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Health assessment of chelonians and release into the wild

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 - - - - - - - - - - _ H_
Health Assessment of Chelonians and
Release into the Wild
ELLIOTT R. JACOBSON
JOHN L. BEHLER
JAMES L. JARCHOW
The status of living turtles and tortoises is in perilous
decline. Chelonian specialists believe that 50% of taxa
are facing serious challenges. Causes for decline in
status range from elevated subsistence hunting, unbri-
dled commercial collection for food and exotic pet
markets, debilitating diseases, increased predation, alien
plant introductions and diminished forage quality. dra-
matic mortality rates as a consequence of highway con-
struction, human-set fires, protracted droughts. and poor
wildlife management and land-use practices. Most seri-
ously affected are the tortoises, large river turtles, ma-
rine turtles, and the small special rarities sought by the
hobbyists. The burgeoning human population in south-
ern Asia and elsewbere in developing countries in tropi-
cal and subtropical regions is consuming tons crf turtles
and tortoises daily.J6.... and some species will be lost
before they are even acknowledged as such. Of 42
tortoise species. one is considered critically endangered,
four are considered endangered, and 18 are listed as
vulnerable in the 1996 International Union for Conser-
vation of NalUre (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Ani-
mals. The leatherback and six other marine wrtles are
listed as critically endangered (2), endangered (3). or
vulnerable (1). Among freshwater turtles. 51 are consid-
ered threatened. with five being listed as critically en-
dangered, 17 as endangered. and 29 as vulnerable.
Herpetologists, veterinarians. and wildlife managers
must minister to Vanishing chelonian resources and their
fragmented habitats. Herpetologists are scrambling to
classify new species. document their status and natural
histories, and provide assistance to wildlife managers.
Veterinarians are faced with health crises at the individ-
ual and population levels and increasingly are asked to
guide the actions of conservation biologists who plan
turtle rescue efforts. The exotic pet trade preys heavily
on wild populations where habitat remains intact Har-
vesting of turtles and tortoises continues at a given
location until it is no longer profitable. Results of sev-
eral studies"" l) indicated thac the removal of modest
numbers of adult and older juvenile turtles has deleceri-
232
CHAPTER 30
ous effects on the populations. which cannot easily be
offset, and strongly suggest that long-lived chelonians
cannot tolerate commercial collection. As stated by
Congdon/ "The concept of sustainable harvest of al-
ready-reduced populations of long-lived organisms ap-
pears to be an oxymoron."
Chelonian recovery stations or conservation centers
have developed in response to dramatic decline of na-
tive turtle stocks and the huge number of displaced
animals, unwanted petS. and confiscations. Centers have
developed for tortoises anellor freshwater turtles in
southern Europe, Africa, northwestern Madagascar. In-
dia. and western North America. Other sucb stations
for marine turtles have been established in scattered
locations circumlI'opically. Often, these centers, despite
meager funds, have impressive educational programs.
"Shortcuts," however, are often taken in the captive
management and repatriation elements of such conser-
vation programs. Many centers lack special veterinary
and herpetOlogic expertise, and they cannot afford the
expense of securing such support. In such situations,
health screens and genetic assessments are often lack-
ing, and rigid quarantine facilities are inadequate or
absent. Repatriation protocols are generally developed
without wildlife and veterinary science expert review.
When a recovery center includes relocation, repatria-
tion, or translocation exercises among its programs. the
motives for advocating mese strategies must be care-
fully examined through peer review before the release
and recommended pre- and post-release biologic and
management criteria are followed." n. >S It is imperative
mat projects be carefully monitored so that accumte
results, either positive or negative, can be published.
In this chapter, guidelines for release of captive and
confiscated chelonians are developed. The guidelines
are likely to need modification or revision to meet the
needs of specific programs..Understanding infectious
diseases of cheloniaDs and how to perform health evalu-
ations of chelonians are essential to any release pro-
gram.; these topics are also discussed.
 Chapter 30: Health Assessment of Chelonians
PHYSICAL AND CLINICAL
EVALUATION
For captive and wild chelonians, history becomes essen-
tial when interpreting findings and understanding lhe
basis for many medical problems. 2 ' Collecting informa-
and tion on the diet of the captive chelonian is important
when trying to assess the health status of the animal.
Similarly, quality of forage in the field needs to be
assessed when determining the status of individual wild
tortoises or populations. For aquatic chelonians, assess--
ment of water quality is essential. Chemical spills and
chemical run-offs from agricultural lands have deleteri-
ous effects on the habitat of these animals. Developing
a good database on environmental conditions for both
captive and wild animals is necessary when trying to
assess health of these animals.
The following questions are routinely asked before
chelonians are examined at the Veterinary Medical
Teaching Hospital (VMTH), University of Florida:
1. What is the species being evaluated? Common
and scientific names should be recorded.
2. What is the origjn of the animal? Is it wild
Innot easily be
caughr or captive b r e d ? - - ..-
ved chelonians
3. How long has the chelonian been in captivity?
As stated by 4. What is the enclosure or cage design? Is the
harvest of ai-
chelonian kept outdoors or indoors? Has it been ex-
organisms ap-
posed to other species of chelonians or other reptiles?
S. What is the thennal environment of the chelo-
rvation centers nian?
decline of na-
6. What is the humidity and photoperiod?
r of displaced 7. What is the nutrition of the chelonian? How
s. Centers have
often is it fed? How is the food stored?
atec turtles in
8. For terrestrial species, how is water offered and
1adagascar, In-
how often is it changed?
r such stations
9. How often does the chelonian defecate and what
~d in scattered
is the consistency of the feces?
:enters, despite
10. Does the owner have a quarantine program and,
:>nal programs. if so, how long are animals quarantined?
in the captive
11. Have there been previous disease problems with
)f such conser-
this anima{ or others in the collection?
:cial veterinary
12. What is the attitude and behavior of the chelo-
anot afford the
nian? Have there been recent behavioral changes?
iuch situations,
13. What is the chief complaint?
are often lack-
inadequate or ,. As a group, chelonians are difficult animals to evalu-
-ally developed ate clinically. Many species are capable of withdrawing
expert review. into the margins of their shell when threatened, becom-
ation, repatria- ing "bony boxes." Clinicians experienced in evaluating
) programs, the chelonians have devised methods for coaxing them out
must be care- of their shells. For medium to small-sized chelonians,
ore the release one method is to push in or gently touch the hindlimbs,
e biologic and whicb often results in head extension. Slow, deliberate
It is imperative movements reduce fearful responses and retraction into
) that accurate the shell. Many tonoises extend their forelimbs and
>e published. head if tilted slightly downward, perhaps in an effort to
of captive and avoid falling. Above all, examination of a frightened
The guidelines chelonian requires patience.
.on to meet the At times, sedation or anesthesia is required. Drugs
ding infectious such as ketarnine, telazol, and succinylcholine have
m health evalu- been used to allow a detailed physical examination,
ly release pro- particularly with large and giant tortoises!" 49 Even for
those species that move about freely despite manipula-
233
tions by the clinician, judging their health sratus is no
simple matter. Difficulties are compounded in the field
where the investigator may only be able to judge the
animal at a distance OT when the animal is collected
under conditions in which there is linlited equipment
and limited time to conduct a thorough evaluation.
Health assessment in the field may require a different
approach from health assessment in a Clinical practice,
university teaching hospital, research laboratory, or
well-equipped conservation center.
A thorough physical examination is the starting
point for assessing chelonian health. First, however, the
chelonian should be observed in water if aquatic and
on land if terrestrial. The alertness of the animal and its
ability to ambulate should be noted. Weight (yI) and
carapace length in the midline (MCL) are easy to obtain
(except in giant tortoises and large marine turtles) and
may provide valuable information. These data should
be collected whenever a chelonian is handled for health
assessment. Clinical condition has been assessed using
W in relation to MCL in captive spur-thighed tortoises
and Hermann's tortoises.'" To determine whether the
relationship between W and MeL could be used to
discriminate between healthy desert tonoises and desen
tortoises with signs of upper respiratory tract disease,
the logarithm of MCL was regressed OD the logarithm
of W for both groupS.1S A significant difference was
found between the regression lines for the two groups,
with tortoises with clinical signs weighing aboul 7%
less than clinically healthy tortoises, but several ill tor-
toises weighed the same as healthy tortoises. The pres-
ence of uroliths, a lacge volume of coelomic exudate,
and intestinal gravel accumulations elevate body weight
of ill tortoises. In clinical practice, James L. Jarchow
has used weight loss during hibernation as an early
indicator of disease in captive desert tortoises. Tortoises
exhibiting a winter weight loss of 8% or more are often
found, when clinically evaluated., to be affected by a
disease process.
The she)) should be examined for the quality of its
scures. Any lesions seen should be recorded. Seams
between adjacent scutes can be examined for evidence
of new growth. In captive tortoises, excessive pyramid-
ing of carapacial SCUleS is commonly seen and is
thought to have a dietary basis. Th.e soft integument
should also be examined. Special attention should be
gjven to evidence of abnormal patteI1Js of keratiniza-
tion, desquamation. ulceration. erythema, cutaneous dis-
charges, and swelling.
Legs should be gently extended to look for any
lesions in the areas around the dlstal end of the limbs.
Asymmetric patterns of toenail wear may be associated
with lameness in terrestrial species. Limbs should be
examined for soft tissue swelling, muscle atrophy, and
painful responses to manipulation. The joints of oppo-
site limbs should be compared to identify swelling and
evaluate range of motion.
Relative position of each globe in its orbit should
be noted. Unilatetal enophthalmos may result from
phthisis or orbital injury. Bilateral enophthalmos may
result from dehydration, inanition, or microphthalmia.
Unilateral exophthalmos may be the result of a retrobul-
bar abscess, tumor, or injury. Bilateral ex.ophthalmos
234 Reptiles
may result from vascular obstruction or generalized
edema.
Tbe chelonian comea and lens shouJd be dear as in
other vertebrate species. Corneal ulcers are often cov-
ered by tenacious, caseous plaques that may protect
healing tissue. The anterior chamber of the eye should
be free of blood or exudate. The color of each iris and
pupil shape and size should be compared. Magnification
and adequate illumination of the eye are critical to
effective examination.
The beak should be examined for fractures and mal-
occlusion, which may predispose tonoises to dehydra-
tion. The presence of moisture or dried mucus on the
beak may indicate oral infection, ulceration, or irritation
from a foreign body. Many species of aquatic cbeloni-
ans open their mouth in a defensive gape when held,
allowing examination of the oral cavity. Small and me-
dium-sized tortoises require extension of the neck and
manual restraint of the h.ead; care sh.ouJd be taken to
hold the head from the base of the skull, avoiding
pressure on tympanic membranes and mandibular joints.
If the tortoise vigorously resists restraint, chemical re-
straint should be provided to avoid injury to retractor
muscles of the neck. The mouth is theo opened by
pushing the mandible downward with a fingertip on the
front of the lower beak. If there is too much resistance,
a dull curved dental scaler may be placed over the tip
of the lower beak and the jaws gently pried open.
Larger tortoises may be placed on a table at eye level
and with illumination directed at the head and with
slow, deliberate movements, me dental scaler is hooked
over the lower beak. The tortoise usually attempts to
dislodge the instrument by opening its mouth. If the
scaler is then pushed gently downward, the tonoise
opens its mouth widely, allowing examination without
head restraint. Giant tortoises generally require either
chemical restraint or "teasing" with a favorite food
item to allow examination of the oral cavity.
Color of oral mucous membranes should be noted.
Cyanosis, pallor, and congestion are sign.i6cant as in
oth.er vertebrate species. Petechiation, ulceratioll, and
the presence of mucoid or caseous exudates, often accu-
mulating in the choanae, should be noted. If the bead
is restrained, the glottis may be examined by elevating
the base of the tongue with a finger under the mandible.
Blood in the oral cavity, mandibular instability, and/or
asymmetry of oral structures may indicate cephalic
trauma.
The oares should be patent and free of discharges
or dried mucus. Cutaneous erosion or depigmentation
around or below the nares may indicate a history of
chronic nasal discharge. Even if the nares are dry, the
presence and character of nasal exudate may be evalu-
ated by pressing on the intermandibular tissue, pushing
the tongue dorsally into the choanae, thus expelling any
free exudate in the nasal cavity out through the external
nares. Any mucous discharge should be considered ab-
normal.
Temporal muscles should appear plump and full. A
sunken appearance over temporal areas may iudicare
cachexia or severe dehydration. Areas of discoloration.
swelling, or asymmetry may indicate localized infection
or trauma. Tympanic membranes should be included in
the examination process.
The lung fields of chelonians may be effectively
percussed through the carapace. The technique consists
of resting the animal on the palm of one hand or similar
platform and lhen tapping the carapace with the index
finger of the other hand. The tone of the sound produced
over each costal scure on one side should be the same
as that from the corresponding site of the other side. A
dull sound denotes .Iluid or increased soft tissue mass
below the point of percussion. Undermined, superficial
lesions of carapacial scutes or dermal bone plates pro-
duce a "tinny" sound. A useful diagnostic SCreen for
pneumonia in aquatic species consists of placing the
turtle in water and noting changes in buoyancy; turtles
with pulmoDary disease may float with one side up or
be incapable of diving.
In small chelonians, tile caudal part of the coelomic
cavity may be palpated by placing a finger cranial to
each relaxed hindl.imb, in the soft tissue axillary region
(femoral fossa). Shelled eggs and cystic calculi may be
detected by tilting the cranial region of the shell upward
and rocking it from side to side. Hard structures such
as eggs and calculi can be palpated as they bounce off
the fingertips.
Specific diagnostic procedures are useful in de-
termining the cause of some diseases that have epizootic
potential. Tortoises exhibiting stomatitis with or without
a caseous exudate may be lightly anesthetized and
swabs or scrapings of oral epithelium submitted for
cytologic examination to identify intranuclear herpesvi-
rus inclusions. Transtracheal washes may provide ade-
quate samples for bacterial culture and cytology for
herpesvirus and iridovHus inclusion identification. In-
flammatory exudates and ulcerative lesions should be
cultured routinely and submitted for cytologic examina-
tion. Tortoises with signs of rhinitis should be tested
for mycoplasma using enzyme-linked immuoosorbent
assay and polymerase chain reaction methods.' Wet
mounts of fecal smears as well as fecal flotation should
be used in examinations for enteric parasites. Hexamita
trophozoires are most readily detected in a wet mount
consisting of a mixture of urine and feces. Most chela-
mans are colonized by a variety of innocuous oxyurids
and ciliates. Those parasites that are potentially harmful
or are atypical for a given host should be identified and
the chelonian treated with appropriate parasiticides.
In a veterinary hospital, radiography can be used to
evaluate a variety of internal structures such as lungs.
gastrointestinal system, reproductive tract, and bladder.
Magnetic resonance imaging may be used to determine
lesions in pulmonary and visceral organs. lntrasound
imaging, particularly of the reproductive tract, can be
done both in a clinic and in the field. Endoscopy can
be used to examine and collect biopsy specimens from
the gastroin{estinal tract, reproductive organs, and other
visceral structllres. Blood, urine, biopsy specimens, and
exudates sh.ould be collected for a variety of clinical
evaluations. Various collection sites can be used for
obtaining blood from chelonians, eacb having advan-
tages and disadvanrages.2Z.l:J· S'9 Blood values have been
reponed for several species of chelonians, including
the desert tortoise," gopher tonoise,6' Mediterranean
 Chapter 30: Health Assessment of Chelonians 135

included in tortoises,4J radiated tortoise," and loggerhead turtles. 2 considered for translocation or reinforcement and sup-
However, values between captive and wild tortoises plementation programs. tbe welfare and health of tbe
effectively vary with season. age, and sex differences. making recipient population is paramount.
~uc consists interpretation extremely difficult. In the 1994 CITES guidelines for the disposition of
Id or similar Continued data collection for free-ranging cheloni- confiscated live anilnals. decision trees were developed
:h the index ans is needed to assess health, both in the field and for both "captive" (Fig. 30-1) and "return to the wild"
od produced in captivity. Correlative studies need to be performed (Fig. 30-2) options. The decision trees are useful in
be the Same because data become meaningful only in the conte"t of facilitating consideration of what option to foUow.
other side. A the whole animaL As more and more data accumulate These trees have been slightly modified to be used as
tissue mass and new methods and tecbnologies become available. guidelines in making recorrunendations on disposition
I. superficial health assessment will become more of a science than of confiscated, injured, and otherwise displaced cheloni-
: plates pro- an art. ans. As in the CITES guidelines. a question and answer
~ screen for format is used. Philosophical and moral issues are ex-
placing the cluded from such a fonnat of decision making and are
aney: turtles DEVELOPMENT OF A discussed later.
~ side up or
DECISION TREE FOR
he coelomic MANAGEMENT OF CAPTIVE.
~r cranial to TRANSLOCATED, AND SEIZED DECISION TREE ANALYSIS
illary region CHELONIANS
lculi llIay be The following questions shOuld be asked when de-
;hell upward Turtles and tortoises are popular pets. In 1992 there termining wbelber a captive chelonian should be main-
Jctures such
'.
I '
were apProximately 2.4 million turtles in U.S. house- tained in captivity. returned to the wild, or euthanized.
I bounce off ", "'"
-.~
"
holds. 58 Many captive chelonians are purchased as wiid- Captive chelonians are considered to be donors and the
caugbt animals; others, such as the desert tortoise. are free-ranging population are recipients. For re-introduc-
;eful in de- offered through adoption programs in respollse to land tion programs. recipients are no longer present and
lve epizootic development. More than 230,000 desen tortoises are reference is made only to donors. The various categories
h or without kept in captive or semicaptive conditions in California of captive chelonians that may be returned to the wild
hetized and and Las Vegas Valley, Nevada. 24 include (1) confiscated chelonians, (2) those propagated
Ibrnitted for As with other trades in animals, the pet trade has in captivity, (3) those displaced from wild habitat, and
~ herpesvi- resulted in large numbers of chclonians being confis- (4) those found in the wild iII or injured and receiving
provide ade- cated. How to manage those animals and what to do treatment in a veterinary clinic Or wildlife rehabilita-
:ytology for with them have surfaced as major issues in cbelonian tion facility.
ification. In- conservatiou. Furthennore. injured chelonians are
IS should be brought into rehabilitation facilities for treatment and • Question I: Will returning the chelonian to
~ic examina- eventual return to the wild, and other chelonians are the wild make a significant contribution to
lId be tested made homeless by loss of habitat to development and the conservation of the species. either
munosorbent agriculture. Even though returning captive chelonians through education or other means?
:thods.' Wet to the wild, through repatriation, re-intro<luction, or There are several considerations that need to be
tation should translocation programs. is often perceived by the public addressed when answering this question. First., infonna-
~S. Hexamita as the proper or humane thing to do, it may result in tion is needed on the taxonomic status of the species,
a wet mount more haem than good. Stringent guidelines need to be subspecies, or local population receiving donors. Are
Most chelo- developed to ensure that there, is merit in releases back donors and recipients of the similar genetic back-
ous oxyurids to the wild, but realistic, unambiguous guidelines are ground? If populations are stable. there may be limited
ially harmful not easy to develop. In response to confiscation of live or no biological value in returning the animal to the
dentified and animals by governmental authorities, the 1994 Conven- wild. Major problems in returning animals to the wild
siticides. tion on International Trade in Endangered Species of center around (I) possibility of disease introduction by
n be used to Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) developed guidelines donor into recipient population. (2) displacement of
Ich as lungs, for the disposal of COnfiscated animals.~ In the CITES recipients by donors, and (3) failure of donor to be
and bladder. guidelines. the ultimate decision on the disposition of incorporated into population or survive in the recipient's
to determine animals must achieve the following goals: habitat Because of such problems. it is essential that
. Ultrasound the potential conservation merit of the release be deter-
tract, can be I. Maximize conservation value of the specimens
without in any way endangering the health, beh.avioral mined. Sometimes, even in a stable population, return
doscopy can of certain individuals may be deemed useful if there is
:cimens from repenoire. or conservation status of wild or captive
populations of the species educational merit. Education is useful in publicizing the
ns. and other plight of many species. and release programs often
ecimens, and 2. Discourage further illegal or irregular trade in
the species attract the anention of the public. However, it is impera-
y of clinical tive that the public be educated properly about the
be used for
3. Provide a humane solution, whether that involves
maintaining the animals in captivity, returning them to inherent difficulties and problems with such programs.
iving advan-
es have been the wild, or using euthanasia to destroy them
• Answer: Yes: Go to "Return to Wild Decision
IS. including Ultimately. for both captive chelonians being consid- Tree"
1editerranean ered for return to the wild or wild chelonians being No: Investigate captivity options

1
236 Rep/del'

Q. 1 - Will "Return to the Wila" make a significant

contribution to the conservation of the speCies,
including through education and other means?
Contact local experts. governmenta' agencies, IUCN,
Yes
./ Pursue options for
"Return 10 the Wild"
1
or appropriate IUCN/SSC Specialist Group.

No +
Q. 2 - Have animals been found 10 be disease·free by No
comprehensive veteflnary SCreening and quarantine?

Yes +
Quarantine and screen.
Execute Q. 3 - Is space available and can animals be taken Yes
Yes Are animals healthy, Or
agreement care of properly in non·commercial captive facility can they be treated for
and transfer (e.g, lifetime-care facility. zoo, rescue centre)? infection and cured?

No t No

Execute
agreement
Yes
Q. 4 - Are private individuals able and willing to provide
humane lifetime care on a non·commercial basis?
I Are IOstitutlOns interested
In animals for research
and transfer under humane condillons?
No + For Appendix-I species
research shall benetlt captive
or Wlld populations of that
Q. 5 - Are institutions interested in animals for researCh
Execute Yes or closely relate<:! species.
under humane conditions? For Appendix-I species,
agreement research shall benefit captive or Wild populations of
and transfer that or erosely related species. No Yes!

No t Execute
agreement

r1 Q. 6 - Is the species listed In Appendix·l or

and transfer
regarded as endangered or critJcal? Eulhanatize
at end of study
Yes ~
Execute
Q. 7 - Is therea reputabie commerCIal facility
Yes No
a qualified buyer breeding this Appendix·1
agreement
and transfer
species and is that facility interested in the
specimens? t
IEuthanasia I
Sell to
qualified
No~ Q. 8 - Are there grounds for concern that sale
will stimulate further illegal or irregular trade?
Yes
t
buyers

Donate specimens to museum or

research Collection or dispose of
by incinerator if a listed species

FIGURE 30-/. Decl\;on tree for CJplivc option'. (From CITE:S- Appendix I Re,olulion Conl".9.11. Dispo,al of Conthealed
Live Animals of Species lnchlded in lhe Appendice,. Adoplcd .11 the Ninth Meeting of [he Conferencc of lhe Panics to CITES.
Ihe Convenrion on International Trade in Endangered Specie' of Wild FaullIl and Flora. November 7-18. 1994)

DECISION TREE ANALYSIS: alternative. As stated, return to the wild should be ba~ed
CAPTIVITY on conservation merit llione; using any other ba<;is is
irresponsible.

The decIsion to maintain lUrtle~ in cnptivity is based on
less complicated considerations Ihan [he decision of
whether 10 relUrn lhem (0 the wild. However. the large
numbers of captive chelonians-including confiscated.
captive-bred. displaced. unwanted pels. and injured
animals-often drive decisions on whether to return
lhem to [he WIld. especially when euthanasia. is the only
• Question 2: Have chelonians been found to
be disease-free and in proper condition by
comprehensive veterinary screening and
quarantine?
As di~cussed previously in this chapter. a wide vari-
ely of inFeclious diseases have been identified in chelo-

-------------_HtIIlllmIUEHflllllllll f I nUIfIflUI1IIlIlIlIJlllllld
......
 ,
.
. '~.
\'

Chapler 30: Health Assessment of Chelonians 237

a. 1 - Will "Return to the Wild" make a significant

lions for
the Wild" IPursue
"Captive Options"
I~
contribution to the conservation of the species,
including through education and other means?
Contact local experts. governmental agencies, IUCN,
or appropriate IUCNJSSC Specialist Group for advice.

Quarantine away Yes

from other species

~
and screen. Q. 2 - Have animals been found to be disease-free
Are animals healthy, by comprehensive veterinary screening and quarantine?
or jf not, can they be Yes
treated and cured?
1d screen.
lealthy, Or
"eated for
No ~
Euthanasia
cured? I- No
Are institutions interested See if museum
I" in animals for research f--+- is interested
'., under humane conditions? in remains
j> For Appendix-I species, Yes
nterested research shall benefit Execute
.search captive or wild populations agreement
;ondilions?
;pecies
of that or closely relate<:J
species.
.......
Ves
and transfer.
Euthanize
renefit captive at end of study.
ms of ttlat
d species.
Pursue
"Captive
~ Q. 3 - Can country of origin and site of capture
I'es be detemlined?
Options"
<ecute Yes
jreement
1d transfer. Repatriate or reinforce at Yes Q. 4 - Can animals be expeditiously replaceO
,rthanatize origin (specific location) I....... to origin and do benefits of such action outweigh
end of study following IUCN Guidelines !he risks?

No

Q. 5 - Does a generally recogniZed reintroduction

or captive-bre€ding programme exist for the
r---- species in question?
Contacllocal, govemmental, IUCN, or CITES
authorities for advice

Yes

to museum or
No
I Q. 6 - Are the animals from an appropriate popUlation
for an existing breeding/reintroduction programme?
I
I
Yes Transfer 10
existing program
or dispose of
iled species No

:onfiscated Pursue I No i.+--r Q. 7 -Is there a commitment to establish a new I Yes Transfer to
lies to CITES, ''Captive Options" I I reintroduction programme following IUCN Guidelines? I holding facility
or new program

FIGURE 30-2. Decision (Tee fo( return to the wild. (From CITES: Resolution Conf.9.l1. Disposal of Confiscated Live Animals
of Species Included in the Appendices. Adopted at the Ninth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties 10 CITES, the Convention
lould be based
on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wud Fauna and flora, November 7-18, 1994.)
other basis is

en found to mans. The infectious diseases discussed probably repre-
;ondition by sent only a small number of diseases that rnrtles may
-eening and harbor and with which they can become infected. Many
noninfectious diseases also have been described.20 Che-
lonians in captivity may not be in proper condition or
'r, a wide vari- have the proper behavioral repertoire to survive in the
tiffed in cbelo- wild. It is essential that animals designated for return
to the wild be evaluated as thoroughly as possible. A
veterinarian should be involved in the process. It is
important to determine whether the chelonian has been
isolated from nonnative species OT whether it is possible
that there has been exposure 10 exotic pathogens.
Aquatic species fed mollusks, arthropods, and fisb may
be exposed to immature stages of parasites with com-
238 Reptiles
plex life cycles that later may be introduced ioto naive
populations. If the chelonian being considered for re-
lease was reared or maintained in the vicinity of exotic
species, it is possible that it has become infected with
a foreign pathogen. A catastrophe could happen if an
exotic pathogen is introduced into a naive population.
In general, no ill turtles should be returned to the wild.
The exception is when the donor was derived from a
host population that is affected with the pathogen or
disease and will be returned to that population. For
example, because more than 50% of green turtles m
certain populations are affected with fibropapillo-
matosis, returning affected turtles to those populations
has little impact on the spread of disease. However,
turtles with tumors should never be added to a popula-
tion that is tumor free.
• Answer: Yes: Proceed to Question 3.
No: Quarantine or maintain isolated from
other species, especially nonnative species. If the
chelonian has a chronic and incurable disease. it
should be euthanized or considered for research
studies involVing the particular disease process, in-
cluding biologic effects.
• Question 3: Is space available in noncommer-
cial captive facility (e.g., lifetime-care facility,
zoo, or rescue center) and will proper care
be given?
Although a variety of noncommercial facilities may
be available for captive chelonians, a facility capable of
providing proper housing, husbandry, and long-term
care must be found. It is fat easier to accept captive
turtles of various kinds than to take care of them prop-
erly. If other animals in the collection would be at risk
from diseases or potential diseases from the donor, the
tunles should not be accepted. A formal agreement
should be established between the panies involved en-
suring that there is (I) commitment to Iifeti me care, (2)
exclusion from sale of the chelonians involved, or (3)
euthanasia when space is no longer available or transfer
to another appropriate facility is not possible. In many
countries, no facilities are available, and help and rec-
ommendations are needed from international organiza-
tions. Governmental approval and involvement are nec-
essary for nationally and internationally protected
species.
• Answer: Yes; Execute agreement and transfer:
No: Proceed to Quesaon 4.
• Question 4: Are private individuals able and
willing to provide humane lifetime care?
There are many private individuals in the Utlited
States and overseas who breed turtles and tortoises. For
most of these individuals, offspring are sold through
the pet trade, primarily overseas, because. in the United
States, it is illegal to sell chelonians as pets with a
carapace length in the midline less than 4 inches. Fur-
thermore, as with many breeders, chelonian breeders
often specialize in certain species, families. or groups
of chelonians. Some breeders specialize in tortoises and
others in certain aquatic turtles. Some have developed
home pages on the World Wide Web, listing stock and
prices. Lists of reputable breeders Interested in acquir-
ing confiscated animals and other capllVes need to be
developed. State herpetologic organizations can gener·
ally provide information on breeders within their Own
state. Formal agreements need to be developed concern-
ing the responsibilities of the private individual and
disposition of any offspring produced. In California and
Nevada, formal adoption programs have been estab-
lished for displaced desert tortoises, with information
provided to private individuals on husbandry and health
problems. An upper respiratory tracl disease has been
described in captive and wild desert tortoises (see Infec.
tious Disease), and ill captives have been released to
the wild. It is essential that recipients of chelonians
understand the consequences of such releases and guard
against their occurrence_
• Answer: Yes; Execute agreement and transfer.
No; Proceed to Question 5. (
"
• Question 5: Are institutions interested in cne-
lonlans (or research conducted under humane
conditions?
The confiscated or otherwise permanent captive che-
lonian may be valuable in research projects. If the
chelonian has a chronic illness, there may be rese3Jchers
interested in studies on the particular disease. However,
for most biologic studies, ill animals should not be used
in research projects. Biologic data coUected from ill
animals may not be relevant in answering questions
concerning "normal" animals.
• Answer: Yes: Execute agreement and transfer.
No: Proceed to Question 6.
• Question 6: Is the species listed in CJTES
Appendix I or regarded as endangered or crit-
ical?
Commercial sale of tortoises and turtles listed in
CITES Appendix I should not be permitted unless the
activity is carefully regulated through governmental
perrnining and identification documentation programs.
Any action that may stimulate trade in CITES Appendix
I species is ill advised. This policy should be applied
to all species recognized as threatened or endangered
by CITES or Endangered Species Act (ESA) of the
United States, or by wildlife laws of foreign countries.
• Answer: Yes: Proceed to Question 8.
No: Proceed to Question 7.
• Question 7: Is there a commercial (acility or
qualified buyer breeding this species and is
that facility or person interested in the chela-
niansl
There are recognized facilities and individuals
breeding endangered species. Where breeding facilities
are in the country of origin, at the site within the
geographic range of the species. care must be taken
when importing confiscated and otherwise captive
maintained chelonians from other locations or countries.
There is always the risk. of introducing foreign patho-
gens with the donated animals. When the breeding
facility is in the same country where the donated chelo-
________ ~ .......h
~ _
 Chapter 30: Health Assessment of Chelonians 239

ted in acquir- nians are located, certain risks are reduced, but chances should be euthanized. As discussed previously in this
~s
need \0 be of introducing a pathogen into a stable coUection still chapter, herpesvirus infections are responsible for sig-
os can gener- - exist. When considering placing such donors in breed- niiicant mortality rates in certain species and groups of
b.in their own ing programs, one outcome may be stimulation of trade chelooians. Chelonians originating from facilities where
Jped concern- in the particular species, especially when hatchlings are herpesvirus infection has been identified should be strin-
1dividual and produced. Encouraging trade in listed species should gently evaluated before their release. The prevalence of
:::a1ifornja and be avoided. berpesviruses in wild populations of any chelonians
: been estab- is unknown and more information is needed before
• Answer: Yes: Execute agreement and transfer:
h infonnation recommendations can be made on what to do with
No: Euthanlze and dispose of carcass.
lly and health chelonians originating from a facility where this virus
~se has been • Question 8: Are there grounds for concern has been identified.
;;es (see Lofec- that sale will stimulate further Illegal or Irreg-
ular trade? • Answer: Yes: Proceed to Question 3.
:n released to No: Quarantine minimally for 90 days; re-
of chelonians The sale of chelonians for the pel trade has been a assess Question 2 after quarantine. If the animal has
lses and guard large international business for many years. Certain a chronic and incurable infection or condition, first
rare and unusually patle11led species are particularly offer the animal to research institutions. If it is im-
transfer. attractive. In 1996 a large group of ploughshare tor- possible to place the animal in such an instiwtion, It
toises (Geochelone yniphora) were stolen from a non- should be euthanized.
conunercial, conservation breWing program facility in
~ted Inche- northwest Madagascar, with some tortoises eventually • Question J: Can country of origin and site of
der humane being offered for sale in a published dealer's list from
capture be determined?
the Czech Republic. There is significant trade in black- The origin of the confiscated or otherwise captive
1t captive che- marketed listed species, and confiscated and otherwise chelonian should be deterrnined before its release. It is
·ojects. If the captive chelonians should not be offered to a breeding inappropriate to mix chelonians that differ genetically.
be researchers program if ultimately the offspring or donated animals This may require genetic analysis such as determining
case. However, are to be sold, thereby encouraging trade in this species. sequences for mitochondrial DNA.
Jd not be used The worldwide exploitation of endangered species for
sale in the pet trade needs to be tigbtJy regulated. • Answer: Yes: Proceed to Question 4.
xted from ill No: Pursue "captive" options.
nng questions However, it also must be realized that captive-bred
animals usually make healthier pets, thereby reducing • Question 4: Can chelonians be expeditiously
pressures on collecting wild animals for trade. replaced to origin and do benefits of such
transfer. action outweigh risks?
• Answer: Yes: Euthanize and dispose of carcass.
No: Go to Question 7. The various threats to the recipient wild chelonian
ld in CITES population should be addressed by herpetologists with
:ered or crit- special expertise with the taxon in question.
DECISION TREE ANALYSIS:
RETURN TO THE WILD • Answer: Yes: Repatriate and reinforce at origin
lrtles listed in (specific location) following IUCN guidellnes,19
tted unless the No: Proceed to Question $.
governmental • Question 2: Have chelonians been found to
tion programs. be disease free by comprehensive veterinary • Question 5: Does an officially recognized cap-
rES Appendix screening and quarantine? tive-breeding or reintroduction program exist
uld be applied Chelonians intended for release to the wild need to
for the species In question?
or endangered be thoroughly evaluated to ensure that they are free of
(ESA) of the
If a captive breeding program or reintroduction pro-
known infectious diseases and are healthy. This is with gram involving confiscated and permanent captive che-
~ign countries.
the realization that only a small number of specific lonians exists, contact should be made with coordinators
\. health problems that occur in these animals are recog- of the program and animals should be offered to the
nized and that there is limited ability in diagnosing

ial faciIlty or
r disease problems. A veterinarian should be involved in
program.
• Answer: Yes: Proceed to Question 6.
the process. Doing a thorough physical examination on

l
>ecies and is one or a few cnelonians is achievable, but doing such No; Proceed to Question 7.
In the chelo- evaluations on large numbers of animals may not be • Question 6: Are the animals from an appro-
practical or cost effective. Minimally, the animal needs priate population for an existing breeding or
ld individuals 'r to be given a physical examination and samples should reintroduction program?
edi ng faci lities I. be collected for tests designed to screen for exposure to
.'J pathogens known to cause problems in the species being Chelonians to be returned to the wild sbould be
:ite within the
must be taken released. For instance. desert and gopher tortoises are reintroduced or reinforcement should occur only into
~rwise captive known to be susceptible to mycoplasmosis and those populations of the same genetic background. In most
ns or countries. species should be tested for exposure to the causative situations, there is limited conservation value in intro-
foreign patho- agent before their release. If examination determines ducing animals of different genetic background into a
I the breeding
that the chelonian is not healthy, it should be quaran- wild population. If the population being reinforced does
donated chelo- tined. If the chelonian cannot be successfully cured, it Dot have enough individuals to sustain the population,
240 Repliles

chelonians of a closely rela-led genolype may be suit- PHILOSOPHICAL ISSUES IN

able.
• Answer: Yes: Transfer to existing program.
No: Proceed to Question 7,
• Question 7: Is there a commitment to estab-
lish a new reintroduction program (ollowing
JUCN guidelines?
When chelooians cannot be lraosferred to an existing
reintroduction program. return to the wild is recom·
mended only when (I) appropriate habitat has been
identified. (2) sufficient funds are avaIlable to ~upport
the program over many years. (3) sufficient numbers of
animals are available for reintroduction or reinforce-
ment. In most situations. habitat or money IS not avail·
able to carry out these programs.
• Answer: Yes: Transfer to holding facility or new
program.
No: ~ursue "captJ~e" options.
RETURNING CHELONIANS TO
THE WILD
Many individuals who are involved in chelonian conser-
vation issues develop strong emotional ties with the
animals. Large numbers of chelan inns are continuously
confiscated in the pet trade or are brought into care
facilities because (I) {here is failure to meet either
export or import reqUJrements. (2) the animal:; have
injuries. (3) the animals are displnced because of habitat
destruction. or (4) the animals were pets that have
become unwanted. For persons concerned about these
animals. it is nOI easy to decide what 10 do with them.
Even when a decision tree is used to determine disposi-
tion. emotions may still override (he original goals.
EmotIOns are not conSidered in the decision tree. At the
Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital. University of
Florida. many mjured gopher tortoises. box turlles. fresh
water aquatic emydine tunics. and marine turtles are
seen and there is an altempt 10 return these Originally

TABLE 30-1. Infectious Diseases and Pathogens of Chelonians

Pathogen Species Lesion Reference

Virus
Herpesvirus Green tunle Skm necrosis 54
Herpes virus Green tunle Pneumonia. Iracheius. conjunctiVItis 30
Herpes vi ru s Green turtle Fibropap\lloma 25
Herpesvirus Freshwater turtles Hepmic necrosIs 10, 11. 32
Herpesvirus Tortoises Siomalilis. pharyngilis. pneumonia. 9, 16. 26. 52.
encephalitis 53
Indoviru.\ Hermann's tortoise Hepalic necrosis 17
Gopher tortoise Trache1l1s. pneumOnia 62
BacteriD
Gfa m- ne gal i yes Freshwater turtles Septicemia 28, 37. 38
Salmonella Turtles and tortoises None: carriers 3.39.41.51
Mycoplasma Desert tortoise Rhl/utis 9. 29
Gopher tonoise Rhmitis 50
Chlamydia Green tU\1le Myocardilis, hepatiti~, splemll, 18
Dermatophi Ius Tortoises and lurtks Epidermal necrosis 4S
Fungi
ASpergillus Aldabra and Galapagos tortoises: Pneumonia I. 14. 31
Geolnchum green turtles
Paecilomyces
Beauvaria
ProtQ7,oa
£!llaIllMba invadens Tortoise., and turtles Enten lts. hepatic necrosis 27
C(fryowor(l chelolliae Green lurtles Enteritis 45
Intranuclear coccidIa Radialed tortoise Nephritis. enteritis. pancremitis 34
HexamilCl pan'Q Tortoises and turtles Nephritis 64
Trematoda
Sptrorchid u-emalodes Freshwater and marine tunics Vascular di.<.ease 15.42.63
Nenwtoda
Pmalrclcli.1 Tonoises Colitis 56
Diplera
Cisludino/ll."ia cisrudillis Box tunle, gopher tortoIse. Aldabra Oermnlilis 40.60
(orloise
 Chapter 30: Healch Assessment of Chelonians
wild turtles back to the wild as soon as possible. How-
ever, some of these chelonians, especially injured go-
ro pher tortoises, may be under care for up to 6 months.
The longer an animal is in care and receiving treatment,
the more difficult it is to euthanize it. When dozens,
nian conser-
hundreds, and even thousands of chelonians are confis-
es with lhe cated by government authorities, who generally have
;ontinuously ex.tremely lirnired budgets for such operations, the pres-
ht into care sures are particularly gTeat to determine the disposition
meet either
of the animals as soon as possible. By far, euthanasia
flimals have is the most expedient solution to this dilemma. The
se of habitat more common the species, both in the wild and captiv-
.s that have ity, the greater the probability of euthanasia. Justifica-
about these
tion is easy when the animals are obviously ill and
) with them. suffering. lustification becomes less defensible, how-
line disposi- ever, when animals are apparently healthy. Large num-
.gina! goals. bers of domestic animals such as dogs, cats, and horses
1 tree, At the
are euthanized every day in the United States because
'niversity of there are not enough bomes in which to place these
turtles, fresh animals and not enough facilities to rnaiDtaJn them
e turtles are until placement is possible. Does quality of life matter?
se originally
Should that be considered in the equation when coming
to a resolution? Certainly, it ;s hard to justify maiD-
taining animals if certain minimal needs are not being
mel When they are not, euthanasia needs to be per-
formed.
Reference
INFECTIOUS DISEASES
54 Captive cheionians, including marine, freshwater
30 aquatic, and terrestrial species, are susceptible to a wide
25 variety of infectious diseases. Regarding wild cheloni-
to. 12,32 ans. several diseases have emerged as major health
9, 16, 26. 52.
problems. More diseases have been reported in wild
53 chelonians compared to other major groups of reptiles.:>;!
17
Whether this IS an indication of a greater prevalence of
62
disease in this order compared to other reptiles or sim-
ply a reflection of the Dumber of worldwide studies
28.37.38 involving cbelonians remains to be determined. When
3.39,41,51 chelonians clie, the shells are left behind as mOnuments
9, 29 to the loss of the individuals from the population. fa-
50
voring the discovery of epizootics. Additionally, be-
18
48 cause of their benign nature, cbelonians are often ob-
served in the field by the lay public, which also favors
the reporting of disease problems in iII populations.
L 14,31
Of viral diseases, herpesviruses have surfaced as
important pathogens in turtles and tortoises. Various
gram-negative bacteria have been implicated as causes
of septicemias in wild and captive aquatic turtles. There
are numerous reports of pulmonary fungal disease in
27 tortoises and fungal shell disease ill aquatic species.
45 Although few parasites have been implicated as signifi-
34 cant pathogens in cnelonians, the spirorochid trema-
64
todes are problematic in freshwater and marine turtles.
Table 30-1 lists the most significant infectious diseases
IS, 42, 63 of chelonians.
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175929-93). 11/79 ':;0_ .vh..'LU.I:;hhn GS Upp.:1 n:,pir;Jtory [r~\(.·t ui~~\l.~ III ~J,tpht::r \nrlni:..".
}~. Ja,~('lbson ER. Gaslln JM. \V~h'qlli"l H' Hcrpc..;;~hL~ viru~ inl"<(,.'lion Gol,h(ll(S Iml\plr~'sm,.,. p.llholog.y I1nmon~ rc"P(\fl';~:-o. tr:lo".l'I . . ."i.nn.
;n m,p lUllb J Am VOl Mc~ A",,, I RI 1.'~2-1.'~4. IQ~~, .mU [Illrli.. . ;lllnn~ hK con,r:r\'a\lon and In~n;,l~c:mCIlL Ph D. t..l1'~Cn~t,
.'.'. )a<;ob,on lOR. SchLIlI'ach., J G.-.:on ME: Fldu .LI\d "li",,,,,1 'Cl h. tiLl11. Unl \ i,,;T... ILy t\l FI,)ricJ~L 1Wi
r\lques (or .. a11lfll;ng and h<.ln<1l1ng hlon~ (OL' hC'll~ ..aolo¥i4,;~1 dl\tl 5l. Mt.:N~il E. H Ill ... ll~I\\' VvR S~lln\()n~lla Inll') G~IJaIM~tl~ \uI1k~. ~I gil ...
pla!'n,., tJlo~:hcmlcal ot:1t:rnlllliAltHtI' in lh,,~ Uc--e,l Inrlnhoc. X('rOhlUt'\ monster. ..lod an I~uan;l. J Vel RI,." 7 6~-6~. l 'JJ6,
(lgo.",;:ii, COpela I "')~ 2.17 -241 199". :'~ Muller M. S.u':hs~.: W, Zangl=-t:1 N: 1·lcrpc,v;nl".Epl(J~lHl': ~u.....(
-'4 J.LCobsOl1 cR. Schum,,,'her J. Td'o,-tJ SR ci "I' Inl",nucIC." ,·"Cl·ldl· gnct:hl'\\:"11C'll (Tt"'IlIt1o "('nnWj'IO und <l~r m~Llln"4,.'h~n LLlnd'4."t\lk.lt\.
os,j, In r.adi;.llCU ltlnOI~e~ ,C('IJ('/li:,Iml(, '"(fdIC/ra). J ZOll Wdd! MI.'iJ rotC' (Tc-l"Iudo .'~r(lC"nn III del' SchWCI./. 5,,- hwell. Arch Tkrl1dk
25:9:'-lm. 1994. 1.1" J91}....20J. IYY(I.
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5 ,_ P~H;U1·Br~w(:r KCB. DI"\;'-' ML_ R;.un:-.OI)' c. Cl ;11' HCr(Jl:l'o\ iru,
weighl v., !CIll;lh reIJl1on..::hLp", (ll J~~CS" lOI101."'1:: h"'·~I'lh. VCI RCl' par1ldc' .1~MloCl:lICcJ Wilh \)(;11 .anu Jc:",plratory 1l.:'l(Jlb [0 'l Call1tll1lj,J
ocsL;n (nnmS~ lGopherll.\· ((,l'(I.~.·'il:jiJ J 'Wlh..ll DI~ JJ;5~1-~26. 1t)()6
1.12'222-21". 199.'.
Jt.. Jell ki n... MD' TUrloj "iC:-' ",.ad fres 11 wa tcr rurllc~ I he tra4Jc 1n $1 lU I h~a~ l
54. Rc~dl H. Rywhl1 A. Hain"' HA Herpesvlrus·'yP" .'gelll "-"0_ Htlcu
wllh .,L.1n I~"ll>n~ oj ~l""(eo lurll~, In :JtIUac,..llhure ALHer J V~l Rc"
-"',;a. TRAFFIC Illlcrnatoon.,1. Uml"tJ Kingdolll. 1995
)(,:ll11-L"~4. 1975.
~7_ K,.pl:ln HM: S~plu. .<:nuc Ukcr~ll1\''': "'\.Il~lilcnu\. <.h'COL"iC nl tunlc,,_ L~10
55 RClilen HK: Tml\sl<~~I(;on a~ t.I 4,;u.nservalion "1I"'ll~gy rur amphlhl'
An;m Care 7:~7J-277. 1957
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3K. K~ym~r If; Dj'\CLI~c~ of l.'hdnnl:.In"i. (~) n~""rBp,,;;y ,un-:y nftcrr.;\pms
pewln~i," ~7:.1.~7-.1o.l 1991.
and ,unle>. VCI Reo I ()~;577-5R~. 1978.
.'l'o. R'tJ<(l~' BA. MO'tlal, Rl. Phillip, LG. G,"-Jine, CH: Morlalilv "I
;\9 Klemt:oJ\ MW· Re~llri;ltl0n uf conh . . c;alcd Lortuixc..... C;UJH.l."Il:114,;L'>
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,-,l~:,rll'~ t:;\lX'dIC'\l')' or "K)uod wdlllit\: m~lll:.lgemCllr· Rc~lntrm.lm,··
Im<ll-< (Fomily AlI~lctld"Cl- J Wildl D" 2.1'1O.1-llllL 19H7.
lion New, 10:5....(,. 1\/115. 57. R..."lupr \Vi: N"noal he,"ogr.m :lOu blood d1Cn",,,}, \'"I~, IIII'
~o. Kl"upllllS EF The b,oln~y nl SUll.ul'h(lgo C·i"'lIu/l"", Altlnch {Dip.
C"l1r"mta de"''' l<lnn""'. VMfSAC 77:H5-87. 19~~.
teTa k a "ipc<'Le.' tlr Sarcnphilgi.oae parn:\lll<.: 01'1 turth;:~ "lId ll\rlm~~s ~«, S~ll/'b('r..; A: Rcpnn on ilUpurllc.lI:purt wnle tl11(.I(.' H1 fhe- t:nth:t1
Entolllol $0". W"shington .19'111-101. 19)7. St~ll~'. PrrH:lXdlll~, nr lilt: In(crn~llinll4J.1 Con,gre':'o ..~r Ch~ltlLlI.Jn
41 Lam'" SH. Taylor A. G,"gam", EJ. cI,1 Turll.·a."oc<:\lcd <.,1"",. C",,,,,n .,li"n. enn!:",,,,. Fr~n<·e. pp .lL-I-.122. 1\)95.
llelJo!olC:-' J An esllllMlJU(I 01 th~ nl~.1gJlilude oi thl! pl"blem 10 the 5\)_ S~I01('1LJr HJ. Rl"i~y D. ~hJn.:h T. el .1) Blond "~L1nphllg l\..Jo.<.·hni~ll':'
Unlled SI.\le,. AnI J £pi.1emlol95 SII-517. Illn. oil o:p"le,. VOl Rec 1~.~72----177. IYK~.
4' Lauckn.r G Oi,.""s 01 repli)ia. I" Kinne 0 (ccJ): 0;,..,,", "r 60. Swvl.:r J. NorlOn T. Jacnbsiln E.R~ Ridel Pl Ci,',mflll(1Jm";o ch.'n(('
M"rll'. Ani"'als ,ttmbun,. FRG. Biolo~ls,'h. Anslalt 1-1"10<11"".1. lila inlc.",latlon In Ald ... hrJ Inr1(H~S t Tt',rm}o .r.:igWI(('ol TI~ird Illlel·
pp -MJ-626 , I'JR5 - • - n .... t i 00;,11 CuIl0411Il.Hl\ 0 11 lh~ P~H ho log y 0 t RL:: [)it i lc~ ano A lHp 111 l'lH.IH~.
-l ,. L...awrcnce K: Sc~~on;.ll \'~n:llion In bl4,l'OU: <,;ht.:r.ll\[ry III long \~rnl Orl,utd<l. FL. pp 1()9-11 (). 19~~
cap~jve Mediterrafleau ~nnoi~~ ru.'~/lf(/() ,tt.HI('(·1.I JUtl T. Hrnmmm). 6) Taylor RW. J"'COhMln ER: Hcm;l(ology ~lOd o,;~l'ul1l Ch~n1j"lry ul .h....
Rc' Ve, SCI 4~:.H~_.lS.1. 19~7. ~uphc.:r lUl1ni . . e. Gclf1h('rrt.~ I~J/\·,,!l('mlf-," ('omp Bml.ht:m Phy"li,lI
-+-1-. Lc Dien D. 8rOiJd S Invc~llgi;.lll~'n,< intn TOf1..(,lL...;~ .1l1d Fn:... hw~llC'r 2A 4~)--I1X. IIIX I.
Turtle Trade in Vll:':tnaln IUeN S~C'IC:-' SUf"l'Lv ... l COrtln1I ...... ltll1. 1'>2. WC'lh" u": RA. J""ob"," lOR. Han;, RK. ci .11 Rc'p; "'lOry a 1l.1
el.n~. Sw,l,cnal1tJ ~lltJ C."nh"dl'". UK. IUCN. pp 14. 1')<)). ph;}r~ng'H;,clph ...ge<.l1 mtlu\inl .... inl\::tll01l Hl \1 gopher lOr!Ul",," t(jo'
45, LcibCh'lt/. L. RcbclJ O. Bnu...· hcr GC: Cl.IIT(/.\PfJI"ll ds('/mmu: 'p 1,/t('m., l",h-,.ltrm".vl. J W,lul D" .'":IlK1--6Xl'o. 1996
nu,- a ctx.::cidl:.ll p.:Jllwi;cn of Inuril'uhun;~r(,ilrecl ~rc~rl . . .~;,l 1L,1rtlc... flJ. Y<.lI\Mgut! Y: Synop:ro.l' of Ih~ O.~cn~tu.: Tn:lUtllull\:" (\1" Vcrt¢bral~:ro.
IClr~IIIJII" "'."d'" 111."'' '-'] J W,lcJl 0" 14:269-275. 197~. Vol I. Keugalu. Toky'" J.lpall. 1971.
-I{>. LeOI1g. JK. 51111111 DL. R~\'el-' DB. CI al Heall" "ure .u,d UIS"""" M Zwan P. TnJ~C:llS EI-IA H(x:Imjh~Lsi, 111 1011ni~~. Vr;t Par""..L:'o[1C1l
of ',Jpl[Yc~rear~d logg.e(h~.LtJ and Kemp'" ritJky ";(.1 [L1rtl...·~. lu 1:175-18J.1975.

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