GENERAL-2073/11/16

1. What are the types of highway curve? Why transition curve and reverse curve are
necessary in highway?
A highway curve is an arc which connects two straight lines which are separated by some
angle called deflection angle. This situation occurs where the alignment of a roadway or
railway changes its direction because of unavoidable objects or conditions. There are two
types of curves in highway construction which range from horizontal curve and vertical
curve. Curves are provided whenever a road changes its direction from right to S (vice versa)
or changes its alignment from up to down (vice versa). Curves are a critical element in the
pavement design. They are provided with a maximum speed limit that should be followed
very strictly. Following the speed limit becomes essential as the exceed in speed may lead to
the chances of the vehicle becoming out of control while negotiating a turn and thus
increase the odds of fatal accidents. Also, it is very necessary that appropriate safety
measures be adopted at all horizontal and vertical curves to make the infrastructure road
user friendly and decrease the risks of hazardous circumstances.

Importance of curves in highway

 If there is a sudden obstruction in the mid way of the highway such as mountains,
Rocks etc.. which are impossible to move so a gradual curvature is provided to
move forward towards the destination.
 Highways are generally straight roads for longer lengths so there may be a higher
chance of occurring accidents due to overspending, or drowsy driving.
 If the curvature is provided the driver gets conscious and controls his speed and
drowsiness while driving.
 Drowsiness is the main cause of accidents on highways, if curve is provided on
the highway the driver becomes alert and respond to the curvature
 Gradual change in direction or orientation in the alignment can be made by
providing the curves.
 Road curves are provided so as to get comfort to the passengers.
 Gradual change in the direction or orientation in the alignment can be made by
providing the curves.
 Curves are provided so as to get easy turning in case of road and track
Different types of highway curves

There are two types of curves – Horizontal and Vertical curves. Each of them comes with
various subcategories, each of them is explained below.

Horizontal curves
The curve provided in the horizontal plane of ground or earth is called a horizontal curve. It
connects two straight lines which are in the same level but having different or the same
directions. There are different types of horizontal curves, each of them is explained below.

Simple circular curve

It is a curve consisting of a single arc with a constant radius connecting the two tangents. It
is a type of horizontal curve used most in common. A simple arc provided in the road or
railway track to impose a curve between the two straight lines is the simple circular curve.
The smaller is the degree of curve, the flatter is the curve and vice versa. The sharpness of a
simple curve is also determined by radius R. Large radius are flat whereas small radius are
sharp. A simple curve is normally represented by the length of its radius or by the degree of
curve

Compound curve

It is a curve made up of two or more circular arcs of successively shorter or longer radii,
joined tangentially without reversal of curvature, and used on some railroad tracks and
highways as an easement curve to provide a less abrupt transition from tangent to full curve
or vice versa. Since their tangent lengths vary, compound curves fit the topography much
better than simple curves. These curves easily adapt to mountainous terrain or areas cut by
large, winding rivers. However, since compound curves are more hazardous than simple
curves, they should never be used where a simple curve will do.

Horizontal curves
Reverse curve

A reverse curve is composed of two or more simple curves turning in opposite directions.
Their points of intersection lie on opposite ends of a common tangent, and the PT of the
first curve is coincident with the PC of the second. This point is called the point of reverse
curvature (PRC). A reverse curve is composed of two arcs of equal or different radii bending
or curving in opposite directions with common tangent at their junction, their centers being
on opposite sides of the curve.

Track transition curve

A track transition curve, or spiral easement, is a mathematically-calculated curve on a

section of highway, in which a straight section changes into a curve. It is designed to prevent
sudden changes in lateral In plane (viewed from above), the start of the transition of the
horizontal curve is at infinite radius, and at the end of the transition, it has the same radius
as the curve itself and so forms a very broad spiral. At the same time, in the vertical plane,
the outside of the curve is gradually raised until the correct degree of bank is reached.

Spiral curve
Spiral curves are generally used to provide a gradual change in curvature from a straight
section of road to a curved section. They assist the driver by providing a natural path to
follow. Spiral curves also improve the appearance of circular curves by reducing the break in
alignment perceived by drivers. The use of a spiral is about making the road or track follow
the same form that the vehicle naturally takes. In a car, you don’t go directly from going
straight to fully turning. There is a transition area where you slowly turn the steering wheel.
On highways, the lanes are wide enough that you can drive a spiral just by moving from one
side of the lane to the other.

Vertical curves

These curves are provided to change the slope in the road and may or may not be
symmetrical. They are parabolic and not circular like horizontal curves. Identifying the
proper grade and the safe passing sight distance is the main design criterion of the vertical
curve, crest vertical curve the length should be enough to provide safe stopping sight
distance and in sag vertical curve the length is important as it influences the factors such as
headlight sight distance, rider comfort and drainage requirements. There are two types of
vertical curves discussed below/

Valley/ Sag Curve

Valley curves or sag curves are vertical curves with convexity downwards. In valley curves,
the centrifugal force will be acting downwards along with the weight of the vehicle, and
hence impact to the vehicle will be more. This will result in jerking of the vehicle and cause
discomfort to the passengers. Thus the most important design factors considered in valley
curves are- impact-free movement of vehicles at design speed and availability of stopping
sight distance under headlight of vehicles for night driving. The valley curve is made fully
transitional by providing two similar transition curves of equal length.

Vertical curves
Summit curve

Summit curves are vertical curves with gradient upwards. Sight distance requirements for
the safety is most important on summit curves. The stopping sight distance or absolute
minimum sight distance should be provided on these curves and where overtaking is not
prohibited, overtaking sight distance or intermediate sight distance should be provided as
far as possible. When a fast moving vehicle travels along a summit curve, there is less
discomfort to the passengers. This is because the centrifugal force will be acting upwards
while the vehicle negotiates a summit curve which is against the gravity and hence a part of
the tyre pressure is relieved. Also if the curve is provided with adequate sight distance, the
length would be sufficient to ease the shock due to change in gradient.

→When a vehicle traveling on a straight road enters into a horizontal curve

instantaneously, it will ca discomfort to the driver. To avoid this, it is required to
provide a transition curve. This may be provided either between a tangent and a
circular curve or between two branches of a compound or reverse curve.

Reverse curves are best suited for hilly terrains and the highways used for relatively low-
speed vehicles. Reverse curves are not advisable to use on the highways and railways which
are meant for high-speed traffic movement because of the following reasons:

i) A sudden change in direction can be dangerous for vehicles.

2.What is bioengineering? What does bioengineering do?

Bioengineering is a discipline that applies engineering principles of design and analysis to

biological systems and biomedical technologies. Examples of bioengineering research
include bacteria engineered to produce chemicals, new medical imaging technology,
portable disease diagnostic devices, and tissue engineered organs.

Students in bioengineering are trained in fundamentals of both biology and engineering,

which may include elements of electrical and mechanical engineering, computer science,
materials science, chemistry, and biology. This breadth allows students and faculty to
specialize in their areas of interest and collaborate widely with researchers in allied fields.

A bioengineer solves biological problems with the use of enginering concepts and principles
eg. medical devices, medical wearables, tisue engineering, prosthetics, drug delivery, brain
computer interface etc., usually working at the interface of electronic engineering, computer
science, material science, mechanical engineering, biology, and biochemistry.

Bioengineering is a good buzzword that has been liberally applied to many, many research
subjects to make them sound cooler. This makes it hard to define, but I'll have a go.

1. The application of traditional engineering disciplines (mechanical, electrical, computer)

and techniques (modeling, quantification) to biology or medicine. This category includes
designing imaging devices, microfluidics, prosthetics, neural implants, and software as
well as using engineering concepts like process design and modeling to solve problems
in various systems.
2. The purposeful design of new biological or chemical systems, which may or may not
involve 1. This includes fields like stem cells, synthetic biology, tissue engineering, and
drug design because they "engineer"/design biology. Whether or not they end up
getting sucked under the bioengineering umbrella may depend on the institution and
the department.
In each case, bioengineering is often not a field of its own, but either 1) the application of
other engineering disciplines, or 2) creative design within biology, medicine, or chemistry
that can draw upon other fields.

3. What are the importance of highway drainage?How to manage surface drainage

from the road?
The provision of a proper drainage system provides the following important functions:
1. It arrests the moisture variation in the subsurface layers thus preventing the
reduction in bearing capacity of subgrade soil.
2. It prevents the erosion of side slopes.
3. It prevents the failure of formation slope caused by the poor drainage system.
4. It prevents the stripping of bitumen from aggregates in flexible pavements.
5. It prevents the mud pumping in rigid pavements.
6. It prevents the skidding of vehicles caused by a reduction in friction coefficient.
7. It prevents the frost action caused by the accumulation of water.
What are the Requirements of a Good Highway
Drainage System?
A good highway drainage system should fulfill the following requirements:
1. The surface water on the carriageway and shoulder should be drained off effectively
as soon as possible.
2. The surface water from the adjoining land should be prevented from entering into
the roadway.
3. The groundwater table should be maintained well below the bottom surface of the
subgrade soil.
4. The capillary rise & seepage water should be controlled effectively.
5. The longitudinal drains & cross drains should have sufficient capacity to carry the
collected water.
6. The longitudinal drains & cross drains should have sufficient bed slope for gravity
flow.
7. The flow of water across the road surface & in the drains should not cause erosion.
8. Complex & costly cross drainage structures should be avoided as much as possible.

4. What are the various factors considered in design of sewer?Explain the different
types of sewarage system?
l) Shape And Size of The Catchment Ares
Stormwater(runoff )will be more for the large and fan-shaped catchment area. On the other
hand, the runoff will be less for the small and ferm-shaped catchment areas.

2) Topography
Stormwater increases with the increase in the ground slope of the catchment area and vice
versa.

3) Character of The Catchment Area

If the surface of the catchment area is rocky or compact clayey type, stormwater will be
more. Again, if the surface of the catchment area is sandy, the stormwater will be low.

4) The direction of the prevailing storm

If the direction of the storm is the same as the direction of movement of water, the
stormwater will be more and vice versa.

5) Type of Precipitation
If the precipitation occurs in the form of rain, it will produce stormwater immediately. On
the other hand, if the precipitation occurs in the form of snow, it will produce stormwater at
a slow rate.

6) Rainfall Distribution
The stormwater from a basin is very much dependent upon the rainfall distribution.

7) Intensity and Duration of Rainfall

The stormwater increases with the increase in the intensity of rainfall and vice versa. If the
duration of rainfall is more, the stormwater will also be prolonged.

8) Soil moisture Deficiency

The runoff depends upon the soil moisture present at the time of the rainfall. If rain occurs
after a long dry period, the soil will absorb huge amounts of water and thus runoff will be
less. But the runoff will be more if rain occurs after a long rainy season.

9) Climatic Condition
If the temperature in the catchment area is high, the evaporation loss will be more and
hence the stormwater will be less and vice versa.

10) Geological Condition of The Catchment

If the catchment area consists of fissures, cracks, etc, the water losses will be more and the
stormwater will be low.

11) Vegetative Cover

The presence of a dense vegetative cover over soil increases the infiltration and thereby
reduces the stormwater.
5. Differentiate intake,collection chamber and break pressure tank in a water supply
system.
Due to water flowing in the pipe, hydrostatic pressure is exerted on the joints and fittings of
the pipe. If this pressure exceeds the allowable working pressure of the pipe, it may burst.
So, to break the hydrostatic pressure, a tank is specially built which is known as a break
pressure tank.

It is also abbreviated as BPT.

A break pressure tank is also referred to as a break pressure chamber.

In this tank, water is permitted to discharge freely in the atmosphere which reduces the
hydrostatic pressure to zero.

Storage tank, sedimentation tank, collection chamber, distribution chamber, etc act as a
break pressure tank.

Break pressure tank is generally constructed of stone masonry, RCC, Ferro cement, etc.

It is usually located downstream i.e. between the water reservoir and water supply points.

1.7 Components of water supply system:

Intake: A device or a structure constructed at the water source for the purpose of drawing
water from the source and conveying to the other components of the water supply system
is termed as intake. Pump: It is a device to lift the water from the source. Pumping is
required when the consumer area is at the higher elevation than the source. It should be
avoided as far as possible to minimize the cost.
Transmission main: It is a pipe laid to convey water from source to reservoir. It is designed
for the flow equivalent to the maximum daily demand. The transmission main and all other
components located in it are designed for the average flow as daily peak factor is
considered to be one in Nepal.
Collection Chamber: Collection chamber is provided either at the intake or near the intake
site to collect the water from one of more sources. It breaks the incoming water pressure
into atmospheric pressure which prevents the backflow of water from one source to
another.
Distribution Chamber: It is a tank provided at the junction of the pipeline when water has
to be conveyed in more than one direction at atmospheric pressure. Interruption Chamber:
It is a tank present in the transmission main to break the excessive internal water pressure
built in the pipeline.
Reservoir: It is a tank or a basin which is used to store water. It may be classified as clean
water reservoir and service reservoir. Clean water reservoir stores water after treatment
has been done and is used for water supply purposes. Service reservoir stores water that is
used for firefighting purposes.
Distribution System: Distribution system is a network of pipeline that conveys the water
from the service reservoir to the consumer. It is designed for maximum or peak flow.
Break Pressure Chamber (BPC): It is a tank that is located in the distribution system to break
the excessive internal water pressure built up in the pipeline. It reduces the cost as it avoids
the necessity of high-pressure rating pipes. It is provided with the float valve. 070-BCE-004
IOE, CENTRAL CAMPUS ABHASH ACHARYA
Public Stand Post (PSP): It is a structure in the pipeline (usually in the rural water supply
system) from where water is distributed to the consumers. Valves: Valves are
appurtenances provided in the pipeline to control and regulate the flow of water, to
prevent the flow in opposite direction, to release the excessive pressure and to conduct
other functions.
Valve Chamber: The chamber in which one or more valves are located is called a valve
chamber. Fittings: Fittings are those appurtenances that allow pipes to be joined or
installed in the appropriate place and closed where necessary.
6. A. Briefly describe an ogee spillway.
A spillway is a hydraulic structure built at a dam site for diverting the surplus water from a
reservoir after it has been filled to its maximum capacity. Spillways are classified into
different types on the basis of the arrangement of the control structure, a conveyance
channel and a terminal structure. In this article, we will discuss in brief all the different
types of spillways with pictures.

Types of Spillways

Different types of spillways are as follows:

1. Straight Drop Spillway

2. Ogee Spillway
3. Shaft Spillway
4. Chute Spillway
5. Side Channel Spillway
6. Siphon Spillway
7. Labyrinth Spillway
1. Straight Drop Spillway

A Straight drop spillway consists of low height weir wall having its downstream face roughly
or perfectly vertical. When the water level in the reservoir rises above the normal pool level,
the surplus water falls freely from the crest of the weir and hence it is known as Straight
drop spillway or free overfall spillway.

Fig 1: Straight Drop Spillway

To prevent the scouring of downstream bed from falling water jet, an artificial pool with a
concrete apron and low secondary dam is constructed on the downstream side. Proper
ventilation should be provided on the underside portion of a falling jet to prevent pulsating
and fluctuating effects.

Sometimes, an overhanging projection is provided on the crest of the weir to prevent the
entrance of small discharges onto the face of the weir wall. Straight drop spillways are most
suitable for thin arch dams, earthen dams or bunds.

Fig 2: Straight Drop Spillway Components

2. Ogee Spillway

Ogee spillway, as the name says, represents the shape of the downstream face of the weir.
It is an improved form of a straight drop spillway. In this case, the downstream face of the
weir is constructed corresponding to the shape of lower nappe of freely falling water jet
which is in ogee shape.

The ogee shape of the downstream face is designed on the basis of the principle of a
projectile. In general, the shape of lower nappe of the water jet is not constant for all water
heads hence, the shape obtained for the maximum head is taken into account while
designing ogee spillway.
 Fig 3: Ogee Spillway of Walayar dam, India

Whenever there is surplus water, it will be freely disposed of through ogee spillway along its
ogee shaped crest hence it can also be called as an overflow spillway. Ogee spillways are
most commonly used in case of gravity dams, arch dams, buttress dams, etc. For gravity
dams, it is generally located within the dam body.

3. Shaft Spillway

A Shaft spillway is a type of spillway which consists of a vertical shaft followed by a

horizontal conduit. The surplus water enters into the vertical shaft and then to the
horizontal conduit and finally reaches the downstream of the channel.

Fig 4: Shaft Spillway

The shaft constructed is either artificial or natural. Excavation for the natural shaft is
possible only when the hard rocky layer is present on the upstream side. The horizontal
conduit either passes through the dam body or through the foundation of the dam.

In the case of large projects, the inlet hole of the vertical shaft is specially shaped which is
called as morning glory or glory hole of the spillway. Hence, shaft spillway is also called as
Morning glory spillway or Bell Mouth spillway. Shaft spillway is recommended when there is
no space to provide for other types of spillways such as ogee spillway, straight drop spillway,
etc.

Fig 5: Morning Glory Spillway, Monticello Dam, USA

4. Chute Spillway

Chute spillway is a type of spillway in which surplus water from upstream is disposed to the
downstream through a steeply sloped open channel. It is generally constructed at one end
of the dam or separately away from the dam in a natural saddle in a bank of the river.

Chute spillway is suitable for gravity dams, earthen dams, rockfill dams, etc. But it is
preferred when the width of the river valley is very narrow. The water flows along the
steeply sloped chute or trough or open channel and reaches the downstream of the river.
Chute spillway is also called as trough spillway or open channel spillway.
The slope of chute spillway is designed in such a way that the flow should be always in
supercritical condition. To dissipate energy from the falling water, energy dissipators can be
provided on the bed of chute spillway.

Fig 6: Chute Spillway, Tehri Dam, India

5. Side Channel Spillway

Side channel spillway is similar to chute spillway but the only difference is the crest of side
channel spillway is located on one of its sides whereas crest of chute spillway is located
between the side walls. In other words, the water spilling from the crest is turned to 90
degrees and flows parallel to the crest of side channel spillway unlike in chute spillway.

Fig 7: Side Channel Spillway

Side channel spillways are preferred over chute spillways when flanks of sufficient width are
not available, usually to avoid heavy cutting. The angle of turn of water flow after passing
weir crest can also be kept between 00 and 900.

Fig 8: Side Channel Spillway of Hoover Dam, USA

6. Siphon Spillway

A siphon spillway is a type of spillway in which surplus water is disposed to downstream

through an inverted U shaped conduit. It is generally arranged inside the body or over the
crest of the dam.

In both types of siphon spillways, air vents are provided at the bent portion of the upper
passageway to prevent the entrance of water when the water level is below the normal poll
level. Whenever the level rises above normal pool level, water enters into the conduit and is
discharged to the downstream of the channel by siphonic action.

Fig 9: Siphon Spillway

7. Labyrinth Spillway

A labyrinth spillway is a type of spillway in which the weir wall is constructed in a zigzag
manner in order to increase the effective length of the weir crest with respect to the
channel width. This increase in effective length raises the discharge capacity of the weir and
hence higher water flow at small heads can be conveyed to the downstream easily.

Fig 10: Labyrinth spillway of Lake Brazos Dam, United States

6.B. What is meant by pore water pressure and what is its significance in the design of
earthen dams?
Pore water pressure (sometimes abbreviated to pwp) refers to
the pressure of groundwater held within a soil or rock, in gaps between particles (pores).
Pore water pressures below the phreatic level of the groundwater are measured
with piezometers. The vertical pore water pressure distribution in aquifers can generally be
assumed to be close to hydrostatic.
In the unsaturated ("vadose") zone, the pore pressure is determined by capillarity and is
also referred to as tension, suction, or matric pressure. Pore water pressures under
unsaturated conditions are measured with tensiometers, which operate by allowing the
pore water to come into equilibrium with a reference pressure indicator through a
permeable ceramic cup placed in contact with the soil.
Pore water pressure is vital in calculating the stress state in the ground soil mechanics,
from Terzaghi's expression for the effective stress of a soil.

The variation of pore water pressure in earthen dams plays an important role in
maintaining its stability. The pore water pressure within the dam are altered by the external
loading conditions like rapid drawdown of reservoir water, earthquake loading and raise of
water table caused by infiltration of rainfall. The seepage through an earthen dam involves
saturated and unsaturated flows but to avoid complexity in solving the non-linear partial
differential equations, the flow in unsaturated zone is neglected and seepage analysis is
carried by constructing the flow net in which the pore water pressures beyond the free
surface is taken as zero. In actual conditions negative pore water pressure develops beyond
the free surface due to the capillarity which leads development to the matrix suction of the
soil. In this paper a comparative study on distribution of pore pressure in a zoned earthen
dam under steady state and transient conditions had been carried out considering
unsaturated-saturated seepage theory. To solve the non-linear partial differential equations,
finite element method has been adopted in the present study. The earthen dam has been
modeled in different stages. At each stage a new parameter was added and parametric
analysis was carried out. The results indicate that negative pore water pressure developed
at the downstream side and the pore pressures at the mid-levels of the core are high. This
specifies that, soils with low permeability have higher pore pressure. The pore pressures
appeared to be higher in upstream side during rapid drawdown compared to steady state.

8. Introduce the sprinkler method of irrigation and its suitability in Nepal.What are the
factors to be considered in selecting canal alignment?

Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to natural rainfall.
Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. It is then sprayed into
the air through sprinklers so that it breaks up into small water drops which fall to the ground.
The pump supply system, sprinklers and operating conditions must be designed to enable a
uniform application of water.

5.1.1 Suitable crops

Sprinkler irrigation is suited for most row, field and tree crops and water can be sprayed
over or under the crop canopy. However, large sprinklers are not recommended for
irrigation of delicate crops such as lettuce because the large water drops produced by the
sprinklers may damage the crop.

5.1.2 Suitable slopes

Sprinkler irrigation is adaptable to any farmable slope, whether uniform or undulating. The
lateral pipes supplying water to the sprinklers should always be laid out along the land
contour whenever possible. This will minimize the pressure changes at the sprinklers and
provide a uniform irrigation.

5.1.3 Suitable soils

Sprinklers are best suited to sandy soils with high infiltration rates although they are
adaptable to most soils. The average application rate from the sprinklers (in mm/hour) is
always chosen to be less than the basic infiltration rate of the soil (see Annex 2) so that
surface ponding and runoff can be avoided.

Sprinklers are not suitable for soils which easily form a crust. If sprinkler irrigation is the only
method available, then light fine sprays should be used. The larger sprinklers producing
larger water droplets are to be avoided.
5.1.4 Suitable irrigation water

A good clean supply of water, free of suspended sediments, is required to avoid problems of
sprinkler nozzle blockage and spoiling the crop by coating it with sediment.

Factors to be Considered While Fixing Canal Alignment

Following factors should be considered while fixing the canal alignment:

1. The canal should be straight, as a result, the length of the canal will be minimum,
which helps to reduce the loss of water due to percolation and evaporation.

2. It should be spotted that the canal does not pass through a village or town but by the
side of it.

3. Cross-drainage works should be avoided since such works are very costly.

4. Deep cuttings and high filling should be avoided.

5. The alignment should avoid fissure and brackish formations. Fissured formations
cause loss of water through fissures, and brackish formations render water useless.

6. To get off excessive percolation losses, the alignment of the canal should avoid
passing through sandy tracks.

7. The alignment should avoid rock formation. Required a lot of labour for the
construction of canals in the rocky pathways.

8. Idle length of the canal should be minimum.

9. Suitable foundations and construction materials should be available for the works like
falls, cross regulators, head regulators etc.

10. Unnecessary curves in the canals should be avoided, if the curves are necessary, it
should be as large radius as possible.

11. The cutting and filling should be such that( i.e. cutting should be equal to filling as
possible), it will be most economical.