PSYCHOLOGY NOTES

What is Psychology?
● Psychology is the study of mind, brain and behaviour. (Thought and behaviour)
○ How does the human mind work?
○ How are we different from everyone else in the world?
○ How do we learn?
○ What is peer pressure?

● Neuroscience - learning about the mind. Focusing on the working of the brain
● Developmental - how do we learn about as they develop into adults
● Cognitive - represents all the cognitions (mental structure) that we use every day.
↳Ex. Memory, perception, how do we speak, and language.
● Social - with relations with groups. Why do we like some and not others?
Forgiving of our mistakes and not others
● Clinical - mental health and mental illness. Discovering treating and understanding.
All the way people are found in distress and being diagnosed. How to use that knowledge to
treat them.

How does a Clinical Psychologist differ from counsellor and psychiatrist?

- A clinical psychologist has a masters and Ph.D. in clinical psych.

- A councillor has a master’s in counselling.

- A psychiatrist has a M.D.

Psychology: Origins
○ Birthday: 1879 - Wilhelm Wounds. Set up first psychology laboratory.
○ Before that…
● Ancient Greece (470 BCE) - understood that the brain is important for
natural activity
● Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Hippocrates…Galen
● Aristotle - organized way was him. Many of his writings
describes the mind as the part of the soul that the spirit gains
knowledge and gains the world. At the time, tried to define the
mind.
● Hippocrates - each person is made up of 4 humors or bodily
fluids: (yellow bile, black bile, blood and flem.) Their
personality comes in different proportions of these bodily fluids.
"Theory of humourism"
● China
● Confucius (551 BCE)
● Multiple tests to let suitable candidates for government jobs.
● Muslim scholars
 ● Al-Kindi (801 CE) - adopted lots of writing from Greek and
promoted Greek philosophy to the Muslim world. Wrote
extensive how to combat and treat mood disorders.

Psychology as a Science
● Middle Ages (5th-15 century) - (suffered in this period)
○ Scientific learning comes to a halt… people that were suffering mental illnesses
were thought to be possessed by the devil
○ Church doctrine
● Renaissance (14th-17th century) - focus shifted. How to improve condition right
now
○ Rebirth of knowledge
○ Focus on here and now and not the afterlife
● Mid- 1800 Europe
○ No longer a branch of speculation (Philosophy) = psychology should
leave the area of speculation and become a science of experiment. What that
content should be.
● Schools of Thought

Schools of Thought (Cognitive Psychology)- carve a path forward to make it easier for people
to have a unified way to understand the important area of study.

Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that studies mental processes

including how people think, perceive, remember and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive
science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy,
and linguistics.
 ○ Structuralism (Edward Titchener) - Titchener was a student of the wound.
(Scientific thinking and psychology started) was too subjective
● Conscious experience can be broken down into smaller pieces. Smaller parts
we generalize into bigger hypotheses
● Introspection - examine inside us. Mental processes our
thoughts our emotions.
● Too subjective
○ Functionalism (William James) - influenced by Charles Darwin (evolution)
● Stream of consciousness. - cannot understand consciousness by
looking at the smaller parts. Consciousness conscious thoughts: instead
of looking at individual things, studies the functional purpose of the mind.
Why does the create all these thoughts?
● Charles Darwin proposed the fear of Natural selection and sexual
selection - if something trait, behaviors is important in helping the
organism people or animals in surviving then that trade or that characteristics
will be passed down from generation to generation. If no purpose for
behaviors, it will die out because it won't help the organism in surviving.
○ Gestalt Psychology (Max Wertheimer)
● The whole of personal experience is different from the sum of its individual
elements
● Phenomenology defines - the premise of gestalt psychology. Heart of school
of thought. Personal experience is unstructured. It is subjective. In order to
understand people, we try to understand the laws to maintain knowledge.
How to make sense of the world.
● Perception

(Perception is entirely subjective and depends on context. Two different people can look at
the same image and see different things.)

Schools of Thought:
● Behaviourism - (John B. Watson)
● Examine observable behaviours and not internal processes
● Reinforcement and punishment
● Nature vs Nurture
● Psychology = scientific study of behaviours
● Behaviour = overt or observable responses or activities
● A radical reorientation of psychology as a science of observable behaviours
● Study of consciousness abandoned
● Stimulus = any detectable input from the environment
Behaviorism/Biological = most findings based on the status of animals.
Human behaviorism is much more complex than animals.

●Freud and Psychoanalysis (role of the unconscious) = big hidden

place. A massive place in our psyche houses memories repressed thoughts. The
pressure cooker of the soul. - a proposed new theory of looking at the mind.
Proposed all these medleys off repressed memories and desires exert a lot of
influence on human behaviors. Came up through patient interviews. After his
patients had the opportunity of talking about their feelings, they felt better / less
anxious. Called this the talking cure. Allow all this repressed stuff to talk about
them, then the conscious mind can deal with them productively.
● Founded Psychoanalytic school of thought
● Emphasis on unconscious processes influencing behaviors
● Unconscious
● Sex and aggression - proposed of different personality development
psychosexual develop.
Psychoanalysis and Behaviorism are 2 different things.

Freud's Ideas: Controversy and Influence

● Behaviour is influenced by the unconscious
● Unconscious conflict related to sexuality plays a central role in behaviors
● Controversial notions caused debate and resistance
● Significant influence on the field of psychology
● Prominent followers such as Carl Jung and Alfred Adler. - broke up. Freud is open to
criticism. Jung proposed different ideas on this unconscious including his
contemporaries. His friends had different ideas on how to view human nature and
broke up into psychoanalysis and developed their own theories of student laws.

Schools of Thought
● The humanistic perspective (Maslow, rogers) - anti-Freud or anti psychoanalysis formed
an alliance called humanism.
● Growth (personal growth), free will (what we want to do with our lives) and
optimism = believing people can grow and we can explore the conditions on
what they need.
● Diverse opposition groups got together to form a loose alliance and a new school of
thought emerged humanism
● Led by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and carl rogers (1902-1987)
● with Emphasis on the unique qualities of humans: freedom and personal
growth.

Clinical Psychology
● Clinical psychologists help people in distress
 ● Apply theories/research findings to help client’s knowledge from an
experimental psychologist to treat psychological problems and disorders.
● Three-step process - after the 2nd world war, called upon treat soldiers
suffering from trauma. After becoming clinicians, gave rise to using research
to inform how to apply these findings.
1. Psychopathology - classify, research etiology, course of the
disorder. Get to know their causes etc.
2. Assess and decide - diagnosis, evaluate the outcome
3. Intervention - treat and prevent
Cognition and Neuroscience in Psychology
● Cognition = mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge
● 1950's and 1960's - Piaget, Chomsky and Simon
● Application of scientific methods to studying mental events
● Cognitive psychology: the new dominant perspective?
Biological Psychology: The Biological Basis of Behaviour
● Biological perspective - behaviors explained in terms of physiological processes
(Neuroscience)
● James Old (1956)
● Electrical stimulation of the brain evokes emotional responses in
animals
● Roger Sperry (1981)
● Left and right brain specialization
● Donald Hebb (1949)
● Cell assemblies describe neutral networks

Psychology adapts: the emergence of evolutionary psychology defines

● Central premise: natural selection, occurs for behavioral, as well as physical,
characteristics
● Buss, Daly & Wilson, Cosmides of Toby- 1980's and 1990s
● Studies natural selection of mating preferences, jealousy, aggression, sexual
behaviors, language, decision making, personality and development
● Thought-provoking perspective gaining in influence, but not
without criticism.
Positive Psychology
● Positive psychology uses theory and research to better understand the positive aspects
of human existence
● Positive subjective experiences
● Individual traits
● Positive institutions and communities
Reading TXT
Psychology meaning: Greek words psyche meaning the soul and logos referring to the study of a
subject
● Psyche - soul, spirit or mind.
● Psychology then became the study of the mind
Ancient Greek philosophers such as Socrates, Plato and Aristotle considered and debated issues of
relevance to psychology including such subjects as
1. Separation of mind and body whether knowledge is inborn (nativism) or gained
through experience (empiricism)
Wilhelm Wundt - mounted a campaign to make psychology an independent disciple rather than
a stepchild of philosophy impact on the development of psychology. In 1879, Wundt succeed in
establishing the first formal laboratory for research in psychology at the University of Leipzig.
They called it the birthday of psychology in 1879. then he made his first journal devoted to
publishing research on psychology. So popular known as the founder of psychology.

The battle of the schools begins with Structuralism vs Functionalism

Structuralism -
● Edward Titchener, Englishman.
● Structuralism was based on the notion that the task of psychology is to analyze
consciousness into its basic elements and investigate how these elements are related.
● Structuralists wanted to identify the fundamental components of
conscious experience, such as sensation, feelings and images. Depended
mostly on introspection or the careful systematic self-observation of one's
own conscious experience, as practiced by structuralists, introspection
required training to make the subject- the person being studied more
objective and more aware.
● Functionalism - is based on the belief that psychology should investigate the function
or purpose of consciousness, rather than its structure.
● Consciousness - William James agreed it’s like a flow of thoughts. He
wanted to understand the flow itself, which he called the "stream of
consciousness"
● Structuralists naturally gravitated to the lab, functionalists were more interested in how people
adapt their behaviours to the demands of the real world around them. Functionalists began to
investigate mental testing, patterns of development in children, the effectiveness of
educational practice behavioural differences between the sexes.

○ Behaviourism - theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology

should study only observable behaviours.
● Why did Watson argue for such a fundamental shift in direction? Because to
him, the power of the scientific method rested on the idea of verifiability.
○ Behaviour. - to any overt (observable response or activity by an organism)
Sigmund Freud
○ Austrian physician- theories made him known for his controversialist and figure
○ Treat mental disorders like anxiety and obsession etc. called this psychoanalysis
○ Unconscious - contains thoughts, memories and desires that are well below the surface of
conscious awareness but that nonetheless exert great influence on behaviours.
● He noticed that seemingly meaningless slips of the tongue such as " I decided
to take a summer school curse" often appeared to reveal a person's true
feelings.
● He noted that his patient’s dreams often seemed to express important feelings
they were unaware of.
● Eventually concluded psychological disturbances are largely
caused by personal conflicts existing at an unconscious level.
○ The psychoanalytic theory attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental
disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behaviours.
○ B.F Skinner concluded that free will is an illusion

Psychoanalytic theory was attacked for its belief that behaviours is dominated by
primitive, sexual urges.
Behaviourism was criticized for its preoccupation with the study of simple animal behaviours.
Both were criticized because they suggested that people are not masters of their own destinies and
both schools of thought failed to recognize the unique qualities of human behaviours.
● Humanism became a new school of thought meaning it’s a theoretical orientation
that emphasizes the unique qualities of humans especially their freedom and their
potential for personal growth.

Cognition: refers to the mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge.

Hebb's idea suggested how neural networks might work and be organized. Proposed that the key to
understanding this was activity at the neuronal level.

● Evolutionary psychology: examines behavioural processes in terms of their adaptive value

for members of a species over the course of many generations
○ The basic premise- of evolutionary psychology is that natural selection favors
behaviours that enhance organisms’ reproductive success, that is, passing on
genes to the next generation. Thus, if a species is highly aggressive, evolutionary
psychologists argue that it’s because aggressiveness confers a survival or
reproductive advantage for members of that species. Hence, genes that promote
aggressiveness are more likely to be passed on to the next generation

● Psychology defines the science that studies behaviors and the physiological and cognitive
process that underlies it, and it is the profession that applies that accumulated knowledge of
this science to practical problems.
a. The misconception is that psychology is the study of the mind
 b. 9 research areas in modern psychology are
● Development psychology
● Social psychology
● Experimental psychology
● Behavioral neuroscience. Biological psychology
● Cognitive psychology
● Personality
● Psychometrics
● Educational psychology
● Health psychology
c. Applied psychology 4 areas
● Clinical psychology
● Counselling psychology
● Educational and school psychology
● Industrial and organizational psychology
d. Clinical vs psychiatry
● Both are involved in analyzing and treating psychological disorders.
● Training and education requirements are different
● Psychiatrists go to medical school for their postgraduate, where they
receive M.D, complete residency
● Both are different in the way they approach the treatment of the
mental disorder.
● Psychiatry - is a branch of medicine concerned with the
diagnosis and treatment of psychological problems and
disorders.
● Clinical psychologists - don't take a medical approach to such
problems
e.
● Themes related to psychology as a field of study
f. Psychology is empirical
g. Psychology is theoretically diverse
h. Psychology evolves in a sociohistorical context

● Theme 1: Psychology is empirical

● Empiricism is the premise that knowledge should be acquired through
observation. Based on direct observation rather than reasoning,
traditional beliefs and speculation.
● Empirical demands data and documentation.
● Theme 2: psychology is theoretically diverse
● A theory: is a system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of
observations
 ● Theoretical diversity is a strength rather than a weakness because it is
good to have more ways to look at a certain observation because there
are always more ways to look at one idea.
● Psychology's subject matter
a. Behaviour is determined by multiple causes
b. Behaviour is shaped by cultural heritage
c. Heredity and environment jointly influence behaviours
d. People's experience of the world is highly subjective

● Theme 4: Behaviour is determined by multiple causes

● Behaviour is complex, most aspects of behaviours are determined by
multiple causes
● Theme 5: Behaviour is shaped by cultural heritage
● Culture define widely shared customs, beliefs, values, norms, institutions
and other products of a community that are transmitted socially across
generations
● Theme 6: Heredity and environment jointly influence behaviours 


● Theme 7: People's experience of the world is highly subjective

1. Behaviorism/biological - was founded by John. B Watson asserted that psychology should

only observable behaviours

2. Psychoanalytic theory - emphasizes unconscious determinants of behaviors and the

importance of sexuality.

3. Wundt argued that psychology should be the scientific study of consciousness

LECTURE #2: Research Methods

● Psychology is an empirical science

○ Scientific method: theories, hypothesis, rigorous research process. "a
systematic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena to answer
questions about what happens when it happens and what causes it and why?"
○ Base premise: events are governed by some lawful order.

The Scientific Method

● Theory
○ A model of interconnected ideas and concepts that explain what is observed and
makes predictions about future events
● If replication occurs, then it allows us to be more confident
● Hypothesis
○ A prediction of what should be observed in the world if a theory is correct
● Testable vs non-testable hypothesis
● Testable - the more you study for this class, the better
mark you'll get. Testable because we can reenact.
● Non-testable -.e.g., good people have guardian angels.
First must quantify and define what's a good person, find
out guardian angels exist, and if they
● Conduct/research design study
○ Collect data
● Analyze data and draw conclusions
○ Was the hypothesis correct? Draw conclusions
● Report the findings

Good Theory vs Bad Theory

● Simple (parsimonious)
● Piaget's theory of human development
○ Stages, milestones of each stage. All humans go through them
● Bad theory
○ Cannot be proven false
○ Freud’s "interpretations of dreams"
● All dreams represent the fulfillment of an unconscious wish.
● Not many testable hypotheses
● Example:
Phrenology
France gal 1700's up until 19century
● Why did phrenologists think that bumps on your head would be informative?
● Believe that the brain was comprised of different organs. Specific organs
were meant for different parts of the mind
 ● Also thought the brain act as a muscle. More you act the muscle, the
more it’s going to grow. So, skull would mold to accommodate the
changing morphology of the brain. At the time, it provided interesting
ideas on the reflections on the brain.
● Skull doesn't mirror the surface of the brain

● Debunking a bad theory

Experimental Research: Looking for causes

● Experiment = manipulation of one variable under controlled conditions so that
resulting changes in another variable can be observed
● Detection of cause-and-effect relationships
● Independent variable: what is being manipulated (what is being used
● Cell phone use
● Dependent variable: what is affected by the manipulation (the result, what
comes out at the end)
● Number of errors
● Experimental group: (manipulate and treatment group)
● Driving and cell phone use
● Control group
● Driving and no cell phone use

One thing would change between experimental and control = the treatment, if not same
don't know what you're measuring

Experimental and control Groups: the logic of the scientific method

● Experimental group - subjects who receive some special treatment (manipulation)
● Control group - similar subjects who do not receive the special treatment (no
manipulation)
● Logic:
● Two groups alike in all respects (random assignment)
● Manipulate independent variable for one group only
● Resulting differences in the two groups must be due to the
independent variable
● Extraneous and confounding variables
● Extraneous = did not know about. Testing something, weather
is extraneous because we do not know about it or that it was
going to happen. Things that can impact your study
● Confounding = driving experience, all experienced drives in
experimental and non-experimented driers in control group
would impact my results. What an influence my data. What can I
avoid? If I want drivers, they will have different driving
experiments, cannot remove. What can do is random assignment
 of your participants is used to controlled most confounding
variables.
True experiment
● Advantages
● Isolates the relationship between variables
● Establish cause and effect
● Disadvantages
● Artificiality
● Some variables we can't manipulate
● Most occur in controlled (lab) settings
● Field experiment
● Research studies that use settings that are very much like real life
●
Descriptive/ Correlational Studies
● Designed to identify "what goes with what" in nature and NOT designed to identify
causal relationships.
● When researchers cannot manipulate variables
● Major advantage is that it allows us to identify relationships among variables
as they occur naturally
● Naturalistic observation
● Case studies
● Surveys/questionnaires
● Correlation studies do NOT allow us to draw conclusions with respect to causality.
Because we cannot manipulate variables
● Advantage - look at relationships

Naturalistic Observation
● The Hawthorne effect - observed people on workplace conditions
● Hypothesis: being observed can lead people to change their behaviors
● Observe people on the effects of the workplace conditions
● Measure: speed of doing work
● Results: productivity increased when they were being observed, regardless of
changes to working conditions.

● Questions: Why do people change their behaviors when they know they're being
observed?

Case Studies
● Memory research
● 10 second Tom

Survey/Questionnaires
● E.g., twenty statements test
 ● Instructions, please complete the statement below 20 times
● There are no right or wrong answers. Please write the first things that come to
mind and try not to censor yourself.
● "I am _______"

Looking for conclusions: statistics and research

● Statistics - using mathematics to organize, summarize and interpret numerical data
● Descriptive statistics: organize and summarize to provide a general overview
● Inferential statics: interpret and draw conclusions
● Descriptive statistics:
● Mean: arithmetic average of scores
● Median: score falling in the exact center
● Mode: most frequently occurring score

Outlier - what went wrong? Did I make a mistake? Data errors, an unlikely occurrence.
Question: Which one would be the most impacted by an outlier; mean median and mode? Why
are outliers a problem? = the mean because we compute the mean

Different kinds of curves

A. Bell-curve
B. Bio-modal distribution - can have 2 or 3 modes
C. Positively skewed distribution - mean is higher than the median. the median is higher than the
mode. Most of the scores are on the left.
D. A negatively skewed distribution - the median is smaller than the mode, so the tail is on the
left. Most scores are concentrated on the right of the distribution.

Descriptive Statistics: Variability

● Variability: by how much the scores vary from each other and from the mean
● Range=highest score - the lowest score
● Standard deviation = numerical depiction of variability (high spread out the
scores are, vary spread out or in one spot)
● High variability in data set = high standard deviation
● Low variability in data set = low standard deviation

● Have same mean, median mode

● Have different standard deviations - in blue scores are dispersed, in red; they are concentrated
 Correlational Studies
● Correlational method: statistical procedure determining whether there is a relationship
between two variables
● Correlation = numerical index of the degree of relationship
● Designed to identify "what goes with what" in nature
● Major advantage: identify relationships among variables as they occur naturally

Correlational Studies
● Correlation expressed as a number between 0 and 1
● Can be positive or negative
● Numbers closer to 1 (+ or -) indicate stronger relationship
● -1 (perfect negative relationships)
● 0 (no relationship)
● +1 (perfect positive relationship)
● Correlation does not indicate causation: two problems

To know:
● Positive correlational - things moving in the same directional one increases other
increases. Also, one decreases, the other decreases.
● Negative - opposite direction, one increases other decreases

Third-Variable Problem
● Just because 2 things happen doesn't mean one causes the other. What it means is that there is
a third variable that helps explain the relationship.
● For e.g. - Increase in ice cream sales and drowning rate. It’s the weather that can
explain these variables because the weather affects the ice cream rates and people
swimming is because of the weather.

● 

Inferential Statistics: Interpreting Data and Drawing conclusions
● Hypothesis testing: do observed findings support the hypothesis
● Are the findings real or due to chance?
● Statistical significance: the very small probability that the observed findings
are due to chance.
● Very low= less than 5 chances in 100 (0.05level)
● Very very low= less than 1 chance in 100 (0.01level)
● Meta-Analysis - the study of many other studies
● Replication: repeating a study hoping to duplicate results.
● Meta-analysis: a study of many other studies
● Important questions: are there gender differences in IQ?
 ● Goal: Generalizability
● How do we evaluate research?
● Replication

Repeat the study. Do you find the same results?

Why is replication important?

Should we publish NULL results? 


How do we evaluate research?

● Sampling bias
● What is a sample? - your participants (intro psych students)
● Does your sample represent the population? 



When is a sample not representative of the population? 

E.g. Gender biased research 


● Placebo effects
● Participant’s expectations lead them to experience some change, even though
they do not receive a treatment
● Are the results due to the IV manipulation or participants’ expectations about
the effect of the IV?
● Social desirability - give answers socially approved by themselves. Want to be perceived in
a specific way
● Impression management - you appear to be better than you are by lying or
twisting the truth
● self-deceptive positivity - believe that you are better than you are
● E.g. Are you telling me the truth/what I want to hear?
● Response set - don't have time to get a questionnaire and circled yes, yes, yes,yes,yes.
Researchers would remove you from data analyses because they know you’re not being
truthful
● Halo effect - a strong effect that people have. Think that certain positive traits and
characteristics are grouped together. e.g. Expecting that attractive people are more
extroverted.
● Experimenter bias
● Double-blind solution - experimenter doesn't treat some people differently than
others so everyone is unaware of the topic.
TEXTBOOK

Goals of scientific enterprise

● Share 3 sets of interrelated goals
1. Measurement and description
2. Understanding and prediction
3. Application and control

1. Measurement and description - way to measure the phenomenon under study. Eg. If you were
interested in the effect of different situations on emotion, you would first have to develop
some means for measuring emotions.
2. Understanding and prediction: to evaluate their understanding, scientists make a test
prediction called a hypothesis; a tentative statement about the relationship between 2 or more
variables. Variables are any measures of conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviours that
are controlled or observed in a study.
3. Application and control - info gathered will be of some practical value in helping solve
everyday problems

How do theories help scientists achieve their goals? - as seen in chp1, psychologists do not set out just
to collect isolated facts about relationships between variables. They construct theories. A theory is a
system of interrelated ideas used to explain a set of observations.
● A scientific theory must be testable

Steps in scientific investigation

Scientific investigation - systematic. Follow an orderly pattern as the following.
● Formulate a hypothesis
● Design the study
● Collect the data
● Analyze the data
● Report the findings
Markus Maier and andrew elliot have formulated a theory of how colour might influence behaviour.
According to their theory, colours can have automatic, unconscious effects that are probably rooted in
two basic sources.
i. First people learn associations based on certain colours being paired with certain
experiences. For ex. Red is a danger.
ii. Over the course of human evolution, certain colours may have had adaptive
significance for survival or reproduction. For eg. Blood and fire which appear red,
both signal danger.
 Operational definition = describes the actions of operations that will be used to measure or
control a variable.
Particpants; are the persons or animals whose behaviour is systematically observed in a study

Step 2: Select the research method and design the study. Ex. Case studies, surveys, naturalistc
observation etc.

Step 3: Collect data - data collection techniques; are procedures for making empirical
observations and measurements. Eg. Direct observation, questions, interviews, recording etc.

Step 4: Analyze the data and draw conclusions. Eg observations made in the study are usually
converted into numbers

Step 5: Report your findings - a journal = periodical that publishes technical and scholarly
material usually in a narrowly defined area of inquiry.

Advantages of a scientific approach

i. Clarity and precision. Eg. People specify exactly what they are talking about when
they formulate hypothesis
ii. Relative intolerance of error. Eg. Scientists demand objective data and
documentation before they accept ideas. When 2 studies conflict, they figure out why
usually by conducting additional research.

Research methods consist of various approaches to the observation, measurement manipulation and
control of variables in empirical studies. (general strategies for conducting studies.

Looking for Causes: Experimental Research

● Stanley Schacter, examined social psychology. When people feel anxious, he wondered,
do they want to be left alone or do they prefer to have others around? His hypothesis was;
increases in anxiety would cause increases in the desire to be with others which
psychologists call the need for affiliation. He then designed an experiment
● Experiment is a research method in which the investigator manipulates a
variable under carefully controlled conditions and observes whether any
changes occur in a second variable as a result.
Independent and dependent variables
● Independent variables (free to be varied by the experimenter) = condition or
event that an experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable.
Variable that the experimenter controls or manipulates. It is hypothesized to have
some effect on the dependent variable. The experiment is conducted to verify this
effect.
● Dependent variable (thought to depend) on manipulation of the independent
variable = is thought to be affected by manipulation of the independent variable.
 In psychology, usually a measurement of some aspect of the participant's
behaviour.
● In schatchers experiment; independent variable = participants
anxiety level
Experimental and Control groups
- experimental group = the participants who receive some special treatment in regard to the
independent variable
● Control groups = similar participants who do not receive the special treatment given to
the experimental group

Extraneous variables
● The experimental method rests on the assumption that the experimental and control groups
are alike except for their treatment in regard to the independent variable
● Experimenters concentrate on making sure that the experimental and control
groups are alike on a limited number of variables that could be a bearing on the
results of the study. These variables are called extraneous, secondary, or nuisance
variables.
● Extraneous; any variables other than the independent variable that
seem likely to influence the dependent variable in a specific study.eg.
Scratchers study: the participant’s tendency to be sociable. Why?
Because participants’ sociability could affect their desire to be with
others (the dependent variable). If one group is more sociable than
the other, variables of anxiety and sociability would have been
confounded.
● Confounding; occurs when two variables are linked in a way that
makes it difficult to sort out their specific effects. (we want to avoid
confounding's, that’s what makes a good experimenter)
● Random assignment; participants occur when all participants
have an equal chance of being assigned to any group or condition in
the study. By using random, the scratcher could be confident that the
participants in the experimental and control groups do not differ in
their overall level of sociability.
● Variations in Designing experiments
● Between subject designs; comparisons are made between two different groups of
subjects or participants. They are advantageous for certain types of investigation.
Require fewer participants.
● Within-subject design; when participants serve as their own control group, the
experiment is within-subject design because comparisons are made within the
same group of subjects or participants.
● The advantage of manipulating 2 or three independent variables is that this
approach permits the experimenter to see whether two variables interact.

Advantageous and disadvantageous of experimental research

 ● Advantage; permits conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
This method is why psychologists prefer the experimental method whenever possible.
● Problem; experiments are often artificial. Experiences require great control over
proceedings, researchers must often construct simple contrived situations to test their
hypothesis experimentally. When highly artificial, doubts arise.
● When experiments are highly article, doubts arise about the applicability of findings to
everyday behaviour outside the experimental laboratory. One way to address this
limitation is a field experiment.
● Field experiment; research studies that use settings that are very much like
real life; in that use setting that is very much like real life; in the life and
events.

Descriptive/Correlational research
● When you cannot get a group to test it out for example maternal mothers testing out good or
bad food for the health of the baby. You obviously cannot test that so they rely on descriptive/
correlational research methods.
● Methods include; naturalistic observation, case studies and surveys.
● The researcher cannot manipulate these variables under study.
● The lack of control they have means that these methods cannot be used to
demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
● Descriptive/correlational methods permit investigators to only describe patterns
of behaviour and discover links or associations between variables.
● Naturalistic Observation is defined as = the researcher
engaging in careful observation of behaviour without intervening
directly with the participants. (naturalist) - because behaviour can
unfold naturally without interference.
● Eg. Children misbehaving and how physical punishment is used.
Mothers set out a recorder. (natural)
● On bigger plates, people eat more, smaller plates people eat less;
trainers watching, no harm (natural because they're eating)
● A major strength of naturalistic observation
● allows researchers to study behaviour under conditions that are less artificial than
in experiments.
● Engaging in naturalist observation can be a good starting point when little is
known about the behaviour under study.
● The major problem with the naturalistic method
● Researchers has trouble making their observations unobtrusively so they don't
affect their participant’s behaviour.
● Reactivity define = occurs when a participant’s behaviour is altered
by the presence of the observer.
●
● Case Studies 

 Define case study - study is an in-depth investigation of an individual participant or group of
participants.
● Usually, studies for psychological disorders or neurophysiological issues.
● Clinical psychologists often use case studies to look at past patients and see if there's a
pattern and so on permit conclusions.
● A major strength in case studies; provide compelling, real illustrations that bolster a hypothesis
or theory.
● The main problem with case studies; can be highly subjective. Often clinical researchers
docus may focus selectively on information that fits their theoretical slant. Thus, it is relatively
easy for investigators to see what they expect to see in case study research.

Surveys
Define - researchers use questionnaires or interviews to gather information about specific aspects of
participants’ behaviour.
Surveys are often used to obtain information on aspects of behaviour that are hard to observe.
● Major weakness; the depend on self-report data

Correlational methods advantage

● Give researchers a way to explore questions they could not examine with experimental
procedures. For example
Descriptive methods disadvantage: investigators cannot control events to isolate cause and effect. With the
food plate, e.g. People could have been hungrier than others

Statistic and Research

● Statistics = use of mathematics to organize, summarize and interpret numerical data.
● Descriptive statistics = is used to organize and summarize data.
● Central tendency
● The median = the score that falls exactly in the center of the
distribution of scores
● The mean = is the arithmetic's average of the score in distribution
(it is the only descriptive statistics that is affected by outliers)
● The mode = is the most frequent score in a distribution
● Mean is the most used measure of central tendency because additional statistical
manipulations can be performed on it that is not possible with the median or
mode. Mean is very sensitive to extreme scores in a distribution that’s why it can
sometimes be misleading. Inflation of a school can affect the mean (average) of
the scores together.
● Variability = refers to how much the scores in the data set vary from each other and from
the mean.
● One method of variability is
● Standard deviation = an index of the amount of variability in a
set of data.
 ● Normal distribution = is a symmetrical bell-shaped curve that
represents the pattern in which many human characteristics are
dispersed in the population.
● Correlation
● Define correlation - exists when 3 variables are related to each other.
● Correlation coefficient - numerical index of the degree of relationship between 2
variables.
● Indicates
● Direction (positive or negative)
● How strongly two variables are related
● Positive vs negative correlation
● Positive- 2 variables co-vary in the same direction. Meaning high
scores on variable x are associated with high scores on variable y. if
positive, there will be a plus sign in Infront of the coefficient. No sign,
the correlation is positive.
● Negative - co-vary in opposite direction. People who score high on
variable x tend to score low on variable y. If the correlation is
negative, there will be a minus sign placed in front of the coefficient


Strength of the correlation (depends only on the size of the coefficient) - side of the coefficient indicates
the strength of an association between two variables. The coefficient can vary from 0 to +1.
● A coefficient near 0 indicates no relationship between the variables
● Closer the correlation to either -1 or +1 the stronger the relationship.
● Inferential statistic = is used to interpret data and draw conclusions.
● In psychology, the most common form of statistical inference is referred to as the
null-hypothesis (NHST) procedure.
● Being by assuming that the null hypothesis is true - that there would
be no difference in test scores in the
● Issues are we don't know that the null hypothesis is false.



● Evaluating research 

Sampling bias - a collection of participants selected for observation is an empirical
study. In contrast, the population is the much larger collection of animals or people
from which the sample is drawn that researchers want to generalize.
● Sampling bias exists when a sample is not representative of the
population from which it was drawn
● Taking samples from universities and student is risky as the students are
more educated than the general public.

● Placebo effects
● Are used because researchers know that participants’ expectation can
influence their feelings, reactions and behaviour.
 ● The placebo effect defines - when participants’ expectations lead
them to experience some change even though they receive empty,
fake or ineffectual treatment.

● Distortions in self-report data

● Social desirability bias - which is a tendency to socially approved answers to
questions about oneself.
● A response set - is a tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that
is unrelated to the content of the questions.
● Distortions like these can provide inaccurate results.
● Importance of replication
● Define replication - the repetition of a study to see whether the earlier results
are duplicated
● Experimenter bias
● Psychologists usually try to conduct experiments so that their own views will
not influence the results. However, some have an emotional investment in the
outcome of their research.
● Experiment bias defines- when a researcher’s expectations or preferences
about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained.
● Sometimes researchers want to see what they want to see. This
can impact the results of the data.
● Can be neutralized by using a double-blind procedure
● Double-blind pressure defined - is a research strategy
in which neither participants nor experimenter know
which participants are in the experimental or control
groups. (keeps the experimenter in the dark as well)
●
● Do the ends justify the means? - A good outcome excuses any wrongs committed to
attain it. Eg. The officer tricked her into admitting her guilt—the end sometimes justifies the means. 

● Prediction defines - the stronger the correlation, the better one can predict
● Causation defines - correlation is not equivalent to causation

● The question of animal research

● Every effort must be made to minimize the discomfort of these animals.
● Psychologists use animals sometimes because e they want to know more about the
behaviors of a specific type of animal. In other words, they want to apply both
humans and animals and identify their general laws of behaviors.
● Want to expose them to treatments that aren't acceptable for humans. E.g.
Maternal diet has been done with animals and not humans
● This point brings the most controversy = People maintain that is wrong to subject
animals to harm or pain for research purposes. Animals are entitled to the same
rights as humans.
 ● Also argue that animal studies are a waste of time because they may not even
apply to humans.
● The three reasons
1. The extent of anticipated animal suffering
2. The importance of the research problem is addressed
3. The likelihood of beneficial discoveries.
● Dependent vs independent variable
● In experimental research, the independent variable is manipulated or changed by
the experimenter to measure the effect of this change on the dependent
variable. ... Your dependent variable is the outcome that you measure:
the blood pressure of the patients.

LECTURE/ TEXTBOOK READING CHAPTER 3 NOTES: The Biological Bases of Behaviour

The Nervous System: Lecture 3

● Central Nervous system: is comprised of the central nervous system and it is the
↪Brain- the responsibility for interpreting information, communicating muscles, hormonal
glands, regulating important organs and functions
↪Spinal Cord- an extension of the brain. It acts as a pathway in which information from
the brain is relayed from the rest of the body

Peripheral nervous system:

● Nerves are outside the brain and spinal cord
↪Nerves-bundles of axons that transport electrochemical impulses
● Communication path between CN and extremities
Brain:
What is the brain?
● The brain is a complex organ that controls memories, thoughts, emotions and much more. It has
bodyguards, protected from pathogens, infections, and viruses which are protected
by:
↪Meninges-which are a system of membranes in the brain that protect it and extend the spinal
cord. If the Meninges is compromised, the brain is in danger
↪Cerebrospinal Fluid is the nutritious soup that flows through the ventricles of the brain and
to the spinal cord. It is important because it brings nutrients to brain cells, and it acts as a shield to
protect infection from coming through and clearing out the brain and spinal cord from neuronal
waste. Which are dead neurons that have completed their function and need to be removed from
the brain.

Spinal Cord:
What is a spinal cord?
● It connects the brain to the rest of the body-extension of the brain

The Anatomy of the Nervous System pg 74.

● Housed in our skull is about 1300-1400 grams of electrified “jelly”.

● The brain consists of two types of cells: neurons and glia
● Neurons are individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate, and transmit
information

What are Glial Cells?

↪Glia is cells found throughout the nervous system and they provide various types of
support for neurons. They are much smaller than neurons
● Glia Cells-structural support, insulation and communication

● Researchers suggest that the human brain consists of roughly equal numbers of neurons and
glial cells.
What was different about Einstein’s brain?
● Einstein had more glial cells. Diamond’s work suggested that the age and appropriateness of the
comparison brains, it was maybe supporting cells and glial cells, that contributed to Einstein’s
genius and not the neurons.

Functions of Glial Cells Examples:

1. Some act like parents, providing nutrition, healing, protection, and physical support for the
neurons
2. Some act like cleaners, removing debris from the brain
3. Some act like a miniature Pac-Man from a video game, devouring dead and damaged
cells.
Glial Cells provide protection to the brain in 3 ways:
1. They produce cerebrospinal fluid: Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a colourless fluid surrounding the
brain and spinal cord. It has several functions, including serving to cushion the brain during an
impact.
2. They form the blood-brain barrier, which prevents foreign material, including some viruses and
drugs from entering the brain
3. They contribute to the immune system of the brain

Why are the Glial Cells so important?

● They provide the neurons with nutrients and energy from the blood.
● They provide structure for the neurons which holds them in place and forms scar tissue if the
brain is injured
● They play an important role in memory function
● Glial Cells also insulate (stopping) the neurons, allowing them to process information
faster and with less energy

Other Information about the Glial Cells:

● Some types of Glia can detect neural impulses and send signals to other glial cells which can feed
signals back to neurons
● Research shows that glial cells play a role in a variety of major disorders:
↪ Example: dysfunction in glial cells may contribute to the cognitive impairment seen in
schizophrenic disorders and to some forms of depressive disorders, Alzheimer's diseases and
could’ve been implicated in the experience of chronic pain

Neurons:

● There are roughly 86 billion neurons in the human brain, most neurons have
synaptic connections to many other neurons. A synapse is a junction where information is
transmitted from one neuron to the next.

How do the neurons communicate?

● The majority of neurons communicate only with other neurons. Only a small minority receive
signals from outside the nervous system or carry messages from the nervous system to the muscles
that move the body.

Do Neurons come in different shapes and sizes?

● Yes, neurons come in such a tremendous variety of types and shapes that no single drawing can
represent them
What are neuron structural properties?
● Through neurons differ in shape and size, they share five common structural properties:
1. All neurons have a barrier, like a skin that separates the inside of the cell from the outside called
the cell membrane. This acts like a gate that allows and prevents molecules from entering or
leaving the cell
2. Each neuron has a cell body, also called a soma, which contains the nucleus and acts like a
tiny factory where proteins and neurotransmitters are manufactured. The cell body is where
information from thousands of other cells is gathered and sorted out. (Soma-Cell
body)
3. Dendrites gather much of the incoming information from other cells. They are the structures
that branch out from the cell body. The purpose of this is to increase the surface area of
the neuron so that chemicals, released from thousands of other cells, can help
influence the activity. (receive)
4. The axon. The axon is a long thin fibre that transmits signals away from the soma to other
neurons or to muscles or glands. The axon’s role is to conduct a brief electrical charge away from
the cell body. (Transmit away)
5. Axon Terminal. Axon Terminal is where chemicals are released by the neuron to influence
the activity of other neurons

The Myelin Sheath

What is a Myelin Sheath?

Many axons are wrapped in cells with a high concentration of a white, fatty substance
called myelin
● The myelin sheath is an insulating material, derived from specialized glial cells.
● If an axon’s myelin sheath deteriorates, its signals may not be transmitted effectively

The types of Neurons:

What are the three types of neurons?

1. Sensory-convert external stimuli into internal stimuli (CNS). For example: in the retina, they are
these specialized cells when lights hit the retina, and that information is transmitted to an area of
the brain that processes information (e.g.., lights, sounds, heat)
2. Interneurons-Proxy neurons. They help other neurons form connections between them (in
the CNS)
3. Motor neurons-Transmit commands from CNS to muscles, glands and organs

What do the axons lengths mean in pain?

Axons-windows-sending information
● Immediate pain-short axons
● Dull long pain- longer axons
NEURONS
Do the neurons touch?
● Neurons don’t touch-there is no physical connection between dendrites and axons. The magic
happens in a tiny space called the synaptic cleft.
What’s a synapse?
● It is a small gap-synaptic cleft (lock and key)-where it is released in that little gap where a lot of
things can happen that could inhibit or enhance communication
What is an Action Potential?
● It is an electrical signal that is sent to another neuron-electrical signal
Vesicles are_
● They produce the neurotransmitters in the neurons-mini factors

What happens to the leftovers?

● They are being reabsorbed. Reputation. The brain sends chemicals MAOS-one purpose-they
neutralize the leftovers-The target the levels of the substance, they clean up serotonins

The functions of Neurons:

What are the functions of neurons?

1. Resting Potential-unequal distribution of ions inside and outside neuron-it is negative-measure
to be 70 millivolts. When a neuron is stimulated (you need to fire) the balance changes because
there are openings in the brain that allows the positive charge ions to go inside to send the signals.
It changes the chemical compositions of the neurons, which can result in electrical signals of the
brain (Potassium (+) and sodium (-) critical to resting potential)
2. Action Potential-shift of the electrical charge in the neurons and changes the chemical
composition. Note: The firing operates on an all-or-nothing law. A neuron will fire, then rest, and
if the chemical continues to send signals, it will keep firing again. (Strong signal=faster
firing, or quicker firing)
3. Synaptic Transmission
↪ Synaptic cleft: gaps between communication neurons.
● Presynaptic neuron: a neuron that sends the chemical message
● Postsynaptic neuron: a neuron that receives the chemical message

What are the steps of Synaptic Transmission? Pg. 79

1. Synthesis: making neurotransmitters
2. Store and Transport: send through axons and store is vesicles
3. Release: when action potential causes the release of neurotransmitters
4. Binding: when neurotransmitters bind (connect) to the postsynaptic cell
 5. Deactivation: when the neurotransmitter is destroyed by an enzyme
6. Auto-receptor activation: neurotransmitter binding to the receptor of releasing neuron
7. Reuptake: excess neurotransmitter taken back by presynaptic neuron
8. Degradation: elimination of excess neurotransmitters

4. Graded Potentials-Process that takes the neuron from not firing to firing-The trigger that takes a
neuron from its resting potential to an action potential. A neuron must integrate signals arriving at many
synapses before it “decides” whether to fire an action potential. The threshold is 50 millivolts in the cell
membrane.
↪Neurotransmitters bind to receptors
↪Membrane Change: either becomes more negative or less negative
● More negative: Hyperpolarization. No action potential
● Less negative: Depolarization: Action potential may occur
Important: cumulative changes to cell membrane
● Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials
● Excitatory postsynaptic potentials

Neurotransmitters in the Brain:

What do the neurons do?

● Neurons communicate with each other chemical messengers-it is quite complex and it has a
profound effect

What is Psychopharmacology?
● It is the study of science that examines and talks about how neurons that affect these processes in
the brain and have different effects on the body or motives or moods

What are the 2 groups of Psychopharmacology?

1. Agonist-chemical substance that is produced by the brain or ingested and travels to the brain and
this chemical increases the effect of neurotransmitters. The agonist will enhance the effect of the
firing of the neurons.- Chemicals that mimic the effect of the neurotransmitters
↪Making more (in the brain)
↪Faking some (e.g cocaine)
↪Extending the effect of neurotransmitters in the synapse
 2. Antagonist-opposite action-Chemical that opposes the effect of the neurotransmitters

Acetylcholine: pg.82

What is Acetylcholine (ACh)?

● It is a presence throughout the nervous system. It is the only transmitter between motor neurons
and voluntary muscles. Every move you make typing, walking, talking, breathing requires that
ACh be released to your muscles by motor neurons.
● ACh also appears to contribute to attention, arousal, and memory.

Monoamines: The different Neurotransmitters and characteristics

What Disorder is ACh associated with Dysregulation?

● Alzheimer’s disease- an inadequate supply of ACh in certain areas of the brain is associated
with the memory losses seen in Alzheimer's disease. A drug that was produced was seen slightly to
help improve cognitive functioning which increases the ACh activity.

What is Dopamine (DA)?

● It contributes to the control of voluntary movement-Cocaine and amphetamines elevate activity
at DA synapses-Dopamine circuits in the medial forebrain bundle are characterized as “reward
pathways”

What Disorder is DA associated with Dysregulation?

● Parkinsonism
● Schizophrenic disorders
● Addictive disorders

What is Norepinephrine (NE)?

● It contributes to the modulation of mood and arousal-Cocaine and amphetamines elevate the
activity of NE synapses. (Different functions in brain (neurotransmitter) and body
(hormone))

What Disorder is NE associated with Dysregulation?

● Depressive disorders

What is Serotonin?
● Involves in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating, aggression, Prozac- similar
antidepressant drugs affect serotonin circuits. (Aggressive behaviour, Depression)

What Disorder is Serotonin associated with Dysregulation?

● Depressive disorders
 ● Obsessive-compulsive disorders
● Eating disorders

What is GABA?
● Serves as a widely distributed inhibitory transmitter, contributing to the regulation of anxiety and
sleep/arousal-Valium and similar Anti-anxiety drugs with GABA synapses. (40% of synapses)

What Disorder is GABA associated with Dysregulation?

● Anxiety disorders

What are Endorphins?

● Resemble opiate drugs in structure and effects-Play role in pain relief and response to stress-
contribute to the regulation of eating behaviour (Relieve pain and produce euphoria)

The Organization of the Nervous system:

Central Nervous System (CNS)- The brain and spinal cord-it is protected by enclosing sheaths called
the meninges.

The Peripheral Nervous system:

What is the Peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

 ● The peripheral nervous system is made up of all the nerves that lie outside the brain and spinal
cord. Nerves are bundles of neuron fibres (axons) that are routed together in the peripheral
nervous system.
● The peripheral nervous system is the part that extends outside the central nervous system.

What are the 2 systems that the Peripheral nervous system is subdivided into?
1. Somatic Nervous System-The somatic nervous system is made up of nerves that
connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and to sensory receptors. (Voluntary muscles
and sensory receptors). These nerves are like cables that carry information from the skin,
muscles, and joints to the central nervous system and carry commands from the central nervous
system to the muscles.

Do these functions require any types of nerve fibres?

● Yes, it requires two types of nerve fibres
↪Afferent nerve fibres- are axons that carry information inward to the central nervous
system from the periphery of the body
↪Efferent nerve fibres are axons that carry information outward from the central nervous
system to the periphery of the body.

2. Autonomic nervous system-The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is made up of

nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, smooth muscles and glands. The
autonomic nervous system controls automatic involuntary visceral functions that people don’t
normally think about, such as heart rate, digestion, and perspiration. (Voluntary muscles and
sensory receptors)

Does the autonomic nervous system have two subdivisions?

● Yes, The sympathetic and Parasympathetic.
↪The sympathetic division is the branch of the autonomic nervous system that mobilizes
the body’s resources for emergencies. It creates the fight-or-flight response (GO) (Mobilizes
resources)
↪The parasympathetic division is the branch of the autonomic nervous system that
conserves bodily resources ``Rest and digest system”. (STOP) (Conserves resources)

Peripheral Nervous System:

What are the two divisions in the Somatic Nervous system?
1. Sensory division (afferent)-Nerve fibres that carry information to the CNS
2. Motor Division (efferent)-Nerve fibres that carry impulses AWAY from the CNS

Sympathetic NS
When it is stimulated-it prepares the body for action

Epinephrine & Norepinephrine (adrenaline & noradrenaline)

● Releases prompt bodily changes
1. Heart Rate
2. Lung Capacity to increase
3. Pupils dilate to see better
4. Organs are modified to meet danger or flee
5. All functions of the body that aren’t important in the GO system, shut down
● Prepares the body to respond to
1. Emergencies
2. Strong emotions
3. Strenuous activities
● Flight or fight response

Parasympathetic NS
Controls organs under normal circumstances
● Antagonize Sympathetic NS
● Restores the body to a normal state
● Restores equilibrium in the body
● Decreases arousal, slows breathing and heart rate, lowers blood pressures, etc

Multiple Choice Questions In Textbook:

1. Neurotransmitters are stored in the axon terminals before they are released into synapse
2. Which of the following causes paralysis in animals? Acetylcholine antagonists
3. The monoamine neurotransmitters are serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine
4. Which nervous system can be subdivided into the sympathetic nervous system and the
parasympathetic nervous system? Autonomic
5. In what part of the brain is the hypothalamus located? Midbrain
6. Doctors have just injected a radioactive dye into Rachel in preparation for which brain imaging
procedure PET
7. Which part of the brain is removed in a split-brain procedure? The corpus callosum
8. Which hormone is associated with close bonding between individuals? Progesterone
9. An adopted child’s intelligence is MOST likely to be similar to the intelligence of which of the
following? Biological Parents
10. People’s love of fatty food is the result of Natural Selection
LECTURE/TEXTBOOK READING Chapter 3: Looking inside the Brain

Looking inside the Brain

How else can we explore the brain?

● Lesions, Tumors, strokes, injury

Neuroscientists:
Brain injury and behavioural outcomes
● E.g Apraxia (can move, but no coordination)
● Agnosia (not blindness, but can’t recognize objects)-inability to recognize objects but
there is no damage to the visual nerves, but they cannot process information, they cannot name
the objects.
● Synesthesia-cross-sensory experience

Brain Activity

What does the Brain produce?

● The brain produces electricity-it can be measured by electrodes on a scalp-EEG-
electroencephalograph.
● The EEG is a device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time to
show the functioning of the brain.

Evoked potential technique

● Participant is given a stimulus and the researcher assess specific brain response

Brain imaging techniques-map structure and function of brain

● Positron emission tomography (PET)-injecting a radioactive substance, goes to the
bloodstream and the substance would be found in the brain
● Functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)-we want to spot where it is busiest, and we
can detect where activity is happening because blood carries oxygen to the activities of the brain

What are PET scans?

● PET scans use radioactive markers to map chemical activity in the brain over time. PET scans can
provide colour-coded maps indicating which areas of the brain are active when people clench
their fists, sing, or contemplate the mysteries of the universe.

What is Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)?

 ● TMS is a technique that permits scientists to temporarily enhance or depress activity in a specific
area of the brain

Regions of the Brain

What are the three main regions of the brain?

1. Hindbrain-The hindbrain includes the cerebellum and two structures found in the lower part of
the brain-stem: the medulla and pons. (Vital functions: medulla, pons, cerebellum)
↪The medulla, which attaches to the spinal cord, is in charge of largely unconscious but vital
functions, including circulating blood, breathing, maintaining muscle tone, and regulating reflexes
such as sneezing, coughing, and salivation.
↪The pons (“bridge”) includes a bring of fibres that connects the brainstem with the cerebellum
● The cerebellum (“little brain”) is a large and deeply folded structure next to the back
surface of the brainstem
2. Midbrain-The midbrain is the segment of the brainstem located between the hindbrain and
forebrain. The midbrain contains a region that integrates sensory processes, including vision and
hearing. (Sensory function (dopaminergic, projections, reticular activating system)
3. Forebrain-largest and most complex-The forebrain is the largest and most complex region
of the brain, encompassing a variety of structures, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic
system, and cerebrum-they form the core of the forebrain. (Emotion, complex thought)

Where are the 3 structures located: thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and
cerebrum?
● They are located near the top of the brainstem. Above them is the cerebrum-the seat of complex
thought.
● The wrinkled surface of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex-the outer layer of the brain, which
looks like a cauliflower.
What is the Thalamus?
● The thalamus is a structure in the forebrain through which all sensory information (except smell)
must pass to get to the cerebral cortex-it is made up of clusters of cell bodies or somas.
What is the Hypothalamus?
● The hypothalamus is a structure near the base of the forebrain that is involved in the regulation
of base biological needs. The hypothalamus lies beneath the thalamus. The hypothalamus
contains various clusters of cells that have many key functions including controlling the
autonomic nervous system
What are the basic biological drives that the Hypothalamus is related to?
● Fighting
● Fleeing
● Feeding
● Matting
The Cerebral Cortex

What is the Cerebral Cortex?

● The cerebral cortex is the convoluted outer layer of the cerebrum. The cortex is folded
and bent so that its large surface are-about 1400 cm^2-can be packed into the limited volume of
the skull

What are the two halves hemispheres of the cerebrum called?

1. The cerebral hemispheres are the right and left halves of the cerebrum. The hemispheres
are separated in the center of the brain by a longitudinal fissure (a split or crevice) that runs from
the front to the back of the brain.
2. The corpus callosum is the structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres

How many lobes in the cerebral hemisphere are divided and what are they called?
● There are 4 parts called lobes
1. The occipital lobe, at the back of the head, includes the cortical area, where most visual signals
are set and visual processing is begun
2. The parietal lobe is in front of the occipital lobe. It includes the area that registers the sense of
touch
3. The temporal lobe (meaning near the temples) lies below the parietal lobe. Near its top, the
temporal lobe contains an area devoted to auditory processing, called the primary auditory cortex
4. The frontal lobe is just in the front of the brain, behind your forehead, the largest lobe in the
human brain. It contains the principal area that controls the movement of muscles, the primary
motor cortex.

What do the left and right do?

● Left: Verbal processing, language, speech, reading, writing
● Right: Non-verbal processing: spatial, musical, visual recognition

Which species don’t have it?

● Fish

Primates have it and humans are champion in size

● 80% of brain volume
● Broken down into 4 parts

Homunculus
Sensory map of the brain
● Areas in the body that are close together, are close on the brain
● Size of the map area doesn’t represent the size of the organ in real-world
● E.g more sensory organs focused on the tongue and hands but not arms

Sex Differences and the Brain

What affects brain development?

● Environment
● Biology

Sexual Dimorphism
● Sex differences in anatomical structures
● Males’ brains (% larger on average
● Processing structures different

Brain Plasticity
Neurogenesis
● Research suggests that the brain is not “hard-wired the way a computer is. It
appears that the neural wiring of the brain is flexible and constantly evolving. That
said, this plasticity is not unlimited

Bisecting the brain: Split-brain research

● In a split-brain surgery, the bundle of fibres that connect the cerebral hemispheres (the corpus
callosum) is cut to reduce the severity of epileptic seizures.

The Endocrine Systems

What is the Endocrine System?

● The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones into the
bloodstream that help control bodily functioning
● The messengers in this communication network are called hormones
What are Hormones?
● Hormones are the chemicals released by the endocrine glands-Hormones are like
neurotransmitters in the nervous system in that they are stored for subsequent release as chemical
messengers and once released, they connect to special receptors on target cells,
Hormones-chemical messengers in the bloodstream
(released by endocrine glands)
● Pituitary (found in the brain)- “master gland”, growth hormone-signal other glands to produce
their own hormones.
↪The pituitary gland releases a variety of hormones that are distributed throughout the body, stimulating
activity in other endocrine glands.
● Thyroid-metabolic rate
● Adrenal-salt and carbohydrate metabolism
● Pancreas-sugar metabolism-insulin
● Gonads-sex hormones-ovaries and testes

What is Oxytocin?
● Oxytocin is a hormone released by the pituitary gland, which regulates reproductive behaviours.

Hormones and sexual behaviour

● Testes (males), ovaries (females)
● Androgens (testosterone), estrogen (estradiol, progesterone)
● Males-need minimum level of androgens
● Females-more complex story-the higher the testosterone, the higher the sexual drive
● Social aggression-being dominant, achieve status, manipulation, gather, social influence, physical
aggression

Genes and Behaviour

What is Behavioural genetics?

● The study of the influence of genetic factors on behavioural traits- an interdisciplinary field that
studies the influence of genetic factors on behavioural traits

GENES ⇰DNA⇰CHROMOSOMES⇰CELL⇰HUMAN BODY

What are Chromosomes?

 ● Strands of DNA carrying genetic information-Chromosomes are threadlike strands of DNA
molecules that carry genetic information

What are Genes?

● Genes are DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission

How many chromosomes and genes of chromosomes do humans have?

● Human cells: 46 chromosomes
● Chromosome: 1000s of genes

Genes
● Dominant
● Recessive

What are Genotype and Phenotypes?

● Genotypes refer to a person’s genetic makeup. Phenotypes refer to the ways in which a person’s
genotype is manifested in observable characteristics.

What is Heritability?
● The proportion of observed variance in a group of individuals that can be explained or
accounted for by genetic variance or proportion of phenotypic variance that is attributable to
genetic variance
● Heritability coefficient=(r mz x r dz) x 2

● Environmentality

Misconception about Heritability

● Heritability CANNOT be applied to single individuals
● It is NOT constant or immutable
● It is NOT a precise statistic
nature-nurture debate clarified
● No such debate at the individual level
● Influence of genes and of the environment is only relevant for the discussion of group-level
variation

Behavioural Genetics Methods:

● Selective breeding
● Family studies
 ● Twin Studies
● Adoption Studies

What is selective breeding?

● Cannot be ethically conducted with humans
● Selective breeding studies of…
● Selecting breeding involves choosing parents with particular characteristics to breed together and
produce offspring with more desirable characteristics
● Example: dogs, animals

What is family studies?

● In family studies, researchers assess hereditary influence by examining blood
relatives to assess how much they resemble one another on a specific trait. Family
studies are used in psychology to estimate the risk of a relative developing a mental health
disorder based on whether other family members suffered from this disorder

What are Twin studies?

● In twin studies, researchers assess hereditary influence by comparing the
resemblance of identical twins and fraternal twins with respect to a trait.
● Example: If MZ twins are more similar than DZ twins, this provides evidence of heritability

What are Adoption studies?

● Adoption studies assess hereditary influence by examining the resemblance
between adopted children and both their biological and their adoptive parents.

Evolution
● Evolutionary Theory-The foundation of modern biology; it has influenced
psychology, physics, sociology, anthropology. Proposed by Charles Darwin.
● Evolutionary Psychology
● Making and testing predictions from evolutionary Psychology

What is Natural Selection and Reproductive success?

● Naturally, occurring variation leads to differences in the ability to survive and reproduce
(reproductive success)

What is Adaptations?
 ● Inherited solutions to survival and reproductive problems posed by hostile forces of nature. Hostel
forces of nature-impedes survival

Sexual Selection
● Many mechanisms seemed to threaten survival- Example: peacock’s elaborate plumage

What is IntrAsexual competition?

● Members of the SAME sex compete for sexual access to members of the other sex-male
aggression is a direct consequence of the other sex

What is IntrEsexual competition?

● Members of one sex choose a mate based on their preferences for qualities in that mate

CHAPTER 4: SENSATION AND PERCEPTION

What is Sensation?
● Stimulation of sense organs. The sensation is the stimulation of sense organs.

What is Perception?
● Selection, organization, and interpretation of sensory input. Perception is the
selection, organization, and interpretation of sensory input.
● Perception is the one that translates
What does the Sensation involve?
● Sensation involves the absorption of energy, such as light or sound waves

What does Perception involve?

● Perception involves organizing and translating sensory input into something meaningful, such
as your best friend’s face or other environmental stimuli

PSYCHOPHYSICS:
What is Psychophysics?
● The study of how physical stimuli are translated into psychological experience.

Who was Gustav Fechner?

● The concept of the threshold. A particularly important contributor to psychophysics was
Gustav Fechner due to his formulations concerning sensory threshold.
● Even though his ideas were held decades ago, it is still prominent today.

THRESHOLD LIMIT:

What does Sensation begin with?

● Stimuli

What is the Threshold?

● A threshold is a dividing point between energy levels that do and do not have a
detectable effect

What is the Absolute Threshold?

● An absolute threshold for a specific type of sensory input is the minimum amount
of stimulation that an organism can detect
● Minimum intensity of stimulation that must occur before you experience a
sensation

What percent does it detect?

● It detects 50% of the time
● Example: the quietest whisper you could hear half the time

What is JND?
● Just noticeable difference (JND) is the smallest difference in the amount of
stimulation that a specific sense can detect. The smallest difference detectable
● JNDs are close cousins of absolute threshold
● JNDs vary by sense, and the smallest detectable difference is a stable proportion of
the size of the original stimuli
What is Weber’s Law?
● The size of JND is proportional to the size of the initial stimulus.
● Weber’s Law states that the size of a just noticeable difference is a constant
proportion of the size of the initial stimulus. This constant is called the Weber Fraction
● Weber’s Law applies not only to weight perception but to all the senses
● Different fractions apply to different types of sensory input
↪ For example, the Weber fraction for lifting weights is approximately 1/30. This means that you
should be just able to detect the difference between a 300-gram weight and a 310-gram weight (i.e., the
JND for 300 grams is 10 grams)

PSYCHOPHYSICS: CONCEPTS AND ISSUES:

What is Psychophysical Scaling?

● Fechner’s Law

What is Signal Detection Theory?

● Signal detection theory proposes that the detection of stimuli involves decision
processes as well as sensory processes, which are both influenced by a variety of
factors besides stimulus intensity
● Signal-detection theory replaces Fechner’s sharp threshold with the concept of “detectability”

What is Detectability?
● Detectability is measured in terms of probability and depends on decision-making processes as
well as sensory processes

ABSOLUTE THRESHOLDS
Sense Absolute threshold
Vision A candle flame was seen at
50 km on a dark clear night
hearing The tick of a watch under
quiet conditions at 6 metres
Taste Five millimetres of sugar in
7.5 L of water
Smell One drop of perfume diffused
into an entire volume of a
three-room apartment
Touch The wing of a fly falling on
your cheek from a distance of
1 cm

What is an Important Variable?

 ● Human Judgement

What is SDT?
● Sensory processes + Decision Processes

Detection of stimuli
1. Noise in the system
2. Decision-making process

What is Sensory Adaptation?

● Decline insensitivity
● Sensory adaptation is a gradual decline in sensitivity due to prolonged stimulation
↪Example let’s say you find that the garbage in your kitchen has started to smell. If you stay in
the kitchen without removing the garbage, the stench will soon start to fade. In reality, the
stimulus intensity of the odour is stable, but with continued exposure, your sensitivity to it
decreases
● Sensory adaptation is an automatic, built-in process that keeps people tuned in to the changes
rather than the constants in their sensory input. It allows people to ignore the obvious and focus
on changes in their environment that may signal threats to safety.

What is Subliminal Perception?

● Existence vs Practical effects
● Subliminal perception-the registration of sensory input without conscious
awareness (limen is another term for threshold, so subliminal means “below threshold”)
● Myths in the mind
● Priming and subliminal perception

THE VISUAL SYSTEM:

Light=Electromagnetic Radiation
● Amplitude: Perception of brightness
● Wavelength: perception of colour
● Purity: mix of wavelengths
● Perception of saturation, richness of colours

What is light?
● Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation that travels as a wave moving,
naturally enough, at the speed of light. Light is electromagnetic radiation
What do Light waves vary in?
● Light waves vary in amplitude (height) and in wavelength (the distance between peaks).

What does amplitude affect?

● Amplitude affects mainly the perception of brightness, while wavelength affects mainly the
perception of colour.
● The lights that humans normally see are mixtures of several wavelengths. Hence, light can also
vary in its purity (how varied the mix is).
● Amplitude= perception of brightness

What does Purity Influence?

● Purity influences the perception of the saturation or richness of colours.

What is the Pupil?

● The pupil is the opening in the centre of the iris that helps regulate the amount of light passing
into the rear chamber of the eye
● When the pupil constricts, it lets less light into the eye, but it sharpens the image falling on the
retina.
What is the Lens?
● The lens is the transparent eye structure that focuses on the light rays falling on the retina.
● The lens is made up of relatively soft tissue, capable of adjustments that facilitate a process called
accommodation.

THE EYE: LIVING OPTICAL INSTRUMENT

What is the eye?

● Housing (neural tissues, perceives the light, electromagnetic radiation) and
channelling (retina channels light towards the visual cortex of the brain)
● Human eye does not work like a camera. Seeing is not passive it's an intelligent
process

What are the components of the eyes?

1. Cornea: (not adjustable) where light enters the eye
2. Lens: (adjustable) focuses the light rays on the retina
3. Nearsighted and farsighted
4. Iris: a coloured ring of muscle, that constricts or dilates via the amount of light (Ex. Your iris will
“grow” if you flashed a flashlight directly to it)
5. Pupil: Regulate the number of light

● Saccades: scan environment creating a clear picture

● Nearsightedness: clear up-close-but blurry far away
 ● Farsightedness: can clearly see far away but blurry close-up

THE RETINA

The Retina?
● Absorbs light, processes images, and sends information to the brain
● The brain ambassador

The Fovea
● A tiny spot in the center of the optic disc containing only cones. Visual acuity

Optic disk
● Where the optic nerve leaves the eye/blind spot

Receptor Cells:
● Rods: Black and white/low light vision
● Cones: colour and daylight vision
● Adaptation: becoming more or less sensitive to light as needed

● Rods and Cones

● 120 million vs 6 million

Where does the information processes?

● Receptive fields: Receptive field of a visual vell is the retinal area that, when stimulated, affects the
firing of that cell
● Lateral antagonisms

From the Eye to the Brain

● Lights > Rods and Cones > Neural Signals > Bipolar Cells > Ganglion Cells > Optic
Nerve > Optic Chiasm > Opposite half brain

What is Optic Chiasm?

● The point at which the optic nerves project into the brain

What is the Main Pathway?

● Lateral geniculate nucleus (thalamus) > primary visual cortex (occipital lobe)

Where is the magnocellular and what is the Paracellular?

● Magnocellular is at the PARIETAL LOBE
● Paracellular in the TEMPORAL LOBE
● Second Pathway: SUPERIOR
Colliculus >Thalamus> Primary visual cortex
What happens to the light?
● Light is transduced into neural impulses →rods and cones
○ Ganglion Cells
○ Optic Nerve
○ Finding your blind spot

Information Processing in the Visual Cortex:

● In the Early 1960s: Hubel and Wiesel feature detectors
● Microelectrode recording of axons in the primary visual cortex of animals
● Discovered feature detectors: neurons that respond selectively to lines, edges, etc
● Groundbreaking research: Nobel Prize in 1981
● Later research: cells specific to faces in the temporal lobes of monkeys and humans
● Visual for perception and vision for action

Colour is a product of our visual system

Post popular colour blindness is red and green. Genetics

Trichromatic theory - red, green and blue is going to mix together

Opponent process theory - going to fire for the opposite side of the wheel.
Both theories are needed to explain colour.

● Figure-ground - see a vase of silhouettes of 2 people

● Proximity -

● Similarity - share visual characteristics, shape, colour, size or texture when

perceived, they are perceived to be seen to belong together.
 ● Continuity - perceive as one cat, not 2, perceived as 1 horse, not 2.

● Closure - illusion that in the middle there is a white ball

● Face perception- we see faces in object like clouds.

Perceiving Depth or Distance:

● Binocular cues - clues from both eyes together ---> each eye sees the eye slightly
differently, but they converge when you focus on the same one target
○ Retinal disparity
○ Convergence
● Monocular cues - clues from a single eye
○ Motion parallax - retinal accommodate when you get closer to the
stimuli.
○ Accommodation
Pictorial depth cues:
interposition: relative to an observer, something that covers another subject is seen as closer.
size and position: especially useful for familiar objects
linear perspective: distally parallel lines converge toward the horizon
texture gradient: all surfaces have texture; all images on the retina that appear to move away have
texture gradients
aerial perspective: objects that are further away are higher in the field of view and its contours are
fuzzier
distance from the horizon

Perceptual Constancies in Vision

● Perceptual constancies - stable perceptions amid changing stimuli
○ Size
○ Shape
○ Brightness
 ○ Hue
○ Location in space

Quiz Questions:

Quiz #1:

Q1: A novice researcher is conducting an experiment on memory. There are two groups in this study:
a control group and an experimental group. 

When people show up to participate for the experiment, the researcher assigns the people with long
hair to the control group and the people with short hair to the experimental group. 

Which requirement of the True Experiment is this researcher violating?

Random assignment

Q2: A researcher is hypothesizing that alcohol impairs driving performance.  When participants come
to the lab, they consume up to a maximum of 3 drinks prior to driving in an online simulation booth. 
The researcher notices that people are slower to react and slower to press on the breaks when they see
a pedestrian, as their alcohol consumption increases from 1 drink to 3 drinks in 1 hour. 

What is the DEPENDENT variable in this experiment?

Reaction time, measured as the time it took participants to react after seeing the
pedestrian

The number of alcoholic drinks participants consumed

Q3: Which research design would be most appropriate in exploring the personality of
Mother Teresa?

Case study

Q4: 100 students wrote a test, and the results showed that 99 of these students received
a score of 85. One student received a score of 50. What can we say about the Standard
Deviation of the data? 

The standard deviation is very small

Q5: You are conducting a research experiment and have just finished collecting your data.
When you look at the scatterplot of your data points, you notice 3 extreme outliers. Which
measure of central tendency (descriptive statistics) should you be most concerned about?

The mean

Q6: Why are control groups important in experiments?

To allow for a comparison with the experimental group

Q7: Which of the following is an example of the Hawthorne effect?

Students came to more classes when they knew attendance would be taken

Q8: The following hypothesis is being considered by a psychologist: 

"Low levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the brain are predictive of

depressive symptoms"

This psychologist is most likely operating under which School of Thought? 

Biological School of thought.

Quiz 2:

Q1: A significant factor in creating the action potential is that the neuron has ______________.

channels that allow ions to come in or leave the neuron

 Q2: What is the main purpose of the corpus callosum?

Communication between the two brain hemispheres -it is the structure that connects the
two cerebral hemispheres

Q3: What is the main difference between a neurotransmitter and a hormone?

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are responsible for neuronal communication

in the brain, whereas hormones can affect functions away from their origin of release.

Q4: Which of the following research methods in exploring the brain is commonly used to
examine brain waves when sleeping?

EEG- device that monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time

Q5: You are a villain who just happens to be masquerading as a psychiatrist. You want to increase
depression in your patients. Which of the following would be most effective in your evil plan?

A serotonin receptor antagonist- it involves the regulation of sleep and wakefulness, eating,
aggression, Prozac-similar antidepressant drugs (Aggressive behaviour, depression)

Q6: Imagine that we're interested in the trait of "silliness". The correlation coefficient between
identical twins is r= .9 and the correlation coefficient between fraternal twins is r= .1 

What conclusion can we draw regarding the HERITABILITY of silliness?

Silliness is a highly heritable trait

Q7: The elaborate plumage of the peacock is indicative of which evolutionary process: 

Intersexual competition

Q8: Which of the following statements is CORRECT regarding the role of testosterone in the
human body?

Testosterone is present in males and females, but in different quantities/levels

Q9: Neurotransmitters are released into the synapse then join with postsynaptic receptors.
Where can most of these receptors be found?

Dendrites

Q10: If the heritability for a trait is 0.50, the environ mentality of that trait is:

0.50