a
the scene but there seems to be no desk for no other reason than this. In
way to get it there without the light- some cases the lights may appear in
ing unit itself showing obtrusively in the scene without messing it up. For
the picture. The solution is clever example, a string of small lights
hiding of lighting units within the along the ceiling of a mine shaft
scene, placed so that they can not be would seem quite normal to an audi-
seen by the camera. A good exam- ence. Or, large spotlights on the deck
lighting
The three light sources illuminating this scene

are all within the camera's field of view.
mni
32 of a Coast Guard patrol boat would in the rooms, and aim them through
seem quite normal. It is surprising the doorways out into the hall. In
how often a motion-picture lighting this way lights can be placed along
unit can be put in a scene right where the length of the hallway without
you want it and still not call atten- their being seen. As a person walks
tion to itself. Documentary camera- toward the camera from the far end
men who have to make do with of the hall, he will pass through these
shortcuts become quite adept at this beams and be illuminated by the
sort of game. cross-light —
which gives good mod-
Lighting such areas as hallways eling. The exposure of the figure will
and stairways can seem very difficult be constant in each of the beams, re-
at first, but it is actually very easy gardless of which end of the hall it
and often yields striking images. If is in, and the movement of the figure
the shot looks down a long hallway through the beams is much more in-
(we will assume there are doors teresting than it would be in flat
along the hall), shining a bright light light. The same lighting solution can
down the hall will yield terrible re- be applied to shooting in stairwells;
sults. The hall will look flat, rather a stairwell can be considered a verti-
than giving a sense of depth, and the cal hallway.

area closest to the camera will be Many film sequences purportedly
vastly overexposed, while the far end take place in the dark. How can you
of the hall will be underexposed. The set up a scene so that it looks dark,
usual solution would be to open a or least like nighttime, and still be
few of the doors, put lighting units able to have it register on photo-
lighting
By lighting only the edge of the figure the scene

may be interpreted as occurring in near darkness.
34
Surface textures revealed by the raking sunlight.
'. i
lighting
graphic film? The secret is to use tween an aluminum reflector, as a 35

rim lighting only; the outlines of a minimum, and several truckloads
figure may then be clearly seen full of gear as a maximum. There
against the black background, and have been some very welcome recent
yet, since there is virtually no light improvements in lighting technol-
on the surface of the figure, the audi- ogy. Preeminent among these is the
ence will think of the scene as being development of the tungsten-halo-
quite dark. Usually a figure will be gen lamp bulb. This bulb is about the
lit from both left and right sides size of your finger and operates in a
with the lighting units placed well unique way. In an ordinary lamp, as
behind the subject so that only the the tungsten filament glows, the sur-
edge of the figure shows any illumi- face of the tungsten evaporates and
nation. In a closeup, we must, of is deposited on the inside surface of
course, provide a little light to make the glass, causing it to become dark-
facial expression visible, and the ened. The loss of tungsten from the
method for making this possible is to filament soon withers it away and
use the same rim lighting technique the bulb burns out. In the new bulb
on the head, and set the illumination the tungsten redeposits itself onto the
level on the face so that there is filament, so the bulb envelope re-
only about 25 per cent of normal ex- mains clear and efficient, and the fila-
posure. This will be explained in ment is able to glow at extremely

Chapter 6. high temperatures without quickly
The equipment needed for lighting burning out. An ordinary glass bulb
in professional film work varies be- subjected to such a high temperature
36 would soon melt, so "quartz" or spe- 4,000 watts, at prices starting at $80.
cial glass is used instead. The saving For use in smooth filling of shadow
in total size of a lighting unit using areas they make a "broad" in various
these bulbs is dramatic. A "quartz" wattages at prices from $60. Rentals

unit consuming 650 watts puts out for these units are about $2 per day
as much light as a standard bulb con- (you supply the bulbs). For those
suming 2,000 watts, and the size of situations where there is no place to
the whole unit is about one fifth the plug in light sources, Sylvania makes
older one. a battery-powered Sun Gun unit that
Smith- Victor Corporation makes a will run for about a half hour before
set of three "quartz" lighting heads, it needs recharging. The complete
each with a lightweight collapsible unit rents for about $7 a day.
stand, and all fitting inside a single One of the least expensive ways
attache-sized case, for $100. of lighting small-area location jobs is
The most popular "quartz" lights to use R.40 photo-reflector bulbs

are those made by Colortran Indus- (available from photography stores)
tries. Their general-purpose 650- in conjunction with Lowell-Light

watt unit is priced at about $34. The hardware. The basic unit is a porce-
Colortran Super-Beam 1000 uses a lain socket, swivel-mounted on a
1,000-watt bulb and features vari- small metal plate, which has various
able focusing of the beam from spot notches cut into it so that it is easy
to flood. For even lighting of large to hang onto a nail or a pipe or a
surfaces with a minimum of shadow door edge — in fact, almost any kind
the Colortran Soft Lite units are of protuberance. If none of these is
available in wattages from 750 to available, the unit may even be stuck
lighting
onto a flat surface with heavy-duty spilling onto a foreground object and 37
tape, because it is so light. These fea- washing it out. By feathering the
tures make it very versatile and allow edge of the light with the flap, the
you to put lights up all over a room intensity on the foreground can be
without having to bring any stands reduced so as not to be obtrusive.
along with you; and the problem of Every manufacturer of lighting
keeping light stands out of view of units makes various devices for
your shots is thus avoided. The basic modifying the light beams thrown.
socket unit costs about $6 each, the For diffusion of the light, stainless
bulb about $2, and there is a com- steel screens are often used. For in-
plete line of accessories available. tensification of the beam, a reflector
A most useful accessory on a light- skirt may be used. Holders for color
ing unit is a set of "barn doors/' filters can be snapped onto the front
These are hinged flaps on the sides of the unit. Of great importance
of the unit which may be positioned when using lights for outdoor shoot-
so as to shape the beam for your pur- ing are the new dichroic filters, which
poses. You may want light on the convert the color of the light beam
wall but not on the ceiling, so you to match that of sunlight. These are
rotate the bar doors until one is at much smaller and much more effi-
the top of the lamp housing, and cient than the filters formerly used
then, just as though you were pulling for this purpose (see discussion of
down the brim of a cowboy hat, you color matching in Chapter 5).
can shade the light down on the wall One device often used to shape a
where you want it. Barn doors are light beam is called a gobo. This con-
also useful when light from a unit is sists of a piece of thin, opaque mate-
38 rial such as Masonite, cut into a and would still use lighting units to
pattern and held in the light beam so help make his images special.
as to cast a shadow pattern. It is fre- Every film-maker has his own per-
quently used to liven up an otherwise sonal style of lighting. Fads in light-
very plain background. You can ing drift in and out. Sometimes ex-
sometimes see the result in a TV tremely diffused lighting is favored,
commercial where the product is in as in many commercials in color tele-
the foreground and the background vision. Sometimes very contrasty

consists of an irregular light pat- lighting is used for high-powered
tern. dramatic effect. Currently there are
It should be concluded from this many films in which most of the fa-
chapter that lighting for films is a cial area is lit with diffused fill light,
matter of thinking what you want and the main light is so far off to one
something to look like and then put- side that it becomes a semi-rim light.
ting light where it will be reflected This is a particularly attractive effect
to give the desired image quality. in color because it yields very rich,
Bringing up the level of illumination glowing skin tones; yet it has a lot
to the point where it yields sufficient of contour punch because of the

exposure is really only secondary. If bright semi-rim light. But whatever
we had a film stock so supersensitive the style, the purpose is always the
that no additional illumination were same. The film-maker is a craftsman
necessary, the film cameraman in images, and he uses whatever
would still continue to evaluate his lighting is necessary to make his
scenes very much as I have outlined images effective.
39
a length of motion-picture film

5 and the color of white light from day-
consists primarily of a base, with light. In everyday life we make psy-
perforations along the edge, and a chological adjustments for this dif-
photosensitive coating on one side of ference and thus are not apt to notice
the base called an emulsion. There is it. But when we see shots made un-
a fairly wide variety of types of der the two types of light spliced side
emulsion, each with characteristics by side in a movie the difference
that yield different kinds of images. is disturbingly evident — the sunlit
If you intend to shoot 35mm color, scenes will have a bluish overcast
the most often used stock is Eastman and the tungsten-lit scenes will have
color negative, type 5254. This film a yellow overcast. This difference in
has an exposure index (ASA) of 100 the color of what is apparently white
when used with tungsten light, and light is expressed in Kelvin degrees,
an index of 64 when used in daylight or, in popular jargon, color tempera-
with a conversion filter. The reason ture. Eastman color negative is de-
for the use of conversion filters is signed to be used with tungsten light
based on the fact that there is quite of a temperature of 3200 K, which is
a difference between the color of the color temperature of most light-
white light from a tungsten source ing units discussed in Chapter 4.
film stock
emulsions
40 With light of this temperature, it will and may be mounted either in front
yield a color image that looks nat- of the lens or in a filter slot in the
ural. If you shoot scenes in daylight body of the camera, depending on

illumination, however, they will have what particular hardware you are
a bluish tint, unless you use a con- using.
version filter that is slightly salmon- Since we will be referring to dif-
colored. With this filter, the color of ferent types of film stock throughout
scenes shot in daylight will look nat- this book, it is important to under-
ural, but since some of the light is stand the meanings of the terms
blocked by the filter, the effective ex- "negative film," "reversal film/' and
posure index of the film is reduced to "print stock." Negative film yields
64. The reason for making a color- an image of negative polarities*
balanced film stock for tungsten When it is printed onto print stock,
light, and not making one for day- the polarities are reversed, and a pos-
light, is that it is much simpler to itive image is obtained. Reversal film
take the conversion filter in and out yields an image of positive polarity,
of the camera to handle both kinds and when a print of it is made, it is
of light than it is to unload and made on reversal film so that the

change the film every time you image will stay positive. Print stock
change the light conditions. For the reverses the polarity of whatever
Eastman family of color stocks the type of film is printed onto it.
standard conversion filter is a Kodak In many industrial applications,

Wratten #85. These are available duplicate prints made from the cam-
either in glass or in gelatin squares, era original are not desired; the orig-
film stock emulsions
inal is projected directly, as is the For general-purpose black-and- 41

case with home movies. A good white shooting, there are two good
choice of 35mm color stock in this choices of stock. Dupont "Superior"
case would be one of the Ansco- 2, type 936, is often used, and is
chrome reversal stocks made by rated at 125. A comparable film is
GAF, in ratings of 100, 200, and 500. Eastman Plus-X, type 4231, rated at
For general-purpose shooting, the 80.

main reasons for using a negative In the higher-speed indexes, East-
color stock are lower overall costs, if man makes Double-X, type 5222,
a number of duplicate prints are de- rated at 250, which is remarkably
sired, and much more latitude in ex- fine-grained for a film of this sensi-
posure variations (see Chapter 6). tivity. Dupont "Superior" 4 is rated
Black-and-white films in 35mm at 320, and Eastman 4-X, type 5224,
are all of the negative type. Eastman is rated at 500. The latter two film
XT, type 5220, is rated at 25, and in stocks should be used with the un-
return for this low "speed" gives derstanding that they will yield
images with very little "grain" pat- images which, in comparison to the
tern visible. A general principal in general-purpose stocks, show more
film emulsions is that as the exposure grain pattern and less rich blacks.
index increases, so also does the In 16mm color, negative stocks
graininess of the image, and so the are rarely used, except for TV news.
very high indexes are ordinarily used Because of the smaller frame size,
only when there is no other way of grain patterns assume even larger
getting acceptable exposures. proportions. Since reversal stocks are
42 somewhat finer-grained than nega- inal, but when duplicated gives

tives, and since they do not show prints of second-rate quality.
scratches and dust so readily, they For shooting color reversal under
have become the standard in 16mm limited light, Eastman Ektachrome
color shooting. Eastman Ektachrome EF can be used at its ratings of
Commercial type 7255 is the general- ASA 125 for tungsten and 160 for
purpose stock most often used, and daylight.
is rated at 25 for tungsten and 16 16mm black-and-white negative

for daylight with a conversion filter. films are available in the same emul-
If you project this stock you will see sions as listed for 35mm. In ad-
an image of subnormal contrast and dition there are three black-and-
very pastel-looking colors tending white reversal stocks, Plus-X, ra'ted
toward the warm end of the spec- at 50, Tri-X, rated at 200, and 4-X,
trum. This distortion of naturalness rated at 400. Plus-X and Tri-X yield
is deliberate and is based on the fact images of very fine grain and with
that when duplicate prints of this deep rich black tones. 4-X shows a
film are made, the contrast and color moderate grain pattern and blacks
shifts unavoidable in the duplicating not quite so dense. In comparison,
process shift these factors into cor- prints made from the negative ver-
rect balance in the resulting print. By sions of these three emulsions show
comparison, Kodachrome II, an ex- mild grain and softer contrast.
cellent stock, but rarely used profes- In deciding whether to use nega-
sionally, yields balanced color and tive or reversal in 16mm the follow-
contrast directly in the camera orig- ing points may be helpful. Under
conditions where light levels cannot The graphic image quality of prints 43
be controlled and exposures may made from reversal is somewhat
vary quickly (most often encoun- richer and more sumptuous-looking.
tered in documentary and news film- The choices of stock in 8mm and
ing), negative material is more for- Super 8 are presently quite limited.
giving and more likely to yield Kodachrome II in either 8mm or Su-
acceptable prints from incorrect ex- per 8 is as good a color reversal stock
posures. When the processed nega- as there is. Duplicate prints may be
tive is handled in editing procedures, made at a few laboratories, but do
the slightest speck of dust or the not expect very good quality. If
faintest fingerprint or minutest good-quality prints are necessary in

scratch will show up in the print 8mm or Super 8, it is best to do the
made from that negative as a white original shooting in 16mm and then
blemish, whereas the same imperfec- make 8mm reduction prints. If dupli-
tions on a reversal original will print cate prints are not necessary, then
as black blemishes, which are far less doing the original filming in an 8mm
annoying. The visible grain pattern gauge is by far the most economical
in a print made from a negative is procedure.
more noticeable than that of a print If you use the Fujica camera men-
made from a reversal material. The tioned earlier, the only stock avail-
total cost of stock, developing and able is Fujichrome Single 8 (a Super
making a print from negative is 8 format). This is rated at 50 for the
about 18 per cent less expensive than tungsten type or 25 for the daylight
doing the same thing with reversal. type. Since this comes in a quick-
44 change cartridge, it is easy to switch characteristic is also useful for mak-

back and forth between the two ing objects seem to stand out very
types for tungsten or daylight shoot- clearly against their background

ing. The color and sharpness are very when both are of about the same
similar to Kodachrome II. brightness. Dupont makes a negative
Black-and-white film is available stock, type 140, for this purpose, and
in limited quantities in 8mm and rates it nominally at about 200, cau-
Super 8. The two best choices are tioning that exposure is difficult to
Plus-X and Tri-X. calculate and that testing of a roll
In addition to the film stocks de- under the conditions anticipated is
scribed so far in this chapter, there recommended. Another way of get-
are some special-purpose emulsions ting high contrast in black-and-

available in 16mm and 35mm. Du- white is to shoot on regular negative
pont makes a Rapid Reversal Pan, and make a print on high-contrast
type 930, which is designed for very print stock. Such a stock is made by
quick processing. The film can be Eastman, and if you plan to use it
completely developed to a reversal for printing, consult the printing lab.
image and then dried in a total time High-contrast negatives and posi-
of about 11 minutes. This film is tives are made in both 16mm and
rated at 80 and is also available at a 35mm.
rating of 200. Film stock which is sensitive to
For special effects it is sometimes infrared radiation rather than to visi-

desired to have an extra-high con- ble light is available from Eastman in
trast in a black-and-white stock. This both 35mm and 16mm. The creative
uses of such film have hardly been this film, it is also possible to illumi- 45
explored at all, although technical ap- nate a dark room with invisible in-
plications are quite common. Out- frared radiation and still be able to
door scenes come out looking very photograph. Its exposure index is
strange, with brilliant white foliage, about 80 for daylight and 200 for
very black skies, and black bodies of tungsten. If you want to use this
water. Scenes in which there is a stock be sure to consult a copy of
great deal of visible haze come out Kodak's data pamphlet, ''Infra-
crisp and clear to the farthest detail. red and Ultraviolet Photography"
Shots of faces show a pale skin, with ($1.00), since there are some special
lips almost as light, and eyeballs that procedures involved in using this
are almost completely black. Using material.
a correct exposure is one that
6 running speed is 24 fps, yielding an
looks good to you. In determining effective shutter speed of 1/80 of a
what exposure level to use in a shot, second. The question now is what T
the use of a meter which measures stop to set the lens diaphragm at.
the amount of light is essential. But (T stops are measures of the actual
the meter does not know what your amount of light passed by the lens
intentions are for the photographic at different exposure settings. T

appearance of the shot. It is capable stops are gradually replacing the tra-
only of measuring the amount of ditional F stops, which were based on
light available for exposure, and the calculatinghow much light the lens
lens settings that you use depend on would pass. The T stop numbers are
what tonal effects you want. a standardized series that run: T 1.4,
Here is a good example of the sub- T T 2.8, T 4, T 5.6, T 8, T 11, T 16,
2,
jectivity of exposure. The shot is of and T 22. Not all lenses have the ca-
a person at the edge of the water. The pability of this wide a range of T
sun is coming from behind the per- stops, but all lenses are marked with
son, more or less, so there is a bright numbers from this series, whether
sunny sparkle on the water. The film they are calibrated in T stops or in
is color, rated at 25, and the camera- F stops. The amount of light trans-
exposure control
exposure control
mitted by a particular T stop is twice because there are two major areas of 47
that of the T stop number to the interest in the shot, the figure and the
right, and half that of the T stop background, and each has a very dif-
number to the left. Thus, if we were ferent degree of brightness from the
shooting at T 4, and needed to pass other. The frame exposed at T 11 is
twice as much light onto the film, we a very good-looking silhouette of the
would open up to T 2.8. If we then figure against a background of the

needed to double the amount of light water. The frame exposed at T 8 is a
once more, we would open up to T 2, compromise for both areas and looks
and so forth.) Suppose we take one like an everyday pretty picture. The
frame at T 22, the smallest stop on frame exposed at T 5.6 shows good
the lens, then another frame at T 16, detail in the figure, even though its
and so on down the line to T 1.4, in surfaces are in shadow, and the water
which case the lens is wide open. We loses pictorial importance and merely
now have nine frames, each exposed suggests bright sun and water as a
to twice the amount of the previous background. Which of the three pic-
one, and somewhere between the two torial effects described you want for
extremes we might expect to find the your film depends on your personal
correctly exposed frame. But when preference and how the shot is to fit
we examine the developed strip of in with the rest of the film. By using
film, there are at least three good- an exposure meter in a knowledge-
looking frames out of the nine; thus able way, any of these three tonal
there were three "correct" exposure effects could be obtained at will.
settings for the shot. This is possible An exposure meter is a fairly sim-
Exposing for good water detail results in a sil-
houette of the figure.
A compromise exposure halfway between. (Re-

flected fill light on the figure would bring figure
and background brightness levels within the

range of the film stock.)
Exposing for skin tone of the face washes out

background.
exposure control
pie device that responds to the between black and white. This is a 49
amount of light present in terms of very satisfactory method for the ma-
how far up a numerical scale its jority of photographic situations.
pointer moves. The calculator dial on But what do you do when you
the meter is then set to the pointer's want a predominant area of the pic-
indication, and a T stop and shutter- ture to come out white, such as a
speed combination yielding the "cor- snowbank, or black, such as a title
rect" exposure is then indicated by background? Here is the method:

the dial. The important thing to note You take a reading of the snowbank
here is that the meter is responding (which would reproduce it as a mid-
to the light present, not to a subject. dle tone) and then deliberately in-
It does not know if your subject is a crease the exposure over what the
white snowman in dim light, or a meter indicated. Increasing the expo-
dark scarecrow in bright light. If you sure two stops (in reversal color)
take a reading of either of them with would render the snow white. In the
a type of meter that measures light case of the black background for the
reflected by the subject, they both titles, you would again take a reading
might read the same. (The other type of the subject, but in this case you
of meter measures light falling on would reduce the exposure by about
the subject, and is called an incident three stops to render the background
light meter.) The reflected light me- as black. Exactly how much to shift
ter will give you a reading which will the actual lens setting open or closed
reproduce the predominant area of is a matter of experience with the
the scene as a middle tone, halfway particular film stock and laboratory
50 processing you are using. The gen- Let's use this technique on the
eral rule of thumb is that if you start scene of the figure by the water. If a
with a middle-tone subject (such as middle-tone exposure of the figure is
a tan face) you can render it photo- desired, the meter reading should
graphically as white by overexposing be taken of the figure only. Bring the
it two stops, and black by underex- meter right up close to the figure,
posing it three stops. Lest this seem where all it will measure is the bright-
arbitrary to the reader and cause him ness of its surface. Setting the lens
to look for a meter that will give him based on this exposure reading will
a correct exposure reading directly, automatically render the figure as a
it must be repeated that all any type middle tone. (If you were using a
of meter can do is measure the light camera with an automatic metering

present, and that it has no way of system built in, you would then
knowing what it is pointed at or how manually lock the lens setting to the
you want your subject to be photo- T stop indicated by the closeup read-
graphically reproduced. Since the ing.) You then move back to the pre-
majority of subjects a meter is likely vious camera position and make the
to be pointed at will look properly shot. The reason you cannot make
exposed if they are reproduced as a the exposure reading from the cam-
middle tone, the meters are calibrated era-shooting position is that from
to indicate that automatically —and there the meter would include, as
if you want some other tonal effect, about half of the area it saw, the very
you use that reading as a reference bright light from the water, and
point and make alterations accord- would give a setting that would not
ing to your desires. render the figure as a middle tone.
exposure control
Now, suppose you wanted to recording to how much lighter or 51

produce the foreground figure as a darker you wish it to appear.
silhouette against the water. You In studio work where large num-
would then take a meter reading of bers of lighting units must be set to
the figure only and deliberately set predetermined levels, the incident
the lens for three stops less exposure type of light meter is most commonly
than indicated for a middle tone. used. The incident light meter is put
If you deem the figure and the where the subject will be and aimed
water background equally important, at the camera position. The meter
then you would take a meter reading thus is measuring the amount of light
from the camera position, which falling on the subject (not reflected
would average the two areas of from it), and as the subject is darker
brightness to give you a compromise or lighter, it will reflect less or more
exposure. The figure would then be light and be rendered properly on
about one T stop darker than middle film. For work under a wide variety
tone, and the water about one stop of non-studio applications, the re-
lighter. flected light meter is more versatile
To sum up, when you want a par- than the incident type, and is the
ticular area of illumination in the type built into both amateur and pro-
frame to appear as a particular tone fessional cameras.
of light or dark, you take a meter In Chapter 4 a situation was men-

reading of that area only, knowing tioned in which a person is seen in
that this reading will render the area what is purportedly the dark; but it
as a middle tone, and then open up is desired that a change in expression

or close down the lens opening ac- be visible in the face. Careful use of
52 a meter will enable you to make such opening at T 5.6, what we need is
shots with no special difficulty. First an amount' of light full on the face
you set the rim lighting up on the which gives an indicated exposure on
figure to a level where it will repro- the meter of T 2.8. Thus, since we
duce as a middle tone. This can be are shooting at T 5.6, we are under-
done by going right up close to the exposing two stops. The edge-lit area
actor and measuring the light inten- of the figure is normally exposed and
sity on the side of his face toward the the full-face area is deliberately two
rim lights. Then take the T stop indi- stops underexposed. The effect of the
cated and set the lens to that. Let us shot will be, however, just what we
assume the meter said T 5.6. The wanted.
next thing to set is the fill light for A favorite lighting scheme in pro-
the face so that the expressions can fessional films being shot in sunlight
be seen. This light should be diffused is to stage the action so that for the
by some sort of scrim so that it will most part the sun is to one side of
be very soft-looking, but this is not or behind the actors, functioning as
absolutely necessary. What is critical a rim or contour light. Then the
7
is getting just the right amount of un- shadow areas of the actors faces are
derexposure on the front of the face. filled in with enough artificial light
Four stops under would be quite to render them pleasantly visible.
black, three stops under very nearly Here is why all the effort of using
black, and two stops underexposure fill light is worth it in an extended
would be just about right. Since we sequence of shots — say, where two
have already established our lens people at the beach are talking. If
exposure control
we start the -sequence with an es- audience, the background and the 53
tablishing long shot of the couple, contour-light illuminations would be
we would have to expose for the going up and down at almost every
overall light value of the scene, since, other change of shot, and this would
in the establishing shot, their physi- certainly spoil the whole dramatic
cal surroundings are more important effect the actors and director worked
than they are. Then, as the dialogue so hard for. The solution for the film
progresses, the audience gets more maker is to use just enough fill light
and more interested in what they are on the faces and figures so that they
saying and how each is reacting to are readily visible and attractive, and
the other. Therefore the camera at an exposure setting that is com-
would be moved in for much closer patible with that required by the
shots of the couple, but since the background and contour lighting.
faces are in their own shadows we Thus a balance between the levels
cannot see them well enough. Open- of illumination in the scene can be
ing up the lens a couple of stops set up, and a constant T stop used
solves that, but now the contour throughout the various shots of the
lighting from the sun is too bright sequence. This is one of the cases we
and so is the ocean or sky area be- will encounter in this book in which
hind the couple. Then, as the man motion-picture photography varies
stands up, we cut to a shot from far- from still photography, due to the
ther back and must change the ex- fact that movies are perceived as a
posure again. If this sequence were continuum, rather than as separate
edited into the form seen by the shots. A realistic-looking balance
54 between the faces and backgrounds good take. This is a very good way
could be gotten by basing the expo- of handling such things as sunsets,
sure on the background and illumi- cities at dawn and at dusk, shots of
nating the faces to one stop less ex- the sun itself, and certainly wher-
posure than that. In this way the ever a variety of exposures would
sense of sunshine in the background yield a variety of usable effects.
and the sense of shade in the fore- In cases where no accurate read-
ground would not be spoiled by the ings can be taken, and where, in
artificial overtheatrical appearance addition, the shots involve a lot of
that would be obtained if we bal- action that would be disastrous and
anced faces and background to the costly to restage, and are of such
same level of illumination. length that it would cost too much
In some situations there is no rea- to run the scene at several exposures,
sonable way of making an exposure there is a commonly used technique

measurement. Such a case would be which will usually give good results.
a pattern made of pinholes punched Shoot a short test roll of the area in
in a piece of metal, with the illumina- which the action is to be staged, or

tion coming through the pinholes. of the unusual subject matter, and
Fortunately, exposure setting on this try every possible exposure you think
kind of subject is not very critical. might have any value. Projecting this
If the shot is fairly brief, and is easily and seeing what works out before
repeatable, then the cost of shooting you do extensive and expensive
it three times at three different trial- shooting will let you determine just
exposure settings is negligible com- how the scene should be photo-
pared to the assurance of getting a graphed.
55
a Imong the many reasons for

7 his eyes narrow in anticipation. This
film's being an interesting medium is shot is medium-close, and perhaps

its ability to be an ideal viewer. The the camera has now turned around
camera's vantage point can always from looking at the pitcher and is
be the best place to see any part of a shooting in the opposite direction,
series of actions. If we compare a toward the crowd. In the next shot
film of some actions in a baseball the pitcher throws the ball, with a
game to what a person in the stands very hard snap of his arm. The flight
could see of those same actions, the of the ball is the next factor of in-
difference in vision is quite startling. terest, and it would be well to pick
The pitcher takes hold of the ball. a camera angle that shows whether
The camera shot of this is a big close- or not the ball really did curve after
up showing that he is holding it in all. This could be done by shooting
such a way as to throw a curve ball. from the pitcher's viewpoint, and
He winds up. This shot shows him in since the ball would be receding di-
full figure, so we can see the details rectly away from the lens, any curv-
of the lifting of his knee for balance ing in its path would show clearly.
and the twisting of his shoulders as The disadvantage of this viewpoint,
he gets ready to unleash the ball. The however, would be that the ball
batter tenses his grip on the bat, and would also appear to be getting
looking at action
56 smaller, and the batter, who is now his glove for the ball. This is shot
more important than the pitcher, from his side so that the extension
would be a small figure in the back- of his glove hand, although very
ground, while the pitcher would be slight, is easily noticed. To show that
a large figure in the foreground. Put- this allows the sun to get in his eyes,
ting the camera where it could see we need a closeup of his face with
the ball coming head on would be a the shadow of the glove moving
better solution. We could see that the away from his eyes. We then could
ball does curve; we see it approach use a shot looking over his shoulder
the plate; the bat swings into the ball up into the air with his glove at first
and knocks it high into the air. The blocking out the sun —then, as the
next shot shows an outfielder looking glove moves, the sun would shine di-
up and shading his eyes from the sun rectly into the camera lens, creating
with his glove. In the meantime the a dazzle. Then we could use a shot of
batter is running for first base. We the ball plopping to the ground next
switch back to the fielder, who is just to his feet. His hand reaches into the
reaching to catch the ball. As he does, camera frame of view and grabs the
the sun gets in his eyes, and he ball. The next shot is from the stands;
misses the catch. This last sentence it shows him throwing the ball to
of description needs at least three second base just as the runner is
shots to show clearly all that hap- making a dash for it.
pened, just as the sentence itself is The series of shots that could be
divided into three parts by the com- made to show whether or not the
mas. The fielder starts to reach out runner made it safely to second base
looking at action
would involve clear thinking about extra perception and think very fast 57
what aspects of the action are most about what aspects of reality you
important or most interesting, and want to film.
then imagining these from various What we have done in the baseball
camera vantage points. Playing these sequence just described is to take
imaginary shots quickly through what is purportedly a continuous line
your mind enables you to choose the of action and break it up into com-
ones which will show best what hap- ponent pieces, each of which we
pened. The ability to do this well can photographed from the vantage point
only be developed through experi- and distance that best showed that
ence, but understanding the principle particular part of the action. Later
of the ideal viewer can make your on, in the editing stage, we will take
experience much more rewarding. these pieces and reassemble them

This principle is so basic to filmic de- into an apparently continuous action.
sign that it hardly matters what your As the viewer sees the film, he will
subject is, or what style of film you be seeing the game from the pitcher's
are making. In a film that is acted point of view, then from the um-
out, there is time to think about what pire's, then from the fielder's (and
aspects of a larger field of action you exactly why he missed the ball), and
want to show. You can even write then from a fan's point of view in the
them down and consider that a shoot- stands — all in addition to possessing
ing script. In documentary work you a magical ability to be instantly at
don't know what is going to happen, just the right place to see each detail
so you have to look at things with of the action as it unfolds. There
58 probably is no principle of the craft difficult. Her hand is shaking, her

of film-making more important than finger misses the right dial hole, and
this fragmenting of reality for later when she finally dials the number
reassembly into a filmic form. she is going to be impatient to have
A variation of the kind of filmic someone answer it quickly. How can
designing we have been exploring is we show this? Perhaps a shot of her
the insertion of visual details into a biting her lip. When somebody does
series of overall shots of activity. answer the phone, she is relieved and
Suppose the scene is one in which grateful. The telephone itself be-
there has been somebody badly hurt, comes a friend in crisis, and she holds
and a woman phones for an ambu- it with both hands. These visual de-
lance. We could shoot the overall tails can be inserted into the already
scenes on the basis of showing her shot overall actions during the edit-
making a phone call, talking, and ing of the film. They are of vital im-
then hanging up. Having completed portance in expressing the woman's
this, we could go back and shoot de- emotional state to the audience, and
tails to be cut into the otherwise con- in inviting the audience's empathy.
tinuous scene of making the call. We In the previous example it really
first ask ourselves, What are we try- didn't matter whether this was a pre-
ing to show here in terms of feeling, planned scene done by an actress or
as well as action? She's probably very one that really happened just as de-
upset, scared, in a hurry to get medi- scribed. In either case the filmic think-
cal help. The otherwise ordinary act ing is the same. The inserts might
of dialing a number is suddenly very have been called for in the script if it
looking at action
were an acted film, or the director camera is placed so that the kicks 59
could have thought of them after the come toward the lens, the impression
overall scenes had just been com- is one of attack and the viewer will
pleted. If the scene really occurred tend to flinch, even if subconsciously.
and was covered by a documentary An extreme example of this relation-
film-maker, he would have noticed ship is the difference between the

those vital details and made a point camera's being in the plane that is
of getting shots that showed them. dropping bombs —thus seeing the
But whatever the conditions were, explosions as pretty patterns on the
somebody —whether scriptwriter, di- ground far below —and its being next
rector, or cameraman —had to think to a group of people on the ground
of those detail shots. who are blown apart by the bomb.
Where the camera is in relation to The term "camera angle" is most
action can make the difference be- often used in reference to the graphic
tween a shot expressing your inten- composition of a shot, but its real
tion and expressing just the opposite. importance lies in how it shows what
In karate practice the kicks are not is happening. In documentary films
actually aimed at anyone; in filming showing squalid living conditions the
such a scene, if your camera angle cameraman often makes the serious
shows the kicks going into empty mistake of framing and composing
space, the viewer will get the impres- his shots according to his usual habit
sion of futility and lack of real physi- of making his photography look
cal threat in the person doing the good, and as a result what he gets on
kicking. On the other hand, if the the screen gives a far more pleasant
60 and ordered impression than is true and down motion present. If you
of the real environment. This exam- were to film this action with the cam-
ple is not meant to suggest that the era held stationary, the swing, in re-
solution is to get sloppy. Instead, it lation to the borders of the frame,
points out that the film-maker's cam- would be seen to move up and down
era technique should be appropriate on the screen, in addition to appear-
to the feeling he wants his images to ing to move forward and backward.
The point of good
give the viewer. This is not just an academic observa-
cinematography is to make the au- tion. It means a lot of things, because
dience see and feel, and whatever this shot in your film will be pre-
camera techniques will accomplish ceded by a shot and followed by
this are good techniques for the oc- another, thus creating a context of
casion. motions. For example, this shot
One of the most important aspects could be intercut very smoothly with
of any motion is its direction. Learn- a see-saw which is also going up and
ing to see motion in terms of its down. Looking at the swing from the
direction on the screen is a prime side shows an arc as the direction of
part of the film-maker's craft. A good motion, with the two ends of the arc
subject is a playground set of chil- higher than the middle. If you are
dren on swings. Looking at the going to intercut this with a girl
swinging action from directly in dancing, then getting a shot of one

front of a single swing, you will see of her movements making a similar
the swing come toward you and then arc will flow smoothly with your
recede. But there is also a major up swing shot. You can get still another
looking at action
direction of swingmotion by climb- quickly more will be revealed. For 61

ing up on the swing's framework example, a couple is walking toward
and shooting down, with the camera an apparently abandoned barn. Then,
held so that the direction of the in a fairly close shot of an edge of
swinging motion is from side to side. the barn, we see a rifle barrel slowly
Or rotate the camera one quarter- poking around the corner. More and
turn, and the motion will sweep up more of it comes into view, then the
and down the screen, giving a much brim of a battered hat, a nose, and
more dynamic up and down than then a suspicious-looking face. Ob-
that of the first camera angle men- viously a great deal of the interest of
tioned. The camera allows the film- this scene is due to the controlled
maker to take great liberties with revealing of the person with the rifle.
7
"reality/ It should be apparent from The simple act of training the camera
the preceding examples that any sin- on the edge of the barn so that the
gle motion can be made to go in any lens could not see all of the rifleman
screen direction you want, simply by at once made all the difference in
your choice of camera position in the effect of the shot. The results of
relation to the action. this technique, widely used in theat-

When the film-maker wants to rical films, rarely fail to appeal to the
present a person or happening by peek-a-boo instinct. For example, in
degrees, rather than all at once, he those horror films where we get only
can place his camera and frame the glimpses of a scaly hand or an evil
shot in such a way as to control what eye, the director accomplishes two
the audience will see, and just how purposes at once. Our curiosity is
62 aroused to a high degree about what opportunity of playing on the au-

the monster looks like, and the reve- dience's suspense as to whether any-
lation of the complete monster itself, body will volunter and, even more
on whose appearance so much effort importantly, miss giving the audi-
was expended by the special-effects ence a good visual surprise when

crew, is spread out in time through- some one does say he will do it. But,
out the film, and thus made to last by setting the camera just above
much longer than if it had been head level of the crowd, looking out
effected right from the beginning. over their faces, you could then have
One important kind of action in the person who is going to volunteer
film is often overlooked by film mak- be standing right in front of the cam-
ers. This involves persons or things era but with his head just outside its
coming into the frame of view or frame of view. The voice of the
out of it. Let us imagine a scene speaker asks for volunteers. Among
where a man is making a militant the faces in the crowd we see no one
speech to a cluster of excited people responding. Will anybody? A face
in front of him. He winds up his bobs up excitedly into the frame, al-
appeal by asking for a volunteer to most filling it, and shouts Yes, he
parachute onto the Pentagon. No- will do it. The visual act of the huge
body answers. Then a man leaps up face popping up into view unex-
out of the crowd and says with great pectedly and filling the entire screen
emotion that he will do it. Now, if is a very strong happening and ap-
you shoot this scene from a general propriate to the drama of the situa-
overall viewpoint, you will miss the tion. The effect is achieved by think-
looking at action
ing in terms of where the camera is watch time required is about a half 63
placed and where its limits of the second. This is only twelve frames
edge of the frame are. Selective fram- of film at sound speed, and on the
ing is an extremely powerful filmic screen it is gone in a flash.
technique, applicable to a wide Another reason for the apparent

variety of film subjects. It is not used speedup of action in large closeup
nearly as often as it should be. The is that the screen speed of a motion
film-maker should bear in mind that is increased in proportion to the en-
what is deliberately excluded from largement caused by a small detail's
the frame of view is sometimes as being blown up to huge dimensions.
important as what is included. The action of lighting a match, for
A peculiar and disconcerting thing example, when seen on the screen as
often happens in closeup shots of ac- a large closeup, is accelerated several
tion. On the screen they just happen times beyond its normal apparent
too fast to be appreciated. For exam- speed as seen at arm's length.
ple, a man is shown getting on his This is one of many cases where
motorcycle, and then there are big action in a large closeup will look
closeups of the key turning the igni- much better if you can stage it slower
tion on, and his leg cranking down than it is normally performed. Tele-
the kick starter. In real life, kicking vision-commercial makers are well
the engine over is a special gesture in aware of this phenomenon and often
which there is a kind of physical use mild degrees of slow-motion
satisfaction. As a result, the rider photography to make visually satis-
doesn't notice that the actual stop- fying the pouring of some liquid, or
64 some granulated or cereal product be moving across the screen in the

(see Chapter 15 on special visual ef- opposite direction. A shot of the
fects). A similar example is filming a driver of a car, taken from the seat
girl brushing her long hair. One beside him, shows a stationary driver
thinks of this in sensuous terms and and car, but the background slides
expects that closeups showing tex- by in the direction opposite to the
ture and sheen would have this feel- supposed direction of the car's move-
ing. But the hand and brush will al- ment. If there were no background
most certainly seem, on the screen, seen out the window, then the shot
to be jumping around much too fast would look the same whether the
and over-energetically, unless the car was moving or not. What this
girl brushes very slowly, or you means in principle is that we can

shoot in slow motion. control an audience's perceptions of
Motion of an object is seen only motion by means of manipulating
in relation to other objects. This de- the relativity of the pictorial clues by
ceptively simple proposition is the which motion is perceived. Many
basis for a great deal of creative spectacular examples are seen in the
accomplishment in films. For exam- feature film 2001 : A Space Odyssey.
ple, if an object is moving, but the A man is seen to fly toward the lens
camera is moving exactly with it, the in a horizontal chamber of a space
move on the
object will not appear to vehicle in which, because he is
screen at The reason that we

all. weightless, he may freely tumble
would perceive the object moving about in midair. The illusion that he
anyway is that its background would is weightless in a horizontal chamber
looking at action
is created by tilting the chamber set- bottom of the screen, the only ex- 65
up into a vertical position, putting planation for the stewardess' motion,
the camera at the bottom looking relative to the borders of the screen
straight up, and suspending the actor and of the room, is that she is walk-
from a wire, on the end of which he ing up the wall.
may freely revolve. His own body We, and a great deal of the world
blocks the view of the suspending around us, are in motion all the time.
wire. At another point in the same Film-making is a craft that uses mo-
film, a stewardess is seen to walk up tion as one of its basic ingredients.
the side of a curved wall, and she Orchestrating motions into visual
continues until she is walking upside experiences of beauty and perception

down on the ceiling. In actuality she is one of the major things a film-
remains vertical, and the whole fore- maker can undertake. Understand-
ground of the set, with the camera ing that all motions are parts of
mounted firmly onto it, revolves in either larger or smaller motions is
the opposite direction. Since the au- not easy. The movement of a crowd
dience in the theater has no way of is made up of the movement of peo-
knowing which way is up or down ple, and the movement of people is
(in real life the pull of gravity on our made up of movements of parts of
bodies tells us), it assumes that down their bodies, and so on down to in-
is at the bottom of the screen, and visible atomic levels. Developing an

since they see the whole foreground ability to abstract from a sea of mo-
of the set remaining firmly oriented tions just those that will express
with the bottom of the room at the intent is basic to film-making.
I e have simplified the analy-
8 tail of one surfer and his board, you
sis of motion so far by assuming that could switch over to a telephoto lens
only the subject moves and that the that could show him full frame, and
camera remains stationary. Just as as he picks up a wave and starts mov-
often, both the camera and its sub- ing, you pan the camera to the left
ject are in motion during a shot. The along with him as smoothly as pos-
most basic reason for moving the sible. What you get on the screen
camera is to keep a moving subject then is an almost stationary surfer
in the center of the field of view. standing on his board while a lot of
Let's say we are filming surfers and turbulent ocean slides rapidly past
that the camera is set up on a pier, him. In other words, by the simple
giving a good view down the beach. act of following him with the camera
In a wide-angle shot we see the com- frame, you have reversed the fields
plete scene, with the surfers picking of motion on the screen. A surfer
up waves and riding them in (in who is riding toward your left be-
some cases), and the people on the comes stationary in the middle of
sand watching. No need to move the the screen, and the ocean roars by in
camera in this circumstance. But in the opposite direction, to screen right.

order to get a closer view of the de- As we have seen in the previous
moving camera
moving camera
chapter, the screen motions of a shot sliding surfaces that are greased. The 67
become very important when you amount of pressure on the pan han-
are editing the shot into a sequence, dle required to rotate or tilt the cam-
and you must become aware of screen era can be adjusted by large knobs,
motion if you are going to take ad- which, if turned to their maximum,
vantage of it.
will lock the camera firmly in posi-
A professional approach to shoot- tion. This type of pan head is com-
ing the surfing scenes just mentioned monly called a friction head, since it
includes using a good tripod and pan depends on varying degrees of fric-
head. Although tripods are an extra tion between its sliding surfaces for
piece of hardware to lug around and smooth camera motions. Another
are at best clumsy and slow to set up, type of pan head is called a fluid
there are times when you've just got head, because moving the pan han-
to use them. In this particular case, dle forces oil through an opening,
there is plenty of time to set the the size of which can be adjusted
tripod up, and it will be a great help for different rates of motion. This
in getting really good shots. Profes- fluid or hydraulic resistance to mov-
sional tripods are heavy-duty de- ing the camera is very even, and it
vices, and they differ most from makes very smooth pans and tilts
those used by still photographers in quite easy to accomplish. Going to all
the design of the pan head on which this trouble to achieve a super-
the camera is bolted. This pan head, smoothness in camera motion may
vital to the smoothness of camera seem compulsive until one realizes
motion, is usually made with large that whatever jerkiness and clumsi-
68 ness appear in the pan of the surfer Running after him in slow motion is
shows up on the screen as jerkiness the husband, arms reaching forward,

and clumsiness in the motion of the but seeming to make little progress
surfer. Very probably, part of the in catching up. By having the camera
meaning of the shot was how great move along with the photographer
it is to be in the middle of a crashing we give the viewer a different feeling
surf, riding on a little board with than if the camera stood back and
such skill and grace that you are merely panned to follow them. For
truly a king of the waves. If the one thing the composition of the
screen image of the surfer jiggles all shot can be set up to show the girl's
over the screen in hesitant jerks, this head and hair hanging limply in a
meaning is entirely blown. lower corner of the frame, while the

Many times you want to move the photographer's evil face presses for-
camera along with the action. There ward with confident power at the
are a number of ways this can be upper half of the frame. Being able
done. Let us say the scene is part of to show these things clearly is more
a man's fearful fantasy that the pho- important than showing the physical
tographer his wife works for is progress of the trio through the cem-
carrying her off for himself. This etery, and therefore a tracking shot
scene is staged in a huge cemetery is much more appropriate to the
with clusters of tombstones about meaning of the sequence than a pan-
as high as a man. The photographer ning shot. Since this sequence is to
is dressed in white satin, and in his be construed as a fantasy, it will not
arms he carries the helpless girl. do to have the audience feel they are
Pro-Jr. fluid head tripod.

moving camera
looking at the action; instead, by runs will seem to remain almost sta- 69
tracking the camera, they will be tionary, further emphasizing his dif-
more likely to feel they are being ficulty in catching up. (See diagram.)
carried along in the action. Making smooth tracking shots
An even more subtle use of a can of course be done by setting up
tracking camera can be made in special rails on which there runs a
shooting the pursuing husband. In little rubber-tired vehicle supporting
contrast to the confidence shown in the camera and perhaps a camera-
the face of the photographer, we see man and assistant also. This is so
here extreme consternation, a dream- costly and time-consuming that it is
like sense of frustration, an inability done only when absolutely neces-

to move up, catch the evil one and sary. There are special camera dol-
get his wife back. If we track him lies made for studio use that roll
from the side he will be seen to make smoothly as long as the floor is
pretty good progress against his smooth. Aside from these solutions,
background of tombstones. But if we there are some improvisational ways
roll the camera forward a little faster of making good tracking shots which
than he is going we will be leaving cost little or nothing. A favorite
him slowly behind, which is exactly technique of French directors is to
the feeling we want the audience to use a wheelchair for the camera dolly
have. Also, if we pan the camera to and have the cameraman sit in the
keep him in frame as we pass him, chair and hand-hold the camera. A
the geometry of the shot is such that wheelchair is very good for a num-
the tombstones he is passing as he ber of reasons, the first of which is
background object
subject motion
* v v v
Camera trucking motion.
(Small arrows show direction of

slow camera pan to left
at successive subject
positions ABCDE.)
70 its ability to turn on a dime. It is also ice. The main secret is having the
very light, is designed to be pushed, cameramen hand-hold the camera.
and in many cases is even collapsi- The whole professional attitude
ble, so that it can fit into the trunk toward hand-holding the camera has
of a car. It has very large rear wheels changed radically. The tradition was
(where all the weight is) that roll that it was not done. But docu-
just
easily over cracks and small dips. mentary and news cameraman often
Having the cameraman hand-hold had to do so despite this tradition,
the camera rather than mount it and they discovered that holding a
firmly on the frame of the wheel- camera very steady could be learned,
chair makes for a smoother motion, as one acquires an athletic skill. The
because the man's body acts as a design of the 16mm and 35mm Arri-
natural shock absorber, thus insulat- flex cameras included features mak-
ing the camera from sharp vibra- ing hand-holding quite satisfactory
tions. Another handy camera dolly with certain lenses. In their quest for
is the kind of plywood plank with new ways of making the camera
little rollers on it that mechanics use actively expressive, the independent,
to slip underneath cars with. The experimental, and advertising film-
cameraman can lie on his back and makers discovered that hand-hold-
scoot along, getting a very low angle ing the camera, and using the body
of view for special purposes, or he as a camera mount, often gave visual
can lie on it on his belly and shoot results that were striking and useful,
straight ahead getting a cat's-eye and that could not be gotten by any
view of the floor. Almost anything of the conventional means.
with wheels can be pressed into serv- An interesting example of this
When in need of camera dolly, improvise, (photo

courtesy Greg Prentiss)
fe
72 technique would be in making shots weight tends to hold it steady, and as

for a film about the fun of riding a you bounce up and down, your ex-
motorcycle. If you want closeups of tended arm acts as a pivot in relation
the tailpipes and the rear wheel, the to the camera and therefore does not
chain driving the sprocket, the road effectively transmit your motion to
whizzing by, the rider's boot tip it. This may sound strange, but it
deftly shifting gears, his face as he was discovered by trial and error to
zips up a slope through some trees, work quite well. Since you are un-
shots showing what he sees as he able to look through the camera
skims through a long puddle in the viewfinder when shooting this way,
dirt road, then hand-holding the you must rely on simply aiming the
camera is by far the best way to get camera at the view you want. Since
them. Trying to get such shots from you are shooting things which are
a second camera vehicle is too diffi- quite close, this is an accurate enough
cult and too dangerous. Here are the method under the circumstances. An-
factors to consider so that you will other consideration is to use a wide-
get good shots. angle lens. This has two advantages,

Trying to hold the camera steady the first being that since this lens has
by bracing it against your body, a wide field of view at a short dis-
which is the usual technique when tance, it is that much easier to include
you are standing still, will be a di- what you want in the shot without
saster if you are moving on a bounc- looking through the viewfinder. The
ing vehicle. The secret is to hold the second advantage is that it greatly
camera out at arm's length, where its reduces the remaining jiggle to the
moving camera
point where the, shots are acceptably era continues to pull back it reveals 73
steady (see Chapter 9 on lenses). that he is on the torch of the Statue
Some film-makers who have made of Liberty. What a wonderful camera
a specialty of ski cinematography platform the helicopter is! It ap-
have, in order to get steady shots proaches the ideal of a flying carpet
while skiing with the camera, taken that will support the camera eye any-
the camera-at-arm's-length idea and where and everywhere. The trouble
extended it by means of a pair of with helicopters is that they vibrate
aluminum tubes resting on the skier's a great deal. But there are very in-
shoulders, with the camera mounted genious special camera mounts made
about three feet in front of him on for helicopters that work very well.
the ends of the bars, and a counter- These mounts can be used as camera
weight three feet behind him on the stabilizers for shooting from almost
back ends. This idea could be applied any kind of camera vehicle. Prom-
to use in other rugged motion-shoot- inent among them are the Tyler Heli-
ing situations, perhaps horseback copter System, and the F.&B./Ceco
riding and running over rough ter- Aero-Vision Helicopter Mount. Rent-
rain. als would be roughly $150 per day.
There is a shot in a feature film, A moving-camera shot is particu-
The President's Analyst, which starts larly useful when it represents the
out as a closeup of the hero's face; subjective viewpoint of the person in
then the camera starts to pull back the film. Fleeing from pursuers, the
and we see that he is standing on camera may charge through a field of
some sort of structure. As the cam- high weeds. Falling from an airplane,
74 the camera can become a sky diver. wounded men, and still more, and
Or it can put on a face plate and go when we .think we have seen them
exploring under water. In the midst all, the shot continues to pull back
of a fight it is often called upon to and up and show even more wounded
take a few punches. In a waterproof men lying in the sun. The impression
plastic housing, it can be attached to of the vast number of casualties is
the front of a surfboard and either much more effectively communicated

look ahead, simulating the view of than if the shot had started out show-
the surfer, or look back and see the ing the whole field at once.
surfer's footwork. Another reason for moving the
In a moving-camera shot the fram- camera is to obtain close views of
ing is constantly changing, so that your subjects and still show their
selective framing, which was dis- exact physical spacing in relation to

cussed in Chapter 7, can be obtained each other. If you want to show a
by moving the camera over a sta- line of police blocking the entrance
tionary field, thus enabling the film- to a school, it is not quite as effective
maker to introduce picture informa- to build the sequence up out of sta-
tion at a controlled rate. For example, tionary closeups as it is to backtrack

in Gone With the Wind, we see a in close along the line of faces. The
shot of a few nurses tending the same sort of reasoning would apply
wounded men laid out in a railroad also to a sequence involving a chorus
yard. The camera begins slowly to line or field hands picking strawber-
pull back and lift up at the same time. ries, or an office filled with girls sit-
As the frame of view widens and ting at typewriters.

travels over the ground we see more By far the most widely useful and
moving camera
versatile camera mount for moving or lowered within the range of your 75
shots is your own body (provided height can be made as smoothly with
you are using a lif table camera). your body as with a very elaborate
When making panning shots, do so crane. It takes a little practice and
by pivoting your whole self, rather care, but it can be done well. Profes-
than just turning the camera. With a sional film-makers often cover a sub-
little practice you will find that pans ject first with conventional shooting
can be made as smoothly by this just to make sure they have usable
method as with a good tripod (pro- footage; then they start playing with
vided you are not using a telephoto unusual and difficult shots for fun,
lens). To move from one side of room in the expectation that some of them
to the other, take long sliding steps, will not only work but will be espe-
and do not rest the camera against cially good. Try playing with camera
your head but hold it slightly away, motion next time you are shooting;
and you will not jar it so much. Shots you may well discover something
that call for the camera to be raised new.
76
b *
eing able to use a variety of
9 use the same focal length to project
lenses in making a film is a tremen- it with, and stand next to the projec-
dous aid in getting visually exciting tor, from that distance it will appear
footage. Since we will be looking into to be in "normal" perspective. The
all sorts of lenses of other than nor- audience, however, is not standing
mal focal length, we need to establish by the projector, but is on the aver-
what is meant by "normal." age, midway between the projector
It might seem logical that a normal and the screen; thus, using a projec-
lens would be one that sees the same tion lens of twice the focal length of
angle of view as our eyes. This angle the camera lens compensates for this
of view is about 180 °, or a half circle. and the perspective appears normal
But a camera lens with this field of to the audience. Once we have estab-
view would be called a superwide lished the focal length of the projec-
angle lens. What is considered a nor- tor lens and the general viewing dis-
mal lens in cinematography is one tance of the audience, then using

that is half the focal length of the lenses of different focal length on the
projector's lens. The idea behind this camera will produce varying effects
is that no matter what focal length on the screen.
of lens you use to make a shot, if you The focal length of a normal lens
lenses and
perspective
lenses and perspective
in35mm is 50 millimeters. In 16mm This is why a tripod was recom- 11

itis a 25mm lens, and in 8mm a mended for the panning telephoto
13mm lens is considered normal. shot of the surfer in Chapter 8. The
Using these figures as a basis for telephoto lens provided the means of
comparison willmake discussion of getting a fairly close view from the
various lenses much more clear. stability of the pier, but it then im-
Let's see what can be done with posed the necessity for a very steady
telephoto lenses. If we use a lens of mount so that the shot would not jig-
twice the focal length of the normal, gle excessively.
we will get an image of the subject When a lens is focused on a sub-

twice as big as that obtained with the ject, not only will it be rendered
normal lens. At the same time, we sharp, but objects some distance in
get an angle of view half as wide. In front of and some distance behind
other words, since we have enlarged the subject will be in acceptable focus
the objects in the viewed area to also. This zone of acceptably sharp
twice their size, we can get only half focus is called the "depth of field"
as many of them in the frame. If the focus, and is an important factor in
camera is being hand-held, no matter choosing which lenses to use. Other

how steadily, the visible jiggle of the things being equal, the more power-
image is also magnified to an amount ful a telephoto you use, the shallower
twice as apparent. The more power- will be its depth of field. This means
ful the telephoto lens used, the more that if you are shooting a moving
the image is magnified and the more object whose distance from you is
any camera motion is magnified. changing, you will need to follow
78 focus during the shot to keep the ground, and the total effect would be
subject within the depth of field. one of an increased presence, or real-
Using a reflex-type camera makes ness. Or, suppose you have a couple
this much easier since you can see walking through the woods, coming
exactly what the state of focus is gradually closer to the camera. By
through the viewfinder. The shallow using a telephoto, you can put what-
depth of field of the telephoto lens is ever attractive foliage you want be-
very often used to advantage. Sup- tween the camera and the couple, and
pose you want a shot of a pretty girl. since this will be radically out of
Instead of having the camera close to focus, it will provide a good-looking

her and using a normal lens, you impressionistic pattern of leaf color
could move the camera back twice as and give a heightened sense of the
far, come back in optically by using couple's being in the woods.
a telephoto lens of twice the focal Another use of the shallow depth
length of a normal one; her face on of field of the telephoto lens is selec-
the screen would then be the same tive focus. If you arrange various
size as if you had used the normal parts of your subject matter so that
lens, but the background of trees they are scattered at different dis-
would be greatly out of the depth of tances from the camera, you can start
field focus and would appear as an on the closest one, then, during the
impressionistic pattern of light and shot, smoothly change the focus,

color. Her head, being in sharp focus, causing that subject to go out of
would appear to stand out more focus and another part of the scene
clearly against the out-of-focus back- to come into focus. What had been
Shot with a normal focal length lens, the back-
ground is fairly sharp.
Shot with a telephoto lens, the background be-

comes impressionistic, producing a more three-
dimensional effect.
Shot with a normal focal length lens.
81
times far-
Shot with a telephoto lens from three
ther away.
*$$£'
&X sMs*H
82 just a background color blur behind relative distances between camera

the first subject can focus into a child and parts of the subject. Contrary to
playing in the grass. This is another some opinion, lenses of different
one of the many ways in which the focal length do not have different
film-maker can control the percep- perspectives. If we shot the man and
tions of the audience in a way that the extended can of beer with a tele-
is interesting to them. photo, a normal, and a wide angle
The next thing to look into is per- lens (without moving anything), the
spective, and how we can use the relative size of the can of beer and
telephoto lens in handling it. Per- the man's head would be the same in
spective is the apparent size of an all three shots. Now, let's see how
object in relation to the apparent size perspective relates to use of a tele-
of other objects at different dis- photo lens. We have a shot of a track
tances. Thus, the image of a man star running directly toward the cam-
holding a can of beer out toward the era lens, starting from a distance of
camera could be presented with the 100 yards. If we put the camera on
beer can exactly the same height as the finish line, using a normal lens,
the man's head —but moving the the image size of the runner will
camera closer and switching to a start small and get larger as he gets
wide-angle lens, we could create the closer, and when he hits the lens at
image so that the beer can was sev- the finish line, his image will have
eral times as large as the man's head. enlarged to where his belly button
Changing the perspective cannot be will fill the whole screen. Now sup-
accomplished without changing the pose we put on the camera a tele-
photo lens of six, times the normal covered only one sixth of the dis- 83
focal length. We can then back the tance between the starting line and
camera six times farther away from the camera position, which is 500
the starting line and still have the yards beyond the finish line. We got
same-size image of the runner back a new perspective by moving the
at the start line as we had with the camera from the finish line to a point
normal lens. In other words, although 500 yards beyond it. Then we got a
we've put the camera six times far- "normal" image size of the runner
ther away from the runner, we have at the start line by using a telephoto
brought his image up to six times its lens, which, by enlarging him, made
height by the telephoto lens, so in us think we were standing on the
terms of image size at the beginning finish line. The key thing to remem-
of the shot, everything looks normal. ber is that increase or decrease of
Now the runner starts and comes to- image size due to movement is a
ward the camera. This time, as he ratio of the distance of the movement
continues running, he doesn't appear to the distance of the camera from
to be getting any closer. It looks as the start of that movement. By this
though he's running hard but stay- reasoning, if we have a shot of a
ing in the same place. We think that runner standing six feet away from
he is not getting any closer, because the camera, and he comes one foot
his image is not getting any bigger. forward, we will get the small in-
His image is not getting appreciably crease of image size as if he had

bigger because even when he has run started from 600 yards away and had
the entire hundred yards he will have come 100 yards closer.
84 Another use of the properties of car is closer to the camera and just
the telephoto lens can be illustrated where ihe man is in relation to the
by the following example. A drunk cars are canceled out by the combi-
wanders out onto a busy boulevard nation of camera shooting angle and
and is to appear in imminent danger the use of the telephoto lens. The
of being run over. He eventually same thing will work on a wide vari-
makes it across to the other side, but ety of subjects, wherever you want
he apparently had a very narrow es- ambiguity as to the fore-and-aft spa-
cape. If we could see the scene from tial relations of a scene. A film joke
directly overhead it would be obvious based on the use of this principle
that the actor was skillfully thread- shows a man and woman running
ing his way between the lines of toward each other from opposite
traffic and was really in very little ends of a field, and just as they are
danger. If this scene is shot from the expected to meet they seem to pop
sidewalk, however, it is much harder through each other and continue
to see whether the drunk is directly running on across the field in oppo-
in the path of an oncoming car or site directions. They really have not
is slightly to one side of it. Now, by come within several feet of each
pulling the camera farther back from other, but the side view through the
the side of the street, and by using a telephoto successfully keeps this a
long telephoto, both the drunk and secret so that the surprise works.
all the cars on the road will appear A wide-angle lens has a much
to be in the same plane of action. The greater depth of field than a normal
visual clues that would tell us which or telephoto lens, and is often used
Shot with a telephoto, both figures appear to
be at equal distances from the camera.
The figures actually miss each other by about

four feet.
u
86 for that reason alone. This large saddle, you could move the camera
depth of field means that action can just slightly away from the horse's
often be filmed without any need belly and the whole figure of the
for follow focusing during the shot. rider, culminating in his broad-brim-
It also allows for a huge variety of med hat, would be seen in the frame.
image compositions. At a cocktail With a longer focal-length lens this
party, for example, you could make a shot would be impossible without
shot at which, close up at one side digging a hole in the ground to get
of the screen, is the martini someone far enough down to include the
is holding, in the middle of the frame whole figure in the shot.
are some people laughing, and at the The effect of a wide-angle lens on
far side of theroom someone has just motion coming toward or going
arrived in an amazing dress. Since a away from the lens is just the reverse
wide-angle lens allows you to get of the telephoto's effect. The wide-
very close to subjects and still have angle lens produces a smaller image
a somewhat overall view of them, of a given subject at a given distance
unusual angles that would be im- than does a normal lens, and so, to
possible with other lenses can be fill a frame with the subject, you will
achieved. For instance, to get a shot find yourself shooting in quite close.
of a man getting on a horse, you At these short distances, any motion
could sit on the ground under the away from you or to-
of the subject
left stirrup and aim the camera upward you will take up a relatively
ward as the boot slips into the stir- large percentage of the small dis-
rup, and as the man swings into the tance between the camera and the
subject, and therefore the motion in apparent size to the point where 87
will appear to be exaggerated. An it will fill the entire screen, and blot
example might be helpful here. Sup- out the picture.
pose you have decided on a sub- The relative size of foreground to
jective camera shot in a fist-fight background objects can be changed

sequence. The bad guy is to throw a greatly by a combination of camera
punch directly at the camera lens and placement and choice of lens. Sup-
come within a couple of inches of it. pose we have a person in the fore-
If you frame your shot to include the ground and a mountain in the back-
bad guy's chest, arm and head, and ground, and we have just filmed
if you use a normal lens, then you them with a normal lens. In this shot
will have to be about six feet away. the foreground figure stands just the
When he throws the punch his arm height of the full frame of picture. If
will extend about three feet, or half we switch over to a wide-angle lens,
the distance to the lens. His fist will the foreground figure will fill only
therefore double in apparent size, about half the frame height. we If
giving a fairly dynamic impression. then move the camera closer to him
If you use a full wide-angle lens, you (or him to it) so that he fills the
will have to move in to about three whole frame height again, the net re-
feet from the man in order to get the sult of the shot will be that the
same framing on the body as you mountain will appear only about half
had before. When he throws the as high as it did in the normal-lens
punch his fist will cover all of the shot. By a combination of lens choice
distance to the lens and will increase and camera placement we have re-
88 duced the apparent size of the moun- the shot or expands them, depending
tain. on which way the control lever is
We could do just the opposite with moved. This effect is perceived by

a telephoto lens. By using one of the audience as moving farther away
three times normal focal length, we or closer to the subject, and thus the
can enlarge the mountain to three term zoom.
times as high as it appears in the An interesting effect could be got-
normal-lens shot. We keep the fore- ten with the combination of a zoom
ground figure the height of the frame lens and a camera dolly motion. We
by moving the camera away from the could start out the shot with the lens
figure far enough so that it will fit in set in wide-angle position, and as we
the frame height. slowly pull the camera back from the
A zoom lens does not have a fixed foreground figure (which would
focal length, but is infinitely adjust- shrink him), at the same time we
able to all focal lengths within its gradually zoom the lens into tele-
zoom range. This makes it especially photo position (thus keeping the fig-
useful in situations where the cam- ure the same size). The net effect in
era-to-subject distance must remain the shot is that the mountain will
constant, since the zoom lens may be mysteriously enlarge to several times
set at a focal length that gives what- its original apparent size, while the
ever size field of view is desired. foreground figure looks on in amaze-

Changing the focal length of the ment.
zoom lens during shooting either Use of a wide-angle lens reduces
shrinks the image size of objects in apparent camera jiggle by whatever
IH
Action filmed with a telephoto lens.
%j'
/
Exactly the same action shot with a wide angle
lens from much closer to the subject.
**1 ~<
percentage shorter its focal length is saved for the points in your film 91
than a normal lens. The principle is where they will really be effective.
just the reverse of the magnification Getting from a long shot to a close
of jiggle by the telephoto lens. This is shot can be done instantly with a di-
another reason for using a wide- rect cut, and if instead, you elect to
angle lens in situations where camera go into the close shot by means of a
shaking is unavoidable, such as the zoom, there should be a good reason
motorcycle sequence in Chapter 8, or for it.
when it is desirable to walk around There are many cases where the
with the camera while shooting. This zoom lens may be used to simulate a
is a favorite technique of documen- camera-tracking shot, and of course
tary film-makers, and if they are this saves a lot of effect. This is pos-
shooting in 16mm (which is most sible when there is little or no depth
likely), they are apt to forsake all to the field of view. Zooming toward
but their 10mm wide-angle lenses a poster on a wall will look just like
for hours at a time. a tracking shot, since everything in

A zoom lens can be considered the shot is on the same plane. Zoom-
as a variable focal-length lens, since ing through a deep three-dimension-
it is more often used at a single set- al field of view such as an orchard
ting during a shot than it is used for does not look like a tracking shot at
a zooming effect. The novelty of the all; the perspective does not change
zoom effect soon wears off and be- in a zoom shot, due to the fact the
gins to annoy audiences, so it is rec- camera and subject positions remain

ommended that zoom effects be the same. In a tracking shot through
Shot with a wide-angle lens, the background ap-
pears quite distant.
Using a telephoto lens brings the background up

much closer, even though the camera has been
pulled back from the model far enough to keep
her image the same size as in the wide-angle
shot.
the orchard the alignment of trees have meaning only as a percentage 93

with trees behind them is constantly of the "normal" focal length. For ex-
changing, and persons hiding behind ample, a zoom lens for an 8mm cam-
nearby trees will become visible as era that has a maximum focal length
the camera passes those trees. of 34mm is not going to give ap-
Zoom lenses are useful, but they preciably more of a telephoto effect
do have some drawbacks. Only the than a lens of 30mm. But a minimum
very best ones are as sharp as good- wider angle of view than a lens of
quality fixed-focal length lenses. 11mm, even though in both cases the
Zoom lenses are rarely able to have absolute difference in millimeters is
maximum apertures of as much as four.

T 2, whereas fixed-focal-length Lenses for 35mm cameras are com-
lenses are commonly made in ratings monly available in ranges from
of T 1.4. Zoom lenses are quite large about 14mm wide angle to 250mm
and heavy (in the 16mm and 35mm telephoto. Since the normal lens in
models) and in cases where incon- this gauge is considered to be 50mm,
spicuousness is important they are a the 14mm lens will give you an angle
handicap. In the 8mm cameras, zoom of view about three and a half times
lenses are standard equipment at as wide as normal. The 250mm tele-
maximum apertures of T 2. These photo will magnify a subject five
come in a variety of zoom ratios times larger than normal. One of the
ranging from three to one to as high best and most commonly used zoom
as six to one. In comparing zoom lens lenses is made in a ten to one ratio
focal ranges, remember that they of 250mm to 25mm. For special

94 purposes there are both longer and 35mm. There are a number of good
shorter lenses made. An ultrawide- zoom lenses available, one of the fa-
angle 9.8mm lens can give very vorites being the 12mm to 120mm.
bizarre effects. Closeup shots of The ultrawide-angle 5.7mm lens

people's faces will be apt to look gro- costs about $600 and may be rented
tesque, with bulging noses and re- for about $7.50 per day. Extremely
ceding chins and foreheads. Shoot- long telephotos from 400mm on up

ing downward at your own feet as can be obtained for a rental of
they move will show legs apparently around $10 per day.
six feet long ending in tiny feet a One of the best values in lenses for
long distance down. At the other 16mm cameras is the line of Switar
extreme, telephotos are made as lenses made for Bolex cameras. These
long as 800mm, and if you need range in length from 10mm to 75mm
longer, a Questar telescope can be (the most commonly used range),
used. and are of first-rate quality at rela-
A first-class zoom lens for a 35mm tively low prices —around $160 per
camera costs about $1,500. They can lens. Rentals are about $3 per day.
be rented for about $40 a day. Fixed- With the recently made 8mm cam-
focal-length lenses cost between eras the zoom lens is not inter-
$100 and $400 per lens, and can be changeable with other lenses, and
rented for about $7 per day. your only special modification might
For 16mm cameras the range of be a closeup supplementary lens for
lens choices is very similar to that for shooting large closeups.
95
i n Chapter
I 7 we explored the pro-
10 and walking screen left to the fire-
cess of breaking continuous physical place to put a log on the fire. Since
reality up into photographic pieces, we have wisely shot an overlap of the
or shots, so as to obtain an ideal view action of his rising from the couch
of each part of the action. A major we can theoretically cut from the first
consideration in editing these pieces shot to the second anywhere during

of film into an effective whole is the the overlapping action and maintain
matching of the action that is occur- a logical physical continuity. We
ring at the end of one shot with the could run the first shot up to the point
continuation of that action at the where he has just walked offscreen
start of the next shot. to the left, and then cut to the second
Let us suppose we have two shots with him going to the left and put-
we want to join. The first is of a ting a log on the fire. This will play
couple sitting on a couch talking. well enough because of the simple
The man gets up (he can be seen only continuity of the direction of motion
from the waist down) and walks out on the screen to the left. But, as al-
of frame to the left. The second shot ways, the question arises in the film-
is taken from farther away and maker's mind of what he is trying to
shows him getting up from the couch express and what state of mind the
matching the
action in cuts
96 audience is in. In the seemingly man is soon going to get up, and then
simple example proposed there are cut to the second shot in which he
several factors to consider. If, as was does. If we do this, however, right
suggested, we hold the first shot until at the point of the cut the audience
he has moved out of frame to the left, will be required to adjust to the
we have a progression of dynamics graphics of the new shot, and at the
of graphic image that starts with the same time to see him rise from the
man mostly stationary on the couch, couch. This will work acceptably (if
then rising and filling about half that is all you are interested in), but
the screen, and then this half of it imposes a psychological difficulty
the screen moves rapidly offscreen on the audience for no particular

to the left, leaving a stationary girl reason.
on the couch. Then, at the cut to the Probably the most effective way
second shot, we have his figure in full of joining these two scenes would be
shot moving left once more toward to carry the first shot until the man
the fireplace. In terms of dynamics, had begun his rise from the couch.
or of rhythm of the images, we As soon as his figure moves upward,
have created a clumsy sequence. Its the audience will want to pull back
changes are abrupt for no good rea- and see the entire action, as their at-
son. It is like dropping the ball and tention has been caught by the start
then picking it up again, rather than of his movement. His rising from the
fielding it smoothly. couch can be continued and com-
We could try another version in pleted in the second shot, and in this
which the first shot is held until the way there is a maximum of satisfac-
matching the action in cuts
tions both psychological and formal. or whether it is the rider going back 97
The audience has had its attention in the other direction for something
aroused by the start of the motion, he forgot. A similar confusion can
and the cut into the wider shot satis- arise in combat sequences, where it
fies this need to get a better look at becomes difficult to tell who is the
what has started to happen. The enemy and who the heroes, since
graphic dynamics will flow in a both are seen shooting in both direc-
smooth manner, and the continuity tions. Unless the film-maker has a
of screen direction of the man's mo- purpose in mind, confusions ruin se-
tion to the left will be maintained. quences that have been filmed with
Controlling the direction of mo- great effort, and they can completely
tion on the screen is very important undermine the audience's confidence
in some sequences, notably in chases, in the film-maker's work; therefore
fights and long treks. Suppose we care must be taken to keep the screen
have a shot of a man riding his horse directions consistent with clarity.
toward screen right. Then a closeup In a sequence of a conversation be-
profile of his face, shot from the op- tween two people, it is a standard
posite side. When these two shots procedure to shoot closeups of each
are spliced together, the horse will be of the two people talking in which
going screen right and the man going the back of the other person's shoul-
screen left. Various confusions der is seen to one side in the fore-
will arise in the audience as to ground. Once you have estab-
whether the face they see is some- lished that one person is on the left
body looking at the rider of the horse half of the screen and the other is on
She starts out walking screen left.
Is this her sister coming to meet her? Or the

same girl shot from the opposite side of the
path?
Has she just seen her sister coming toward her?

Just a simple directional mixup puts all these
distracting questions into the audience's head.
I
the right, you can cut back and forth be seen as the back of a head only, 99
between the two over the shoulder which would be effective in making
closeups with great ease, since each him faceless. As the shots cut back
person stays on his side of the screen and forth between the two sides of
area regardless of whether we see the the pair of characters, the audience
front or the back of his head. If you would get a very strong feeling of the
then move the camera over to the op- conversation apparently going back
posite side of the pair, all shots from and forth between the two people,
this side will have reversed the side but only the one face would be seen,
of the screen that each of the char- and it would do all the talking and
acters had occupied, and great con- would switch back and forth be-
fusion and awkwardness will follow. tween the left and right sides of the
It is possible that this could be used screen.
to great advantage in the appropriate The various shots that you want
dramatic context. For example, a to edit into a film differ in vitality. As
one-sided conversation, in which one the shot begins there is often a lot
of the characters was figuratively of waste time while things get under
talking to himself and didn't care way. Then the core of the action will
what the other person said, could be be developed, or the height of the fa-
deliberately shot from opposite sides, cial expression will occur, and the
so that when he said something while shot may continue in length but not
on screen left, he would then pop in vitality. What it had to convey has
over onto screen right and answer it. been conveyed and the rest is just
The other person would then always taking up time. Learning to recog-
In cutting back and forth between these over-the-
shoulder shots of the couple talking, both the
front and back of her head are always on the left
side of the screen, and the same is true for him
on the right side of the screen.
nize the points of vitality in a shot is arrow fly. It misses the deer and 101
of prime importance, because doing sticks in a tree. The hunter quickly
so enables you to edit a film that is notches another arrow, the deer bolts
all vitality and no deadwood. It is out of sight; the hunter is so mad he
this extra richness which is a major shoots his arrow into the ground in
attribute of a good film. One of the anger. We will assume that all the
reasons people like to look at good pictorial pieces needed to tell this
films is that they are more ideal than story have been well photographed,
life. The camera is able to see things using the appropriate lenses, angles
from an ideal spatial viewpoint that of view, exposures, lighting and cam-
can instantly switch from one place era motions. In putting together these
to another when desired, and the pieces of moving picture it will be

editing can instantly switch to an helpful to think as though we were
ideal temporal point when desired. the audience seeing the finished film.
The audience is always put where the In the first shot there is a large
action is, and the action is always boulder. So? An Indian's face rises
highlights. up cautiously from behind the boul-
Let us try a practical example of der. Who is he? What is he looking
film editing in order to get the feel of at? Cut to the shot of the deer. Oh,
building a sequence out of the vital he sees a deer. Is he going to catch it?
pieces of the shots. The story is this: Cut to shot of hunter notching an ar-
An Indian hunter peers out from be- row calmly to the string of the bow.
hind a rock and sees a deer. He fits an He is going to kill it. Is the deer
arrow to his bow, aims and lets the aware of him? Cut to shot of deer.
102 (We have already seen this deer, so of the threat, the twitching facial
this shot can be very brief, just muscles' of the hunter.) Is he ever go-
enough to show that the deer has not ing to shoot? This suspense is going
noticed the hunter.) No, the deer on too long. Cut to the hunter letting
hasn't noticed him yet. How is the the arrow fly. Will it hit the deer?
shooting of the arrow coming along? (The instant the arrow is gone we
Cut to hunter pulling back the arrow. care not the least about the hunter,
Is he going to have to shoot far? Is but about the deer.) Cut to the arrow
it a difficult shot? (So far we have zinging into a tree an inch away from
never seen the hunter and the deer in the deer. What will the deer do? Cut
the same shot, so we need to be told to the hunter notching another ar-
how far away the deer is.) Cut to row. But we are impatient to see what
over-the-shoulder shot of hunter in the deer is doing! (Your urge to
foreground, deer in background. hurry is just what the hunter is feel-
When is he going to shoot? Cut to ing. That is why the shot of the
closeup of hunter's intent face sight- deer's reaction has been delayed a
ing down arrow. Oh, as soon as he second.) Cut to long shot of deer
has taken careful aim. (The audience bolting away. The hunter was going
is now in a state of suspense, and this to shoot another —
arrow we wonder
can be extended a little by a series of if he will have time. Cut to the
brief closeups of the fingers holding hunter fumbling. Will the deer get
the bowstring back, the wicked- away? Cut to the deer disappearing
looking arrowhead poised before its into the underbrush. How is the
flight, the vulnerable deer unaware hunter going to react to the loss of
the deer? Cut to hunter pulling back editing, looking first at one part of 103
bowstring and shooting his arrow the scene in the frame, then another,
angrily into the ground. as the point of interest shifted in the
Assembling your footage with this action. But none of the things they
kind of anticipation of what the au- looked at could be seen nearly so
dience reactions and questions will well as in our version where we had
be is a great help in determining closeups of detail and changing cam-
what shot should cut to what shot at era viewpoints, each selected to give
just what point. It helps one to over- an especially good view of the action.
come infatuation with certain shots The editing of this sequence makes
that are particularly good-looking or use of a structural design known as
extra difficult to get, and instead to parallel cutting. This means that the
use only what you need to communi- two parallel lines of action (those of
cate to the audience. the hunter and those of the deer) are
It is true that the deer-hunter se- often presented alternately — first the
quence just described could have hunter, then the deer, then back to
been presented as a single camera the hunter, then back to the deer,
take of the overall action, without and so forth. Since the deer and the
any cuts in it The sequence
at all. hunter are available in many sepa-
would, however, have had only a rate shots, the film-maker can control
small fraction of interest and power the timing of just what happens and
of the one we just edited out of the when, to an extremely close degree.
separate pieces of action. The audi- For example, when the arrow just
ence would have tried to do its own misses the deer and hits the tree next
104 to him instead, we could let that shot cessive shots has been explored as a
run on longer and show the deer way of telling a story effectively in
bolting out of the field of view. Or, pictures. It can also be used with
instead, we could cut back to the finesse as an element of interest in it-
hunter having any number of reac- self. This use is based on the mind's
tions, and then cut back to the shot insistence on continuity. Just as the
of the deer just as he is fleeing. The successive still photos or frames of a
length of time between when the ar- motion picture are perceived as con-
row misses and when the deer flees tinuous motion, so are successive
would be quite different in the two frames perceived when there is a cut
examples. The time relationships be- from one shot to the next. If we start
tween the different parts of the with a man throwing a football and
whole story can be adjusted with cut from that shot, just as he lets it go,
great finesse to make the sequence as to a shot of an airplane flying in the
exciting as possible. In this little same direction, and end with a shot
story, the photographic breaking up of a woman catching a loaf of Italian

of the action into discrete compo- bread, there will be a remarkable
nents not only allows ideal visual continuity running through the se-
vantage points for seeing the action, quence of three shots, even though
but, just as importantly, allows the all three are of different subjects.
timing and the order of presentation There are several factors that aid this
of the shots to be skillfully manipu- wonderful illusion.
lated in the editing. If the direction of screen motion is
So far, matching the action in suc- maintained in all three shots, then
the logicality is enhanced to the of the screen that we like, depending 105 7
point where we see the sequence as on how fast we pan the camera. Since
continuous. Had the airplane been there are no background referents to
flying in the opposite direction the give away the fact that we are mov-
spell would have been broken. ing the camera rather than the plane,
If the apparent rate of motion is the illusion will be effective.
the same in all three shots, then it If the size of the moving objects in
helps the illusion that the moving all three shots is the same, the sense
object in all three shots is the same of continuity is further heightened.
object. The airplane poses a special Since the size of an object can be con-
problem here because, although it is trolled by how far the camera is
flying at several hundred miles an placed from it, and also by what focal
hour, it is so far away that it hardly length lens we use on the camera,
appears to move with appropriate matching the apparent size of differ-
speed at all. But unlike the football ent objects can usually be accom-
and loaf of bread, it probably has no plished.
background referents to show us There can be further elements of
how fast it is passing, and this allows continuity such as shape of the ob-
us to manipulate the shot with the jects, or color of the objects, or even
camera. Let us suppose the airplane similar texture. All of these can aid
is flying to the right. We can make the illusion of continuity, but the
our shot of it while panning the cam- most effective are those of similar
era to the left, thus causing the plane direction, similar size, and similar
to move at any rate toward the right rate of speed. Being aware of these
106 factors at work in the joining of the line of march, which would show
actions from different shots is the it going- toward screen right. Screen
foundation of being able to make directions generated by objects com-
them blend smoothly. ing directly toward the camera really
Maintaining a consistent screen radiate from the center of the screen,
direction for a moving subject in a since, as the objects come closer, they
series of adjacent shots is sometimes appear larger and are thus expanding
not desirable for reasons such as toward the outer edges of the screen.
shooting convenience, photographic This means that no matter what
composition, direction of sunlight screen direction is contained in the
and story exposition. When it is de- shot following, an element of direc-
sired to change the screen direction tional continuity will be carried
of an event that already has been through. Another interesting way to
firmly established as going in a par- change direction is from an over-

ticular direction, it is imperative to head-camera viewpoint. If you are
shoot a transitional or neutral direc- above a subject moving screen right,
tion shot. If we have established a then you can twist the camera as it
parade going toward screen left, we passes and finish the shot with cam-
can turn the parade around smoothly era upside down, causing the subject
by using a head-on shot in which, to then be moving screen left. Since
since the parade is coming directly you are shooting down from an over-
at the camera, there is no screen di- head position, turning the camera
rection, and then cut to shots of the upside down in this case does not
parade taken from the other side of turn the world upside down, since
the subject from overhead has no up top to her lips. This shot is taken 107
and down. from the side, showing her in profile.
Matching the action has no iron- Suppose you also have the same ac-
clad rules. Every cut from one shot to tion taken from a head-on shot. You
the next not only has factors of its decide that you want to cut from the
own but is perceived by the audience first shot to the second at the point
in the context of the whole film, and where she has the glass lifted six
thus the more unusual and individual inches from the table. You cut the
the film is, the more responsible the first shot at that frame, and then find
film-maker is to his own mind and the frame in the second (head-on)
sensibilities, rather than to the con- shot in which the glass in just six
ventions of a craft. The film-maker inches from the top of the table. You
must be aware of what happens at then join (splice) the two shots to-
the cut, both in formal and in expres- gether, confidently expecting the ac-
sionistic terms, so that he can solve tion to match and carry over smooth-
whatever difficulties there are, and ly from the first shot to the second,
take advantage of what opportunities based on your care in matching the
are there. physical reality of the position of the
Another factor that is often im- wine glass at the cut point. But the
portant at the point of the cut is the camera framing of the two shots is
position of the point of action on the probably quite different, and so the
screen from one shot to the next. screen position of the glass at the end
Suppose you have a shot of a girl of the first shot might be in the upper
raising a glass of wine from the table- half of the frame, and the screen po-
108 sition of the glass at the start of the another. Out of the multitude of pos-
second shot in the lower half of the sibilities, there is usually one that
frame, although it was true that in overrules the others; and when a
both shots the glass is six inches particular reason for cutting some-
above the tabletop. When this pair of thing a certain way does not give a
shots is projected, the girl's motion good result, then you know that
of lifting the wineglass is going to be there must be a more dominant

very distracting, because she will reason within the material, waiting
start to raise it (cut), then it will to be discovered.
jump to a lower position on the There are two methods for splic-
screen and then continue up again. ing film: the cement splice, and the
The solution is obvious, although it tape splice. Answering the question
is not consistent with "reality." Cut of which is the best way to splice pic-
to the second shot a few frames later, ture film is not an easy matter. A
when the wineglass is at the same quick explanation of the terms "work
screen height as it was raised to in print" and "original negative" will
the first shot, and although six inches help make things clear. In profes-
of the lifting action are missing, the sional film-making, the film that is
effect will be much more natural. run through the camera is developed,
There are so many considerations and a copy, called a work print, is
when editing a film that it often made of it. All the editing, timing,
happens that a seemingly sensible ra- cutting, projecting, and recutting are
tionale simply does not work when done with work print, which gets
this
applied to a particular cut. So you try very beat up by the time the film is
finished. The film material that was 109

run through the camera, called the
original negative (even though in re-
versal is not negative), has been

stored safely in an air-conditioned
vault all this time. When the editing
and sound work are finished, the
original negative is taken out of the
vault by someone wearing gloves
and, in a dust-free room, is cut to
match exactly, scene for scene, the
pattern of the work print. It is from

this cut original that the ultimate
sound prints are made that the au-
dience sees.
Cement splices are made by first
placing the tail end of the first shot

into the splicer, emulsion (dull side)
up as shown. The top piece of the
Two samples of match action cutting. On the
splicer is then clamped down on this
left, the figure on the swing is carefully matched
film to hold it in place. The left-hand to the shape and motion of the girl her
lifting
head into the frame. On the right, the arms have
platen is then pressed down, which just made a strong motion to screen
left, which
is continued in the next shot by the camera
will trim off the strip of film to the panning left with the figure on the swing.
correct length. The whole right-hand
In making a cement splice the cement is applied

to the scraped portion of the film (center of pic-
ture), and the other scene in the right-hand
clamp is then swung down on top of it.
splicer assembly is then lifted up out For editing the work print in any
of the way. Then, place the head end of the film sizes, either cement or
of the next shot between the left- tape splices may be used. However,
hand platen and clamp, and swing if a cut spliced with tape is to be
the right-hand assembly down to cut changed, the splice may be taken
off the film to the correct length. A apart. A cement splice, on the other
little area of film will be left exposed, hand, is permanent, and the only way
the emulsion surface of which must to change a cut is to cut the splice
be scraped off so that the cement will out, thus losing one frame of picture
work properly. The cement is then on each side of the splice line. For
applied to this scraped area, and im- this reason, films containing sync
mediately the right-hand assembly is dialog (where loss of these frames re-
brought down in place on top of it. sults in loss of sync) are most often
After 5 to 10 seconds, the left and spliced with tape. Since a frame is
right clamps may be released, allow- only one twenty-fourth of a second

ing the film to be lifted off the posi- at sound speed, there are many types
tioning pins of the splicer. That com- of films where this frame loss is of
pletes the splicing. no consequence.
Tape splices are made by overlap- For splicing together the original
ping clear plastic tape onto several camera material, preparatory to mak-
frames before and after the cut. The ing prints for exhibition, the cement
method for doing this depends so splicing method must be used, be-
much on the design of the particular cause although the splicing tape
splicer used that the procedure can- method uses clear tape, it causes an
not be summarized. optical disturbance of the two or
A cement splice made with a conventional

splicer. Note the overlap both above and below
the black frame line.
three frames on each side of the cut going to be making prints, but will Ill
point where it is overlaid. The visibil- be projecting your reversal original
ity of tape splices in the work print instead. There is at present no way
is of no concern because it is not the out of having your splices fleetingly
final product, meant for public ex- visible. Either the cement method or
hibition. the tape method may be used, al-
In 16mm and the two 8mm gauges though for mechanical reasons the
there is the additional problem that tape splices work a little better in
there is no blank space on the film 8mm.
between subsequent frames, and the For splicing original material for
slight overlap of the two pieces of printing, in both 16mm and 35mm,
film spliced together by the cement a special type of splicer called a hot
method will show fleetingly during splicer is used; this applies a little
projection. In 16mm there is an in- heat to the cemented area to dry it
genious method of assembling the quicker and make the splice stronger.
original material so that it may be The 16mm version of the hot splicer
printed without visible splices. This also overlaps the film pieces in such
is called the "checkerboard" method a way that all of the overlap takes
and will be explained in Chapter 20. place on one side of the frame line
If you are working in one of the only. This is necessary to the check-
8mm gauges you are probably not erboard method.
112
11
c ontrolling
of time flow in a film
the apparent rate
is one of the
have time
ment for
to produce much amuse-
an audience. But expanding
easiest things to accomplish and yet the time scale of the leap and the
one of the most often overlooked by splash, will make the sequence vastly
beginners. Let us try expanding a more entertaining.
comedy sequence so that it will be First, we need an overall view to
more fun. Sitting at the edge of the establish the situation. Then, a me-
swimming pool is a group of people dium shot of the guy walking onto
sipping martinis. Unnoticed by them the diving board. Then, a fairly close
is a man going out to the end of the view of the cocktail group, showing
diving board, who, after a little pre- both what they look like and their
liminary bouncing up and down, unawareness of the jokester. Then,

takes off and does a tremendous back to the man on the board, who
"cannonball" into the water. The by this time is just approaching the
splash rains down upon the cocktail end of the board. He starts bouncing
group, causing various reactions and on it with little bounces that keep
refilling a few glasses. In "real" time getting higher. To express this, we
this whole action would go very could use successively closer shots
quickly, and the scene would hardly that would portray the action as ac-
expanding and
compressing time
expanding and compressing time
tually getting larger on the screen. side view of his legs springing up 113
A very brief shot of the poolside straight, then a closeup of his feet
group would be useful here as a leaving the board and disappearing

reminder that they are still unaware upscreen, then a shot that starts with
of the diver, and as a way of connect- a clear blue sky background with the
ing them, by association, with the diver's full figure zooming up from
bouncing on the board. We now need the frame line up toward the top,
a series of shots that express the then a similar shot showing his legs
diver's determination to make a very and feet zooming upscreen and out
large jump so as to make a very large of sight. By this time we have got
splash. A wide-angle shot taken from him figuratively a long way up in
below the board, looking up at the air, so we need a shot in which he

diver, could show him crouching floats up into the frame (slow mo-
upward into a leap. By shooting this tion), stops, and starts back down.
upward motion and expansion into Somewhere about this point we could
the air several times and from several use a moving-camera shot, looking
angles, we will have enough footage down at the surface of the water and
to construct in the editing a "super" zooming toward it, then a shot taken
leap lasting several times as long as from water level looking at the diver
a single leap. Following our wide- as he hits the water. At the editing
angle shot looking up from below the stage, let the water come most of the
board, we could use a head-on me- way up as high as it will go, then
dium closeup of the man's deter- cut to another shot, from water level,
mined face moving upscreen, then a of a hugh splash in progress. You can
114 now complete the sequence with A variation of the technique just
many details of the water coming discussed is the overlapping of an
down on the dry people. This can action upon itself. In the sequence of
most easily be done by having some- felling a giant redwood tree, the ac-
one offscreen throw a bucket of wa- tual fall and crash to the ground,
ter on each of the shots you make. when seen on the screen, is apt to be
They can all be cut together using disappointing as it contains very lit-
match-action techniques to create a tle of the gigantic sense of fall that

sequence that will read as a single, when you are there in person.
is felt
very large, very long splash. By shooting the fall from different
The expansion of time achieved in angles, and with different lenses
this sequence was the result of sim- (using a multiple-camera setup) or
ply stringing a lot of visual details of by shooting various aspects of differ-
the action together, which added up ent trees falling (negating the need
to a total time on the screen greater for more than one camera), you will
than such an actual event would have the footage to make a falling
take. Doing this allows the audience sequence of vaster power and inter-
to anticipate and participate that est. In practice, the tree might be
much more. It is like one of those allowed to fall a little in the first
situations in life in which there is so shot, and in the next to fall a little
much happening in so short a time farther, and so on. Each shot could
that it is difficult to see it all and feel be started with the tree having fallen
it all, and which seems in retrospect a little farther than it had at the start
to have extended over a fairly long of the previous shot, and could be
time. carried to where it had fallen a little
farther than it had at the end of the seconds of the middle of the shot, 115
previous shot. Thus, in overlapping and insert only three seconds of a
degrees, the tree will fall, but with a man looking at her. In this manner
sort of filmic majesty befitting the she can be moved from her car to
magnitude of the action. It should be the market in a total time of only
realized that whenever practical ex- seven seconds. The missing three sec-
amples of a filmic principal are given, onds of her walking will never be
by no means is the use of the prin- noticed by the audience at all. They
ciple limited to situations similar to have seen her walking toward the
that of the example. The principle of market, then a shot of the man look-
extending the time of an action by ing at her, then one of her entering
overlapping extra pieces of itself has the market, and it all looks very
almost unlimited application, from normal and smooth. By this device a
someone breaking into a smile to an great deal of otherwise dead screen

airplane taking off. time can be cut out, without any
The compression of filmic time sacrifice of smoothness or natural
usually requires that parts of an ac- illusion. The rate of the action can
tion be omitted, and substituted in be controlled with great precision

their place a "cutaway" shot that and incidents made to move along
lasts a much shorter time than the either briskly or at a normal pace or
action omitted. Thus, if we have a at a much slower one. Cutaway shots
shot of a pretty girl walking from can just as easily be used for expand-
her car to the supermarket —which ing screen time, by adding more time
might take ten seconds of screen length of cutaways than was re-
time —we can, instead, cut out six moved from the main line of action.
116 Cutaways can also be used to cover time let us suppose that you feel you
a multitude of editing impasses. It need the first part of her walk, and
frequently happens that an impor- then you want to get her quickly into
tant part of an action is missing. Per- the market, but you don't want to
haps there was an oversight in the use a cutaway to anything else. You
confusion of shooting, or, in docu- could use a cutaway to her. Simply
mentary filming, the camera man make a fairly closeup shot of her
might have been looking the wrong walking, either from the side or may-
way or had just run out of film. With- be head on — it could be a tracking
out a cutaway to cover the gap in the shot of just her feet walking, her
action, there would be a very annoy- purse swinging, or her face —and in-
ing break in the flow, as though sert this shot in the middle. The key
someone had snipped a couple of feet requirement of a cutaway is that it
out of the film. This "jump" cut is be different enough in viewpoint or

usually found in profusion in home subject, that the time and place re-
movies, where it is hardly less an- ference points in the scene of the
noying than in professional films. In main action be temporarily dropped,
our example of the girl walking, we allowing the audience to accept the
deliberately got into a jump-cut sit- return of the main action after the
uation when we removed the middle cutaway at nearly any time and place
of the shot and kept only the begin- you want.
ing and the end. Then we solved it Compression of time is often
quite neatly by inserting the cutaway achieved by clever match-action cut-
shot of the man looking at her. This ting, dispensing entirely with the
cutaway to cover the omitted time, 117

and relying instead on such forceful
and smooth matching of a strong mo-
tion at the end of one scene to the
beginning action of the next scene

that the audience is swept smoothly
into the new time and place. For
example, a conversation concludes
with one man getting up and walking
by just in front of the camera lens
(cut); his car pulls across the screen
at the same speed and same image

size, so that we have saved a lot of
time getting him on his way by mak-
ing a formally smooth and forceful
match-action cut.
Another way of manipulating ap-

parent time is to make either an un-
usually large number of cuts per
minute or very few. Using the exam-
ple of the girl getting out of her car
and walking to the market, suppose

we shot so many different angles and
views of her action that we could edit
By matching the screen direction and velocity

of the movements of the girl and the car, as
well as their light tone, a very smooth and almost
magical transformation takes place.
118 the sequence in real time (a total of graphs and when he edits has by now
ten seconds) but cut each second to been revealed as very intimate. The
a different shot. Thus we would have separation of camera work and edit-
ten different aspects of her action ing techniques is merely one of con-
presented in rapid succession, and venience, and in no way means that
although time would not be com- one can be fulfilled without the
pressed, it would still seem to be go- other. What shots are taken are
ing very fast. Cutting the sequence greatly determined by what the in-
this way will produce a sense of tended editing structure of the film
agitation and expectation in the au- will be, and what editing structures
dience. It is clear that the rapid cut- you are able to use are limited to
ting may do nothing toward reveal- what you had the foresight to shoot.
ing anything significant about her When the proposed editing structure
getting from the car to the market, cannot be planned in advance, which
but it does have an emotional prepa- is very often the case, it is impera-
ratory effect, and could be a very tive to shoot enough cutaways and
effective technique for leading into enough extra angles so that there will
something that requires this precon- be a maximum flexibility at the edit-
ditioning for fullest impact. ing stage to put together the footage
The relationship between what a in whatever editing structure will be
film-maker does when he photo- most effective.
119
s "low-motion photography
12
is a Samurai, two samurai are in combat
useful and versatile technique that with swords, and because of the
could be exploited far more than it is. slow-motion rendering, the danger
We have all seen its use in sporting- in the blades is heightened as their
events films, where the beautiful mo- gleaming, sharp edges slice smoothly
tion of a pole vaulter is slowed down at each other. The motions and tactics
to about half its normal speed so that of the two highly skilled swordsmen
we can see all the details of the mus- are clearly seen, and appear as beau-
cles and limbs, the flexing of the pole, tiful as a ballet, as their sword strokes
the skillful rollover at the top of the are slowed down in keeping with the
bar, and the fall into the sawdust. rest of the action, allowing the au-
Slow-motion photography is often dience time to see a sword stroke

used as an engineering tool to study coming and feel suspense as to
high speed occurrences at less than whether the combatant will be able
a thousandth of their normal speed. to duck or to parry it in time.
The use of slow motion in theatrical In the American film 2001, men-
films has been very limited although tioned earlier, an ape man idly hits a
the technique has great expressive pile of animal bones with a large
power. In a Japanese film, Seven bone he is using as a club. As he dis-
slow, fast, and

reverse motion
120 covers his club's powerful effect on carefully chosen factors, of which
the bones, he begins hitting harder the most -important is the slow mo-
and harder, causing them to fly up tion. It has long been a tradition to
into the air. Instead of faster cutting use slow motion in sequences repre-
to aid the sense of excited frenzy at senting dreams, but it might well he
this point, the film goes into extreme pointed out that in an important
slow motion combined with very sense motion pictures are all dreams.
skillful match-action cutting, giving In the silent comedies, fast motion
an effect of increased wonder at the was a universal means of making
discovery of the increased power the things look ludicrous and of staging
club gives the ape man as compared very narrow escapes without undue
with his bare fist, and then, as he be- danger of actually killing an actor.
gins demolishing the skulls that lie It is sometimes hard to ascertain
on the ground around him, the cam- whether the intrinsic nature of fast
era, up very close and at ground level, motion is humorous or whether it
sees skull after skull of mighty ani- has been a matter of audience con-
mals crack, split, collapse and disin- ditioning through its use in so many
tegrate under the blows of early man, comedy films. It is certainly true that
who, through the power of mind, has to intercut a fast-action piece of mo-
begun his pattern of domination over tion into an otherwise normal speed
all the creatures of the earth. The sequence calls attention to itself and
conveyance of a complex idea and a makes the scene read The as silly.
powerful emotion in this brief se- use of fast motion has become a
quence is due to a combination of cliche for filming something you
—
slow, fast, and reverse motion
want to make fun of, since it forces tricks very easily; it can quickly as- 121
the audience into a peculiar objec- semble a scattering of broken glass
tivity —one of the prerequisities for into a milk bottle, or cause a charred
humor. This objectivity seems to oc- straw hat to spring into flame and
cur because actions such as talking, unburn itself into brand-new condi-
eating, laughing, walking, hitting tion. It has the ability to put things
things, falling, and so on, start, stop, back as they were. It might be inter-
and finish before we have any time esting to use this quality of reverse
to get emotionally involved with motion in the dramatic context of a
them. Fast motion has just the oppo- person who was continually doing
site effect of slow motion, which al- things he regretted, and who tried so
lows us time to see everything and hard to undo them that for just an
to go through changes of feeling and instant or two they would indeed
empathy. In summary, it seems as start to go back as they had been
though when film time goes slowly then reality would pulse back into
we become involved in myriads of dominance, and the film would again
visual details and feel a sense of continue in forward motion.
wonder, and when filmic time goes There are many cases in which,
fast we pull back and see all the out- when an action is reversed, it is no
ward patterns and feel a sense of longer the same action running back-
humor. ward, but is a different kind of action
Reverse motion has hardly been running forward. Imagine a dinner
used creatively at all other than in party in which food comes out of the
comedies. Reverse motion does magic mouths onto the forks, and is then
122 piled up on the plates. In the proper The mechanical techniques for ac-
context such a sequence would go be- complishing slow motion depend al-
yond being revolting or funny. Inter- most entirely on the built-in facilities
cut with a politician spewing forth of the camera. Assuming a normal

the same old promises it would be- running speed of 24 fps for 16mm
come an extensive metaphor. and 35mm cameras, an action will be
It is also possible to stage an action slowed down to half its speed by
backward, and then film it in reverse shooting at 48 fps. This is based on
motion, so that it comes out forward. the principle that an action lasting
This produces actions which, alone second will then consume 48
though they are going forward, have frames, and since the projector speed
a very strange look and feel about is always 24 fps, it will take two sec-
them. A very simple example would onds for that 48 frames to be pro-
be to have an actor walk backward jected. The faster we run the camera,
away from a situation he did not the more individual frames of a given
want to get into, but to film this in action we will have, and the longer
reverse. He will then be going to- that action will take to unfold during
ward the undesired situation, but his projection. An exposure correction
bodily movements will look unna- has to be made when shooting in
tural, and he will seem to be trying slow motion, since each frame will
to go the other way, thus giving be behind the lens for a shorter time
visual expression to his emotional due to the higher running speed, and
state of mind, his reluctance to go thus will receive less exposure to
forward. light. The change in exposure is
exactly proportional to the change in same principles apply. Running at 123

running speed. If you run the camera 12 fps will cut the screen time to
at 48 fps you will need to double the half and thus double the apparent
T-stop opening of the lens to com- rate of speed of the action, and will
pensate for each frame's being ex- also require reducing the lens open-
posed only half as long. Let us take ing to half its original opening.
a practical situation. You are shoot- The mechanics of reverse-motion
ing at a T stop of 5.6 and want to run filming are a bit more involved,
the camera at three times normal partly because there is more than one
speed. Since this reduces exposure to way to do it, depending on what
one-third, you need to open the lens equipment you are using. If the cam-
up three times brighter than it was. era will run backward (many fine
Opening up to T 4 would double the cameras will not), then you put a
light, and opening up to T 2.8 would cap on the lens and run the film for-
give four times the exposure, so the ward for whatever length of film you
correct lens setting would be halfway think you will need for your back-
between T 4 and T 2.8. On some ward shots. The lens cap prevents
cameras with built-in exposure sys- the film from being exposed at all.
tems, changing the camera running Then you simply put the camera mo-
speed automatically changes the lens tor in reverse and film normally, be-
setting, but usually the exposure ing careful not to run back onto
compensation would have to be scenes you have already taken earlier
made manually. when you were running forward. It
When shooting fast motion the is sometimes a good idea to avoid
I 7
Z 6
e 5
V 4
5 3
9 2
L 1
as shot when
upside turned
down right
side up
124 mixing forward and reverse shooting versed, and this scene will therefore
on the same roll, since it is so easy to not go through the projector. (In
make a mistake and ruin good foot- 16mm and 35mm this is not a prob-
age with an unintentional overlap. lem because there are sprocket holes
If you are using a camera that is down both sides of the film.) In order
not designed for running backward, to get the sprocket holes in 8mm on
then you will have to shoot with the the right side you can flip the strip of
camera running forward, but held film over left to right, but this puts
upside down. This is sometimes dif- the emulsion on the opposite side of
ficult, especially if the shot requires the film in comparison with the emul-
that the camera be mounted on a tri- sion position on the forward part of
pod, but it is a problem that you can the film. This means that when the
work out. When you are editing your reverse scene comes along it will be
film and come to the upside-down slightly out of focus on the screen,
portion, simply turn it right side up, due to the shift in emulsion position.
which, because it reverses the order The only way this is avoidable is to
of the frames, causes the scene to take the extreme measure of filming
progress backward. your entire film with the camera up-
If you are using 8mm film, there is side down, thus allowing all the shots
a difficulty, because of the sprocket to be turned right side up in a com-
holes along one edge of the film only; patible emulsion position. Those
when you turn your upside-down scenes in which you desired to have
scene to right side up, the position the motion go forward would there-
of the sprocket holes will have re- fore have had to be staged backward.
This is likely, however, to result in your hands on with the projector 125
such a mind tangle that you will running in reverse. You will find that
either go berserk or come up with a most things don't look much better
very unusual and individual film. or worse, but that some do look in-
If you are using a projector which teresting and will give you good
will run backward you can get a lot filmic ideas. This way you can find
of experience in reverse motion by out what sort of things work well in

looking at all the footage you can lay reverse without wasting a lot of film.
126
b f y means of single-frame ani-

13 purpose. Since 24 frames per second
mation, objects may be made to will be put through the projector, a
move about in any direction, and at ten-minute film by this method
any speed, entirely on their own. A would require taking 14,400 frames.
sandwich can make itself out of the This is time-consuming but it is well
tidbits in the refrigerator, mechanical within the realm of practicability, as
parts can unscrew themselves from a witnessed by the multitude of car-
machine and run away, and human toons that exist.
beings can perform strange-looking When single-frame filming is done

feats of locomotion. with rather long intervals between
Single-frame animation means frames, it is called time-lapse photog-
running the camera one frame at a raphy. Thus a rose can be seen
time, and making rearrangements of blooming, unfolding its petals, and
your subject matter before taking withering away. This requires the
each frame. When you have taken use of a mechanical device with a
that frame, you then make whatever timer in it that will automatically trip
change in your subject you want, the camera shutter at whatever time
and then take another frame. This intervals it is set for, through a range
process continues until you have ac- of about one second to one hour.
cumulated enough frames for your Such devices are called intervalome-
animating
real objects
animating real objects
ters, and can be rented from the same proceeding at furious speed, half- 127
places that rent cameras. If you time bands marching around, the
wanted a shot of a farmhouse and its rest of the game, the shadows rapidly
activities for one day to be com- lengthening at the end of the day,
pressed into ten seconds you would and finally all the cars trying to get
need 240 frames, spaced out at even out of the parking lot at the same
intervals of the 24 hours in a day, a time. The entire three-hour event was
time interval between frames of six compressed into a few minutes, and
minutes. This would give you ten the effect was both funny and fas-
frames per hour, or 240 frames for cinating.

the 24-hour day. In the finished shot Let us suppose you want to make
the sun would pop up, the people an animation sequence of a lawn-
would rush out of the house and milk mower mowing the lawn by itself.
the cows, drive the pickup truck The first thing to do is imagine how
away and back, eat lunch, hang the fast you want the mower to go. If it
wash out to dry, feed the chickens, would normally be pushed the length
eat dinner, watch the TV set, turn of a 50-foot lawn in twenty seconds,
the lights out, go to bed and sleep and you would like it to go twice
till dawn, all in the same time it takes normal speed, then you are dealing
you to read this description. A very with traversing 50 feet in ten sec-
amusing film was made using this onds. Ten seconds of film will be 240
technique, of a Midwestern college frames, so you divide up the 50 feet
football game. You saw the people into 240 segments and arrive at the
pouring into the stadium, filling it up figure of about 2.4 inches of mower
as fast as rice into a bowl, the game travel per frame. Doing the calcula-
128 tion in reverse, in order to check it, mower up into the tree 2.4 inches per
you figure you will move the mower frame as before. If you want to
2.4 inches after taking each of the change camera angles during the ac-
240 frames, which would be a total tion, there is no difference in tech-
distance of 48 feet — close enough to nique from that of normal shooting.

50 feet. (It would require an error of It might be a good idea to get some
at least 30 percent to make any no- cutaways, perhaps of a neighbor's
ticeable difference. Smaller varia- reactions, as they certainly have
tions in running speed than that are come come out to see this unusual
not perceptible.) lawnmower in action.
Now you can set the camera up Perhaps one of the most inter-
overlooking the lawn. It is necessary esting things to animate is human

to use a tripod; the camera must re- beings. There is no limit to the varia-
main steady so that the stationary tions of posture and locomotion that
background of each shot will not may be imposed by animation. In a
jump around. An assistant can take recent student film, a man drives
one frame, while you stand out of along a grassy field in an entirely
frame, then you go in and move the imaginary car. He sits on the ground,
mower about 2V2 inches ahead and scooting smoothly along, steering
the assistant takes another frame, right and left with an imaginary
and so on all over the lawn, around steering wheel, zooming a quarter of
the bushes, in square-dance patterns, a mile away in two seconds and com-
and even up a tree and back down. ing back in three to an instantaneous
This last feat can be accomplished stop. He then attaches a tail rudder
with nylon fishing line, hoisting the to his girl friend, who is lying face
animating real objects
down on the grass. After spreading going up and down stairs, over pack- 129
her arms out wide to serve as wings, ing crates, even automobiles. Since
he attaches a long string to her all your frames were taken when
waist, and proceeds to make her taxi your actor was a foot up in the air,
along the ground, and sure enough, he will never be seen to touch the
she takes off, whirling in circles over ground.
his head on the end of the tether Although animation tends to lend
string he is holding. The audiences itself most easily to comedic situa-

which have seen this film have tions, it can be used effectively in
screamed with delight at what can other contexts as well. Whenever the
be done with imaginative use of real subjective viewpoint of a character
object animation. (The techniques (or of the film maker) could be repre-
involved in making her appear to fly sented by an unusual physical occur-
go beyond those of animation.) rence, then real object animation
Another interesting animation to should be considered. Furniture
try is causing a person to walk on might shift its position very slightly
air. You set the camera up on a tri- in the room, or the walls might be
pod, have your actor jump up about closing in ever so slightly, or a ciga-
a foot off the ground, and when he rette might be smoking with unusual
is just at the peak of his jump, take a vigor, or facial expressions might ap-
frame. Then your actor can step for- pear to change in a manner that at
ward about a foot and jump again. once shows both the intended facade
Once more you take a frame just at and the hidden feeling. Real-object
the top of his jump. He can do this animation accomplishes such effects
over all kinds of terrain, including with relatively small effort and cost.
130
a superimposed image is
14
one but happen simultaneously. When a
that is placed over another image, complex story or theme is being un-
and commonly called a double ex-
is folded, we are no longer required to
posure. The making of composite switch from one scene to another, or

images may involve any number of from one subject's place in time to
separate exposures, and may be done its next place in time. We can deal
either in the camera while you are with a number of points in time all
doing the original photography or by at once, or with a number of different

printing together images that were subjects all at once, putting them on
filmed separately. We will first take top of each other according to their
a look at what can be done with thematic relationships. The analogies
superimposed images, and then go between filmic structure and musical
into the techniques for accomplish- structure are numerous and often il-
ing them. luminating. We might consider the

The world of superimposed images assembling of shots together in a
is very different from the worlds of sequence as a musical melody in
filmic construction we have been ex- which it is the progression from note
ploring so far. It is a world in which to note that is dominant. The pattern
things do not happen one at a time, made by a long string of notes '(or
superimposed
images
superimposed images
images) is the melody (or story). But while those of the man are in small- 131
when we play'more than one note at figure long shots. The contrast be-
a time, we move into the new world tween the serene calmness of the
of harmony. When we present more woman with child and the frenzy of
than one image at a time we are mak- the man caught in a success game
ing filmic chords, and it is the riches is a powerful one. The imagina-
of this extra dimension that we are tion of the audience is stimulated.
after now. How has the man gone from being
We presented an interesting ex- born into a world of maternal care
periment to a college class in film- and security into a ratrace where
making. We threaded up two pro- there is no care except for oneself,
jectors with very dissimilar film and where security is forever pur-
sequences and projected the images sued and never attained? Because his
on top of each other, just to see what image on the screen is so small, and
good things would happen. One of the woman's so large, we get the im-
the most provocative results was the pression that he is her child already
combination of a film of a very preg- born and already propelled into a
nant woman contemplatively await- future far removed from that envi-
ing the birth of her baby, with a sioned by a prospective mother.
sequence of a harried man in a gray When the woman's body, her breast
flannel suit, carrying a briefcase, and thighs filling the screen, is super-
rushing frantically up the down es- imposed upon the small figure of the
calator. Most of the shots of the man trying to run back up the escala-
woman are in fairly large closeups, tor, there is the strong suggestion
132 that what he is trying to reach is not film, Sweet Visions, begins with a
the next rung on the success ladder, young couple blowing soap bubbles.
but to return to a state of infant bliss They become entranced with the
in the image of mother Earth, and shimmering color and airy lightness
the escalator is seen as the irrever- of the bubbles and imagine that it
sible force of time, carrying him would be fun to get in one and see
away from his desires. what they could see. At this point
The effect of the superimposition the realistic closeup of one of the

of the images described is totally dif- bubbles begins to grow in size, as
ferent from that of intercutting the though the viewer were moving into
material of the two sequences. Inter- it, and yet, at the same time, the bub-
cutting them would be quite success- ble is seen just as it was before. We
ful in making an effective contrast be- have both the real bubble, which was
tween the woman's and man's state the basis for their fancy, and the
of mind, but it is only through the imagined bubble, which we are en-
superimposition that the strong emo- tering. Then, very smoothly, multi-
tional relationship between the man tudes of bubbles materialize in dif-
and the woman is expressed. The erent glowing colors, until we are in
superimposition not only contrasts a sea of weightless light, which then
but at the same time synthesizes the begins to fragment into varicolored
two people into a single emotional points of light undulating against a
statement. jet-black background. The silhou-
An especially beautiful use of su- ettes of a man and woman smoothly
perimposure in a recent experimental materialize into being and sway as
superimposed images
though under, water. The two figures the film was rewound to the start- 133
move freely in space and through ing place, and while the variable
each other, one of them now glowing shutter was being gradually opened,
magenta, and the other blue-green. the bubble was slowly moved toward
Where their bodies overlap it is the camera lens. This shot was con-
black, and the whole scene is encased tinued past the point where the first
in a shimmering bubble,
gigantic bubble faded out, and then was itself
which fades away, as does the girl, faded out. The film was then re-
leaving the man's figure flowing in wound several seconds in length, and
a field of twirling yellow light. then more bubbles were filmed on top
This sequence is composed of four of the one we appeared to move into.
sets of images, all exposed on the This last group of bubbles was then
same roll of film in the camera. slowly faded out and the film re-
After the first set of images was wound several seconds back onto it-
filmed, the film was rewound back self again. Using a telephoto lens and
to the starting place, and the next set a camera running speed of 48 fps,
of exposures made on top of the first, plus a blue filter over the lens, the re-
and so on until all the elements were flection of the sun was filmed on the
combined. The original bubble was surface of undulating water, deliber-
photographed against a black back- ately underexposed enough so that
ground for the desired amount of the water itself did not show, and
time, then the variable shutter of the only the brilliant colored point of
camera was gradually closed, causing light moving languorously left and
the image to fade out to black. Then right across the screen was visible.
134 The film was then rewound most of shot in silhouette, but this time using
the way back toward the beginning a blue-green filter. This shot of the
of that shot, and a second exposure man was extended beyond the end of
was made in the same manner as the the girl shot, was then rewound sev-
first except that the camera was eral seconds in length, and a shot was
turned on its side, so that the motion faded in on top of it with a yellow
of the light would go up and down light bulb with a little metal spinner
the screen forming a cross-pattern going between the lamp and the cam-
with the first exposure; and in the era, and a large glass multifaceted
second shot, a yellow filter was used prism in front of the lens. Now, all
to give the light a saturated color. that remained to be added was the
The roll of film in the camera was single large bubble that the couple
next rewound back to the beginning floated in. An ordinary soap bubble,
of the undulating lights, and a scene lit from the sides and placed close
was filmed of the girl moving in sil- enough to the lens to fill the frame,
houette against a white wall (the ex- was shot against a black background
posure techniques required for this and superimposed over the appro-
were discussed in Chapter 6). A ma- priate section. This completed the
genta filter was used during this shot, photography and editing of the en-
which turned the white wall magenta tire sequence.
but had no effect on the girl's figure An interesting variation of super-
in black silhouette. The film was re- imposure technique is to make a vis-
wound to start of the girl's shot, and ual tapestry of dissolves from one
the man's moving figure was also shot to the next. An event such as a
superimposed images
135
A triple exposure combining the two figures and

the shimmer of a soap bubble.
136 large gathering of people celebrating ing shots made during the second ex-
spring with costumes and bells, gui- posure will fall into the blank spaces
tars, picnic lunches, and frolicking left on the roll between the pulses of
serves as an example. The variable the first set of exposures. Wherever
shutter on the camera is left closed; the fade in of a new scene is super-
when you are framing a shot you imposed over the fade out of a pre-
want, start the camera running, vious scene, the transition will take
at the same time opening up the shut- the form of a smooth dissolve from
ter in a second or two. Within two one scene into the next. This dissolv-
or three more seconds you can ing effect itself is commonly seen in
close down the shutter and stop theatrical films, where it often is used
the camera. Gathering interesting to denote the passage of time. There
glimpses of what is going on can be may be a passage in which the pio-
continued in this manner until you neers are planting corn, and as the
have a roll of film containing multi- camera lingers on a shot of the
tudes of shots that fade in for a few planted field, the shot dissolves into
seconds and then fade out. These a shot of the same field several weeks
glimpses can be considered in rhyth- later when all the corn shoots are up
mic terms as pulses of image, with and growing. Although this kind of
pulses of blank space between them. dissolve and the dissolves we made
If you now rewind this footage and in the image-pulsing sequence above
do the same thing again on top of are mechanically the same (superim-
what you have already filmed, by ran- posure of a fade-in over a fade-out),
dom chance at least half of the puls- the effect is vastly different. In the
superimposed images
pulsing sequence what happens dur- superimposed over her outward face, 137
ing the dissolve is as important as in exact register, and then faded
what precedes and follows it. The away. Our impression will be one of
rhythmic interplay of all the various having momentarily able to see into
shots is experienced as beautiful her true state of mind. Visual meta-
variations of the same spirit, con- phors can be superimposed on the
tinually taking on new forms in realistic subjects they refer to. A shot
smooth and rapid succession. of a man who feels that the bottom
From these examples it can be seen has just dropped out of his world can
that superimposure can be used to be superimposed onto a shot made
combine pictorial and subject ele- with the camera falling down a well.
ments into whatever visual relation- A person who feels claustrophobic
ships the film-maker can imagine. If about the city could be shown being
he wants his sky to have billowy forced into a smaller and smaller
white clouds in it he can superimpose space (perhaps a corner of the
them in. A person in a story can be screen?) by superimposed skylines of
behaving outwardly in one manner the bulk of the city moving in on
while a superimposure shows him him. A person feeling expansive out
as he really feels. For example, sup- of some great joy can be shown as
pose we have a closeup of a woman several images of himself all starting
being told something she wants very from a central position and expand-
much to hear, but she has to pretend ing out to all corners of the screen.
it is bad news. A very faint shot of Fireworks, waterfalls, birds in flight,
her face breaking into a smile can be masses of people, flames, demolition,
138 parachutes and so on are samples of them presented on the screen. The
the kind of pictorial material espe- film-maker must find pictures that
cially effective in superimposures, be- express feelings and meanings, rather
cause it expresses feeling as strongly than merely imitating the playwright
as it expresses its own physical na- and having pictures of actors saying
ture. Such a thing as a train may what the feelings and meanings are.
seem like a good visual metaphor for The film-maker can make great use
a situation which cannot be steered of the crafts of writing and acting,
in any other direction (railroaded), but these are only part of film's
but somehow it will not read that great potentiality for expression.
way in a film; it will most often stub- We must also understand the basic
bornly insist on being a train regard- technical principles of making usable
less of what the film-maker wants us superimposed images. The physical
to make of it. Finding images that nature of the photographic emulsion
will work as metaphors is not dif- is such that light exposed to it in sub-
ficult but it does take care. Simply sequent exposures may have additive
because you, the film-maker, know effect, but it does not subtract from
what some image means to you, is no the previous exposure level. This
guarantee that it will have the same means that after having photo-
meaning for an audience. One of the graphed a desert sand dune as the
most important abilities a film- background for a superimposed title,
maker must develop is being able to you could not make a second expo-
put himself in the audience's place sure of black title letters on top of
and see his meanings as they will see this. The actual black letters that you
superimposed images
are trying to photograph are black the camera it makes virtually no dif- 139
because they reflect no light. There- ference whether the film being used
fore the image of the letters formed is negative or reversal. But when the
by the camera lens on top of the pre- multiple exposure will be made by
vious exposure of the sand dune will combining separate shots in a labor-
not further effect the film emulsion. atory printing process the principles
All that may happen is that the nega- are different. For example, if you
tive space around the black letters, shoot a white title on a black back-
which would be a lighter tone, would ground, using negative film in the
add a little further exposure to the camera, the processed negative will
sand dune background in the area contain opaque letters on a clear
around the letters, thus washing out field. The light beam used in the
the detail of the sand and making it printing machine will expose the
appear overexposed. We can very print stock all around the shape of
easily superimpose title letters over the opaque letters, thus obliterating
the sand-dune shot if the letters are whatever other picture material you
lighter than the dunes. In other are trying to multiple print with it.
words, we can add the letters to the However, since the title letters on the
dunes because we can add light to the negative you are printing from are
exposure in the shape of the letters. opaque, whatever picture material
We cannot make any area of the you multiple print will show up in
frame darker by superimposures, the print contained in the shape of
only lighter. the title letters. This can be a very ex-

In making multiple exposures in citing visual effect. You could even
shoot a roll of single-frame animated sure appropriate to your intent, rath-

white shapes on a black background er than an exposure one-half of
(using negative stock in the camera) "normal. " If every part of the frame
and then multiple print this with area of the second exposure were the
some live action footage (also shot same brightness as the correspond-
on negative stock). This would re- ing spot in the first exposure, then
sult in the live action footage appear- the two exposures would double. But
ing only in the shapes of the ani- this very rarely happens. What we
mated (originally white) material, are more likely to have is a compli-
and this would appear on a black cated pattern of many shades of light
background. and dark (a picture, in other words)
Since the making of two expo- superimposed upon a different pat-
sures on one piece of film would seem tern of light and dark, and for most
to double the amount of exposure on of the picture area there will be no
that film, it might be thought that doubling of exposure.
giving each of the two exposures one- We can make great use of the fact
half its normal value would then that dark areas of an exposure have
yield a total exposure of the correct no effect (do not show) on subse-
value. This is true only under cer- quent exposures. In the example
tain conditions. It must be remem- given of a man falling down an end-
bered that a correct exposure is one less well we are interested only in the
that looks good to you. Superimpos- body of the man in the exposure con-
ing one image over another usually cerning him, and we want to elimi-
looks best if both are given an expo- nate his environment entirely so that
A double exposure made by sandwiching two

strips of film together and printing through them.
Unlike double exposures made in the camera,
this results in the dark areas remaining opaque.
m
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142 it will not conflict with the environ- each of the exposures, with a photo-
ment of the well shaft onto which graphic simplicity allowing as little
we intend to superimpose him. This extraneous picture material in each

can most easily be done by filming shot as possible.
the man against a black background, The synchronization of any given
either in a dark studio with selective frame in one exposure with a given
lighting on him alone, or outdoors at frame of another exposure is not
night, if no studio is available. In often necessary. None of the exam-
preparing the shot of the well, it ples of this chapter required it. But
would be helpful to set it up so that suppose something should happen
the center area of the frame is fairly in one of the exposures just at the
dark; the man will then superimpose exact frame in a previous exposure
quite nicely on it. By controlling your where somebody sneezes. This can
light and dark areas in each of best be accomplished by photograph-
the superimposed shots, you can ing the two events on separate strips
heighten the effect you want, con- and combining them in the editing
centrating on only those elements assembly (see Chapter 20). At this
important to your theme. It should stage the two strips of film may be
be noted that when you make two lined up side by side with exact re-
or more exposures on a single piece lation between frames as desired;

of film the amount of picture infor- then the two can be printed together
mation piled up together is apt to be onto one strip in the laboratory.
quite confusing. It is usually best to Using a zoom lens to make mul-
combine single key elements, one in tiple exposure shots can produce
superimposed images
some very interesting results. Sup- of the person superimposed over a 143
pose you make a shot of a person, small image of him, and as the super-
and during the shot you change the imposed zooms progress the large
zoom lens slowly from a wide-angle image will shrink as the small image
position into a telephoto position. grows. Spatially they will seem to
Then after winding the film back, pass through each other. The ap-
you make a second shot of the same parent motions and changes of image
person, but this time you slowly size which can be obtained with a
change the zoom lens from telephoto zoom lens render it an especially ver-
position to wide-angle position. The satile tool in combination with mul-
resulting shot will show a large image tiple images.
144
i t is often important to
15
make ly inexpensive and come with in-
closeup shots of very small objects struction sheets giving the details of
such as wristwatches, eyes, a needle their use. For closeups in the distance
being threaded, fingerprints, granu- mentioned above, such a closeup lens

lated sugar, the end of a cigarette, is the easiest solution. It may be at-
the face of a bee —and since the clos- tached and detached very quickly,
est distance to which a normal lens and requires no compensation for ex-
will focus is only about a foot or two, posure in its use. For closer closeups
we have a problem getting close you will need a device called an ex-
enough for the subject to fill the en- tension tube. This is merely a piece
tire screen. A supplementary closeup of tubing, threaded on both ends,
lens may be attached to the front of which is screwed into the camera
the camera lens, and with this, dis- body, upon which the lens is then
tances of down to about six or eight mounted. This makes the effective
inches may be focused upon. Such distance between the lens and the
closeup lenses come in different op- film plane greater, bringing objects
tical strengths, which are indicated only a tiny distance in front of the
by their diopter number —the larger lens into sharp focus. Extension
the number, the closer the lens may tubes come in sets so that you have
be focused. These lenses are relative- a choice of magnification powers. A
special visual
effects
special visual effects
typical set for a 16mm camera would For example, suppose the use of a 145
have a 5mm, 10mm, 20mm and length of extension tube 25mm long,
40mm tube. By using these in differ- on a lens 25mm in focal length. Ap-
ent combinations you have incre- plying the formula to this informa-
ments of 5mm available from 5mm tion gives 25 divided by 25, yielding
through 75mm. With the whole set 1, and to this is added 1, yielding 2;
being used at once on a 25mm lens, this quantity is squared, yielding a
you can fill the screen with one letter numerical increase of 4 required for
of type from this page. Sometimes it proper exposure. To increase the ex-
is difficult to get the camera right up posure four times would require
close to your subject. In this case you opening the lens two more T stops,
can use the extention tubes with a since opening it one stop would
telephoto lens, enabling you to put double the light passed, and opening
the camera several inches farther it another stop would double that
away from the subject and still main- again, giving an increase of four. At
tain the very close view. Since the extremely close distances camera jig-
use of extension tubes changes the gle becomes intolerable, and so a
effective focal length of the lens used, steady tripod must be used. The
the effective T stop is also altered, depth of field focus becomes ex-
and for this reason the lens must be tremely shallow, making use of a re-
opened wider to make up for the loss flex-type camera mandatory. The
of efficiency. The corrected T stop depth of field may be made deeper
setting may be calculated by the by using the smallest T stop opening
formula you can manage and compensating
(length of extension tube (in mm) numerical
focal length of lens used (in mm)

,y- increase in
exposure
146 for this by putting very bright light you select will be repeated 72 times
right up close to your subject. It (three seconds), and then the action
takes care to handle all of these tech- will continue. In order to save the
nical matters in making extreme rather high cost of having this done
closeups, but it is worth the often by a laboratory, you can make a
astounding results. freeze-frame sequence by mounting
When a shot of something going the selected frame solidly in front of
on suddenly stops and becomes mo- a bright, diffused light source and re-
tionless, then later springs back into photographing it with a motion-pic-

motion, the effect is called a freeze ture camera. Since photographing a
frame. This is done by selecting the single frame of motion-picture film
desired frame out of the strip of film amounts to an extreme closeup, even
of the action and making a copy of it in 35mm, you will need to use the
on another strip of film that extends closeup techniques just described. It
for any number of frames desired. If is very difficult to determine the

you want to stop a diver in mid-air exact exposure required, since the
for three seconds, you film the shot single frame is too small to take a
normally and have it processed. Then reliable reading on. Since a freeze
you look at the shot and select the frame involves using such a small
frame you want to freeze. An optical length of film, it would be best to
laboratory can then reprint that one make several runs, each at a different
frame 72 times down a strip of film; exposure setting.
when you splice that piece into the It is quite simple to make a sub-
middle of your diving shot, the frame ject appear instantly in the middle of
a scene and then instantly disappear. Making subjects appear and dis- 147
The camera must be set up on a tri- appear gradually is somewhat more
pod and the shot of the environment involved. This involves shooting the
made. The camera is then stopped, environment and the subject sepa-
and whatever is to appear is placed rately in a superimposition. Let us
in view. The camera is then run again suppose you want a girl to walk
until you want the subject to disap- along in a white robe, dematerialize
pear. The subject is then removed as she goes through a solid wall, and
and the shot finished with only the then rematerialize on the other side.
environment. If you are using a cam- The shot of the wall can be made
era that will stop quickly with the first, with an effort at keeping the
shutter closed you will probably not area in which the girl is to superim-
even need to do any cutting of the pose fairly dark. Then the girl must
sequence later. With cameras that be shot against a black background.
stop gradually or have shutters that The choice of white robe was largely
do not always stop in the closed po- to make the double exposure work
sition, you need only assemble the better, for reasons discussed in Chap-
usable portions of the three sections ter 14. As she approaches the area of
when you are editing. You might the frame where the wall was in the
have a shot in which a person is run- first exposure, the variable shutter
ning along, instantly vanishes for can be smoothly closed, causing her
a while, and then instantly reappears, image to disappear just as she hits
still running, right where he had the wall. She can reappear on the
vanished. other side by the reverse of the same
148 process. The limitation of this tech- this camera technique is basically a
nique is that anything of a very light dissolve, it requires an extra consid-
tone in the environment will show eration if it-is to work well. The cam-
right through the girl's body. era cannot be allowed to move even
A useful variation of this technique the slightest between the two expo-
produces appearances and disappear- sures, or you will get an out register
ances of people without their being double image of the room.
semitransparent during the shot. We There are methods of combining
will suppose a witch is to materialize separate exposures in such a way that
in the middle of the room in a matter backgrounds do not show through
of three seconds. We put the camera the foreground subjects. These are
on a tripod so that it will not move, very complicated and very expen-
and we make a shot of the room, at sive, but an outline of the general
the end of which we gradually close technique may be of interest. We will
the variable shutter, causing the set the problem of having some men
scene to fade out to black in three discover an island on which prehis-
seconds. Leaving the shutter closed, toric monsters are still living. The
the film is then wound back three monsters are usually played by large
7
seconds worth (72 frames), the tropical lizards, who have had extra
witch assumes her place in the room, fins and horns glued onto their
and a three-second fade-in is made, bodies to make them look more bi-
causing the witch to appear at first as zarre. They are set into an environ-
a dim ghost and finally to become ment of miniature trees and rocks
quite solid. Although mechanically and photographed from fairly close
up, so that they appear to be 40 or running in another part of the cam- 149
50 feet tall. Since the lizards' move- era. This film receives light from the
ments are too quick for such a large background only, and it yields an
scale, they are filmed in some degree image which is a high-contrast nega-
of slow motion. The whole effect can tive silhouette of the moving figures
be quite real-looking. The problem of the men. If this strip of film were
for the film-maker comes at the point to be projected it would show a jet-
where the men and the monsters black background with the moving
must both appear in the shots at the shapes of the men clear (white on the
same time. In reality it is men
the screen). From this strip of film a du-
who are huge and the monsters who plicate is made with the tone polari-
are small. The men can be made ties reversed, so that the images of
small by filming them from an ap- the men appear in opaque (black) sil-
propriately great distance, with a houette against a clear background.

background illuminated only by light This "matte," as it is called, is sand-
of an especially narrow wavelength. wiched together with the shot of the
In a special camera is mounted a monsters and printed onto a roll of
glass prism that allows the image of film. If this were projected it would
the men to be photographed in the show the monsters in their environ-
normal manner. The background is ment, with the silhouette shapes of
not photographed along with them, the men superimposed on the scene.
however, because the prism reflects Since this area of the frame has not
the special light from the back- been yet exposed, due to the masking
ground off to another strip of film effect of the matte, it will now accept
150 an additional exposure. This expo- and further exposure will have al-
sure is made by sandwiching the shot most no effect on it. This means that
of the men together with the other in a subsequent re-exposure of this
matte, which contains clear area in unprocessed film, the new image will
the shape of the men but is opaque register only on the unexposed shape
all around them. Thus the figures of of the girl and will not register on the
the men are printed into the blank background around her. If your sec-
unexposed places left for them in the ond exposure had been of a crowd
print of the monsters. There are dancing, the final result on the screen
some simpler ways of achieving would be a crowd of people dancing
matte effects at little or no cost. They in the shape of a girl dancing, and all
do not give the precise control of the on a white background.

method just described, but they are Having this effect appear on a
capable of creating unusual appear- black background instead of white is
ances. If you photograph anything in possible, but much more compli-

high-contrast silhouette, for instance cated. The girl is first filmed in sil-
a go-go girl dancing, the condition of houette on black-and-white reversal

the film emulsion before processing film, which when processed will yield
is such that the area of the frame a black figure on a white background.
consisting of the girl has not yet been Then the dancing crowd is filmed on
exposed to light and is therefore vir- another piece of film of the negative
gin film, ready for an image. The type. When the lab double-prints
area of the frame around the shape these two images onto a single strip
of the girl is fully exposed to light, of print film (which reverses tones),
this is what happens: The opaque cats, even explosions, can all be shot 151
shape of the girl blocks the light in either negative or positive silhou-
from the printing machine, yielding ette and used as control mattes to
unexposed area on the print stock, in shape the content of other shots into
her shape, but fully exposing the area their own form.
around her (causing it to come out There is a device called a matte
black). Then the crowd shot is ex- box which can be mounted onto the
posed on top of this. The formerly front of a camera. It is simply a light-
unexposed area of the print stock (in tight bellows with a rectangular
the shape of the girl) will accept the opening at the front upon which var-
crowd shot normally. The fully ex- ious control elements may be mount-
posed area around her will not ac- ed. A piece of black cardboard
cept much further exposure from the with a hole cut in it could be slipped
crowd shot, and thus the crowd shot into position on the front of the
will appear only in her shape. The matte box so that shots taken would
crowd shot will print in the normal appear to be seen through a telescope.
tone polarity because we shot it on Mattes can be made of whatever
negative film. shape is desired and an exposure
The beauty of the matte technique made through them, yielding a
described above is that any subject shaped image on an unexposed field.
can be made to appear in the outline Making multiple exposures with a
shape of any other subject. Title let- variety of mattes, or even with the
ters, palm fronds, race cars, horses, same matte shifted into different po-
mandalas, crosses, bridges, trees, sitions, can accomplish a wide variety

152 of interesting effects. An actor can limitation is that its matting effect is
be made to appear in two places at stationary and has none of the tre-
once by matting out the left half of mendous flexibility of shape and mo-
the frame while he is appearing in a tion of the photographic mattes we
shot at the right, and then rewinding have been discussing.
and matting out the right side while Special color effects can be made
he appears in the shot at the left. most easily with colored gelatin fil-
There is apt to be a very slight telltale ters. The range of colors available in
vertical line where the two halves photographic filters is quite limited,
join, but this is often obscured by but the colors available in gelatin
having vertical edges in the scene it- filters made for theatrical lighting are
self. Another procedure is to mask gorgeous and come in huge variety.

off the top of the frame right at an If you are using a camera equipped
actor's neckline. The film is rewound with a behind-the-lens filter slot,
and the bottom part of the frame, very small pieces of filter material
which contained the actor's body, is will suffice, and since it is often pos-
masked off. Now his head can be sible to obtain small sample books of
filmed in the top half, and of course an entire set of twenty or thirty
it can be made to have a rather loose colors, this is an inexpensive way to
connection with the body. acquire a good set of colors without
The matte box is very convenient having to buy the large sheets of
in situations where precise alignment gelatin.
of the edges of the matte and the Here are some specific examples of
subject matter is critical. Its main the use of color filters along with
technical considerations in their use. magenta. The area comprising the 153
In the sequence described in Chapter woman's figure is blue-green in the
14 a man and woman were seen final print, since the blue-green wall
in silhouette, seemingly underwater was superimposed over it during the
in various colored reflections, and man's exposure. His figure is ren-
floating along inside a huge bubble, dered as magenta, since the magenta
the effect was achieved with a super- of the wall during the woman's ex-
imposure of four different elements. posure will show on his silhouette.
Three of these had their color modi- But where the two figures overlap,
fied or supplied by color filters. The it is entirely black, since this area
woman was photographed against a was never exposed to the wall light
brightly lit white wall. There was no in either of the two filtered shots.
light on her body at all, so that her The third pictorial element added
image is entirely black. A magenta was a slow-motion telephoto shot of
filter was used in her shot, rendering the sun's reflection playing languor-
the wall magenta, but having no ef- ously on the surface of undulating
fect on her figure since it reflected no water. These reflections were desired
light. Then the man was filmed as a to appear in yellow and blue in order
superimposure on top of this shot, to match the color scheme of the soap
but in his case a blue-green filter was bubbles from which the sequence
used. The wall has now been filmed evolved. The use of gelatin filters of
twice, through both a magenta and these two colors further abstracted
and a blue-green filter, and is ren- the appearance of the sun from its
dered in the final print as a pale, cool ordinary state, and contributed to the
154 scheme of color continuity in the slowly begins looking haggard and
sequence. gaunt, then returns to normal, the
In a sequence involving the tem- first exposure of his face was made
porary transformation of a girl in a normal manner. The film was re-
lounging on a couch into a tempting wound and a deep-blue filter placed
sex queen in a very scanty costume, behind the lens in the camera-filter
a color shift was called for that slot. The camera and the man's head
would make the transformation a had carefully maintained their exact
little more colorful than real. The position so that the second exposure
first part of the shot was made would register exactly on top of the
through a Wratten 85 daylight con- first. The camera was started, but
version filter, even though a color with the variable shutter closed. At
stock balanced for tungsten was al- the right point, the shutter was
ready being used. This filter rendered slowly opened, exposing the blue
the scene in pale salmon-orange face (which also had been lit very
tones, generally subduing the colors harshly for this exposure) onto the
in her dress and the couch pillows. previous shot of the normal face,
The sex queen was photographed and then the shutter was faded out,
through an intense rose-pink filter which caused the blue effect to fade
which did not inhibit the colors of out and the face to return to normal.
her costume or the pillows, and gave This resulted in a sequence with
a very flattering rendition of her exactly the eerie transformation into
bare skin tone. a death face called for in the story.
In a sequence where a man's face A sequence of an Easter Be-In in-
eludes a section where a girl with cent glow to the colors. The camera 155
bare feet, wearing an ankle-length position was also chosen to use a
robe, is swaying from side to side large dark building as a background
with her arms toward the sky in a to the shot, so that the water would
sort of supplicational dance. This by far the brightest object in the
shot was rhythmically faded in and frame and thus the only element to
out in time with her dancing (by use show up in the multiple exposure
of a variable shutter), and the film with the girl. The final appearance
was then rewound and rhythmically of the sequence is very beautiful,
faded in and out on a large fountain with the girl and the jets of colored
of water leaping into the air. This water cross-fading through each
shot was done through several differ- other in a sort of dance between
ent color filters so that the fountains them. The sequence ends with the
would appear in different colors, and gradual appearance of a large golden
in order to enhance the uplift effect sun in the middle of the frame,
of the water, and to have a multi- which gets progressively brighter un-
plicity of waters, double exposures til it takes over the whole scene.
of the water were made in which Color filters work by freely pass-
water of one color appears to rise out ing color of their own hue and reject-
of water of another color. The cam- ing, to various degrees, the passage
era position was chosen so that a of other colors. A piece of red gelatin
great deal of sunlight was not only looks red because it freely passes red
shining on the water, but shining light but tends to restrict the passage
through it as well, giving a translu- of other colors, especially those
A double exposure of the girl and a fountain.
which are complimentary to it, such reference points of other colors from 157
as blue and green. With knowledge time to time. It is when color is com-
of this principle, a great deal can be pared by the mind that it seems color-
predicted as to what effect a color ful. A color all by itself soon loses its
filter will have on a scene. The best color.

method for making such estimations Color filters have use in black-and-
is direct observation, as the effect of white photography also. The most
looking through the filter at the common use is for improving the
scene to be photographed will be rendition of sky, particularly where
similar to the way it will be rendered white clouds are to be emphasized.
in color photography. If you want a For this purpose a yellow filter can
color in a scene to be suppressed, be used; this holds back some of the
you can use a filter which is com- blue light from the sky, causing it to
plimentary to it. A blue shirt will be register darker on the film. The filter
rendered almost black if you shoot it does not much affect the clouds,
through a red filter. A blue shirt will since they are white, and thus the
be rendered no bluer than it appears relative contrast of the sky and its
normally if you shoot it through a clouds is increased in a pictorially

blue filter. If a sequence is continued pleasing way. Using an orange filter
for a long while through a color filter, increases the effect described, and a
the mind begins to adapt to that color red filter produces a very stark and
as being normal. If you want to highly dramatic darkening of the
maintain the sense of saturated color sky. To compensate for the loss of
in a sequence, you have to provide light through the filter, the lens must
158 be opened up one T stop for a stand- this, in which a closeup shot of
ard yellow filter, one and a half for the lamp was fractured by filming
an orange filter, and three for a red through a multifaceted glass prism.
filter. The prism could be rotated to pro-
Glass prisms which fragment the duce a circular pattern, but, even bet-
images photographed through them ter, could be rolled over on its own
can be used for a wide variety of axis so that images coming through
shape distortions and for multiplying it were alternately squeezed into a
a single element into many. In a se- small space and then expanded out
quence where a Persian brass lamp over the whole frame area. The ap-
with little windows of colored glass pearance of the fracturing of an
is to be seen with heightened percep- image by a prism is apt to be fairly
tion by the characters in the story, interesting, but what is far better are
the original small points of colored the kinds of motion of the fractured
light coming from the lamp begin to pieces of the image that can be in-
proliferate out into the space around duced by appropriate motion of the
the lamp, eventually filling the entire prism. In selecting prisms, your eye
frame with shimmering jewels of is the best instrument, although the
light. The pattern then begins to con- optical combination of the prism and
tract back into the lamp, and it re- the camera lens produces strong
turns to normal. The lamp itself was effects not visible to the eye. A reflex
first filmed against the black ceiling camera is once again your best friend.
from which it hung. A second expo- When it is desired to soften an
sure was superimposed on top of image into a dreamlike or romantic
pictorial impression, there are read- sion device is the crosstar filter, 159
ily available methods of diffusing the which is available for only a few dol-
image. One of the most common lars. It has a cross-hatch pattern
methods used by still photographers etched into it which renders light
is smearing a very light coat of petro- sources and specular reflections as
leum jelly in circular patterns on a tiny stars. This can be quite nice-
piece of clear glass. A small uncoated looking with such subjects as can-
area is usually left in the very center. dles, glassware, jewelry, sunsets,
Shooting through this produces a water scenes, and so on.
sharp image in the center of the We have so far dwelt only on spe-
frame, and a gradually more diffuse cial visual effects made in the photog-
image out toward the edges. How- raphy or printing of the image. We
ever, this method does not work well will now explore ultra-short cuts. If
in shots where there is much motion a shot were only 24 frames long, it
in the scene, or of the camera, be- would last one second. We could
cause the smear pattern and clear keep trimming this shorter, one
spot are then objectionably evident. frame at a time, until we ended up
Another technique is to use a stand- with the minimum length of one
made by a filter
ard diffusion lens frame. The degree to which a scene
company. These come in graduated of only one frame can be seen de-
strengths and produce the kind of pends on several variables. The one
soft-skin texture and glowing high- frame is far more apparent if it is cut
lights seen often in romantic films of into an otherwise continuous and
the 1930s. Another interesting diffu- fairly lengthy shot. If the one frame
160 is placed between two "normal"- on to the pattern, he anticipates the

length shots, it will not be seen by single-frame cut and is mentally
most of the audience, because the ready for it, and thus much more
distraction of the long scene chang- able to see what it is. Even when
ing to the next long scene masks out there is merely a random scattering
the fact that there was one frame of of single frames in a section, as long
something else between them. If it as they are occuring at intervals of
were desired to introduce the content not more than about five seconds
of the single-frame shot below the they are far more noticeable than
perception threshold of most of the when they occur only once, all by
audience, and to then gradually in- themselves, in a context of normal-
crease audience awareness of this length shots. When an ultra-short cut
new element, the new element could occurs for the first time, a viewer is
be hidden between the lengthier apt to wonder if he saw what he

shots, but each time it appeared it thinks he saw, or if there was per-
could be made one frame longer, haps some mistake in the mechanics.
until it demanded attention. Leaving him in this state distracts
A further variable in the percep- him from what is being presented.

tibility of a single frame is the fre- When short cuts occur in groups, it
quency of such frames in a context is very plain that the effect is inten-
of a longer shot. The single frame is tional and that there is a communica-
most perceptable when it occurs at tive reason for them.
regular intervals or in a predictable The amount of detail that can be
time pattern. Once the viewer catches seen in a single frame shot is very
little. Its color can be easily iden- attention-getters and do not last very 161
tified. If it is a 'familiar object, such long, but for dramatic purposes
as a tree, filmed against a plain back- ultra-short cutting is much more
ground, it can be recognized. More effective when it is peppered into a
complex pictorial arrangements can- slower context and arranged in a pat-
not be recognized by most people. In tern corresponding to the intent of
a single frame there can be no motion the dramatic context. For example,
to see, since it would require at least in the story of a girl haunted by the
two frames for there to be any fear that negligence on her part had
change in position of anything in the caused the death of her lover, the key
frames. When the number of frames pictorial points leading up to the
is increased to four, such subjects as death of her lover could be intro-
faces, animals, cars, printed words duced as ultra-quick interjections in-
and numbers, guns, roads and large to her present life. Little actions or
motions can clearly be seen. Rapid- objects might remind her of similar
fire cutting of four-frame scenes oc- elements in the past that were part
curs at about the rate a Swiss wrist- of the story of her lover's death, and
watch ticks, and while exciting for as quickly as she would be reminded
a short while, quickly becomes ex- of these things, her will would force
hausting and causes the viewer to go them out of her mind. This men-
numb in self-defense. Use of a sec- tal process could be dramatically
tion of continuous ultra-fast cutting expressed by an ever-increasing
is appropriate to such things as tele- flood of ultra-quick cuts, gathering
vision commercials, which are strong strength against her will, and threat-
162 ening to destroy her shaky balance their contents relate to the dramatic
of mind. context into which they are em-

It has been pointed out that ultra- bedded. The conclusions just pre-
quick cuts have little value in them- sented are the result of experimen-
selves, and that what makes them tal presentations in which ultra-
important is the patterns in which quick cutting was presented in

they are used. The major variables in various patterns to an audience
the pattern are how often do they whose members were then queried
occur, in what manner do own
their as to what they had experi-
lengths vary, and in what way do enced.
163
16
t I he people who
films other than those
appear in most
made by the
control. They also tend to get tired
very quickly, because of the strain
theatrical film industry are not proof trying to do something that is be-
fessional film actors. The ways of yond their range.
working with people who do not All these traits, which would be a
have much acting experience are disaster for a person acting on stage,
quite different from those used with can be largely overcome in many
accomplished professionals. For one kinds of film acting, because of the
thing, non-actors have not worked fragmentary nature of a film's shoot-
out ways of representing various ing and editing, and because the film-
emotional states. If asked to look maker is right there during the per-
surprised, they are apt to merely formance, to help and guide.
make a funny face, try as they may Careful casting of the parts will
to give you what you want. Non- solve half of the acting all by itself.
actors also find it very difficult to In most underground, independent,

maintain an intense mood or charac- avant-garde, and university films, the
terization for more than a fraction actors are chosen from friends and
of a minute. They tend to slip in and acquaintances who are interested in
out of character, completely out of the film project and curious enough
directing
non-actors
164 to try acting a part. If you need a style of film it is, and what the part
very urbane, cool and poised young is that you think they might be very
woman, it will not work at all to cast good for. If they do not respond with
someone in the part who is not that interest to this proposal, ask them if
way at all. A really good actress they would be willing to tell you why
could play the part, regardless of not. If they do not want to tell you,
what her own personality was like, thank them for listening to your
but a non-actress will appear only to story and start looking elsewhere. If
be hamming, no matter how hard they do tell you, and you can't do
she tries not to. If you do not know anything about it (for instance, if
a girl who fits the part, do not try to they work in the daytime, go to
make do with one who doesn't. Ask school at night, and go out of town
your friendsif they know anybody on weekends), you'll still have to
who fits the description. Perhaps look elsewhere. If you sense that
somebody's secretary, or sister, or a they would like to do it, but are hesi-
girl in a friend's dancing class will tant about the time and effort they
turn out to be just who you are look- would have to give, explain the
ing for. shooting plan and schedule so that
The next thing to do is interest they'll know what's involved, and
the persons you'll want as actors in therefore be better able to make a
the film project. Tell them very go-ahead decision.
briefly what your film-making cre- It is frequently helpful to arrange
dentials are, where the money is a screening of a sample of your pre-
coming from to finance the film, what vious work, so that prospective ac-
directing non-actors
tors can be assured as to your com- her and the machines in the kitchen, 165
petence. Always remember that you then she will have to act her part
are asking people to do something differently than if she is a passive
that is probably difficult and strange victim and very naive. The time for
to them; some of them may not even your actors to understand the part
know you. they are to play is during the pre-
Now that the parts are all type- shooting discussion, not during
cast, the next step is going over the shooting.
plan of the film together with your The people who have consented to
actors. At present the film exists only act in your film are doing so largely
in your head, and your actors have because they are interested in films
only a vague idea of what it is all and would enjoy being in one. There-
about. After you have familiarized fore they will be interested to know
them with the story line, tell them all about the techniques you will be
that you can about each of the per- using during the shooting and the
sonalities in your proposed film. The editing. If you plan slow motion,
woman who simply cannot cope with animation, stop action, multiple ex-
the technologies of a very modern posures, matching-action cutting or
kitchen might be one character. whatever, tell your new actors about
Much more will have to be under- it so they can participate as fully as
stood about her. Is she afraid of the possible in making the film. At best,
mechanisms or is she simply bewil- it is a project-adventure which you

dered by their seeming complexity? are all embarking on together, and
If there is a mutual hostility between everything you can do to make it a
166 mutually satisfying trip will be re- shot, before she checks her makeup
flected in the quality of the finished or brushes her hair. In this way the
film. shot can be lit, and the camera pre-
Now that the actors know your focused and framed. Then ask her
film fairly intimately, you are ready to go and give the final touches to her
to begin shooting. grooming, and when she comes back,
With non-actors, the film-maker's have her sit again in the same place.
major tool of influence is the elicita- You might then look at her very
tion of response. This means that carefully, break into a smile and tell
rather than merely telling the "actor" her that not only is what she has
to smile, you must find a way to done what you wanted, but that she
elicit a smile, as a natural response looks very pretty. (The camera has
to something that you do. This some- been running all this time.) When
times involves a bit of trickery, so she breaks into a pleased smile (very
it is usually best to let your actors likely), it will have a quality of spon-
know why you did something, after taneity and warmth that she could
it has already produced the response probably never give if asked directly.
you wanted. For example, you may Immediately after this shot is fin-
need a closeup of a girl breaking into ished, you could tell her that you
a very spontaneous and pleased smile filmed that smile, and that it will be
in the midst of a conversation with perfect to use in that place in the
her lover. You might go about get- conversation where, etc., etc. What-
ting the smile by asking her to sit ever slight resentment she might
where she should be sitting for that have at such tactics will almost cer-
tainly be swept away by your having desired. This example brings up the 167
let her in on why you tricked her, matter of personalities, which is at
and, even more importantly, by her the heart of the relationship between
feeling of satisfaction and confidence the film-maker and the people ap-
in herself after having "acted" so pearing in his film. To gauge just
very well. what unexpected statement by the
In the chapter on editing sound, girl will produce just what reaction
we discussed a sequence in which, by the man is an extremely intuitive

during a couple's conversation, the matter, depending entirely on the
picture cut away from the girl to the specific personalities of the people in-
man's reaction at something she said. volved. The man's reaction could be
The shot of that reaction could prob- shock, confusion, laughter, anger,
ably best be gotten by some sort of quizzicality, bewilderment or embar-
elicitation of response. The camera rassment. Therefore, all of these re-
shot could be set up on him and that actions (and more) could be gotten
section of dialogue begun. By pre- by various combinations of person-
vious arrangement between you and alities and unexpected statements or
the girl, a line she was to say in the actions. It becomes apparent at this
middle of the conversation could be point that the meetings of actors and
dropped, and instead she could begin film-maker that took place before
to say something entirely unexpected shooting have a very important func-
—perhaps a line from Macbeth or a tion beyond making plans and pre-
string of profanities, or whatever parations. It is vital that the film-
might produce just the sort of look maker get to know the personalities
168 of the people who will be in his film, picks up the strange object, turns it
so that he can know how and to what over, starts to turn a switch on the
they will respond during shooting. In device but very abruptly stops her-
many cases the plan of the film may self, puts it down and rushes from
be changed somewhat to accommo- the room.
date the personalities who will be Now the contradiction is this: In
enacting it. the film she is to appear to do all this
There are often good reasons for for the first time, in great distress
changing the details of what is to be and wonderment. But in order for
shot from what had originally been you to shoot the scene, she must
planned. One of the most important know all along exactly what she is
reasons is to give a sense of the ac- to see next and do next. When she
tion happening for the first time. comes into the room she will, in
Suppose you have a sequence in reality, know just where he is lying,
which the girl comes into a large that there is an object beside him,
room and discovers the man's body etc. It will be very difficult for her
lying on the floor. Next to him is a to act as if she doesn't already know
very unfamiliar-looking metallic ob- these things. It is important that she
ject. She rushes over to him and gets be somewhat confused, not knowing
down to see what has happened to what to do next, or what the details
him, shakes him a bit, then puts her of the strange object are. Yet the
head to his chest and listens for a amount of planning and rehearsal
heartbeat. He is alive! But he will necessary to shoot this scene will
not wake up from his trance. She preclude that any of these things will
provide her with an elicited response. out loud to put her ear to his chest 169
This problem is so difficult that even for a heartbeat. She will be doing this
experienced actors stumble over it, for the first time also and will appear
as you have probably seen. One of to have just thought of it. When she
the ways of solving it, in this case, is picks up the metallic object, it will be
to set up the scene with a few care- quite unfamiliar to her, and just as
fully chosen deviations from the she is about to turn the switch on (as
original plan, without the girl's was planned), the film-maker yells at
knowing what these are. Depending her not to touch that switch.
on her personality, you could tell her A much less complicated alterna-
that when she comes into the scene tive to the above method might be
things will be a little different and to coach her by voice during the cam-
that she will have to find things out era take, just as was done in feature
for herself at that point, or you might films prior to sound. You could play
prefer to let the changes be a com- eerie music on the phonograph if you
plete surprise to her. His body might felt is was worthwhile to carry things
be put on the other side of the room, that far. But by the film-maker's act-
so that she will be seeing him there ing out the sequence verbally, while
for the first time. She might have she is acting it out physically, he sets
been told nothing about the strange up a situation of response for her
object. The original plan might have rather than leave her to carry the
been for her to feel for a pulse at his whole thing off by herself. The film-
wrist, but during the shooting the maker's dialogue might go something
film-maker could switch and tell her like this: (Just as she glances toward
170 the body) Screeeeeeeaaaam! (She is touch that switch! It might blow up.
startled and doubly alarmed) What (She abruptly changes her mind
has happened to him? (She rushes about this tactic) Run and get help,
over) Oh, my God, he might be dead! now! (She bolts and runs out of the
(She wonders how to find out if he room).
is alive and starts to pick up his Although withholding informa-
wrist) No! Put your ear to his chest tion from non-actors can sometimes
and listen for a heartbeat. (She sud- be useful, one of the reasons for not
denly thinks of how to find out) Can doing so too often is the prime requi-
you hear his heart beating? (Strained site that the actors participate as
attention on her face) Yes! you can! much as possible in the venture of
he's alive. (She is very glad and re- making the film they are in. It is
lieved) Have you noticed that strange true that in a limited sense they are
object lying next to him? (She no- being used as photographic objects,
tices it for the first time) Could there but it is far truer that they are vitally
be some connection between that ob- involved in the creative process of

ject and his unusual condition? (She making a film as good as possible. It
looks as though she is thinking very is important that they understand

hard, trying to make sense of all this) why a shot is being repeated from a
What if you turned that switch, different angle or why they are being
would it turn the device off and let asked to do things that the film-
him return to consciousness? (She maker suddenly contradicts, or
seems to have an idea about the where in the editing structure it is
switch and begins turning it) Don't anticipated that a certain closeup re-
action will be very useful. As you go The emotional intensity and shading 171
along in the snooting you can help should be striven for only during the
your actors achieve a sense of en- actual shooting.
thusiasm and energy by explaining In documentary film-making, es-
to them the reasons for what you are pecially in the form know as cinema
doing. They need to be assured that verite, there is no planning at all of
you know what you are doing with what will happen. Documentary is
them, and that what is being accom- very much akin to journalism, in
plished is worth their effort. which what actually happens is re-
Since so much of what can be ported, ideally with no manipulation

accomplished with non-actors de- at all. In such filming the mechanics
pends on manipulation of their spon- of making a film would ideally be
taneous reactions, it might be won- invisible, so as not to intrude upon
dered how this affects the conduct the natural course of events. The
of rehearsals. Since it would be disas- necessity for using such equipment
trous to try to rehearse emotional as cameras, lights, microphones and
reactions, these must be left out, and sound recorders has an effect upon
the rehearsals should concentrate the situation that should be min-
only on the overall aspects of the imized by all means possible.
action and dialogue. This allows the There are several methods of pro-
film-maker to check out how the cedure which greatly minimize the
camera angles and camera motions intrusion of the film-maker into the
will actually work, and gives the ac- situation he is trying to record. For
tors a sense of their overall direction. one thing, the people being filmed
172 are very curious about the strange and abruptly reminds them that they
equipment and what will be done are in a film. A camera that will run
with it. The sooner you can manage silently is very helpful, even if sync
to get their curiosity satisfied, the sound is not being shot. By resting
sooner the situation will resume its a camera such as an Eclair on your
natural course. It is often helpful to shoulder and looking at all times
film for a while with an empty cam- only through the viewfinder, your
era. This is especially effective with subjects will have no way of know-
children, who will at first turn to ing when you are shooting and when
stare at the camera every time they not, and thus you will intrude upon
hear it running, or will drop what- them minimally.
ever they are doing and stare into the Of course it often happens in doc-
lens. But since there is really very umentary filming that the factors
little for them to see, they quickly necessary for good photography and
lose interest and accept the filming sound recording will conflict with
equipment matter-of-factly. Similar the necessity of allowing the true
tactics apply to the use of lights — it happenings to occur naturally. A
is best to turn them all on as soon as technically polished film that has
they are set, and to leave them on been achieved at the cost of losing
during the entire shooting session. the life of the content of the film
The usual economies of studio prac- must be considered a failure. On the
tice are best abandoned in the docu- other hand, a sloppy and ill-made
mentary situation, since the lights film cannot be excused on the
going off and on startle non-actors grounds that the procedures to make
it technically better would have de- they live in better than you do, will 173
stroyed the content. The maxim that make very important suggestions
there is always some way to achieve when they see the rushes. They are
technically acceptable results rarely apt to think of people and places and
fails, except where there is lack of happenings which could be filmed to
ingenuity and care. express the theme of the film more

When film that has just been shot powerfully and with more inside
is sent to the laboratory for develop- savvy than you could do on your
ing and work printing, the work own.
print is usually refered to as the Making a good film requires pull-
"rushes/' simply because you are al- ing a large number of different
ways in a rush to see them. If your factors together into a cohesive pre-
film is shot over a period of time that sentation. The film-maker relies upon
allows rushes to be seen before all inventors, scientists and engineers to
the shooting is completed, it is very provide the machinery and materials
productive to invite the people who with which films are made, and he
appear in the film to the screening. should be as ready to seek out the
In the case of a dramatic film, the resources of personality and mind
actors will learn a great deal by see- and inspiration which can be found
ing themselves on screen, and will be in the people who appear in his films.
able to improve their performances. The film-maker is the focal point at

In the case of documentary films, it which the contributions of all these
often happens that the people mainly people combine to form an image in
in the film, since they know the scene the minds of the cinema audience.
174
t he most difficult assignment in

17 speaker seems to be near the viewer's
sound recording is getting clear, in- ears, out in the theater, and not
telligible, dialogue recorded in syn- stuffed back in a closet behind the
chronization with the actor's lip screen. Another advantage of a close
motions, especially when the film is mike is that room reverberations and
being shot on location. We will use a background noise are greatly mini-
section from an imaginary cowboy mized, since the mike, being closer to
film to show the use of professional the speaker than to anything else,
techniques and equipment for mak- hears the voice far louder than the
ing good dialogue recordings under a ambient noise.
variety of adverse conditions. The first scene of this cowboy
The most emphatic rule of pro- film shows two men sitting close to
cedure in dialogue sound recording is their morning campfire, having a
to get the microphone close to the conversation. The soundman will
speaker. This causes several good want to put a mike right in close to
things to happen. Most important, them, but the cameraman does not
the recording will have an acoustical want the mike to appear in the shot.
characteristic known as "presence," This situation is one which must
which means that the voice of the constantly be solved in film-making
ways of
recording sound
ways of recording sound
by a variety of methods. Since the site sides of the fire, left and right, 175
actors are not "going anywhere, the then an omnidirectional mike might
easiest solution is to place the mike be used; this picks up sounds coming
right in front of the actors, but hid- from an area consisting of a half-
ing it behind something in the scene sphere in front of it. This type of
so that it will not be noticed. It could mike gains this advantage at the sac-
be set on a little swivel stuck right in rifice of some amount of presence

the ground but hidden from the cam- and background-noise rejection, but
era view by the battered old coffee- in this case, where the actors are
pot. The mike cable can easily be quite close to the mike, and there is
covered over with a little earth and very little background noise or rever-
run to a conveniently placed record- beration, an omnidirectional mike
ing machine out of sight. would be a good choice.
The choice of microphone type for In the next shot the men get up
this shot would be a general-purpose and walk over to their horses, all the
directional mike, which gives extra while carrying on a conversation

presence to sounds in a straight line which must be recorded clearly. The
in front of it, but is very unrespon- usual solution here is to suspend the
sive to sounds from any other direc- mike out over the actor's heads, on
tion. Use of this mike would be fea- the end of an aluminum pole. The
sible only if the two men were sitting pole is manipulated by a man stand-
close together, so that they were both ing to one side of the camera frame
on the axis of the mike's pickup of view, so that the mike moves
pattern. If they were sitting on oppo- along with the men just a few feet
176 above their heads. This shot will special-purpose problem solver. A
require a little rehearsal so that the soundman using this mike would
mike will not accidentally bob down simply hold it in his hand, aiming it
into camera view as the soundman very accurately at whoever was

moves it to follow the men. Another speaking and staying as close to them
solution to this situation is one com- as he dared without getting into the
monly used in documentary filming view of the camera. An experienced

where no rehearsal is possible, since soundman of this type achieves the
events are filmed as they happen. A ability to estimate fairly accurately
special type of microphone is used, the field of view of the camera by

which includes in its design an acous- glancing at the position of the zoom
tical tube a foot or two long and lens control to see how far it is to-
about the diameter of a garden hose; ward full telephoto or wide angle.
this gathers sound from a very nar- In the next shot, the men are gal-
row angle in front of it and makes it loping along on their horses, and the
more present, even though the per- camera is trucking alongside them in
son talking may be ten feet away. a pickup truck, which also contains
This mike, called a shotgun mike the soundman with his mike out on
because of its appearance, carries the the end of the pole. It is important
characteristics of the directional that the soundman be wearing a pair
mike to an extreme. It does not proof earphones plugged into the re-
duce sound of as good quality at close cording machine so that he can hear
range as a standard mike does, and the sound exactly as it is being picked
so should not be used except as a up by the mike. In this example, what
he hears is a horrible crashing, an in- era only. Later, in the studio, they 177
termittent thudding sound, caused will watch their images on the screen
by the wind hitting the microphone. and speak their lines to match their
This problem is frequently encoun- photographed lip movements. This
tered when recording in a windy lo- will be recorded and mixed with a
cation, even when the mike isn't wind-sound effect, yielding an effec-
moving along at thirty miles an hour. tive and understandable sound track.
It is solved by using a windscreen, The men finally make it to town

usually made of spun plastic, which and head for the saloon to drink
fits over the mike and acts as a pillow some whiskey. There is a wide-angle
against the wind, but does not de- shot in which the two men are at the
grade the quality of the voices. bar, standing in profile right up close
By now the men are crossing the to the camera, and suddenly, on the
desert, and a fierce sandstorm has balcony in the background, appears
come up, howling at 60 mph and fill- a mean-looking hombre who says
ing the air with so much sand it is coolly that he told them to stay out
hard to see. The wind is being made of town. One of the cowboys replies
by airplane propellers driven by gas- that they got thirsty. The mean hom-
oline engines. In this tremendous bre pulls out his Colt and shoots the
roar it is impossible to record dialogue glass out of the fellow's hand.
with acceptable quality, even with In this sequence the mean hombre
the best of special equipment, so the and the men at the bar are separated
scenes are filmed silently, with the by about thirty feet, so they will each
men speaking their lines for the cam- require a mike of their own. Getting
178 good presence on the hombre on the tions, but the surest one is to discard
balcony might be difficult with a the blast recorded at the time of the
mike outside the camera frame of filming and insert a specially made
view, so a tiny mike called a gunshot-sound effect into the track
lavalier mike could be hung around at exactly the right point.
his neck and concealed behind his We have been carefully consider-
kerchief. Its cable could easily be ing microphone usage in the scenes
hidden behind the balcony railing. described, but ignoring the require-
The cables coming from the two ments for camera and sound re-
mikes will both need to be run corder.The most important require-

into a small box having volume-con- ment is that there be some way of
trol knobs, called a mixer. This en- ultimately combining the picture and
ables the sound levels from the two its corresponding sound together in
mikes to be adjusted to whatever perfect synchronization. The most
relative levels are desired. The mixer sophisticated and most convenient
output is then fed into the record- method requires a camera which has
ing machine. Mixers commonly have been adapted to run at exactly 24 fps.
four or five separate inputs, allowing This is done by using a small transis-
that many mikes to be used at once. tor circuit containing a crystal oscil-
The blast of noise that the gun lator that pulses at precisely a fixed
makes is so loud in comparison to the frequency. This provides a timing

speakers' voices that it will complete- standard which is amplified and used
ly overload the recording machine to control the running speed of the
and the gunshot sound will be un- camera's motor.
satisfactory. There are various solu- The most convenient and flexible
sound recorder to use on location is The more commonly used method 179
the Nagra ^-inch tape recorder. of sychronization is a variation of
This machine can also be fitted with the above method. The camera is
an oscillator identical to the unit used equipped with an internal sync pulse
to control the camera speed. The out- generator which is a part of its motor.
put of this oscillator does not con- The output frequency of this genera-
trol the tape running speed. It is re- tor is exactly proportional to the run-
corded along the edge of the sound ning speed of the camera. This out-
tape, and thus provides a precise tim- put is fed through a wire into the
ing reference along with sound, tape recorder, where it is recorded
which can be used later to synchro- along the edge of the sound track, as
nize picture to sound. before. This means that the sound
Shooting synchronous sound and recording now contains not only the
picture by this method works be- sound, but also an exact record of the
cause both picture and sound are re- camera running speed at any point
ferred to an exact timing standard along the track. This record is used at
provided by the oscillators in the two a later stage to synchronize the pic-
machines operating at exactly the ture and sound. The main operating
same frequency. The advantage of difference between this method and
this system over the conventional the first is that in this method the
method is that there is no mechanical camera and recorder are tied together
or electrical connection between the by a wire, which under some circum-

camera and recorder, thus allowing stances seriously inhibits the physi-
them to be used with complete phys- cal freedom of the cameraman and
ical independence of each other. soundman.
180 The Nagra tape recorder is about amount of time, so start marks must
the size of a Manhattan telephone be made at the time of shooting. The
book, and so it can be carried around most traditional way of doing this is
easily. In documentary film-making, to have the camera and recorder start
the soundman carries it by a strap rolling; then a small slate with the
over the shoulder, leaving his hands scene number on it is put into the
free to climb around with the micro- camera field of view. On the top of
phone. He is thus free to move the slate is mounted a piece of wood
around to whatever position is ad- about a foot long, hinged to the slate
vantageous and to walk along fol- at one end. The person holding the
lowing the action. The camera, most slate reads aloud the information
likely an Elair, Arriflex, or converted written on it, then slaps the top board
Auricon, can also be carried around down on the top of the slate, making
on the shoulder. With these, an ex- a bang. The editor can later line up
tremely quick and flexible sync sound the bang on the sound track with the
shooting crew can be made up of picture frame in which the board has
only two men. just hit the top of the slate. The
When a sync sound film is being sound and picture can then be run in
edited, each of the camera takes will sync (more about this in Chapter 18).
have to be lined up side by side Some cameras have a built-in start
in sync with its corresponding sound mark device consisting of a tiny

track. Doing this without some sort light that flashes inside the camera,
of start mark on both the picture and exposing a single frame, and at the
sound would take an inordinate same time sends a beep tone over the
sync pulse wire into the tape recorder. we could track along with the couple 181
This is called an automatic clapper. using a mike on a pole, without hit-
The flash frame and beep can later be ting a No Parking sign or a store
used as start marks. In lieu of a clap- awning, the odd sight of the sound-
board, or in case of a failure of the man and boom would disrupt the
automatic beep system, one of the scene. Instead the actors can each be
actors can simply clap his hands to- equipped with a tiny microphone,
gether at the beginning or end of the hidden in their clothing near their
shot. In documentary shooting it is throats, which is capable of broad-
sometimes common to rush into casting the sound it picks up over an
shooting a fast-breaking action, and FM radio wave, and this can be mon-
not put start marks or slate the scene itored by a receiver at some distance
until the end of the shot. This is not and recorded. Such radio mike sys-
quite as convenient for the editor, tems are made by Sennheiser and
but it works just as well. Comrex, among others. These sys-
Sometimes a sound-recording sit- tems are a further advance in getting
uation will arise in which radio mi- rid of the wires connecting the vari-
crophones are a great help. Suppose ous functions in sync sound shoot-
a scene is to be shot in sync sound of ing.
a couple walking along a crowded As an economy measure in shoot-
sidewalk, having an important con- ing this scene, we could fall back on
versation. All the rest of the people the old versatile technique of hiding
in the shot are ordinary citizens who, the mike in the scene. Two assistants
we hope, will look natural. Even if could be used, one to carry the tape
182 recorder as though it were a brief- easier to use. Examples are the Eclair,
case, at the same time discreetly hold- Mitchell BNC, Arriflex and Auricon
ing the microphone behind his back cameras mentioned before. For the
as he walked along directly in front sake of convenience and economy,
of the actors. The second assistant many scenes requiring sync sound
could walk along between the mike can be shot with non-silent cameras.
and the camera, screening it from In the example of the sidewalk con-
view. A directional mike, such as an versation, the camera would prob-
Electrovoice 666, would be a good ably be mounted inside a station
choice for this scene, since it could wagon in order to track it along with
favor the actors' voices over the the actors, and this insulation, com-
street noises. The assistant who car- bined with the sound-masking effect
ried it behind his back must aim of the street hubbub, would make a
it directly at the actors' mouths. silent camera unnecessary.

When shooting sync sound it is Another way of avoiding camera
usually necessary to use a camera noise is to use a directional mike up
that does not make any noise, or the and then have the
close to the actors
sound recordings will be marred by camera placed some distance away,

camera chatter. Some cameras are using a telephoto lens to get closer
nearly noiseless, and others must be shots. This is an expedient technique
mounted inside an accessory sound- and often used. If just a little camera
proofing blimp in order to be used chatter still comes through (perhaps
as sound cameras. The noiseless cam- when shooting in a quiet room), then
eras, especially in 16mm, are much a heavy blanket draped over the
camera and the cameraman will solve that a great amount of filming is not 183
the problem. If all else fails, there is sync sound. Even theatrical features
still the last-ditch technique of mask- often consist of hardly more than
ing remaining camera noise later dur- 50 per cent sync sound. The impres-
ing the sound mix by adding the sion of sync sound running all
sound effect of traffic, or an air con- the way through a film is created
ditioner, or a shower running. by a scattering of it intermittently
Shooting film which does not re- throughout the length of the film. A
quire sync sound simplifies things great deal of time is taken up with
greatly. A noisy camera may be used, action, gestures, scenic long shots,
it does not have to run at exact speed, fights, and significant looks between
it can be moved around without actors.
danger of including the mike in the The good-quality tape recorders

shot, shots do not have to be slated, made for home use by such com-
and the camerman is free to follow panies as Ampex, Sony, Uher, Pana-
his eyes. When recording the sound, sonic, Concord and Wollensak are
the microphone can be placed where capable of sound quality entirely
it will work best without worrying suitable for film use, when sync dia-
about messing up a shot, the recorder logue is The mi-

not being recorded.
can be simpler and less expensive, crophones supplied with these ma-
less expensive mikes can usually be chines are usually not anywhere near
used because of the freedom of mike as good as the machines, and are of
placement, and the soundman is free such poor acoustical design that they
to follow his ears. It should be noted do not record words well beyond a
184 distance of two or three One of

feet. not to use the microphone but to
the better microphones made by make an electrical connection from
Shure or Electrovoice in the $50 to the sound source to the recording
$70 price range will work much machine. For example, if you want
better. to transfer some music from a record

Recording tape is inexpensive in onto a tape machine, you could just
comparison to other materials used play the record and put the tape re-
making a film, so the best should al- corder mike next to the record-player
ways be used. Typical of the several speaker. However, the sound quality
good brands is Scotch, type 201, will be much better if you connect
which is designed to have a very low either the record player pre-amp or
background noise level and is sili- speaker terminals into the line or aux
cone-lubricated to reduce friction input on the tape recorder, thus re-
and wear of the heads on the recording directly by wire.
corder. Experience has shown that it The standard running speed for
is usually best not to record on ex- tape machines in motion-picture
tended-play tape because its thinner work is 7V2 inches per second. Run-
base stretches and causes timing var- ning at a slower speed sacrifices some
iations, makes editing the tape phys- high-frequency response, makes pre-
ically more difficult and tends to cise cutting of the tape more difficult,
print through sounds from one turn and is incompatible with most of the
of tape on the reel to the next. tape machines at the sound labs. Re-
When transferring sound from cording a sound at 7V2ips and play-
one recording to another, it is best ing it back at 3 3A ips results in the
sounds lasting twice as long and in the soundtrack, which will be played 185
lowering the pitch by one octave. at 7V2 ips.
There are often good reasons for There is a difficulty in using home-
doing this, particularly when cre- type tape recorders for film use be-
ating sound effects. Sounds such as cause the standard track width of the
wind, breathing, laughter, screams, professional recording and playback
engines and drumming take on a machines is nearly the full width of
different character at half speed. the V4-inch tape. If you submit a
Since these sounds will have to sound track made on a half-track or

be cut into the tape sound track, quarter-track machine to the lab for
which will be running at the transfer in the process of making
standard speed of 7V2 ips, you sound prints of the film, their ma-
will need to make a dub of the chine will pick up whatever is on the
effect at that speed. The procedure full width of the tape. This could be
is to record the sound you want at a disaster if there was some other
7V2 ips but then play it back at 3 3A recording on the other tracks that
ips, copying it onto another machine you did not know about. Even if
running at 7V2 ips. This gives a re- those other tracks are clean, they still
cording of the special effect, which may contain residual tape noise,
can be spliced into the sound track. which will be picked up and become
Sounds may also be more effective part of your sound track. There are
when doubled in speed. The desired full-track replacement heads avail-
sound is recorded at 3 3/4 ips, and able for most machines, and for pro-
then spliced directly into the rest of fessional work they should be used.
186 Sound effects are easily recorded doubtful that there would be any dif-
out in the field with a battery-pow- ficulty ovex transfer of commercial
ered machine and a good micro- records. When music is to be used
phone. But sometimes sounds are not in a commercial film it can be
readily available for recording by the purchased from record companies,
film-maker, and it is fortunate that which maintain large collections of
sound-effects records, offering a huge records that they sell outright, also
variety of sounds both familiar and charging a reasonable licensing fee

bizarre, are plentiful, at about the for their commercial use.
same cost as music records. Jet-plane Recording musical groups live,
take-offs, ocean-liner horns, space- without a recording studio, is very

control-center talk, huge crowds tricky, but it can be done with ac-
cheering, elephants trumpeting, cir- ceptable results. If it is an unampli-
cus barkers, jackhammers, machine fied group, and very small, an omni-
guns firing, and strange electronic directional mike can be placed close
sounds are all available on sound- to the floor and the group arranged in
effect records. In most cases these a circle around it. Make a test re-
sounds may be used, even in com- cording and see what imbalances
mercial films, without any legal com- there are in the instruments. Then
plications. However, if music from a move those that are too loud farther
commercial recording is used in a out in the circle. Record in the
commercial film, it might lead to a plushiest, most padded, drapery-
copyright suit. In cases where the laden, carpeted room you can find, so
film is not used commercially, it is that there will be a minimum of room

reverberation, and the end result will tional mikes in front of each speaker. 187
be pretty good. If the budget allows, The musicians will have to play
use more than one mike and run not too loud in order to avoid over-
them into a mixer, so that the sound loading the mikes. Balance be-
balance from each can be adjusted to tween the instruments can be
taste. When recording an electric effected either by the mixer
group, it is best to separate the controls on the mikes or by the
speakers for each instrument as amplifier controls on the in-
much as possible and to use direc- struments.

188
n low that we have

18
finished speed at which the tape is run
gathering the pictures and sounds for through the resolver is based on the
a film, it's time to begin to put sync-pulse signals recorded along the
them all together in an effective edge. Thus, if the camera slowed
form. It will be necessary first to ex- down during the filming, the sync-
plain about magnetic film. Trying pulse signals would also have slowed
to edit sprocketed film along with down, and the resolver will slow the
unsprocketed x
/4-inch sound tape playback of the tapedown by exactly
would impose intolerable difficul- the same amount. What we end up
ties. The solution lies in the use of with on the magnetic film is a sound
sprocketed magnetic film, which is track which is in frame-for-frame
either 16 mms or 35 mms wide, and correspondence with the picture. The
identical to the picture film except picture and sound are now both on
that it is coated with a magnetic identical physical mediums, in frame-
oxide like that on the recording tape. to-frame synchronization, and ready
The sync-sound V4-inch tape is fed for editing.
into a machine called a resolver, The machine universally used for
which plays the tape and makes a editing sync sound (in the United
copy of it onto magnetic film. The States) is the Moviola, made by the
editing sound
and picture
editing sound and picture
company of that name. The Movi- be presented in synchronism, going 189

ola consists basically of a picture- faster as the foot control is pressed
viewing head and a magnetic film down farther. If it is desired that
sound playback head, linked together they be displayed at the standard 24
mechanically so that they run in step, fps projection speed, a switch is
and a speed-control pedal that allows flipped that overrides the foot pedal
the material to run through at rates and runs at this speed. The scene
varying from a few frames per sec- may be run backward and forward,
ond to about 50 frames per second. slowed down, speeded up and
The machine may also be stopped on stopped, until it is decided how it is
any single frame and run backward to be cut.
at varying rates. We will imagine that the sequence

The picture roll of a scene is to be edited is a conversation be-
threaded up so that the start frame is tween a couple, and that the first shot
exactly in the film gate in the pic- we are looking at is the girl speak-
ture head. The mag film is then ing. This shot is run on the Movi-
threaded up so that the beep-tone ola until we get to the point where
startmark is exactly under the pick- we want to cut to the man's face and
up head. The picture head and sound his line of dialogue. Use a grease pen-
head drive are then locked together cil or other suitable marker to mark
by a simple slip collar, and the sound both the picture frame and sound
amplifier and picture lamp are then frame where the cut is to occur. The
turned on. Pressing the foot pedal picture head and sound head on the
will cause the picture and sound to Moviola are hinged so that you can
190 swing them out of the way for doing

this. The material can then be lifted
out of the machine and cut with a

scissors.
(Be sure to cut through the frame
after the last frame of picture you
want to keep, to allow for what will
be trimmed off by either the tape or
cement splicer.)
The picture and sound rolls of the

man can now be threaded up with
their start marks in the right places.
Run this material until you are just

at the point where you want his ac-
tion to begin. Mark the picture frame

immediately preceding the first frame
you want, and do likewise with the
sound track. Lift these out and cut
them as before. The beginning of the
shot of the man can now be spliced
A 35mm Moviola editing machine. Note the slide

to the end of the shot of girl, and the
coupling just above the speaker circle. This con- beginning of his sound track can be
nects or disconnects the picture head on the
right from the sound head on the left. (Courtesy spliced to the end of her sound (splic-
F&B/Ceco, Inc.
ing techniques are discussed at the
Picture and magnetic sound lined up in sync on

a 16mm Moviola. (Machine courtesy Ross-Gaff-
ney, Inc.
end of Chapter 10). You can now his speech. Keeping all of this in sync 191
view this sequence of two scenes by is not difficult if it is done with a
threading up the spliced picture and method clearly in mind. In this case
sound rolls with their beginning start we will start again with the girl talk-
marks. The girl will appear on the ing. At a key point she is in the midst
screen and speak, and at the point of saying something that we know
you picked to cut, the man will ap- will surprise the man very much. Just
pear and speak in return. Synchro- at this point, the audience will want
nism is maintained because once a to see his surprise but to continue to
picture and corresponding sound roll hear what she is saying. In editing
have been locked into the Moviola this, we will want to cut the picture
in sync, according to their start of her, but not her sound track,
marks, they are run in sync by the which will be continued on to the
machine all through their length. The end of her speech. In order to main-
start marks for picture and sound at tain sync, all that is necessary is to
the very beginning of the film are make sure that for whatever length
all that need be retained. of her shot we cut out we add exactly
With a little more finesse, we can that length of shot of the man's sur-
now do some more interesting kinds prise. In other words, if we want to
of cutting. These include cutting put in 80 frames of the man's sur-

away from a person speaking to a prise, we must take 80 frames out of
reaction shot of the person being the middle of the shot of the girl
spoken to, and then cutting back to talking. Since we will be taking out
the first person just as he is finishing 80 frames of her shot and adding 80
192 frames of his shot, we have not run through it. To do this, set the
broken sync. marked frame on the 1 of the frame
The first thing to do in actually ac- counter wheel and roll through the
complishing this is to look at the scene until you have measured off 80
man's reaction shot. (Woe if you frames. On the 80th frame (actually
have not got one.) Choose what part above the number 40 on the wheel
of that shot you want, cut it out and after two revolutions), make a mark.
keep it handy. Let's assume it is ex- You can now cut the marked 80-
actly 80 frames long. Now thread up frame section out of her shot and
the shot of the girl talking, and her splice in the 80-frame section of his
corresponding sound track side by shot. To view your handiwork, place
side in sync in the Moviola. Run the spliced sequence into the Movi-
through the shot until you get to the ola with the first frame of the cut-
point in her dialogue where the audi- away shot of the man in the film
ence will be in suspense to see how gate. This will be in line with the
he is reacting. Stop the machine right mark you made before on the sound
there and mark the frame following track. Run the machine backward to
the last frame of the girl you want to the start of the sequence, and now
keep. Also mark the corresponding you can run the sequence and see
frame of the sound track, for future how well it works.
reference. Take the shot of her out of In the manner described above,
the Moviola and place it in a syn- you may freely intercut sync-sound
chronizer (see picture), which will footage with all sorts of detail shots
measure the number of frames you that were shot silent. For example,
The numbered wheel on the front of the syn-

chronizer can be used to count frames as the
film rolls through to the right. (Machine courtesy
Ross-Gaffney, Inc.)
at appropriate points you might cut all cut, the dialogue track can be put 193
away to someone looking in the aside, and the sound effects, which
window, or to a closeup of the girl have also been recorded on mag film,
nervously tapping the ash off her can be set into place. Horses gallop-
cigarette, or even to images that re- ing, engines running, tires squealing,
late to the specific things she is say- gunshots, crowd noises, and so on,
ing. are placed in the Moviola alongside
It is a common practice, though their corresponding picture. The
not absolutely necessary, to have places on the sound track between
code numbers printed in yellow ink sound effects are filled in with blank
along the edges of the mag sound mag film. Sound effects that run con-
track and the picture. These numbers tinuously through a sequence and are
begin at the start marks and progress not required to synchronize with
by one digit, appearing usually every anything in the picture can be started
foot along the edge. Thus you have, right at the first frame of sequence
in effect, sync marks on picture and and run through to the last, even
sound every foot of the way. Any though they be desired only occa-
time you need sync reference you sionally during the sequence. An
merely line up, for example, code example of this would be an eerie
number 103 on the picture with 103 electronic sound representing the
on the sound. This can save a lot of menacing presence of a strange giant
editing time on long films containing creature. In the finished film it is de-
a great deal of sync footage. sired that this sound fade in just be-
When the dialogue and picture are fore the creature appears and fade
The white marks on the mag film sound track

indicate where a cutaway from the speaker on
the picture roll was desired. The cutaway from
the speaker is represented (for illustration only)
by the white leader. Inked edge numbers.
194 out as it recedes. There may be nu- that music will ultimately be used is
merous places in the sequence where determined at the mixing session.

this sound effect will be used, and The total- number of tracks pre-
rather than try to prepare pieces pared for a film depends entirely on
of the effect, complete with fades in the needs of the particular film. We
and out for each of the occasions it have outlined the basic three: dia-
will be used, it is much simpler to logue, sound effects and music. In
have the effect continuously avail- complex films there may be several
able on the effects track, and to fade more tracks of sound effects and
it in and out with a volume control music. Whenever more than one
during the re-recording mix, which sound effect is to be heard at the same
combines all the tracks together (see time, it is customary to have those
Chapter 19). sounds on separate tracks so that
This is also true of the music track, they can be combined at will. When-
which in the finished film will come ever one piece of music is to blend
on strong at times, fade completely with or dissolve into another, then
out at others, and just simmer in the the second piece of music will have
background at others. All this con- to be on a separate track.
trol can be more easily accom- It is possible to get around the
plished during the mix, and what is need for a Moviola by using the
required at the editing stage is that synchronizer in conjunction with a
the music is synced up with the mag sound head and a picture viewer
scenes for which it will be used. To (see pictures). The most convenient
what degree and to what loudness way of using this setup is to put the
synchronizer just to the right of the sound will be presented. The disad-
picture viewer, and line both up so vantage of this setup compared to the
that the picture strip goes through Moviola is that it is very tricky to
the viewer and then through one of wind the material through the sys-
the rear gangs (roller sections) of the tem at an even speed. (However, a
synchronizer. The mag sound is small drive motor for the synchro-
placed in the front gang, on nizer is available as an accessory.) It
which is mounted the mag read- is more likely that a mistake in main-
er head. Just as in using the taining sync will be made, since this
Moviola, the start mark for the method depends on the distance be-
sound is placed directly under the tween the viewer and synchronizer's
pickup head, and the start mark for remaining absolutely the same, and
the picture is placed in the film gate on the film between the viewer and
of the viewer. The mag sound head synchronizer's remaining taut. It is
is connected to an amplifier and possible to put up with drawbacks

speaker. The reels of picture and and get satisfactory results — and the
sound are pulled through by the re- elimination of the need for a costly,
winds, which are equipped with slip heavy Moviola is a considerable ad-
clutches so that the picture and sound vantage for the no-budget film-
will wind up evenly. As the rewind maker.

on the right is turned, the picture In making a film, in which only a
and sound will be pulled through the few sync points occur in its entire
synchronizer exactly in synchroniza- length, there is a procedure that elim-

tion, and picture and corresponding inates the need for mag film and a
Using a synchronizer in conjunction with mag-

netic pickup head and picture viewer as a substi-
tute for a Moviola. Picture and sound are pulled
The magnetic pickup head rides on the mag film through in frame-for-frame sync by the syn-
as it passes through the synchronizer. chronizer.
196 sound reader entirely. Suppose this
film requires that the music change

to another sound exactly at a certain
point in the film. The film is set up on

the rewinds and run, from the begin-
ning, through the synchronizer, until
the exact changeover point is reached.
The footage counter on the synchro-
nizer reads, let's say, 360 feet. This
is converted by arithmetic to the
equivalent time of exactly ten min-
The spring loaded slip clutch on the rewind shaft
allows picture and sound reelsto be wound utes, if the film is in 16mm. You then
evenly.
cut the sound track, which is on
x
k -inch tape, so that when played on
the tape recorder, the changeover
occurs ten minutes after the begin-
ning of the track. The tape is then
taken to the lab where a copy of it
is made in the form of an optical
track. This is a photographic version

of the sound, printed along one edge
of a clear piece of 16mm film (see
picture). Regardless of what previ-
ous synchronizing and editing pro-
A positive optical sound track.

cedure has been used, the sound dialogue are desired in a film, and 197
track will ultimately be transferred shooting it synchronously is out of
into an optical anyway, so this does the question, there is a way it may
not represent an extra step required be accomplished. The dialogue is
by the short-cut method being de- recorded on V4-inch tape, with the
scribed. Since the sound is now on actors going through as many as
sprocketed material recorded at 24 possible of the physical motions and
fps, it is the equivalent of a mag postures that will be filmed. When
track, in terms of timing. This optical the shots are made in which the
track can be played on a sound pro- actors are to speak, the camera is
jector, and the changeover point in adjusted carefully to run at 24 fps,

the sound identified and marked (be or a sync motor is used, and while
sure not to mark on the track area the tape recorder plays back the
itself). The mark can be lined up in actor's voices, they mimic their own
the synchronizer with the cut point voices. This will give a picture and
in the picture material, then run sound track that are very close to-
backwards through the synchronizer gether in terms of sync. Minor

to the beginning, and start marks can adjustments can be made after the
then be placed on the front of pic- V4-inch tape is transfered onto mag
ture and sound rolls. When the film. Since sound is not being re-
picture and sound are printed to- corded during the filming, a noisy
gether to make a finished film, the camera may be used. Once the
music will change right on cue. dialogue is on the mag film, it can be
If brief passages of sync-sound edited synchronously with the pic-
198 ture, as described already. This tech- procedure shoots the picture first,
nique is used extensively in theatrical and then records sounds to match it.
musical films, where it would other- Either method demands considerable

wise be impossible to cut from shot skill and practice by the actors. But
to shot during a musical number, either method can also solve hor-
and still have the music continue rendous problems and save a lot of
smoothly in synchronism with the money.
performers. Instead of doing all the sound edit-
In a situation like the example ing on mag film, it can sometimes be
given in Chapter 16 in which the dia- done, all or in part, on Vt -inch tape,
logue could not be recorded during as a means of getting around the

a windstorm, the picture sequence is considerable cost involved in mixing
edited first. Then it is projected by a magnetic film tracks. We will make a
sync projector (24 fps exactly) and sound track for a hypothetical film
mimicked by the actors. Their voices which does not require sync dialogue
are recorded on a sync mag film re- but which does need music in several
corder. Picture and sound can then places, some sound effects, and voices
be edited as though they had been speaking about what is seen on the
filmed synchronously. screen. Let's start with the voices.
In these two procedures, which We have recorded interviews, ex-

simulate sync-sound shooting, the pressing their feelings about the sub-
first involves recording the sound ject, with people who appear in the
first, and then shooting picture with film. Culling all the best remarks out
lip motions to match it. The second of the recordings, we now want to
By running the tape to the left of the drive cap-

stan, instead of between the capstan and the
rubber roller, the tape will not be pulled through
A spliced piece of Vi-inch recording tape. the tape recorder.
splice them together into a coherent ever, there may be no pause be- 199
commentary. Tape is spliced by mak- tween words at a point where you
ing a diagonal cut across the ends of wish to cut, and in this case an error
the pieces to be joined and then plac- of only Va inch, insignificant before,
ing a strip of splicing tape over the will clip off the first or last letter of a
cut to be joined, on the back (shiny word. In order to solve this, lift the
side) of the tape (see picture). The tape from its normal position be-
design of the diagonal cut sliding tween the pinch roller and the drive
over the recording and playback capstan (see picture). When you turn
head of the tape machine is such that the tape machine to forward, the
there is no discernible disturbance tape will not be pulled through. You
heard as the splice goes by. There will are now free to move the tape over
be no difficulty in finding exactly the playback manually by turning
the point at which to cut the tape if the reels with your fingers. Turning
you are merely lifting out whole sen- slowly, you will be able to hear each
tences and phrases. In normal speech syllable of each word (at a much
patterns there are pauses between lower pitch, of course), and by rock-
x
phrases of about k second to a full ing the tape forward and backward
second. Since the tape is running at across the pickup head you can find
7V2 inches per second, there will be exactly where one syllable of a word
between two and seven inches of ends and the next begins. Mark the
blank space between the sections of tape with a felt pen at the exact
speech, and so cutting between them center of the pickup head, lift the
is not difficult. In many cases, how- tape out and cut it for splicing.
The tape can now be passed manually back and

forth over the playback head for precise location The X marks the spot where the signal on the
of sounds. tape is being picked up by the playback head.
When the voice tape is all assem- time, while the picture is being pro-
bled you are ready to make the music jected. Ideally, the projector would
and sound-effects tape. Splice to- run at exactly 24 fps, so that picture
gether all the music you will need, and sound will be presented in ap-
recorded at full volume, and cut in proximate sync. The older Bell and
time lengths to match the time Howell 16mm projectors are adjust-
lengths of the picture with which able to within fairly accurate limits.
they will be used. Let's assume a The running speed can be checked by
sequence where no music will be measuring a minute's worth of film
used, but you will want a sound out on the synchronizer and punch-
effect of busy traffic. Since the part ing a hole in the first and last frame.
of the music track corresponding Run this through the projector and
to that sequence would have con- time it with a watch to see if it takes
tained blank tape, you might save exactly 60 seconds. To adjust the
making a separate sound track by running speed of the projector, take
splicing the traffic sound into that it out of the enclosure and remove
blank space. You now have a voice the cover over the back of the drive
track and a music-and-effects track, motor (see picture). There is a pair
which are cut to the timing of the of contact points that spin when the
picture, and you are ready to mix motor runs. By adjusting the two
them together (see next chapter), screws that set the tension on the
preparatory to having a sound print points, the running speed may be
made of the film. Before mixing altered. By adjusting the contact
them, it is best to run each, one at a points close together the motor will
A Bell & Howell projector with the rear motor

cover removed. There are two set screws which
adjust the contact points, all of which spin as
the motor runs.
be speeded upland setting the points the same reason that magnetic tape 201
farther apart will slow it down. is cut that way. Plastic tape with per-
In editing magnetic film, a splicer forations in it is used to join the
that makes diagonal cuts is used, for pieces together (see picture).
Two models of the Siemens 16mm interlock

projector. This unique machine will record sound
on magnetic film and will play it back in frame-
for-frame sync with the picture being projected
A splice in magnetic film, made with perforated from the opposite side of the machine. ("Cour-
tape. tesy Arriflex Corporation, Inc.)
202
t I he purpose of a mixing ses-

19 usually connections available into
sion is to combine the contents of all echo chambers, reverberation units

the sound tracks together, in the pro- and tape echo devices, so that sounds
portions and loudnesses desired, and on the mag-film tracks can be modi-
re-record all of this on a single strand fied as they are re-recorded in the mix.
of magnetic film. Studios equipped to All of the playback decks, the pro-
do such work are available for hire jector and the re-recording machine
and are a necessity when the sound are electrically connected by a sys-
tracks are synchronous and complex. tem known as interlock, which

Mixing studios generally have fa- means that they all run exact-
cilities arranged in the following ly in step, frame for frame. For ex-
manner: There is a whole set of ample, if the projector were stopped
magnetic-film playback machines to and run backward 100 frames, all the
accommodate a large number of sep- mag-film machines would stop with
arate sound tracks. Each of these it and together back up 100 frames.
playback decks is fed into a master The projector is usually in a sound-
control panel, which provides a vol- proof room at the rear of the projec-
ume control, and very capable tone- tion room (as in a regular movie
contour controls, for each of the theater), so that its clatter does not
sound tracks. In addition there are disturb the sound work. An electric
mixing sounds
together
mixing sounds together
clock that tells- time by dropping nu- mixer turns up the volume controls 203
merals into place is often projected on tracks 2 and 3, so that the sound
onto the screen at one corner so that of surf (track 2) and a mournful fog-
the mixer can be cued as to when horn (track 3) are faded in smoothly
scenes are about to begin and end. and mixed together. Up to this time
With some knowledge of the phys- track 1 has not been used, but of
ical facilities, we will be able to watch course it has been running along in
a mix going on and understand what frame-for-frame sync all this time.
is being done. The room goes dark. It contains narration, which is about
The faint whir of machinery is heard to begin, according to the time-cue
starting up. On the screen a large sheet that the mixer is keeping an
white circle appears for one frame, eye on, so he turns up the volume on
and at the same instant a loud beep track 1. A man's voice is heard say-
is heard. The circle is actually a starting, "My wife and I often walked on
mark hole punched into the pic- the beach" —we can now see their
ture leader. The beep is the com- figures appearing at a distant through
posite sound of all the start-mark the light fog

— "so this seemed like
beeps on the three sound tracks any other foggy morning at first."
being mixed. Since all the beeps and The couple on the screen have ap-
the appearance of circle occurred at proached much closer now, and we
the same instant, we can be assured can see that they are talking together.
that all the material for the mix is The mixer had turned down the vol-
now running in sync. ume control on track 1 immediately

On the screen appears a lonely de- after the end of the man's voice, be-
serted beach. At the same time, the cause track 1 next carries the sync
204 sound of the couple's talking. The carrying their voices, track 2 is still
mixer slowly turns up the volume on carrying the surf sound, and track
track 1, and we begin to hear what 3, having delivered the burst of
the couple is saying as they get music, has reverted to carrying the
closer. They are talking about the foghorn, which was very atmospher-
role beaches have played in animal ic at first, but is now getting in the
evolution. As they come up into a way and intruding on the dialogue
full-frame closeup, the wife suddenly and the story, so the mixer is care-
exclaims, "Look!" In an even larger fully fading The couple are

it out.
closeup, the man's head lifts up sud- then seen in medium closeup, moving
denly to look, and his eyes are very toward the whale for a closer look.
big (this shot lasts only 24 frames). They are talking about what could
There on the beach, right in front of have caused it to be on the beach,
them, is a huge whale. Whannnng! and in the midst of their conversa-
goes a sudden sharp chord of tion a loud voice demands, "Who are
"shock" music, right at the instant of you?" This voice overlaps the dia-
the cut to the whale (this was on logue of the couple, so it could not
track 3, between blasts of the fog- be carried by track 1. Track 2 is run-
horn). The couple are now chattering ning surf, but track 3 has just be-
excitedly about this discovery, in come available because it has fin-
medium closeup. The shot then cuts ished with the foghorn. The strange
to looking over their shoulders so voice, where it overlaps with the sync
that we can get another good look dialogue, is on track 3. The shot cuts
at the whale. At present, track 1 is to a man striding out of the open
mouth of the whale. Then a medium marine, and all three sound tracks are 205
closeup of the startled couple, stand- contributing to the atmosphere. Then
ing frozen in their tracks. A conver- a strange thing happens. The music
sation begins, all on track 1, in which stops (track 2). The voice of the
the stranger tells them that his fish- stranger begins to sound as though
ing skiff was rammed by this whale, it were speaking in a sonic hall of
and that he found himself scooped mirrors, with every word trailing off
up inside it. But once inside he found in an infinite number of fading frag-
it was the interior of an ultramodern ments. The couple become fright-
submarine, with nobody aboard. The ened, and they ask him what he is
couple want to come inside to see doing. Their voices are normal, but
this. Track 2, which has been carry- getting weaker.
ing surf sound, is faded out, so that Since the stranger's voice and the
the eerie, anticipatory music that couple's voices are being handled
comes next on this track can be faded very differently, they must be on
in as the couple start to go inside the separate tracks. Track 1 has been car-
whale-submarine. Track 3, which rying all the dialogue, but is now
has been blank since the strange carrying only the dialogue of the
voice interrupted with "Who are couple. Track 2, which had been
you?" is now faded in with sound ef- carrying music, is now carrying the
fects of electronics, motors, sonar de- dialogue of the stranger. The voice
vices and other effects appropriate to on this track is being fed through a
an ultramodern submarine. tape delay echo device which pro-
Everbody is now inside the sub- duces the strange effect described
206 (more about this later). Track 3 is of thought involved in its design
still carrying the various sound ef- were the following: Using the mini-
fects of the submarine running. mum number of tracks that will do
The stranger begins to laugh hys- the job is very desirable. By freely
terically. He is talking at them almost using available time space on any of
constantly, deriding their gradual the tracks, for any material, two or
loss of speech. (Their voices, on track three extra tracks can often be avoid-
1, are being faded out very gradu- ed. There is no need to regard a dia-
ally.) In the midst of another burst logue track as reserved for dialogue
of laughter, the scene cuts to an out- only, as long as there is significant
side view of the beach, and we see blank space in it that can be used for
that the whale has disappeared from something else.
the beach and is heading out to sea. Whenever two sounds are to be
Music of doom accompanies this long combined, or whenever two parts of
shot, on track 3, which is no longer the same sound are to be handled dif-
required to carry the sound effects of ferently, they must be run on separ-
the submarine's interior. The music ate tracks. The relative proportions
and picture fade out together, and of each sound can thus also be con-
the mix of this sequence is completed. trolled and changed at will, and
The mix described above is a very each of the parts of a sound may be
complicated one, even though it uses run through different filtering or en-
only three tracks. It was designed to hancement circuits.
illustrate a wide variety of the effects If manipulations of the mixing

possible in mixing. The main modes controls are to be made after one
sound on a track and before the next, beginning, forming a loop. When 207
then sufficient space must be allowed this is put on a tape-playback unit,
for the mix operator to have time it will produce the sound of surf in-
to make the changes. Otherwise, the definitely. The fact that it is the same
sound juncture must be separated waves over and over again will usual-
by putting the sounds on different ly not be noticeable. In the mix about

tracks. For example, if some music the whale, this technique would have
is to be faded out very quickly at the made most of track 2 available for
end of a shot, and a voice speaks im- other sounds, if it had been neces-
mediately at the beginning of the sary.
next, the mixer will be required to It is possible to make mixes with-

fade the music all the way out, and out the use of a studio and its equip-
then try to get the volume control ment if the tracks are not required to
fully open again in time for the voice. be in strict synchronization most of
A fraction-of-a-second error here the time. For example, if the mix
would clip off the first word and re- about the whale had not required any
quire doing that whole section over sync dialogue, it could have been
again. done with V4-inch tape recorders.
Sometimes the addition of an extra The parts that needed verbal expla-
track can be avoided by using what nation could have been written as
is called a tape loop. This means that offscreen narration rather than as
a sound, such as surf, is recorded on dialogue. The equipment required to
V4-inch tape and a section about do your own mix would be four good
three feet long is spliced to its own tape recorders, a very inexpensive
208 transistorized volume-control mixer four tape recorders and one projector,
with at least three channels, and con- getting them all started together can
necting cables to hook all this hard- be a bit tricky.
ware together. The three separate You are going to need at least one
sound tracks would be prepared on helper. In the leader at the front

separate rolls of recording tape. The (head) end of the picture film, punch
surf and the foghorn would be placed a hole two feet (80 frames) from the
on two of the recorders (these could first frame of picture. Thread the
also be just playback decks, since projector so that this hole will be pro-
they need not be capable of record- jected within a few seconds after
ing), and the voice narration on the starting. On the head end of each of
third. The fourth tape recorder the three tracks make a mark 25
would be threaded up with a roll of inches ahead of the point on the tape
new tape, and would record the com- that corresponds to the first frame
bined outputs of the other three. In of picture. Thread up the three tracks
terms of the design of the sound, also that their marks are right at the
most the same thing is being accom- playback head.
plished in the tape mix as was in the The mix is begun by turning on
interlock mag film mix. By sacrificing the recording tape machine, in the
strict sync, which the tape system is record mode. Then turn on the pro-
not capable of, we are able to use jector, quickly putting your two
equipment costing only a tiny frac- hands on the start controls of two of
tion of the equipment in the studio. the tape playback machines. Your
Since we are now dealing with helper will start the third one. At the
playback decks
OS*-
aux. Y input
QJ2 recording deck

instant that you see the punched hole at slightly different speeds will not 209
flash on the screen, turn on all three affect your track timings. You can
playbacks together. You now have use a stereo playback deck to take the
3.3 seconds to sit down and get your place of two playback machines, by
hands on the volume controls of the re-recording one of your tracks onto
mixer box before picture and sounds the alternate stereo channel of one of
begin. the existing tracks. When this is
Here are some helpful hints. Prac- played back, one track will play out
tice making the mix several times be- the left channel and the other out the
fore you actually record one. Mixes right channel. You can also reduce
require very tricky coordination and the number of separate tracks by
fast thinking at times, and learning premixing tracks before the main
to keep a cool head comes only with mix. If you had four tracks, and only
practice. With masking tape, make a had machines enough for mixing
label next to each volume control on two, you could mix two of them to-
the mixer, indicating the main gether, then mix the other two to-
sounds on that particular track. In gether, leaving you two composite

the heat of the mix, it is hard to re- tracks to be mixed. However, the
member what sound is next on what quality of the sound deteriorates a
track. When you are editing the little with each copying of a copy,
sound tracks, it is best if you can edit so it is best to use this technique only
each track on the same machine it with sound effects, and to try to keep
will be played back on, so that the the dialogue and music tracks as
fact that different tape machines run virgin as possible.
210 If a complete mixed-sound track and clear enough in relation to other
contains a significant number of sounds to be intelligible. In other

spoken words that must be under- words, language in a film needs much
stood, it is best that other sounds be more pampering than do the other
sacrificed during the spoken pass- sounds.
ages. The psychological effect of The mixing session is the first
sound effects and music is approxi- time a film is presented with all its
mately the same at moderate sound component parts together. The days
levels as it is at loud levels (dancing of dreaming, planning, preparing,
to music excepted). But the psycho- shooting, recording and editing have
logical value of words that must be finally brought the film to life, and
understood in order to enjoy the film the baby's first cry is heard in the
is present only when they are loud mixing session.
211
f I rom the creative standpoint your

20 materials for first trial answer print-
film is completed. You have an edi- ing, and is written in the hope that
ted work print and a mixed sound all your first trial answer prints may
track to match, and the only thing be the last of the trials.
that is left is to have a composite The magnetic sound track will first
print made at the lab, in which the have to be transferred to what is
picture and sound are printed onto called an optical sound track. The
a single strip of film, and in which purpose of making an optical sound
any dissolves and multiple exposures track from your mixed magnetic track
to be made by the lab are included. is to put the sound into a visible or
The first time that the lab tries to photographic form, so that it can be
make a composite print of your film easily printed along with the picture
is always a little chancy because of portion of the film. The accompany-

the large number of opportunities ing photographs show an optical
for a mistake, either by you or them. sound track all by itself, and then
For this reason this first print is the same track combined with the
usually called a "first trial answer picture in a composite print ready for
pnnt.
print." This
i nis chapter
cnaprer ib
is concerned
LuiiLerneu showing. When
siiuwmg. vvncn you wnc your
yuu take yuui mag-
with preparing the picture and sound netic sound track to a lab in order to
preparing for
composite prints
212 get an optical track made from it, you on the type of film stock used as
will need to know some minor but camera original. If you will be print-
very crucial things about just what ing from black-and-white negative,
kind of optical track you want. First, then you will need a negative optical
the emulsion position of the optical track. If you are printing from black-
track must match the emulsion posi- and-white reversal, then you will
tion of the original picture material; need a positive track. If you are
otherwise, they simply cannot be printing from color negative, then
printed together into a composite you will need a negative track devel-
print. If you shot on a 16mm reversal oped for color printing. If you are
film, then it is almost certain that printing from color reversal stock,
your emulsion position is the one then it would seem logical to get a
called "B" wind. This can be verified positive track, but here the film man-
by looking into the camera and see- ufacturers provide a surprise. The
ing if the pulldown claw is on the standard color-printing films have a
right-hand side of the film (see special strip of negative emulsion
photo). Thus, if your composite along the edge where the sound track
prints are going to be made from the is printed, and so a negative optical
camera original, you will need a "B" track is used when making com-
wind optical track to match the pic- posite color prints from reversal color
ture material. camera original. To summarize the
The other main thing you need to designations of optical sound tracks,
know is whether you need a negative it need only be remembered that the
or positive track. This also depends emulsion positions of the picture ma-
k«**
The original footage and an optical sound track
are printed together to produce a composite
print.
214 terial and the sound tracks must be ciples discussed above, so that they
the same, and that the polarity of the are compatible with whatever mater-
optical must be compatible with the ial the picture is going to be printed
picture material. If doubt persists, from.
tell the lab technician what type of The next thing you will need to do
material you will be making your is match each of the cut scenes in
to
composite prints from, and he will the work print with the correspond-
tell you what type of optical track ing portion of that scene in the orig-
you need. inal camera footage —which all this
In cases where hundreds of com- time has been (hopefully) kept safe
posite prints are to be made of a film, in a film can. After putting on white
it is all too likely that the precious cotton editor's gloves so that your
original will be damaged in handling fingerprints will not damage the
or by being worn out on the printing original, put the first shot of the work
machines. It is standard practice to print into the sychronizer and roll it
have some sort of intermediate copy forward a few inches until you come
made from the camera original, and to the edge number printed between
then make composite prints from the sprocket holes (see picture). Lock
that. This affords protection for the the synchronizer with this number
irreplaceable original, and sometimes straight up, then roll through your
allows for economical printing meth- original footage on the rewinds un-
ods, reducing the cost per print. The til you find this same number. The
optical tracks, however, are still numbers progress by one digit, in-
made according to the same prin- creasing as you go toward the end of
The transport claw of this camera engages the

sprocket holes on the right side of the film, and
thus composite prints made directly from this Work print and the original camera footage lined
camera original would require a B wind optical up by their edge numbers (represented for illus-
sound track. tration by the little pieces of tape marked 5).
preparing for composite prints
the roll. How often the numbers oc- off. Then roll the film through the 215
cur depends on the camera stock synchronizer in the other direction,
used. In 16mm it is quite common for toward the tail end of the shot. Cut
them to be spaced at six-inch inter- off the original footage a half-frame
vals. Thus if you are looking for a to the left of the end of the shot in
shot numbered 1620 and the be- the work print. You now have a piece
ginning of the roll is numbered 1420, of cut original footage that corre-
you will know you can find the shot sponds exactly to the first scene of
you are looking for 100 feet further the work print. Using this procedure
on in the roll. When you find the you just keep matching up the shots
edge number you are looking for, in the work print with the corre-
put the shot into the synchronizer sponding shots of the original until
with the edge number in side-by-side you have compiled a roll of cut orig-
alignment with the number on the inal scenes (taped together so you
work print. Unlock the synchronizer can roll them up) that conforms to
and roll the film toward the head end the work print.
of the shot. When the first frame of All this is a very simple operation
the work print is lined up with the and usually presents no difficulties
right-hand edge of the synchronizer more serious than boredom.

(see picture), cut the original footage If your film contains multiple ex-
through the middle of the next frame posures, dissolves, fades in and out,
to the right. This extra half-frame is which are to be created by laboratory
to allow for making the cement splice printing, it is always a good idea to
later, in which process it will be cut first mark the work print with stand-
The original is being snipped off a half frame The tail end of the original is snipped off a half
ahead of the scene in the work print it is being frame after the end of the corresponding scene
matched to (represented by white leader). in the work print.
ard symbols for fades in and out, for posed, and then lay in black leader
multiple exposures and for dissolves from that point on until you come to
(see diagrams). This can be done the end of the background scene. For
with a yellow grease pencil on the the time being, roll this up with all
emulsion (dull) side of the work the rest of your cut original. The pro-
print. Not only does this help you cedure just used applies to any sort
keep track of what you are doing, but of superimposure you wish to have
when given to the lab, along with the printed in.
other materials for making a com- Now, suppose you have a shot in
posite print, will help them do a good the work print that you wish to have
job. dissolve into the next over a period
Maybe you want a title superim- of two seconds. Notice that the sym-
posed over your first scene. In this bol for this effect indicates the super-
case, after matching the background imposition of a fade in of the second
scene with the corresponding shot in scene onto a fade out of the first
the original, make the first frame of scene. This means that you must cut
the workprint background scene the original of these two scenes so
even with the right-hand edge of the that the tail end of the first scene ex-
synchronizer, as before. The title tends past the splice in the work
shot (this must also be camera orig- print, and continues until the end of
inal) is then laid in the synchronizer the fade-out marking on the work
side by side with the background. print. Then the head end of the
Roll the material forward for as long second scene must extend by an equal
as you want the title to be superim- distance ahead of the splice in the
i li 1 m\
The white title letters on the B roll will be printed

on top of the motorcycle on the A roll.
—
work print (see picture). To do this, the original and the work print of 217
you first match up the head ends of the scene to be dissolved into, and
the shot in both the work print and roll toward the front end of the shot
the original. You then roll forward in the work print, until you get to
to where, in the work print, the first the same splice as before, which
shot is spliced to the second one. marks the middle of the dissolve.
(One of the advantages in making dis- Roll ahead of that splice 24 frames
solves in the camera is that you get to and cut through the middle of the
see them work print, and you
in the 25th. By cutting the original of the
do not have to set them up as we are two scenes to be dissolved together
about to do.) The splice in the work in this manner, you have provided a
print represents the middle of the total of 48 frames of overlap, with
dissolve, where the two scenes will which the lab can make the two-
appear simultaneously on the screen second dissolve.
at equal brightnesses. Since the splice As soon as all the original shots
marks the middle of a two-second and titles are cut to length and rolled
dissolve, you roll the original of the up in the same sequence as they
first scene 24 frames (one second) appear in the work print, the next
past the work-print splice and cut step is to arrange them so that su-
the original through the middle of perimposures will be automatically
the 25th frame. This means that this printed in the right places, and at the
scene will last one second past the same time so that the splices (in
middle of the two-second dissolve 16mm) made invisible

will be in the
just what is desired. Now, line up composite prints. The pattern of the
218 arrangement that will accomplish Gently close the rollers to hold this
both these aims is called a checker- all in place and put a little piece of
board assembly. Here is how it is set V4-inch masking tape over the two
up. The very first scene of the film strips to hold them in place. Then,
is placed in the synchronizer. In open the other gang, which has the
the adjacent gang, the opaque black end of the black leader in it, and
leader with the title shot is placed in take the second shot of the film and
side-by-side sync. This material is attach it to the end of the black
rolled through the synchronizer onto leader in the same manner as de-
separate reels. When you get to the scribed for the background shot.
tail end of these two strips of film The pattern of what you are doing
they will be in side-by-side sync, now is to put each successive shot
since that is the way you cut them of the film onto alternate rolls. One
before. Now, with the ends of the of these rolls we will call A, and the
film at the top of the synchronizer other B, so as to avoid confusion.
wheel, and the wheel locked, open The first shot of the film goes into
the rollers on the gang that contains roll A, and at the same time, we put
the background shot. Hold the end of a piece of black leader into roll B,
this shot in place on the sprocket which is exactly the same length.
teeth, take the end of a roll of black When you get to the end of the shot
leader and place the sprocket holes in roll A, you put the second shot of
at the very end of this onto the the film onto the B roll and, at the
sprocket teeth coming through the same time, an equivalent length of
last frame of picture (see picture). black leader onto the A roll. The
"*"
w^pmMiiiii* A 12-frame
bly.
dissolve set up in an A and B assem-
The fade
in (made in the laboratory printing
machine) be superimposed upon the fade
will
out, as indicated by the markings on the work
print (represented by the white leader).
third shot goes on the A roll, the write the information on their emul- 219
fourth on the B roll, and so on until sion side as shown. Then put the
the end. That is all there is to check- front (head) ends of all three in the
erboard assembly, which has con- synchronizer side by side. Roll them
fused, confounded and exasperated through the synchronizer until you
many newcomers to film. The picture are about two feet from the ends.
of a section of checkerboard assem- Make a sync mark on the A roll and
bly makes it clear where the name by side, and
the B roll of picture, side
came from, and what the geometrical mark them "printer sync." Then turn
configuration is. The exceptions to the movable-frame counting plate
the pattern occur when you want on the front wheel of the synchro-
material to be superimposed. nizer so that "0" frame is directly
The next thing to do is to make under the sync marks you have just
printing leaders. The printing ma- made. Roll the leaders on through
chines at the lab have lots of rollers the machine to the right a few more
and sprocket wheels in them and inches until the frame number "26"
require several feet of leader for comes up. On the frame of the optical
threading. Also, the leaders provide sound leader, make a sync mark
identification of the film material, directly above the 26, and label this
and they indicate exactly where the "printer sync." The sync starting
start marks are for picture rolls and marks you have made should thus
sound. be side by side for the picture rolls,
To make them, take three seven- but the start mark for the optical
foot lengths of white leader and track should be 26 frames to the left
The picture material and black leader in the

After opening the rollers on one of the gangs, right-hand side of the synchronizer end together
put the sprocket holes of the next piece of either at the center of the picture. The next scene of
black leader or picture onto the sprocket teeth picture is then taped to the end of the leader,
which project through the last sprocket holes of and black leader is taped to the end of the first
the material already on the wheel. scene.
220 of these. The reason for this oddity ting the material in sync by aligning
lies in the design of the projectors. it side by side. Splice a piece of black
In the picture, notice that the leader two feet (80 frames) long onto
frame of film that is being projected the end of the A roll and also the B
is a few inches behind the frame roll. This completes the preparation
of sound-track area that is being of the leaders for the head end.
scanned. This distance is 26 frames. The formats for head- and tail-end
On the composite print the picture leaders shown are typical, and they
and sound have to be printed 26 will work even though there are
frames out of step because the pro- variations from lab to lab.
jector picks them up out of step. By At the head end of the optical
following the start-mark procedure sound track there will be a frame of

discussed, the correct displacement very regular wiggles, which is the
of sound and picture will be printed visual representation of the beep
automatically by the lab. tone recorded from the head end of
Now, roll the leaders through the the magnetic track. Splice the optical
synchonizer until you come to the track onto the leader for the sound
tail ends, and cut them all off evenly track in such a way that the visible
and exactly. These ends of the leader beep is the very first frame of the
are now in editorial sync, that is, optical that occurs (see picture).
side by side. Once you have estab- Since you had placed the beep on the
lished the printer sync marks on the magnetic track exactly 80 frames
body of the leaders, forget about (two feet) ahead of the first sound,
them, because you will now be set- the optical track will now automat-
221
In the projector, the optical sound track is

scanned by a light beam as it passes over the
roller atthe lower right of the picture. Since this
position is 26 frames ahead of the frame of pic-
ture being projected through the lens, the sound
A checkerboard printing assembly (consisting of track must be printed 26 frames ahead of its
shots only a few frames long, for illustration). corresponding picture.
222 ically be printed in correct relation- of two pieces of film spliced together
ship to the picture rolls, since two occurs on the right-hand frame only
feet of black leader (80 frames) (see picture). This leaves the frame
precedes each of them. This is not of picture to the left of the splice
quite an orthodox way of putting entirely unmarred by the splice. This

leader to the optical sound track, but factor, combined with the checker-
it has a couple of advantages over the board assembly, is the secret of how
usual way. It is simpler and more splices can be made invisible in
direct, and in the case of negative 16mm composite prints. Remember

tracks, it minimizes the amount of that each of the picture scenes in a
track noise heard just before the checkerboard assembly is preceded

film starts. and followed by opaque black leader.
The leaders for the A and B pic- If you put the black leader on the
ture rolls can be taped into place, right-hand side of the splicer, and
with their emulsion position the the picture in the left, then the
same as that of the original, and overlap (or disfiguring) area of the
when this is done all that remains is splice occurs entirely on the black
to splice all this material together. A leader, not at all on the picture. Since
type of splicer known as a hot splicer the leader is opaque, the fact that
must be used at this point. You can there is a splice there will not print
rent one for two or three dollars for onto the final print. In order for the
a day, which is probably all the time method to work, it is clearly neces-
you will need it. This splicer is de- sary that all splices be made with
signed so that all of the overlapping the black leader in the right-hand
L LEADER FORMAT
side of the splicer. The easiest way checkerboard pattern, thus changing
to do this is to make only those the alignment without cutting up
splices in which the leader is on the picture material.
right, as you go splicing through the When you are satisfied that things
roll. When you get to the end, take are set up correctly, roll up each of
the reel of film and put it back on the rolls, emulsion side out, onto
the left-hand rewind; now, since the a plastic core, using a split reel
reel is turned around, all the intended (see picture). Put the rolls and the
splices that you skipped the first marked work print in a film can
time through will be turned around labeled with what is inside and to
with the black leader on the right, whom it belongs. You are now ready,
and you can complete the splicing. either with sublime confidence or
When everything is spliced, in- with trepidation, to take your film to
cluding the leaders, it is a good idea the lab for printing.
to thread everything up together and Here is how the checkerboarded
run the picture rolls and sound A and B rolls work in the lab: They
through the synchronizer for one print the A roll onto a roll of printing
last careful check to see that every- film that has no sprocket holes down
thing is in alignment. Try to find one side (so that the sound track
any mistakes now, before they show may be printed there). Wherever
up in a wasted first-trial answer there is a scene of picture on the A
print. In order to correct mistakes, roll, it is, of course, exposed onto
you can always add or cut out sec- the print film. But where there is
tions of the black leader in the black leader, the printing light can-
RINTING LEADER FORMATS
1
QDDDQPD OQqQQaOQO
224 not shine through to the print film, top of the background shot. In the
and that section of film remains case of a dissolve from one scene
blank. Then, the print-film roll is to the next; the first shot of the dis-
wound back to the beginning, and solve will be on one roll, and the shot
another run is made, this time which is dissolved into will be on the
shining the printing light through other roll. Since we assembled that
the B roll. Since the picture scenes in junction so that the second shot
the B roll correspond exactly to the begins 48 frames before the first one
blank spaces left after the A roll was ends, there will be a two-second
printed, this printing run fills in all superimposure. To make this im-
the blank spaces. Printing roll B does posure come out as a dissolve, the
not disturb what was already printed lab makes a two-second fade-out of
with the A roll, because the opaque the printing light at the end of the
black leader sections in roll B block first scene of the dissolve, and then,
the printing light from reaching the when they are printing from the
previously exposed A roll sections. other roll, they make a two-second
Where superimpositions are to occur, fade-in on the scene being dissolved
there is picture material on both rolls into.
simultaneously. Remember, we set In addition to this, a lab man

up the background scene (the first called a timer will look at each shot
shot of the film) on the A roll, and of your original and evaluate it in
put the title shot side by side with it terms of what printing light expo-
on the B roll, which will cause the sure will make it look best. This
title automatically to be printed on tends to even out exposure varia-
225
Two picture rolls and their sound track in edito-

rial (side-by-side) sync. The beep tone is visible
as diamond-shaped modulations on the track.
A splice made with a hot splicer throws all the

overlap area onto the adjacent black leader
where it will not print onto the composite print.
226 tions in the original photography and inition, contrast, color, and graini-
provide a better tonal flow. Small de- ness, then you need not make a work
grees of color correction may even print from, your original and would
be introduced at this stage. This therefore not have to do any scene
process is called timing, and is al- matching (conforming) of original to
most universally included in the work print. The most direct thing
instructions for the first trial answer you could do would be to shoot film,
print. edit that same material (the original)
As always, there are shortcuts that and have that printed together with
may be taken instead of the complete an optical track (using the leader
methods described. If you do not format described), and thus come up
require any multiple exposures to be with a composite print. The result of
made by the lab, and you are willing the full-dress method is substantially
to bypass the invisible splices, then superior, so when making a film for
you can skip making the A and B a sponsor you should simply include
rolls, and splice all your shots to- it in the budget. But there are many
gether in a single roll. If you are also occasions when the shortcut methods
willing to put up with some loss of will do the job desired, and it is good
photographic fidelity in terms of def- to keep them in mind as alternatives.
The two flanges of a split reel may be separated

and put back together again. This allows film
wound on plastic cores to be handled very quickly
without a lot of reels and rewinding.
227
f I ilm-making is not a craft

21of filmic forms of expression. A film, on
the abstract. It is very dependent the screen, is only moving shadows.
upon one's experiences in life, and Its sound track is only pressure rip-
one's conclusions about those ex- ples in the air. But by intelligent and
periences. When he is working at his inspired design of these forms and
best, the film-maker makes a film to ripples, an audience is moved. With-
express his involvement with some out the appropriate and effective
facet of his life which at the time design of the forms, the content is
is preeminently fascinating to him. never brought to life. We see this

Notable examples of theatrical films often in the works of beginning
imbued with immense personal in- artists in all fields; little hints of pas-
volvement include Joan of Arc, sion and communication, but with-

Triumph of the Will, Citizen Kane, out the forming of the medium in a
Four Hundred Blows, La Dolce Vita, way that has meaning and power.
Morgan, Chappaqua, and Woman in We need to try some hypothetical
the Dunes. pieces of filmic design (design mean-
In all of these, the fascination to ing the arrangement of component
the film-maker was so intense that it parts into a form for a purpose).
resulted in the use of somewhat new We can postulate a theme, a feeling
filmic
expression
228 or a point of view, and then try to together. This turns out to be very
develop a filmic form to express it. nearly impossible, which produces

Suppose you see the comfortable just the effect intended. The fact that
middle-class life as represented on the representations of the two differ-
television — in the form of product ent cultures will not harmonize with
ads and soap operas and discussion each other becomes an experiential
programs — in ironic contrast to the matter, personally felt by each mem-
concerns of the people of a tenement ber of the audience. This is much
neighborhood. What we desire is to more powerful than would be some
make this contrast, this lack of con- form that merely told the audience
nection, poignantly clear. One of the about the difference. A shot looking
formal ways in which this could be down on the street from high over-
accomplished would be to have the head shows lots of people milling
picture portion of the film do the around, not going anywhere in parti-
representing of one of the two cular. The sound track, taken from
worlds, and the sound track represent the introduction to a Western series,
the other. The two worlds corre- says, "Americans turned their
spond with each other scarcely at all, faces to the West. They poured into
and so the sound track will not cor- the new territories by the thousands.
respond with the picture. The very . .
." Atthis point we see a shot of
fact of the clash between the two a little wagon being pulled along
elements of the film produces a strain with empty wine bottles in it,
in the audience's mind, which is try- "Bringing their household posses-
ing to make the picture and sound go sions ..." Now a shot of a pile of de-
filmic expression
bris, "Climbing the mountains . .

." things, so you think that the two 229
Now a shot of a large puddle in an should be in harmony. It instantly
empty lot, several boys trying to becomes apparent, however, that
make a part of a discarded refrigera- there are sharp discrepancies be-
tor serve as a boat, "Crossing the tween what the track says and what
mighty rivers . .
." Next perhaps, you see—and it is this difference that
shots of the crooked rooftops and is the most important and the expres-
crumbling chimneys, shot in stark sive part.
contrast, like a broken desert land- The use of sound to modify the
scape: "It was a hard land, a hostile effect of the audience's reaction to
land ..." A shot of a delapidated ten- the picture is universal. A frequent

ement — the camera tilts slowly up device is to put some light, up-tem-
toward a pair of patched windows, po, modern jazz, over scenes of vio-
"And so Cinderella left her sisters lence in a television series. This has
..." In the windows can now be seen the effect of soothing the audience
reflected the gigantic white structure into thinking it is just sort of a game,
of a luxury high-rise apartment and not anything to be alarmed
building, "And went to live in the about. It allows the audience to have
palace, where she lived happily ever its cake without qualms. But let's
after." carry this principle further. In a se-

This filmic structure works be- quence that takes place in the rain,
cause of the way in which it teases a young girl cannot get her umbrella
the mind. It talks about people doing to stay open. A young man happens
things, and you see people doing by, likes the look of her, saunters
230 over to help with the tricky umbrel- the carefree jazz laid over violence in
la, and a sequence follows in which that it is an expression of the feelings
he finally gets it to stay up. At the of characters in the film.
point in this sequence when it is ap- Now let us try designing a picture
parent that she is also attracted to sequence that is expressive of an
him, it is the sound track which re- emotional (interior) situation. A girl
acts to this happy awareness, with a who has been getting increasingly
tune and lyrics about sunshine, how anxious about the pressures and ten-
it is shining down and warms a fel- sions of big-city life has begun to
low's feet as they touch the ground, long for some sunshine and quiet in
and that it's a good day because of all the country. She looks out of an
the sunshine. In the picture they are apartment window, sees the huge
both dripping wet, the whole scene buildings towering up over her, and
is in gloomy gray, the rain is pouring begins to feel trapped. Just then,
down. The contrast between picture from a clock tower, a bell tolls. She
and sound is understood by the audi- thinks of this as a funeral bell,. and
ence as the contrast between physical that she is being buried alive in the
situation and emotional situation. In city.
this case it is the camera which is This sequence could be done sev-
seeing what they are doing and eral ways. Her own voice, offscreen,
where they are, and it is the sound could say lines that verbally express
track which is expressing for the her upsetting vision of her situation.
characters how they are feeling. This This will work, but it is essentially
use of sound is quite distinct from a literary rather than a filmic solu-
filmic expression
tion. She could shriek and rant and gradually dominate, and the dura- 231
rave, and then tell a friend who tion of the tolls will stretch to twice
rushes in what she had just experi- their length. We could also change
enced, but this is mainly a theatrical the color at this point, by using a
solution rather than a filmic one. deep-blue filter that would render
A more interesting way to present the scenes in monochromatic blue
this sequence would be to design a and black. Now the buildings are
flow of images and sounds related to closing in from all directions, this be-
the real elements of the situation as ing accomplished by multiple expo-
already described, which will directly sures made with the same slow tilt-
affect the feelings of the audience, as ing action as the first one. By shoot-
though they were able to experience ing with the camera on its side and
her feelings for a while. upside down, and moving the fram-
We can start with looming building slowly in the appropriate direc-
ings. Framing the shot so that the tion during the takes, we can get
tops of the buildings are at first near images of the buildings closing in
the bottom of the frame, we can from all directions. Then we could
slowly tilt the camera downward, bring in images of doors closing, the
causing the feeling that we are sink- girl starting to come out toward the
ing down into their depths. At the camera; now the doors swing pon-
same time we can fade in a re-record- derously shut, and she is lost from
ing of the bell being played back at view. This too, could be shot through
half speed over the original realistic a blue filter, and a large variety of
one. The octave-lower tone will bizarre angles of the door's motion
232 could be shot with a wide-angle lens. could use menacing deep organ tones
The shots should be framed to make at intervals, or the crashing of the
the doors look as massive and as un- lower strings of a piano, made by
stoppable as possible. We could pulling on them directly and sudden-
make many such shots, some with ly letting them go.
the door edges swinging past the With all these elements working
lens, others with the camera moving together, the film expression of the
with the door itself, so that it is the girl's feelings becomes very powerful
door frames that seem to move on and direct. This power is the result
the screen. The disorientation thus of combining a number of techniques
produced serves the purpose of re- into a design for a specific communi-
moving the familiarity of everyday cation of feeling.
doors, and gives the total impression In the feature film Morgan, there
only of relentless closing. These is a very effective use of brief cuta-
shots can be cut very short and very ways to various animals as an ex-
repetitively so that the motion of pression of the hero's state of mind.
closing, of being blocked out of view, When he suddenly feels free and
becomes a relentless wave that can- light, he moves in an imitation flying
not be escaped. motion that match-cuts directly to a
The sound track during all this large bird swooping in flight, and
could be provided with very slow la- than cuts back to the hero in a match
bored breathing, as though a person cut that continues his imitation fly-
were in danger of suffocating. Along ing motion. When he is frustrated
with this, and the tolling bells, we he starts to pound his chest like a
filmic expression
gorilla, and this cuts for a moment to goodies. She is warned to be careful 233
a gorilla doing just that. These cuta- of the wolves, (males) but on her
ways are used throughout the film, way she meets one anyway, who
and as the audience becomes familiar finds out where she is going and
with the format, this cutting ar- takes a shortcut to get there first.
rangement becomes an integral fiber When Little Red arrives at the cot-
of the weave of the film. It works be- tage, it is not Granny who is in the
cause the quick cutaways are very bed, (a suitable place for lovemak-
brief and do not interrupt the flow, ing) but the wolf in disguise. Then
because they are very cleverly cut follows the famous dialogue that
according to the principles of match- concludes with Little Red saying,
ing the continuity of motion, and be- "Why, Grandmother, what a big
cause they are a consistent element mouth you have!" to which — the
throughout the film, relating mean- wolf replies, "All the better to eat
ingfully to the mind of the hero. you with, my dear!" Which he starts
To conclude this chapter it would to do, but a woodsman hears the
be interesting to design an entire commotion, rushes in with his ax and
short entertainment film. For a story saves the girl.
line, we can begin with the old fairy Most psychologists who have
tale, "Little Red Riding Hood/' The looked closely at this story agree that
original version told of a very young it is a parable designed to impress
girl (virgin), who had to go through young girls with the knowledge that
the woods to her grandmother's cot- their own newly developed sexual at-
tage in order to bring her a basket of tractiveness is a danger to them and

234 that they must be careful. This was open carriage. (This should all be
a very serious matter to the culture done at a. leisurely pace, since it is an
that produced this story, but to the introduction to a lyrical part of the
people reading this book, the story is story.)
downright funny. Once we recognize She climbs up into the carriage

this,we can deliberately push the in- and starts to sit down (cut). Since the
herent humor further in the design fact that she is a very attractive fe-
of the film version, thus anticipating male is paramount to the story, this
where the audience is going to go shot should be frankly arranged to

emotionally, and being ready for emphasize this.
them with a good show. Here it is She completes the motion of sit-
as it might appear on the screen, ting down (match action from pre-
with the salient technical manipula- vious cut) and arranges herself neat-
tions mentioned as we go along, and ly and primly. The driver (who is in
with the camera angles and editing the foreground of this wide-angle
structure and some of the sound all shot) cracks his whip.
described when they are of special The horse pulls on his yoke and
importance. they all start off down the road.
Fade in as Little Red Riding It is a lovely warm Spring day. We
Hood, who is a very attractive young establish this through the following
girl, straightens her little red mini- sequence:
skirt, brushes her long red hair out Medium closeup of Little Red,
of her eyes, picks up a little basket her head back-lit by the sun,
of cookies, and hails a horse-drawn which shines through her long hair,
filmic expression
falling loosely over her shoulders. A and B roll assembly. See Chapter 235
Dissolve to trucking shot past a 20.)
field of colorful wild flowers. Looking down from up high in
Dissolve to horse's hoofs clopping the trees, the camera sees Little Red
merrily along. get out of the carriage and venture
Dissolve to full screen shot of into the woods. She is seen here as
spoked carriage wheel turning (cam- a tiny figure, now quite alone, in
era trucking along beside wheel). the woods. (This shot would need to
Superimpose medium closeups of be hand-held, using a wide-angle

Little Red back-lit by sun flaring into lens.)
lens. She tilts her head back, enjoy- A wide-angle shot of Little Red in
ing the warmth, and shakes her hair. medium-close shot. She is looking up
(Determine exposure by measuring and around at the woods, showing
her face close up.) some apprehension. (Appropriate
(Fade out the superimpose of her, music will make this twice as effec-
but retain the wheel.) tive.)
Dissolve from wheel into long shot The camera is looking through a
which looks through a lot of trees forest of dark treetrunks (by using
and sees the carriage pull up to the a telephoto, more trees can be gotten
edge of the woods and stop. (These between the camera and Little Red)
dissolves could be made in the cam- and sees her walking through the
era. If this cannot be done, then the woods in the distance. (Mix in scat-
shots can be made separately and tered sounds of wild animals hooting
dissolved in the lab by means of the and howling eerily.)

236 A wide-angle shot of the girl He "My, what a

smiles and says,
walking toward the camera. (Some pretty young woman you are! Where
follow focus will be necessary.) As are you going with that basket of
she comes into full facial closeup, she goodies ?" (This picture and sound
suddenly freezes, eyes big with should be shot with synchronous
fright. equipment operated from batteries.
Cut to medium closeup of animal If not, it could be dubbed in later

fur (we are too close to it to see just with interlocked equipment.)
what sort of animal), then camera She looks as though she is in a
tilts slowly up to reveal a young man trance, but manages to answer, "I'm
in a very shaggy fur coat, leaning on my way to Grandma's cottage, to

casually against a tree. bring her these homemade cookies."
Big closeup of her staring at him. He is still smiling slightly, and
Cut to a close-up of his face. He looking at her appreciatively. He
looks somewhat like a wolf, because doesn't say anything.
of two very long upper canine teeth, Closeup of her, feeling that she
which his lips do not cover (false, of should say something. "I'm sure she
course) and very shaggy hair, wick- will like them."
ed-looking long black eyebrows and Wolf is rubbing his chin contem-
mustache, and unusually large dark platively. "And where does your
eyes (makeup) which glow with Granny live, my dear?"
flickering yellow light (reflections of Camera is now looking over
a small spotlight with a yellow filter, Wolf's shoulder at Little Red, who
or superimpose something appropri- says, "By the meadow, in the orange
ate at the A and B stage). cottage."
filmic expression
In a medium closeup, Wolf rolls though skating. (Single frame ani- 237
his eyes: 'That's very interesting, mation. Camera will have to be on a
my dear. Perhaps I . . . tripod.)
Cut back to over-the-shoulder He zips to a pile of leaves and
shot of Little Red, who interrupts easily leaps up a ten-foot ledge. (Re-
Wolf to say, "Now, if you will excuse verse motion of him jumping down
me, I must hurry on to Grandma's." backwards into the leaves.)
She starts to move out of frame. In a long shot with the orange
Camera moves out from behind cabin in the foreground, Wolf can be
Wolf as he turns his head to watch seen scooting around the place, look-
her go, camera ending up in medium ing in the windows and then dashing
closeup of his face as he says, in the door.
"Hmmmm ... by the edge of the Little Red is skipping along

meadow." (Their conversation is through the woods, somewhat in a
shot in separate pieces of closeup for hurry now.

maximum editing flexibility.) Wolf is in the cabin, wiping his
In a very long shot, with the cam- greasymouth on his sleeve; then he
era fairly high up, Wolf can be seen picks a little piece of chipped bone
zigging and zagging at breakneck out of his teeth.
speed through the woods (camera He runs to the window, looks out,
running at 8 frames per second, or and sees Little Red coming into view.
less). He jumps into bed and puts on

Wolf comes to a log that serves Granny's little bonnet.
as a bridge across a stream, and he Outside the cabin door, Little Red
zips along its length on one foot, as walks into frame and knocks on the
238 door. (In the previous five alterna- Medium closeup of Wolf nodding
tions of shot from Wolf to Little Red enthusiastically.
there has been considerable compres- Medium closeup of Little Red
sion of time to keep the action devel- looking at Granny quizzically. "Why
oping briskly and to avoid showing Grandma, what big . . . (cut to Wolf's
Wolf gobbling up Grandma.) eyes) "eyes you have!"
Wolf is seen in medium closeup, Wolf, seen in medium shot, says
frantically trying to disguise himself in his sweetest falsetto, "All the bet-
as much as possible by means of the ter to see you with, my dear."

bonnet, the bedcovers, and a little Little Red is seen standing in full-
pair of metal-framed Granny glasses. length shot, looking very good in-
Closeup of Little Red looking con- deed. At rapid intervals there flash
cerned, as she knocks again. extremely brief cuts of Little Red in
A male voice says, "Who is it?" various states of provocative un-

Realizing the mistake, the voice rises dress. (We are presenting Wolf's
in pitch to a falsetto as it says again, imagination at work, by means of in-
"Who is it?" sert shots only 6 frames in length.)
Wide-angle shot with Wolf sitting "Why, Grandma . . . (she leans
in bed in foreground; door of cabin over for a closer look) what big ears
opens in background, and Little Red you have!"
bounces in exclaiming, "It's me, A closeup of the ears as they turn
Granny (she comes up close), and red. (An extremely wide-angle lens
I've brought you a basket of used in conjunction with a camera
goodies." motion bringing the ears into frame
filmic expression
as foreground objects will effect an hands slowly lifting up, getting ready 239
apparent enlargement. The redden- to grab her.
ing could be done with a filtered Closeup of Wolf, licking his lips.
spotlight.) "Grandma!" cries Little Red. He im-

Medium shot of Little Red leaning mediately tries to look like Granny
over him, toward camera. (She is lit again. She continues, "What a big
very glamorously and shot through mouth you have!" (This paragraph
considerable lens diffusion.) She is would be shot as a single take for
saying, "I've never noticed before Wolf, and the same for Red. Notice
. . . (her voice fades out as she con- that when it is edited it will be cut
tinues talking, and cross-fading in into four shots.)
is a romantic tinkle of thousands of The camera is at bed level, looking
tiny angel bells and sweet singing straight up at the ceiling, Wolf is in-
voices; this will be done in the mix.) cluded in the framing. He speaks,
Her voice cross-fades back in, say- starting out in his Granny voice, "All
ing, "How do you keep them warm the better . .

." He rises slowly up
in the Winter? My, they certainly out from under the covers, looming
are large." up as a giant figure over the camera
Closeup of Wolf returning to re- (the wide angle emphasizes his
ality as he hurriedly says, "All the height).

better to hear you with, my dear." Little Red's expression changes to
She sits down on the edge of the stunned alarm as she tilts her head
bed, facing him. upward, staring at Wolf (this would
Under the sheets we can see his be an excellent place for a zoom in).
240 Cut back to Wolf rising. "All the key component pieces for photog-
better to eat you up, my dear," he raphy, and the event made to take
thunders in his true voice. (Wolf replace cinematically by clever edit-
vealing his true identity has been ex- ing.) Wolf falls on the floor beside
panded in time by the cutaway to the bed.

Red's reaction, and the continuation Little Red (still in slow motion)
of Wolf's rising shot without taking makes a dreamlike float toward the
any time out of it to compensate for door. Just as she gets there, Wolf
the addition of the cutaway. This is somehow instantly appears standing
a dramatic moment and it is best to in her way (stop action, with camera
maximize it.) on a tripod). She turns and slow-mo-

(In slow motion) Little Red flings tions toward the window. Wolf in-
herself backward on the bed in an stantly appears there too.
effort to get away. Medium shot of Little Red. In des-

(Slow motion) Wolf flings himself peration she covers her eyes.
toward her in a swan dive. She is instantly standing all by
(Slow motion) She pulls up her herself in a field of black.
knees. (Her image size and position must

(Slow motion) Wolf lands belly match in these last 2 shots).
first on her braced knees, knocking Closeup (very) of her fingers un-
the wind out of himself (sound of air covering her eyes. There is Wolf
being let out of a balloon). (Since to again, right in front of her, looking
actually stage the above would prob- dashing and confident.
ably damage Wolf beyond repair, As a last resort she runs for the
the action must be broken up into bed (normal motion) and hides under
filmic expression
the covers. Wolf then scampers over Wolf, in closeup, doesn't look so 241
to the bed, but on the way . . . fearsome after all, as his fangs slow-
Closeup of Wolf stubbing his toe ly disappear, then his extra hair and
against a chair leg. (This should be weird eyes, and finally his face is
staged a little more slowly than real transformed into that of a rather
time, because the screen speed in good-looking young man. (This ef-
large closeup is increased.) fect requires three takes, each with
Long shot of Wolf hopping over to the camera and Wolf's face in exactly
the bed, holding his foot with one the same frame The first
positions.
hand and yelping. take of him completely wolfy, is dis-
Medium closeup of Little Red solved into the second take with
peeping out from under the sheets some of the makeup removed, this is
to see what has happened. dissolved into the last take, where
Long shot of Wolf lying on his he is totally human. This transfor-
back on the bed, holding his foot in mation sequence might be intercut
the air and sounding very much like with reactions of Little Red.)
a coyote (a sound effects record will A closeup of the look on Little
help). Red's face reveals that she finds him
Medium shot as Little Red takes attractive and that she is pleased
pity on him and strokes his fur to about it. (This might require some
ease his pain. ingenious elicitation on the part of
Wolf strokes her hair tenderly in the director.)
return appreciation. In medium shot, Wolf kisses her

She smiles very slightly and be- forehead, then her lips.They roll in-
gins to look more closely at Wolf. to each other's arms.
242 The camera is outside the window screams. "You've killed him, you've
looking in. Into the edge of the murdered him, you madman!"
frame, outside the window, creeps a The commando looks confused. "I
form. was only following orders, Ma'am.
Looking toward the window, from We've been told to secure this whole
the inside of the cabin, we see a com- sector from the wolf menace."
mando fully equipped with automat- Red shakes her head in dismay.
ic rifle and purple beret. Zoom into She sobs, "Oh, I wish you had never
closeup of his face peering through come here. (Echo, echo, echo .) . .
the window at the lovers. It is dis- We seem to be flying through ce-

torted both by the snarl of dislike lestial clouds as we hear reverberat-
on his lips and by the wavy window ing echoes of Little Red's heartfelt
glass through which he is seen. wish. (The clouds could be made
From his side of the glass, we see from smoke from burning rags,
what he thinks he sees. A shaggy wolf back-lit against a dark background,
molesting a poor innocent maiden. or they could be shot on negative

The commando crashes through black-and-white and be of India ink
the window, levels his automatic poured into water. The reverberating
straight at the camera lens, and echoes are made by feeding a delayed
blasts away. playback of an original recording of
Red sits up bolt upright in terror, her words back into the recording
Wolf is next to her, represented only circuit.)
by a crumpled fur coat. Dissolve into a complex control

"What have you done?" she panel as a satin-robed arm reaches
filmic expression
into frame and flicks a switch. In making this hypothetical film 243
Cut smoke and fire from the
to the we have needed to use techniques
commando's weapon going back into and design principles from nearly
the muzzle. The commando leaps every chapter in this book. If you
backward through the shattered win- were actually to make this film you
dow, which reassembles itself, and would find yourself, at every step in
the commando is gone. its design, running through every-
Little Red, in medium shot, ecstat- thing you could think about crea-
ic with joy. tive manipulation of the film medi-
Long shot of the bed on which the um, to see what could be used to
young man is unfolding himself make the film rich in visual and sonic
from a crumpled position (sans fur elements, deft and dramatic in pac-
coat). ing, and expressive of the story.
"Oh, Wolfie," says Little Red, In order to give an idea of how the
"you're all right again!" costs for producing this film could
"Little Red," says Wolfie, "you've be estimated, the following budget

made a miracle happen." is presented. It contains the basic
Closeup of her face, her brow knit costs that are common to most types
a bit. of films (see following page).
"Wolfie?" Instead of spending this much
He looks at her expectantly. money, serious sacrifices could be
"Where do you suppose Granny made to come within an absolutely
is?" minimum budget. If you could man-
THE END age to shoot at a 2-to-l ratio, bor-
244 A Budget for Little Red Riding Hood
(assume) ten-minute running time

sync sound shooting
16mm color
3-to-l ratio of shooting footage to screen footage
A and B roll checkerboard assembly
all services and equipment to be paid for
type 7255 original stock (1100 feet) $ 80.00

processing the above 55.00
work print of above 100.00
camera rental for 1 day (Eclair npr for sound) 40.00

recorder rental for 1 day (Nagra) 35.00
camera rental for 2 days (Bolex Reflex) 30.00
rental of cabin (3 days) 75.00
lighting units for cabin interiors (6 units, 3 days) 30.00
quartz bulbs for lighting units 45.00
actors for 3 days (2 leads at $35 per day) 210.00

props, costumes, makeup, transportation, etc. 100.00
printed credit and title cards 20.00
transfer of % -inch tapes to magnetic film 50.00

mag stock for above (1200 feet) 30.00
black leader for checkerboard 20.00
rental of cutting room with required equipment (4 days) 120.00
interlock mix (1 hour) 60.00

optical sound track 40.00
first trial answer print 70.00
$1,210.00
filmic expression
row all the equipment and the props, By commercial-industry standards, 245
use entirely volunteer labor, if you the larger figure would still be con-
do not make work prints or set up sidered a very low budget, some-
A and B printing rolls, use dubbed-in times called a "shoestring" budget.
or offscreen voices instead of sync, Now that we have reached the end
and are willing to put up with visible of this book, it is hoped that the basic
splices and mediocre print quality, principles of professional film-mak-
the budget could be . . . ing have been presented in a way
800 feet Kodachrome II (with developing) $ 88.00
optical track (neg.) 40.00

first trial answer 70.00
$198.00
These two budgets represent the that interests you.

range of costs involved in the making Film is a young and growing medi-
of Little Red Riding Hood. Since the um, and its uses and its powers are
difference between the two budgets constantly being expanded by people
represents costs which it is possible who combine a talent for the medium
to reduce by means of ingenuity, per- with a vision that they want to share
suasion, good fortune, and sacrifice with the world. May this book be a
of some quality, it is possible that the help toward the expression of that
actual cost of production could be vision.
anywhere between $200 and $1,200.

THE MOVIES MAKE
EVERYTHING ELSE OBSOLETE.
SEE FOR YOURSELF!
With as little as $200 to back your first film venture, you can plan,
shoot, record, edit, print, and screen your kind of movie right now.
In Creative Film-Making one of the leaders in America's booming

low-budget film movement explains the basic principles of professional
film-making and demonstrates how to make them work for you. Heavily
illustrated, Creative Film-Making introduces and explains in detail every
phase of motion-picture making, including
• the illusion of motion slow, fast, and reverse motion

• film stock formats animating real objects
• lighting superimposed images
• film stock emulsions special visual effects
• exposure control directing non-actors

• looking at action ways of recording sound
• moving camera editing sound and picture
• lenses and perspective preparing for composite prints
• matching the action in cuts mixing sounds together
• expanding and compressing time filmic expression
• working with actors and non-actors
Everything you need to know to put you, your life, your friends, your
ideas on filmis in Creative Film-Making —
including a sample script and
a budget breakdown for a film you can bring in for under $200.
KIRK SMALLMAN has won a CINE Golden Eagle and an Academy Award
nomination for his work in films.
COLLIER BOOKS
i
NEW YORK, NY. 10022
AVENUE,

Creative Film Making

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Creative Film Making

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Kirk Smallman

Including simple and systematic discussions of:

FILM, CAMERAS, LIGHTING AND EXPOSURE, LENSES, EDITING, RECORDING AND

C oilier- Macmillan Ltd., London

ing photocopying, recording or by any infor-

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number:

2 film stock formats 8

5 film stock emulsions 39

9 lenses and perspective 76

10 matching the action in cuts 95

11 expanding and compressing time 112

12 slow, fast, and reverse motion 119

13 animating real objects 126

14 superimposed images 130

15 special visual effects 144

16 directing non-actors 163

17 ways of recording sound 174

18 editing sound and picture 188

19 mixing sounds together 202

20 preparing for composite prints 211

21 filmic expression 227

other. This insistence on finding both lights are identical it is simpler

The illusion of motion is created by the mind

find order and simplicity in it. It is delity. In order to maintain lower

fun. revision from the former 16 per sec-

ative possibilities in film, which will 24 frames per second.

flicker occuring at the rate of 24 ond. Since we are projecting subse-

there. The retinal surface of our eyes afterimages.

image, and the resulting image is scope format.

serious "underground," experimental vertical shape, the picture width on

Standard 35mm, 16mm, Super 8, and 8mm.

b 'y far the most important fea-

viewfinder would, of course, show us viewfinder likewise come into focus.

passes directly to the film surface

image is directed alternately onto the Most professional cameras are

accessories you use depends on what interior of a cathedral where there

automatic-exposure system would be eye shot can be double-exposed onto

positioned with sufficient accuracy which hold each frame absolutely

Mitchell 35mm camera, model BNC-VTR Reflex.

Bell & Howell 35mm Eyemo camera, custom

without lenses. Rental is about $50 pounds and is battery operated by a

per day. motor that compares its own running

spring-powered motor, will run at tomatic-exposure system that reads

Bolex 16mm reflex, model Rex V, fitted with an

registration-pin movement, a ta- the other cameras described. This 19

generator and, on special order, a makes it impossible to edit them in-

Beaulieu 16mm reflex, model R16B auto, fitted

Rental of such is about $35 per day. under $200.

designed for versatility. The person Model 155, which incorporates an

features semireflex viewing using a clearly, such as laboratory processes,

the-lens viewfinding system. It has a biological specimens, and the like.

high-quality zoom lens, an auto- With this camera a closeup of a

override, a variable shutter for easily filmed. The viewfinding sys-

fades, a rewind facility for running tem is semireflex, using a rangefinder

Auricon Cine-Voice 16mm camera after extensive

List price is $300. tape recorder automatically starts. 21

i t often happens that the natural

Each of these scenes is visible only ble-exposed image will photograph

is photographable only by that light. the present instance it opens the

objects in a scene as modifiers of sailboat scene. Our lighting unit in

24 Direct sunlight without any diffusion.

Side light with no fill light for the shadow side of

Back lighting with no fill on the face.

By putting a diffusion scrim into the light path