CSIT745 - Research Methodology

Research Methodology 1
Module-I
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Key learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, participant will be able to:
●● Define research methodology

●● Explain research process
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●● Identify different approaches of research
●● Elaborate planning a research project
●● Analyze Application of Research
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Strucute:
Unit-1.1: Introduction to Research Methodology
1.1.1 Definition & Objectives of Research
1.1.2 Characteristics of Research
Unit-1.2: Research Process

1.2.1 Research Criteria and Research Process
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1.1.3 Difference b/w Research Methods and Research Methodology
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1.2.2 Different approaches of research: Deductive, Inductive, Quantitative,
Qualitative, etc.
1.2.3 Hypothesis Formulation & its types
1.2.4 Type I & Type II Error
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1.2.5 Research Proposal& Aspects

1.2.6 Literature Survey & Review
1.2.7 Errors in Research
Unit-1.3: Types of Research Design

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1.3.1 Pure & Applied (with examples)

1.3.2 Causal & Correlational (with examples)
1.3.3 Crossectional & Longitudinal (with examples)
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1.3.4 Experimental, Semi-experimental & Non-Experimental (with example)

1.3.5 Descriptive & Exploratory (with exampless)
Unit-1.4: Research Modeling

1.4.1 Types of Models
1.4.2 Model building & stages
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1.4.3 Data Consideration & Testing

1.4.4 Heuristic & Simulation Modeling
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education

2 Research Methodology
Unit-1.1: Introduction to Research Methodology

Notes
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Unit Objectives:
At the end of this unit, the participant will be able to:
●● List various definitions of research

●● Identify differences between research methods and research methodology
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●● Identify objectives, significance and types of research
1.1.1 Definition and Objectives of Research
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What is research?
Authors and management gurus have defined research in different ways. Usually,
a research is said to begin with a question or a problem.Research is defined as the
generation of new concepts, methodologies, and understandings through the creation
of new knowledge and/or the creative application of existing knowledge. This could
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include synthesising and analysing previous research to the point where it produces
new and innovative results. By applying research we are able to find out the solutions of
a problem with the application of systematic and scientific methods.You could talk about
experimentation or innovation. You could use the word “risk” to describe the element of
danger that comes with discovery. It is possible that investigation will lead to analysis. It
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is possible that you will conduct tests to prove your hypothesis. You could simply state
that this work is unique and never seen. You could discuss what new knowledge will be
gained because of your work.
You could talk about a new method or a new data source that will result in a
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breakthrough or a small improvement over current practise. You could state that it is a
prerequisite for development in the sense of “research and development.”
Slesinger& Stephenson, Encyclopedia of Social Sciences:
“the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to

extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in the construction of
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theory or in the practice of an art”.
●● Redman & Mory:

“Systematized effort to gain new knowledge”. It is an academic activity and should
be used in a technical sense.
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●● Clifford Woody:
Research comprises “defining and redefining problems, formulating hypotheses or
suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions and
reaching conclusions; and finally, carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether
they fit the formulated hypotheses”.
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Research Objectives
General Objectives
General objectives, also known as secondary objectives, provide a detailed view

of a study’s goal. In other words, by the end of your studies, you will have a general
idea of what you want to accomplish. For example, if you want to investigate an Notes
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organization’s contribution to environmental sustainability, your broad goal could be to
investigate sustainable practises and the organization’s use of renewable energy.
Specific Objectives
Specific objectives define the primary aim of the study. In most cases, general
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objectives serve as the foundation for identifying specific goals. In other words, specific
objectives are defined as general objectives that have been broken down into smaller,
logically connected objectives. They assist you in defining the who, what, why, when,
and how of your project. It’s much easier to develop and carry out a research plan once
you’ve identified the main goal.
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Take, for example, a study of an organization’s contribution to environmental
sustainability. The specific goals will be as follows:
●● Determine how the organisation has changed its practises and adopted new
solutions throughout its history.
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●● To determine the impact of new practises, technology, and strategies on
overall effectiveness.
1.1.2 Characteristics of Research

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●● The research should concentrate on the most pressing issues.
●● The investigation should be methodical. It emphasises the importance of following
a structured procedure when conducting research.
●● The research should follow a logical pattern. The scientific researcher cannot
make much progress in any investigation without manipulating ideas logically.
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●● The study should be condensed. This means that a researcher’s findings should
be made available to other researchers so that they don’t have to repeat the same
research.
●● The findings should be repeatable. This asserts that previous research findings
should be able to be confirmed in a new environment and different settings with a
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new group of subjects or at a different time.

●● The study should be fruitful. One of the most valuable characteristics of research
is that answering one question leads to the generation of a slew of new ones.
●● Action-oriented research is required. In other words, it should aim to find a solution
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that will allow its findings to be implemented.

●● The research should take an integrated multidisciplinary approach, which means it
will require research approaches from multiple disciplines.
●● At all stages of the study, all parties involved (from policymakers to community
members) should be invited to participate.
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●● The research must be straightforward, timely, and time-bound, with a

straightforward design.

●● The research should be as inexpensive as possible.

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●● The research findings should be presented in formats that are most useful
to administrators, decision-makers, business managers, or members of the
community.
1.1.3 Differences between Research Methods and Research

Methodology
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Although the names sound similar, both Research methods and Research
methodology are different, as explained below:
Research Methods
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The various procedures, schemes, steps, and algorithms used in research are
known as research methods. The term “research methods” refers to all of the methods
used by a researcher during a research study. They’re primarily planned, scientific, and
value-agnostic. Observations, theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical
schemes, statistical approaches, and so on are all examples of these. We can use
research methods to collect samples, data, and come up with a solution to a problem.
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Business and scientific research methods, in particular, demand explanations based on
collected facts, measurements, and observations, rather than solely on reasoning. They
only accept explanations that can be verified through experiments.
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Research Methodology
A systematic approach to solving a problem is known as research methodology. It
is a science that studies how research should be conducted. Research methodology
is essentially the procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing,
explaining, and predicting phenomena. It can also be defined as the study of methods
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for gaining knowledge. Its goal is to provide a research work plan.

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Unit-1.2: Research Process

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Unit Objectives:
At the end of this unit the participant will be able to:
●● Identify and learn about process of research

●● List different approaches of research: deductive, inductive, quantitative, qualitative,
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etc.
●● Define hypothesis formulation and its types
●● Describe various hypothesis errors
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1.2.1 Research Criteria and Research Process
Research Criteria
●● The research’s purpose should be clearly defined, and common concepts should
be used.
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●●
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The research procedure should be sufficiently described. detail to allow another
researcher to continue the research for further advancement while maintaining the
integrity of what has already been accomplished.
The research’s procedural design should be meticulously planned to produce
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objective results.
●● The researcher should be completely honest about any flaws in the procedure
design and estimate their impact on the findings.
●● The data analysis should be sufficient to reveal its significance, and the analysis
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methods used should be appropriate. The data’s validity and reliability should be
double-checked.
●● Conclusions should be limited to those that are supported by the research data
and for which the data provide an adequate foundation.
●● If the researcher is experienced, has a good research reputation, and is a person
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of integrity, greater trust in the research is warranted.
Research Process
In the early decades human inquiry was primarily based on the examination of
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one’s own conscious thoughts and feelings that means the observation of any one
and understanding through the logical discussion to seek the truth. This procedure
was accepted for a millennium and was a well-established conceptual framework for
understanding the world. The knowledge seeker was an integral part of the inquiry
process. With time, this part was changed. The Scientific method introduced several
major components in research procedure like Objectivity.
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At every stage of the marketing research process, systematic planning is required.

Each stage’s procedures are methodologically sound, well documented, and, to the
extent possible, planned of time. The scientific method is used in marketing research, in
which data is collected and analysed to test preconceived notions or hypotheses.

Marketing research should be conducted impartially to provide accurate information

Notes that reflects the true situation. While the researcher’s research philosophy will always
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influence the research, it should be free of the researcher’s or management’s personal
or political biases.
For example, we may find out that our topic is too broad and needs to be narrowed,
sufficient information resources may not be available, what we learn may not support
our thesis or the size of the project does not fit the requirements.
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There are main nine steps of research process that are followed at the time of
designing a research project. They are as follows.
Step 1: Problem Definition
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Step 2: Development of an Approach to the Problem
Step 3: Research Design Formulation
Step 4: Field Work or Data Collection
Step 5: Data Preparation and Analysis
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Step 6: Report Preparation and Presentation
1.2.2 Different Approaches of Research

Deductive:Deductive approach starts with developing a hypothesis based on
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existing theory, and then prepares a research strategy for testing the hypothesis.
Deductive means reasoning from the particular to the general. If a causal relationship
or link is implied by a particular theory or case example then it might be true in many
cases. Deductive approach can be defined by the means of hypotheses or derived
from the propositions of the theory. Deductive approach is concerned with deducting
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conclusions from premises or propositions. Deduction starts with a pattern “that is

tested against observations”, whereas induction “begins with observations and seeks to
find a pattern within them”.
Advantages of deductive:
●● Probability to clarify the relationships between variables and concepts.

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●● Probability to measure concepts in quantitative manner.

●● Probability to generalize research findings to a certain extent.
This approach mainly follows the given stages, like
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1. Deducing hypothesis from theory

2. Formulating hypothesis in operational terms and proposing relationships
between two specific variables
3. Testing hypothesis with the help of relevant methods like some quantitative
methods such as regression and correlation analysis, mean, mode and median
etc.
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4. Examining the result and decide whether it is confirming or rejecting and it is

important to compare research findings with the literature review findings
5. Modifying theory in instances when hypothesis is not confirmed.
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Inductive: Inductive approach or inductive reasoning, starts with observations
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and theories are proposed which are related to the end of the research process as
a result of the observations. It involves the search for pattern from observation and
the development of explanations – theories – for those patterns through series of
hypotheses. In inductive studies, at the beginning of the research neither theories nor
hypotheses would apply and the researcher is free to alter the direction for the study
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after the research process had commenced.
Inductive approach does not imply disregarding theories when formulating research
questions and objectives. This approach helps to generate meanings from the data set
collected in order to identify patterns and relationships to build a theory. This approach
is mainly based on learning from experience. Previous patterns, resemblances and
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regularities are observed in order to reach conclusions or to generate theory.
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Abductive Reasoning or Abductive Approach

Abductive reasoning is set to address weaknesses associated with deductive and
inductive approaches. Specifically for deductive reasoning ‘ how to select theory to be
tested via formulating hypotheses’ and for Inductive reasoning “no amount of empirical
data will necessarily enable theory-building”. It acts as a third alternative, overcomes
these weaknesses via adopting a pragmatist perspective.
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The figure below illustrates the main differences between abductive, deductive and
inductive reasoning:
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It is cleared that abductive reasoning is similar to deductive and inductive

Notes approaches in a way that it is applied to make logical inferences and construct theories.
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Abductive approach starts with ‘surprising facts’ or ‘puzzles’ and the research
process is devoted in their explanation. ‘Surprising facts’ or ‘puzzles’ may emerge when
a researcher encounters with an empirical phenomena that cannot be explained by the
existing theories. In that approach, researcher searches for the ‘best’explanation among
many alternatives to choose. Researcher can combine both, numerical and cognitive
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reasoning for explaining ‘surprising facts’ or ‘puzzles’.
Qualitative research: It is a non-statistical process of inquiry. It helps with in-depth

understanding of problems or issues in their natural settings. It is highly dependent on
the experience of the researchers and the questions used to probe the sample. The
sample size is usually restricted in between a minimum of 6 and a maximum of 10
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people. Open-ended questions are asked( to gather as much information as possible
from the sample )in a manner that encourages answers that lead to another question or
a group of questions. The below methods are used for qualitative research:
1. One-to-one interview
2. Focus groups
3. Ethnographic research
4. Content/Text analysis
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5. Case study research
Quantitative research: Quantitative Research is a structured way of collecting

data and analyzing it to draw conclusions. This method uses a computational and
statistical process to collect and analyze data. Quantitative data is all about numbers.
It involves a larger population as more people will bring more data to the table, which
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helps to obtain more accurate results. This research uses close-ended questions
because the researchers are typically looking to gather statistical data. It involves use
of data collection tools likes online surveys, questionnaires, and polls .There are various
methods of deploying surveys or questionnaires. Online surveys helps surveyor to
reach large number of people or smaller focus groups for different types of research
that meet different goals.
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Advocacy/participatory approach to research

Sometimes researchers adopt an advocacy/participatory approach which does not
respond to the needs or situation of people from marginalised or vulnerable groups.
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When researcher wants to bring about a positive change in the lives of the research
subjects, it is sometimes described as emancipatory. It is not a neutral stance.
Researchers want their research to directly or indirectly result in some kind of reform,
for which they involve the group being studied in the research at all stages, so as to
avoid further marginalising them.
The researchers may adopt a less neutral position than that which is usually
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required in scientific research. This might involve interacting informally or even living
amongst the research participants (the co-researchers). The searching of the research

can be reported in more personal terms, often using the precise words of the research
participants. Notes
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1.2.3 Hypothesis Formulation & Its Types
What is Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a statement about the research problem and may or may not be
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true. It is a tentative and testable relationship between at least two variables that require
research methodology for testing its authenticity. You are required to test the hypothesis
and ascertain the truth in way of Research. Theory and hypothesis are completely
different. Unlike hypothesis, a theory is a tested, well-substantiated, complete
explanation for a set of proven factors.
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The term “hypo” means “subject to verification” and “thesis” means “statement
about the solution of a problem”. Thus, “hypothesis” is “ a tentative statement, which is
subject to verification and states the solution of a problem”. Hypothesis offers a solution
of the research problem that must be verified empirically
Study the below illustration to grasp the concept better.
Illustration:
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A renowned asset management company is under the process of launching a new
Mutual Fund. The fund is aimed at catering to the wealth-building needs of the Indian
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middle-class population. The company wants to conduct a detailed market research on
the popular choices of investment options in India. It recruits a research team, which
comes up with the research problem:
“Is Mutual Fund a popular investment option in India?”

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The team constructs a trio of hypotheses, namely
H0: The Indian middle-class population does not invest in Mutual Funds
H1: At least 20% of the Indian middle-class population invests in Mutual Funds
H2: Less than 20% of the Indian middle-class population invests in Mutual Funds
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Note that all three hypotheses have been phrased in a manner so that any one is
correct. However, note all three cannot be correct or incorrect simultaneously. Also note
that in order to make an effective decision, you need to select the first act if H1 is true
and the second act if H2 is true. The decision of launching or not launching the Mutual
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Fund depends on whether H1 or H2 is true. The hypothesis H0 suggests that the Indian
middle-class population is completely indifferent towards Mutual Funds
Decisions taken based on the hypothesis selected
If H1 Selected then decision is taken that (Launching the Mutual Fund).
But If H2 selected then decision is (Not launching the Mutual Fund ).

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Thus, the asset management company chooses to launch the mutual fund if H1
is true, i.e. if it is established from the market research that at least 20% of the Indian

middle-class population invests in mutual funds. If established otherwise, i.e. if H2 is

Notes true, the company decides not to launch the mutual fund.
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Formulation of Hypothesis
For Discussing about the process of formulating a hypothesis we have to discuss a

few concepts ,which are related to that.
Variables in a Hypothesis:
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Let us now study the types of variables in hypotheses.
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It can be clearly understood by an example described below
Consider a school decides to launch an online learning management system

portal. Which is basically a self-performance monitoring system, with viewing options
for students? To make the launch successful and foolproof, the school employs a team
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of expert researchers to study the relationship between skill performance and the
number of practice tests taken by students ( genders no bar) of the same age group
and intelligence.
Variables Example as per the illustration Explanation

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Independent Number of practice tests taken Other variablesdepend on it.

A input that operates within a person
or environment to affect his/her
behaviour
Researchers manipulate the
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factor measured to establish

its relationship to an observed
phenomenon.
Dependent Skill performance Variable that denotes the effect of
changes in an independent variable
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(cause) .
Its value depends upon the value of
an independent variable .
The variable changes due to
modifications in an independent
variable.
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This is an observable aspect of a

person’s stimulated behaviour .

Moderator Gender A factor measured, manipulated, and

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studied by researchers to find out if
it changes the relationship between
the independent and dependent
variables.
Control Age group intelligence Since all variables in a phenomenon
cannot be studied simultaneously, a
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few must be neutralised to prevent
them from having a moderating
effect on the relationship between
the independent and dependent
variables .
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Intervening Learning Attitude Fields of Prior A factor that affects the relationship
process of interest learning between the independent and
students of of dependent variables but cannot be
students students seen, measured, or manipulated
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Steps of formulating a hypothesis: There are basically 5 steps of formulating.
Step 1: Define variables: List all variables of the research problem to determine
what do we want to test.
Step 2: Study all variables in depth: Classify all listed variables to determine the
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independent and dependent variables
Step 3: Specify the nature of relationship: Determine what relationship exists

between the identified variables.
Step 4: Identify study population: Study the whole group of individuals (population)
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related to our Research.
Step 5: Ensure that all variables are testable:
i) The aim of a hypothesis is to test variables

ii) You must accept or reject a variable to reach a definite conclusion.
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Summary
●● A hypothesis is a statement about the research problem and may or may not be
true.
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●● A hypothesis is a tentative and testable relationship between at least two variables

that require research methodology for testing its authenticity.
●● Hypothesis offers a solution of the research problem that must be verified
empirically.
●● Hypothesis can be broadly classified into simple, complex, null, and alternative
hypotheses
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●● Type I and type II are the two errors in hypothesis formulation

●● In type I error, you wrongly reject the null hypothesis and wrongly accept the
alternative hypothesis

●● In type II error, you wrongly reject the alternative hypothesis and wrongly accept
Notes the null hypothesis
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●● A hypothesis comprises at least two of the following variables - independent,
dependent, moderator, control, and intervening
Activity
Consider a scenario where you have been asked to conduct Research on
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a problem of your interest. Structure haveto be tested in terms of an appropriate
hypothesis. Also state the possible errors and recommendations associated with the
hypothesis.
Types of Hypothesis
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Depending on the daily research work hypothesis classified into several categories
likes
Simple Hypothesis: That kind of hypothesis established a relationship in between

the two, dependent and independent variables. Describe with an example
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1. Higher rate of crime against women in the society due to the higher rate of
unemployment. Here the dependent variable is (Higher rate of crime against women
in the society) and the independent variable (higher rate of unemployment).
2. Higher the use of fertilisers, higher would be the agricultural productivity of farms
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Identify the dependent and independent variable.(do yourself)
Complex Hypothesis: That kind of hypothesis established a relationship in

between more than tow variables. Describe briefly with an example
1. Lower the use of fertiliser, modern equipment and high quality seeds, lower
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would be the agricultural productivity of farms.

Here Independent variables are (Lower the use of fertiliser, modern equipment
and high quality seeds)
Dependent variable (the agricultural productivity of farms).
2. Lower the literacy rate in the society, higher will be poverty and crime rate.
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Identify the dependent and independent variable.(do yourself)

Null hypothesis: Among the facts and the variables there exists no connection.
In other words it can be said that the variables are mediocre or ordinary. It also means
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that there are less parametersinvolved.This is primarily done to determine whether the
varibales are really ordinary or have come up due to errors in sampling.
If we take an example then we can understand easily like the literacy rate does
not affect crime rate in the society . Here in theoretically we can say the independent
variable is literacy rate and the dependent variable is “crime rate in the society”, but
practically there is no relation between two variables because no changes have been
occurred.
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Ex2: Illiteracy has nothing to do with the rate of female infanticide in the society .
(Test yourself)

Alternative hypothesis:
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If the hypothesis under test is proved wrong and rejected, then another
hypothesis(Alternative hypothesis) is formulated to replace the wrong one and tested to
obtain the desired results . Just like
H0 (Null Hypothesis): Advertisements do not affect the TRP (Television Rating Point)
of soaps
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H1 (Alternative Hypothesis): Advertisements decrease the TRP of soaps
A null hypothesis is used for a reverse strategy, i.e. to prove it wrong so that you may
confirm that there definitely is a relationship between the variables . Just like
H0 (Null Hypothesis): Academic achievements are not related to intelligence
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H1 (Alternative Hypothesis): Intelligence enhances academic achievements
1.2.4 Type I & Type II Error
Errors in Selecting Hypotheses

We know that we have to conduct each step of Research
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because a minor error in a step may corrupt the entire process
decisions. Note that chances of major errors lie in the choice
common errors involved in the choice of hypothesis are Type1 &
describe bellow.
extremely carefully
and lead to wrong
of hypothesis. The
Type 2 , which are
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Error Explanation
Type I H0 wrongly rejected
H1 wrongly accepted
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Type II H0 wrongly accepted

H1 wrongly rejected
Illustration:
A renowned channel of children’s conducts a market research to find out the need
for advertisement. The research team constructs the below hypotheses:
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H0: At least 20 % of the viewing audience for children’s TV programmes consists of

adults .
H1: Less than 20 % of the viewing audience for children’s TV programmes consists
of adults.
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Note: that in case the null hypothesis H0 is true, the company should advertise. On
the contrary, in case the alternative hypothesis H1 is true, there is no need to advertise.
A hypothesis must be framed very carefully. There are high possibilities of errors
during each step of constructing a hypothesis. Note that hypotheses are constructed
in such a way that they cannot both be correct or incorrect simultaneously. To avoid
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erroneous decisions, we are required to select the first action (first hypothesis), if the
first action is true, and the second one (second hypothesis), if the second action is true.
Decision-making on the basis of hypothesis testing runs the chance of errors

at every possible step. To explain errors in hypothesis, it is important for us to get

Notes acquainted with the term “state of nature”, which means the true scenario in the
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universe. The first chance of error lies with the first step of constructing a hypothesis -
determining the relationship between the states of nature and the recommended action.
The second chance of error may occur if the research findings stand erroneous w.r.t the
state of nature.
The below table would help us understand the relationship between the states of
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nature and the recommended action. This comprises two plausible states of nature and
two alternative courses of action.
True state Conclusions

H0 True H1 True
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H0 True No error Type I error
H1 True Type II error No error
From the above table, it is evident that, given that the relationship between
the two states of nature and the two actions is true, there is no error if we arrive at
conclusion that H1 is true.
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the conclusion that H0 is true. Likewise, there would be no error if we arrive at the
What would happen if the team accepts the wrong hypothesis? Would the
company take a wrong decision? Let me explain with the help of the two scenarios that
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may arise.
Hypothesis Status of acceptance Type of Decision taken

chosen error
H0 H0 wrongly rejected and H1 Type I No advertisements
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wrongly accepted
H1 H1 wrongly rejected and H0 Type II Unnecessary costs
wrongly accepted incurred due to
advertisements
1.2.5: Research Proposal& Aspects

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A research proposal is planned to convince others that we have a valuable

research project and that we have the competence and the work-plan to complete it.
Basically a research proposal should include all the primary components involved in
the research process and should also include sufficient information for the readers to
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analyse the proposed study.
Our research area and the methodology what we choose must address the
following questions: What we plan to accomplish, why we want to do it and how we are
going to do it.
Why a good preparation is needed?

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Good preparation of a research proposal is necessary such as:
This is important for grant of application in a competitive environment. Funding is

very competitive.

It assists the researcher to formulate the project, to plan, to performa and to

monitorthe same. Notes
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A research proposal is comprised of:
●● Title
●● Introduction
●● Literature review
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●● Methodology
●● Plan - time frame and schedule of activities (Gantt chart)
●● Budget
●● Details of research team (signed CV)
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Title
The name of a research proposal must be crisp and describeable. Try to make it
informative but catchy. An effective title not only increases the reader’s interest, but also
brings him/her favourably towards the proposal.
Introduction
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Through the introduction researcher have to produce the required skeletal structure
for the issues in research. How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest
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problem in proposal writing.
The introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with
a focus on a specific research problem, to be followed by the rational or justification for
the proposed study. The introduction generally covers the following elements:
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●● State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the
study.
●● Provide the objectives of the study. The objectives identified should be general
as well as specific.
●● Identify the rationale of the proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth
doing.
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●● Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be identifiedin the

project.
●● Identify the principle independent and dependent variables of the study.
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●● State the hypothesis of the study.

●● Be careful about the limitations or boundaries of the proposed Research in
order to provide a clear focus.
Objectives of the study

●● Should be stated clearly
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●● Be clear and concise

●● Must be measurable and feasible

Literature Review
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The intention of the literature review is to provide adequate background
information.
Review should be brief, and indicate relevant related Research that had or is being
conducted (references should be included) and the review committee have idea about
the various on goingprojects.
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The literature review serves several important functions:
●● Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for the proposed
Research.
●● Demonstrates about the knowledge of the research problem.
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●● Demonstrates about understanding of the theoretical andResearch issues
related to the research question.
●● Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information.
●● Indicates the ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature.
●● Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual
●●
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framework for our Research.
Convinces our reader that our proposed Research will make a significant and
substantial contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical
issue or filling a major gap in the literature).
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Methodology
The Research Committee depends on methodology to determine how we plan to
tackle our research problem. It will provide our work plan and describe the activities
necessary for the completion of our project.
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The method section are described bellow.
●● Study design -Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment? What

kind of design do we choose (descriptive, cross-sectional, case-control)?
●● Selection of research location
●● Subjects or participants - Who will take part in our study? What kind of
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sampling method / procedure do we use? We will have to decide on the

inclusion and exclusion criteria
●● Sample size – we need to calculate our sample size based on the type
of study we are conducting. There are several formulas for sample size
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calculation.
●● Study instruments - What kind of measuring instruments or questionnaires do
you use? Why do you choose them? Are they valid and reliable?
●● Data collection - How do you plan to carry out your study? What activities are
involved? How long does it take?
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●● Data analysis and interpretation – this includes plans for processing and
coding data, computer software to be used (eg Statistical Package for Social
Sciences / SPSS, EPI-INFO, etc), choice of statistical methods, confidence

levels, significance levels etc. It is also convenient to provide dummy tables

about the data thatare to be analyzed. Notes
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●● Ethical considerations – It is necessary to submit our research proposal to
the Ethical Committee where we work and also where we plan to conduct our
Research. Depending where we are working and the type of Research we are
planning to conduct.
Plan
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Planning for the research proposal should include the time frame and activity
schedule for the proposed Research.
The time frame should include time for:
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●● purchasing and obtaining relevant consumables and facilities needed to
conduct the study
●● conduct of study
●● analysis of data
●● writing up of project report
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The activity schedule is essential for effective monitoring of project. It should list the
time frame for major activities, and include milestones. A most effective way of plotting
the activity schedule is by using the Gantt Chart
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Budget It is essential to request for an o Provide a total and yearly
adequate budget for the study you breakdown of the budget
are planning to conduct: needed
Give appropriate estimates of costs depending on the different areas, eg: travel
and transportation, consumables, salaries, services, rentals, equipment, utilities,
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repairs, etc.
Provide adequate justification, especially for costly items
Research team:
●● Identify all expertise required for your Research
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●● Include the curriculum vitaes (CVs) of all key researchers

●● Obtain agreement of participation by team members in writing
●● Ensure adequate expertise and spell out responsibilities of each of the
researchers
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The common errors in proposal writing are as:

●● Objectives are too broad or too ambitious
●● Objectives do not reflect title of the study or statement of problem
●● No literature review or relevant references
●● Inadequate information on methodology
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●● Inappropriate time-frame and schedule of activities – too ambitious

●● No justification for Budget – asking for too much or too little

1.2.6: Literature Survey & Review

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Introduction
Do you know that we, human beings, are the most intelligent living beings on
earth? Thanks to our stellar intelligence, we can utilise the knowledge that has been
preserved or accumulated over ages. Human knowledge comprises three equally
crucial phases –
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●● namely preservation,
●● transmission,
●● and advancement.
Research helps in advancement of knowledge so that an updated knowledge
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reservoir is created and transmitted for the benefit of mankind. Human beings build
upon the recorded and accumulated knowledge of the past and this constant endeavour
of adding to the vast reservoir of knowledge in every possible field makes advancement
of human race possible. We, as a researcher, need to ensure that considerable work
has already been done on topics related to our field of investigation. We are required
to be familiar with all previous projects, Research, and theory related to the research
to ensure such familiarity.
Meaning of Review of Literature

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problem. We need to conduct a thorough review of Research and theoretical literature
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The term “review” means “to organise the knowledge of the specific research
area to create a knowledge pool so that our study adds on to and enriches the field
of research.” The term “literature” stands for “the knowledge of a specific area of
investigation, related to a given discipline, which includes theoretical, research-oriented,
and practical studies.” Thus, review of literature is the process of creating new and
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updating existing knowledge pools, related to specific disciplines, which add on to and
enrich fields of Research.
Importance of Review of Literature

We have to learn why and how a successful review of literature would help us
about our Research.
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●● Review of Literature provides researchers with theories, ideas, explanations or

hypothesis that may prove useful in the formulation of a new problem
●● Review of Literature guides researchers on the availability of adequate evidence
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that solves the problem sufficiently without the need of further investigation - this
initiative avoids the replication of Research
●● Review of Literature serves as prominent sources for hypothesis - researchers can
formulate research hypotheses based on available studies
●● Review of Literature suggests data sources, methodology, and statistical
techniques apt for the solution of the research problem
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●● Review of Literature helps researchers locate comparative data and findings

useful in the correct interpretation of results .

Sources of Literature
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What documents would you consider the sources of literature?
Sources Examples
Lists and indices of books, textbooks, and Cumulative Book Index
handbooks Book Review Index
Books Review Digest
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Subject Guide to Books
National Union Catalogue
P e r i o d i c a l s ( p u b l i c a t i o n i s s u e d i n Yearbook
successive volumes, at regular intervals) Documents
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Almanacs
Cumulative Book Index
International abstracts
Journals
Newspapers
Magazines
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International Index to Periodicals
Encyclopaedias (reservoirs of concise The Encyclopaedia Britannica
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and convenient sources of information on World Book Encyclopaedia
various subjects; these include biographies
The Encyclopaedia of Science Fiction
and illustrations)
The Atlas of the Prehistoric World
Encyclopaedia of Cryptography and
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Security
Encyclopaedia of Public Health
Encyclopaedia of General Science
Apart from these, newspapers, dissertations, abstracts, theses, online libraries, etc.
serve as good sources of review of literature.
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Recommended Practices in Review of Literature

Next, we are going to study about a few recommended practices in review of
literature.
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a) Get an overall view by referring to a generic source like a good textbook. This will
help us grasp the theoretical concepts like the meaning, nature, and importance of
the concept. We will also get a clear idea about the variables that we would use to
formulate the hypothesis of our research problem.
b) On developing a clear insight about the research problem, we have to review the
(c
empirical researches related to our research problem. During this phase, our chief
concern would be to gather specific details of the field of investigation by using good
handbooks, recommended encyclopaedias, and good abstracts for this purpose.

c) Conduct systematic and thorough Research on study materials gathered from online
Notes and offline libraries. Start collecting references from the educational index. Use a
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high degree of precision to copy or type such references.
d) Take systematic, consistent, comprehensive, and accurate notes on cards. Record
references with complete bibliographic information. Record references on the front
side of these cards and take notes on the reverse sides.
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1.2.7: Errors in Research
Various types of errors in Research are describe bellow.
1. Population Specification
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Population specification errors occur when the researcher does not understand
whom they should survey. Because there are morethan one people whomay consume
the product, but only one who purchases it, or they may miss a segment looking to
purchase in the future.
How to avoid this: In the beginning analysis of customers buying the items have
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to be done. This is necessary as it will allow us to identify the appropriate custom\mers
and ways to satisfy them.
2. Sampling and Sample Frame Errors

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When the wrong subpopulation is used to select a sample then survey
sampling and sample frame errors occur, or because of variation in the number or
representativeness (is a subset of a population that seeks to accurately reflect the
characteristics of the larger group) of the sample that responds, but the resulting
sample is not representative of the population concern.
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Basically some element of sampling error is unavoidable, but it can be predictable.

For instance, in the 1936 presidential election between Roosevelt and Landon, the
sample frame was from car registrations and telephone directories. The researchers
failed to realize that the majority of people that owned cars and telephones were
Republicans, and wrongly predicted a Republican victory.
Example: Suppose that we collected a random sample of 5000 people from the
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general Indian adult population to calculate their entertainment preferences. Then,

upon analysis, found it to be composed of 70% females.The entertainment preferences
of females would hold more weight, preventing accurate extrapolation to the Indian
general adult population. Sampling error is affected by the homogeneity( the quality
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of consisting of parts or people that are similar to each other) of the population being
studied and sampled from and by the size of the sample.
How to avoid this: Since it cannot be avoided completely, then we should have
multiple people reviewing our sample to account for an accurate representation of
our target population. We can also increase the size of our sample so we get more
participants to survey.
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3. Selection
When a sample selected by a non-probability method then selection error is

occurred. When respondents choose to self-participate in a study and only those

interested respond, we can end up with selection error because there may already be Notes
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an inherent bias. This can also occur when respondents who are not relevant to the
study participate, or when there’s a bias in the way participants are put into groups.
Example: Interviewers conducting a small intercept study have a natural tendency

to select those respondents who are the most accessible and agreeable whenever
there is latitude to do so. Such samples comprise friends and associates who bear
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some degree of resemblance in characteristics to those of the desired population.
How to avoid this: It may be controlled by going extra lengths to get participation.
A usual survey process includes initiating pre-survey contact requesting cooperation,
actual surveying, and post-survey follow-up. If a response is not received, a second
survey request follows, and perhaps interviews using alternate modes such as
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telephone or person-to-person.
4. Non-responsive
Non-response error occur when we can get some sample difference between the
original sample and selected sample.It may occur when either the potential respondent
rather than inaccurate data. It is basically two types

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was not contacted or they refused to respond. The main factor is the absence of data
a) Non-contact errors: Happen due to the inability to reach the respondent. This
may be because the respondent is not at home.
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(b) Refusal errors: Occur when the respondent does not respond to a particular
item or to multiple items of the questionnaire such as monthly household
income, Religion, Sex and Politics are topics that may obtain item refusal.
Example: If we conduct a telephone surveys, then some respondents are
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inaccessible because either they are not at home for the initial call or call-backs.
Remaining have moved or are away from home for the period of the survey. Not-at-
home respondents are typically younger with no small children, and have a much
higher proportion of working wives than households with someone at home. People
who have moved or are away for the survey period have a higher geographic mobility
than the average of the population. Most of the surveys can anticipate errors from non-
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contact of respondents. By using online surveys we can avoid this error through e-mail
distribution, thus eliminating not-at-home respondents.
How to avoid this: When collecting responses, ensure our original respondents are
participating, and use follow-up surveys and alternates modes of reaching them if they
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don’t initially respond. We can also use different channels to reach our audience like in
person, web surveys, or SMS.
5. Measurement
The measurement method can have its issues as well. Thes issues include the
difference between the data produced and the data required by the analyst. There are
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multiple minute factors which can contribute to such issues.

How to avoid this: Check all measurements more than one times for accuracy and
Notes ensure our observers and measurement takes are well trained and understand the
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parameters of the experiment.
While not all of these errors can be completely avoidable, recognizing them to
reduce the complexity. Next time we’re starting a research project, use this blog as a
checklist to ensure you’re doing everything you can to avoid these common mistakes.
There are so many errors like
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Surrogate Information Error
That kind of error arises from either the inability or the unwillingness of the
respondent to provide the needed information, in other words, information is
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obtained from substitutes rather than original sample. It is also defined as the non-
correspondence of the information being sought by the researcher and that is required
to solve the problem.
Experimental Error:It can be defined as the non correspondence of the “true impact
of” and the “impact at-tribute to” the independent variable
For example
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Conduct a study trying to find out reasons for cancer may conclude that as all
the patients under observation used to eat bread therefore eating bread is the cause
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of cancer. After that When an experiment is conducted, the researcher attempts
to measure the impact of one or more manipulated independent variable on some
dependent variablewhile controlling the impact of exogenous variable.
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Unit-1.3: Typs of Research Design

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Unit Objectives:
At the end of this unit the participant will be able to:
●● Identify and learn about types of research design
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1.3.1 Pure &Applied
Applied Research
Applied research is a type of study that aims to solve a specific problem or offer
novel solutions to issues that affect a person, a group, or a society. Because it involves
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the practical application of scientific methods to everyday problems, it is often referred
to as a scientific method of inquiry or contractual research.
When conducting applied research, the researcher pays special attention to

identifying a problem, developing a research hypothesis, and then conducting an
experiment to test these hypotheses. In many cases, empirical methods are used in
this research approach to solve practical problems.
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Because of its direct approach to finding a solution to a problem, applied research
is sometimes considered a non-systematic inquiry. It’s a type of follow-up research that
digs deeper into the findings of pure or basic research in order to validate them and
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use them to develop innovative solutions.
Applied Research Example in Business

●● Applied research to improve the hiring process in a company.
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●● Applied research aimed at improving workplace efficiency and policies.

●● Workplace skill gaps are being addressed through applied research.
Applied Research Examples in Education

●● An investigation into how to improve teacher-student engagement in the
classroom.
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●● An investigation into how to improve a school’s student readiness.

●● A research project aimed at piquing students’ interest in mathematics
Pure/Fundamental Research or Basic Research

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A type of research approach aimed at gaining a better understanding of a subject,

phenomenon, or basic law of nature is known as basic research. The goal of this type
of research is to advance knowledge rather than to solve a specific problem.
Pure research or fundamental research are other terms for basic research.
Between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the concept of basic research arose as
a means of bridging the gaps in science’s societal utility.
(c
Basic research can be exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory in nature; however,

in many cases, it is explanatory. The primary goal of this research method is to collect

data in order to improve one’s understanding, which can then be used to propose
Notes solutions to a problem.
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Basic Research Example in Education
How does human retentive memory?
How do different teaching methods affect students’ concentration in class?
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1.3.2 Causal & Correlational Research
Explanatory research, also known as causal research, is used to determine the
scope and nature of cause-and-effect relationships. Causal research can be used to
assess the effects of specific changes on existing norms, processes, and so on.
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Causal studies examine a situation or a problem in order to explain the patterns of
relationships between variables. In studies using a causal research design, the most
common primary data collection method is experiments.
Examples of Causal Research (Explanatory Research)
●●
●●
●●
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To determine the effects of foreign direct investment on Taiwanese economic
growth.
To investigate the impact of rebranding initiatives on customer loyalty.
To determine the nature of the impact of work process re-engineering on
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employee motivation levels.
Did u know? Conceptual Research is related to certain abstract ideas or theories
that are often applied by philosophers to develop new concepts or to rework on the
existing ones.
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A correlational research design measures a relationship between two variables

without the researcher controlling either of them. It aims to find out whether there is
either: Positive correlation. Both variables change in the same direction. There are
three types of correlational research: naturalistic observation, the survey method, and
archival research. Each type has its own purpose, as well as its pros and cons.
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1.3.3 Cross-sectional & Longitudinal Research
Cross-sectional study
The longitudinal and cross-sectional studies are both observational studies. This
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means that researchers record data about their subjects without tampering with the
research environment. We would simply measure the cholesterol levels of daily walkers
and non-walkers, as well as any other.
Characteristics of interest to us, in our study. We would not persuade non-walkers

to start walking or advise daily walkers to change their habits. In a nutshell, we’d try not
to get in the way.
(c
A cross-sectional study is distinguished by the ability to compare different

population groups at a single point in time. Consider it like taking a photograph. The
findings are based onwhatever fits into the frame.

To return to our previous example, we could compare cholesterol levels in daily

walkers in two age groups, over 40 and under 40, to cholesterol levels in non-walkers Notes
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in the same age groups. We might even create gender subgroups. We would not,
however, consider past or future cholesterol levels because they would be outside the
scope. We’d only examine cholesterol levels at a single point in time.
A cross-sectional study design has the advantage of allowing researchers to

compare multiple variables at once. We could look at age, gender, income, and
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educational level in relation to walking and cholesterol levels, for example, with little or
no extrapolation.
Cross-sectional studies, on the other hand, may not provide conclusive evidence
of cause-and-effect relationships. This is because such studies provide a snapshot of
a single moment in time and do not consider what occurs before or after the snapshot.
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As a result, we can’t say for sure whether our daily walkers had low cholesterol levels
before starting their exercise routines or if the daily walking behaviour helped to lower
cholesterol levels that were previously high.
Longitudinal Study
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A longitudinal study is observational, just like a cross-sectional one. As a result,
researchers do not interfere with their subjects once more. A longitudinal study, on the
other hand, involves researchers making multiple observations of the same subjects
over a long period of time, sometimes many years.
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A longitudinal study has the advantage of allowing researchers to detect changes
in the characteristics of the target population at both the group and individual level. The
important thing to remember is that longitudinal studies go beyond a single point in
time. As a result, they can create event sequences.
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To return to our example, we could examine the change in cholesterol levels

among women over 40 who have walked every day for the past 20 years. The
longitudinal study design would take into account cholesterol levels at the start of
a walking programme and as the programme progressed. As a result of its scope, a
longitudinal study is more likely than a cross-sectional study to suggest cause-and-
effect relationships.
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In general, the design should be driven by the research. However, the progression
of the research can sometimes aid in determining which design is best. Longitudinal
studies take longer to complete than cross-sectional studies.
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1.3.4 Experimental, Semi-experimental & Non-Experimental

Research
Experimental
Experimental research is a type of study that employs a scientific approach
to manipulate one or more control variables of the research subject(s) and then
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measure the impact of the manipulation on the subject. It is well-known for allowing the
manipulation of control variables.
Even though it can be difficult to execute, this research method is widely used in a

variety of physical and social science fields. They are far more common in information
Notes systems research than in library and information management research within the
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information field.
When the goal of the research is to trace cause-and-effect relationships between

defined variables, experimental research is usually used. The type of experimental
research chosen, on the other hand, has a significant impact on the experiment’s
outcomes.
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Semi Experimental: The prefix quasi means “similar to.” As a result, quasi-
experimental research is research that resembles experimental research but isn’t
actually experimental. Participants are not randomly assigned to conditions or orders
of conditions, despite the fact that the independent variable is manipulated (Cook &
Campbell, 1979). 1st The directionality problem is eliminated in quasi-experimental
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research because the independent variable is manipulated before the dependent
variable is measured. However, because participants are not assigned at random, there
is a chance that other differences exist between conditions. Thus, quasi-experimental
research does not eliminate the problem of confounding variables.
Example: Non-equivalent groups design just like we hypothesized a new after-
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school program which assured the students of higher grades. We divided two similar
groups of children who attend different schools, one of which implements the new
program while the other does not.
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In field settings where random assignment is difficult or impossible, quasi-
experiments are most likely to be conducted. They’re frequently used to assess the
efficacy of a treatment, such as psychotherapy or an educational intervention. There are
numerous types of quasi-experiments, but we will focus on a few of the most common
here.
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Non-Experimental:
Non-experimental research is defined as research in which no control or
independent variable is manipulated. Researchers in non-experimental research
measure variables as they occur naturally, without any further manipulation.
When the researcher doesn’t have a specific research question about a causal
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relationship between two variables and manipulating the independent variable is

impossible, this type of research is used. They’re also useful for:
●● It is impossible to assign subjects to conditions at random.

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●● The subject of the study is a causal relationship, but the independent variable
cannot be changed.
●● The study is broad and exploratory in nature.
●● The study focuses on a variable-to-variable non-causal relationship.
●● Only a limited amount of information about the research topic is available.
(c
1.3.5 Descriptive & Exploratory Research
Descriptive research
Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the
characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. This methodology focuses

more on the “what” of the research subject than the “why” of the research subject. Notes
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The descriptive research method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a
demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs.
In other words, it “describes” the subject of the research, without covering “why” it
happens.
For example, surveys related to frequency of shopping, food habits, product
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preference, etc. are examples of descriptive research. Example: AA group of market
researchers aims at identifying the impulse buying trends among various households
pan India. The researchers would focus on collecting data related to “what is the
impulse buying pattern of Indian consumers” and the scope of their research would
be limited to that. The research does not explain the underlying reasons behind such
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impulse buying practices or “why” such buying pattern exists. Here, the scope of the
research is just to report the existence of such buying trends and not why do people
resort to impulse buying. This is, hence, an ideal example of descriptive research.
Exploratory Research
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Exploratory research is the investigation of a problem that has not previously been
studied or thoroughly investigated. Exploratory research is usually done to gain a better
understanding of the problem at hand, but it rarely yields a conclusive result.
Exploratory research is used by researchers when they want to learn more about
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an existing phenomenon and gain new insights into it in order to formulate a more
precise problem. It starts with a broad concept, and the research findings are used to
uncover related issues to the research topic.
The process of exploratory research varies depending on the discovery of new

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data or insight. The results of this research, also known as interpretative research or
grounded theory approach, provide answers to questions like what, how, and why.
Exploratory Research Example on Product Research

When developing a new product or service, companies conduct two types of
research. The first is carried out prior to the development of the product, while the
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second is carried out after it has been developed.
The exploratory research conducted after product development will be the focus
of our attention. It’s known as the beta testing stage of product development for tech
products.
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For example, if a new feature is added to an existing app, product researchers will
want to see how well the feature is received by users. The research is not exploratory if
the feature added to the app is something that already exists.
If Telegram adds a status feature to its app, for example, the app’s beta research
stage is not exploratory. This is because this feature is already available, and they can
easily obtain sufficient information from WhatsApp.
(c
When it comes to a new feature, such as Snapchat filters when they first launched,
the research is instructive. A focus group of beta testers is used to conduct exploratory
research in this case.
Unit -1.4: Research Modelling

Notes
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Unit Objectives:
At the end of this unit, you will learn:
●● Use of Research Models

●● Importance of Research Models
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●● Types of Research Models
●● Stages of Research Model
●● Heuristic Research Model
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●● Simulation Research Model
●● Data Considerations while analyzing Data for a Research
Uses of Research Model
The following are the uses of Research Model:

●●
●●
●●
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Research model helps in identifying basic concept.
Research model helps in defining meanings with great precision.
Research model is a great way to approach and simulate reality.
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Importance of Research Model
The importance of using a research model is highlighted below:

●● Model building is an integral part of the research design because models guide
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both theory development and research design.

●● Models seem appropriate to the worlds of computers, biotechnology, and
automation, and they have conferred new status on the scientist in government,
industry, and the military.
●● Models are also very important to social scientists because they provide a
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framework through which important questions are investigated.
1.4.1 Types of Research Models

Research Models are classified broadly into two types as mentioned below:
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●● Qualitative Research Model

●● Quantitative Research Model
Qualitative Research Model

It involves non-numerical data collection and analysis in order to understand
concepts, opinions and experiences. This helps to gather in-depth insights into a
(c
problem or develop new ideas for research. Qualitative research finds its use mostly
in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology,
education, health sciences, history, etc. Qualitative research helps to visualize how

people can experience the world. While there are many approaches to qualitative
research, they are less desirable as they are flexible and focus on retaining rich Notes
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meaning when interpreting data.
Quantitative Research Model

It is about collecting and analysing numerical data. Used for locating and defining
patterns and averages, this research model can make predictions, test causal
relationships, and help to generate results to wider populations. Quantitative research
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finds a wide use in the natural and social sciences: biology, chemistry, psychology,
economics, sociology, marketing, etc.
1.4.2. Stages of a Research Model
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These steps are: (1) choosing a topic, (2) defining the problem, (3) reviewing the
literature, (4) formulating a hypothesis, (5) selecting a research method, (6) collecting
data, (7) analysing the results, and (8) sharing the findings.
Other authors may identify more or fewer steps, but the fundamental model
remains the same. Validity and reliability are two important aspects of research. Validity
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refers to whether or not the research actually measures what it claims to. The degree
to which research produces consistent or dependable results is referred to as reliability.
Sociologists use six different research methods to conduct their studies: (1)
surveys, (2) participant observation, (3) secondary analysis, (4) documents, (5)
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unobtrusive measures, and (6) experiments. Resources, access to subjects, the
purpose of the research, and the researcher’s background all play a role in how
sociologists choose their research methods.
1.4.3 Data Considering and Testing

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In this digitalized world, we are producing a large number of knowledge (data) in

every minute. The number of knowledge (data) produced in every minute makes it
challenging to store, manage, utilize, and analyze it. Even large business enterprises
are struggling to seek out the ways to form this huge amount of useful data. Today,
the number of knowledge (data) produced by large business enterprises is growing,
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as mentioned before, at a rate of 40 to 60% per year. Simply storing this huge amount
of knowledge (data) is not going to be all that useful unleass thera re used for any
particulr research and this can be the reason why organizations are looking at options
like data lakes and big data analysis tools that can help them in handling big data to a
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great extent.
There are a few steps in considering data

Proper understanding of Data: Understanding is the key to any solution. Data when
comes in huge format is not only difficult to understand but store and mange. Thus data
considering is a huge tasks in itself. A close look needs to be given to the research that
is being done and hence it’s answers will be easy to find out on detailed understanding.
(c
●● Nature, scope and object of enquiry: This constitutes the most important
factor affecting the choice of a particular consideration of data. Data is to be
considered on its nature, scope and object of enquiry, when the data is available

for research, checking its sources and utilization in the research it will be judged
Notes and considered.
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●● Time Factor: Time is important as there can be huge data which is available but
there will certainy be a deadline for the research hence, firstly the data collection
needs to be done timely and post the collection there has to be enough time for
the considerating and testing.
●● Precision Required: it is another factor whiclethe collection of data is ongoing
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and post the collection. While considering the data the right precision is required
so that it follows the same wave length of the reseach program.
1.4.4 Heuristic & Simulation Research Model
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HeuristicResearch Model
There are a wide range of qualitative research models available and one of the
lesser-knownmodels is the Heuristic research model. This research model was
developed by Clark Moustakas (an American psychologist and researcher). The name,
Heuristic was derived from the Greek work ‘Heuriskein’ (which means discover, find).
The research model has six phases
●●
●●
Initial engagement
Immersion ni
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●● Incubation
●● Illumination
●● Explication
●● Creative synthesis
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Shelly Chaiken developed the heuristic-systematic model of information processing

(HSM), which attempts to explain how people receive and process persuasive
messages. 1st Individuals can process messages in one of two ways, according to the
model: heuristically or systematically. Heuristic processing, on the other hand, entails
the use of simplifying decision rules or “heuristics” to quickly assess the message
content, whereas systematic processing entails the careful and deliberate processing
of a message.This model’s guiding belief is that people are more likely to use heuristics
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instead of cognitive resources, which affects message intake and processing. The
elaboration likelihood model, or ELM, is very similar to the HSM. Both models were
developed primarily in the early to mid-1980s, and they share many of the same
concepts and ideas.
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Simulation Research Modelling

By using statistical descriptions of the activities involved, stimulation models
attempt to replicate the workings and logic of a real system. For example, a line
might produce 1000 units per hour on average. If we assume this is always the case,
we lose sight of what happens when there is a breakdown or a stoppage for routine
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maintenance, for example. When we consider the effect on downstream units, the effect
of such a delay may be amplified (or absorbed).

‘Entities’ (e.g. machines, materials, people, etc.) and ‘activities’ are two types of
entities in a simulation model (e.g. processing, transporting, etc.). It also includes an Notes
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explanation of the logic that governs each activity. A processing activity, for example,
can only begin when a certain quantity of working material, a person to operate the
machine, and an empty conveyor to transport the product are all available. Once an
activity has begun, the time it will take to complete it is calculated, which is frequently
done using a sample from a statistical distribution.
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Summary
At the end of this module, the participants have covered:

●● Defining research methodology
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●● Explaining research process
●● Identifying different approaches of research
●● Elaborating planning a research project
●● Analyzing Application of Research
Exercise
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1. The purpose of research is to find solutions through the application of ......................
and ...................... different methods.
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a) Synthesizing and Analyzing
b) Applying and interpreting
c) Both and b
d) none of the above
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2. Which of the following scopes of research is related to human resource development?

a) Projecting demand
b) Studying performance appraisal techniques
c) Cost budgeting
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d) Measuring effectiveness of promotional activities

3. Which of the following scopes of research is NOT exclusively related to the framing
of government policies?
a) Evolving the union finance budget
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b) Modifying the five-year plan

c) Revising fiscal policies
d) Revising monetary policies
4. ___________is a crucial component that allows Inventors and entrepreneurs to take
a step back and consider how their product might fit into the marketplace
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a) Market research
b) Product research

c) Demand research
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5. Planning, organising, staffing, communicating, __________, ________ and
_________are all management functions
a) coordinating
b) motivating
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c) controlling
d) all of the above
Answers:
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1. a) Synthesizing and Analyzing
2. b) Studying performance appraisal techniques
3. d) Revising monetary policies
4. a) Market research
5. d) all of the above
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(c

Module-2: Sampling
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Key learning outcomes
At the end of this module the participant will be able to:
●● Analyze Research Modelling
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●● Define Data Collection and its Methods
●● Explain Questionnaire Designing
●● Describe Measurement and Scaling
●● Analyze Sampling
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Structure:
Unit-2.1: Data Collection

2.1.1 Introduction to Data Collection
2.1.2 Primary Data & Secondary Data
2.1.3 Data Collection Methods
2.1.4 Tabulating & Validating Data
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Unit-2.2: Questionnaire Designing
2.2.1 Steps in constructing a questionnaire
2.2.2 Types of Questions
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2.2.3 Format of Questionnaire
Unit-2.3: Sampling
2.3.1 Sampling Plan
2.3.2 Sampling Frame
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2.3.3 Sample Selection Methods

2.3.4 Probability Sampling Techniques
2.3.5 Non-Probability Samplig Techniques
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2.3.6 Sampling and non-sampling Errors

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Unit-2.1: Data Collection

Notes
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Unit Objectives:
At the end of this unit, you will learn:
●● Introduction to Data Collection

●● Types of Data Collection Methods
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●● Tabulating and Validating the Collected Data
2.1:1 Introduction to Data Collection

The researcher should know data sources that he/she requires for all purposes.
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Data or information is of two types:
●● Primary Data
●● Secondary Data
Information gathered through original or first-hand research is referred to as
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primary data. Surveys and focus group discussions, for example. Secondary data, on
the other hand, is information that has already been gathered by someone else. For
instance, internet research, newspaper articles, and company reports.
Any study’s goal determines whether primary or secondary data will be

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collected. For example, if a company wants to enter the women’s apparel market in
India and wants to know the size of the market, it can use secondary data such as
industry reports and newspaper articles, whereas if it wants to learn about consumer
preferences for a new type of fabric or style, it must conduct primary research.
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Primary data collection is usually more expensive and time-consuming than

secondary data, but it serves a specific purpose and helps to eliminate biases.
2.1.2 Primary & Secondry Data

There are two types of data: 1. Primary Data and 2. Secondary
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Primary Data: It is a term for data collected at source. This type of information
is obtained directly from first hand sources by means of surveys, observations and
experimentation and not subjected to any processing or manipulation and also called
primary data. Primary data means original data that has been collected specially for
the purpose in mind. It means someone collected the data from the original source
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first hand. Primary data has not been published yet and is more reliable, authentic and
objective.
Secondary data: It refers to the data collected by someone other than the user
i.e. the data is already available and analysed by someone else. Common sources
of secondary data include various published or unpublished data, books, magazines,
newspaper, trade journals etc.
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Collection of Primary Data

Primary data is collected in the course of doing experimental or descriptive

research by doing experiments, performing surveys or by observation or direct

communication with respondents. Several methods for collecting primary data are given Notes
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below-
1. Observation Method It is commonly used in studies relating to behavioural science.

Under this method observation becomes scientific tool and the method of data
collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose and is
systematically planned and subjected to checks and controls.
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a. Structured (descriptive) and unstructured (exploratory) observation- When
a observation is characterized by careful definition of units to be observed,
style of observer, conditions of or observation and selection of pertinent data
of observation it is a structured observation. When there characteristics are not
thought of in advance or not present. it is a unstructured observation.
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b. Participant, Non-participant and disguised observation- When the observer
observes by making himself more or less, the member of the group he is
observing, it is participant observation but when the observer observes by
detaching himself from the group under observation it is non participant
observation. If the observer observes in such manner that his presence is
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unknown to the people he is observing it is disguised observation.
c. Controlled (laboratory) and uncontrolled(exploratory) observation- If the
observation takes place in the natural setting it is a uncontrolled observation but
when observation takes place according to some pre-arranged plans ,involving
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experimental procedure it is a controlled observation.
Advantages of Primary Data:

●● Subjective bias is eliminated.
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●● Data is not affected by past behaviour or future intentions.

●● Natural behaviour of the group
Limitations:
●● Expensive methodology.
●● Information provided is limited.
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●● Unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task
Interview Methods:
This method of collecting data involves presentation of oral verbal stimuli
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and deeply in terms of oral- verbal responses. It can be achieved by many types of
interviews like
Personal interview: It requires a person known as interviewer to ask questions

generally in a face to face contact to the other person. It can be –
Direct personal investigation- The interviewer has to collect the information

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personally from the services concerned.
Indirect oral examination- The interviewer has to cross examine other persons who
are suppose to have a knowledge about the problem.

Structured interviews- Interviews involving the use of pre-determined questions and

Notes of highly standard techniques of recording
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Unstructured interviews- It does not follow a system of pre-determined questions
and is characteirzsed by flexibility of approach to questioning.
Focussed interview- It is meant to focus attention on the given experience of

the respondent and its effect. The interviewer may ask questions in any manner or
sequence with the aim to explore reasons and motives of the respondent.
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Clinical interviews- It is concerned with broad underlying feeling and motives or
individuals life experience which are used as method to collect information under this
method at the interviewer direction.
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Non directive interview- The interviewer`s function is to encourage the respendent
to talk about the given topic with a bare minimum of direct
Advantages-
●● More information and in depth can be obtained.
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●● Samples can be controlled.
●● There is greater flexibility under this method
●● Personal information can as well be obtained.
Mis-interpretation can be avoided by unstructured interview.

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●● Limitations
●● It is an expensive method.
●● More time consuming.
●● Possibility of imaginary info and less frank responses.
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●● High skilled interviewer
Telephonic Interview:
It requires the interviewer to collect information by contacting respondents on
telephone and asking questions or opinions orally.
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2. Questionnaire
In this method a ouestionnaire is sent (mailed) to the concerned respondents who
are expected to read, understand and reply on their own and return the questionnaire. It
consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or set of
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forms. It is advisable to conduct a ‘pilot study’ which is the rehearsal of the main survey
by experts for testing the questionnaire for weaknesses of the questions and techniques
used.
Essential of a good questionnaire-
●● It should be short and simple.

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●● Questions should processed in a logical sequence.

●● Technical terms and vauge expressions must be avoided.
●● Control questions to check the reliability of the respondent must be present.

●● Adequate space for answers must be provided.

●● Brief directions with regard to filling up of questionnaire must be provided.
Notes
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●● The physical appearances-quality of paper, colour etc must be good to attract
the attention of the respondent
Advantages
●● Free from bias of interviewer.
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●● Respondents have adequate time to give answers
●● Respondents are easily and conveniently approachable
●● Large samples can be used to be more reliable.
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Limitations
●● Low rate of return of duly filled questionnaire.
●● Control over questions is lost once it is sent.
●● It is inflexible once it is sent.
●● Possiblitty of ambiguous omission of replies.
●● Time taking and slow process
3. Schedules
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This method of data collection is similar to questionnaire method with difference
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that schedule are being filled by the enumerations specially appointed for the purpose.
Enumerations explain the aims and objects of the investigation and may remove any
misunderstanding and help the respondents to record answer. Enumerations should be
well trained to perform their job,he/she should be honest hardworking and patient. This
type of data is helpful in extensive enquiries however it is very expensive.
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Collection of secondary data

A researcher can obtain secondary data from various sources.Secondary data may
either be published data or unpublished.
Published data are available in:

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●● Publications of government.
●● Technical and trade journals.
●● Reports of various businesses, banks etc.
●● Public records.
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●● Stastistical or historical
Unpublished data may be found in letters, diaries, unpublished biographies or
work. Before using secondary data it must be checked for the following characteristics-
1. Reliability of data- Who collected the data? From what source? Which method?
Time? Possibility of bias? Accuracy?
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2. Suitability of data- The object scope and nature of the original enquiry must be
studies and then carefully scrutinize the data for suitability.
3. Adequency- The data is considered inadequate if the level of accuracy achieved

in data is found inadequate or if they are related to an area which may be either
Notes narrower or wider than the area of the present enquiry.
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2.1.3 Types of Data Collection Methods
There are various methods to collect the two sources of data (Primary and
Secondary) as mentioned and explained below:
Primary data is gathered from first-hand experience and has never been used
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before. The data gathered through primary data collection methods is highly accurate
and specific to the research’s purpose.
Quantitative and qualitative data collection methods are the two types of primary
data collection methods.
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Quantitative Methods:
Time Series Analysis

A time series is a sequential order of values of a variable at equal time intervals,
also known as a trend. An organisation can forecast demand for its products and
Smoothing Techniques ni
services for the future using patterns.
Smoothing techniques can be used when the time series lacks significant trends.
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They get rid of the random variation in historical demand. It aids in the identification
of patterns and demand levels in order to forecast future demand. The simple moving
average method and the weighted moving average method are the two most common
methods for smoothing demand forecasting techniques.
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Barometric Method
Researchers use this method, also known as the leading indicators approach, to
predict future trends based on current events. When past events are used to forecast
future events, they are referred to as leading indicators.
Qualitative Methods:
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Surveys
Surveys are used to gather information about the target audience’s preferences,
opinions, choices, and feedback on their products and services. Most survey software
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allows you to choose from a variety of question types.
You can also save time and effort by using a pre-made survey template. By
changing the theme, logo, and other elements, online surveys can be tailored to fit
the brand of the company. They can be distributed via a variety of channels, including
email, website, offline app, QR code, social media, and so on. You can choose the
channel based on the type and source of your audience.Survey software can generate
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various reports and run analytics algorithms to uncover hidden insights once the data
has been collected. A survey dashboard can show you statistics such as response rate,
completion rate, demographic filters, export and sharing options, and so on. Integrating

survey builder with third-party apps can help you get the most out of your online data
collection efforts. Notes
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Polls
One single or multiple choice questions is asked in a poll. You can use polls when
you need to get a quick pulse on the audience’s feelings. It is easier to get responses
from people because they are short in length.
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Online polls, like surveys, can be integrated into a variety of platforms. After
the respondents have responded to the question, they can see how their responses
compare to those of others.
Interviews
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The interviewer asks the respondents questions either face-to-face or over the
phone in this method. In face-to-face interviews, the interviewer asks the interviewee
a series of questions in person and takes notes on the answers. If meeting the person
is not possible, the interviewer can conduct a telephonic interview. When there are
only a few respondents, this method of data collection is appropriate. If there are many
Delphi Technique
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participants, repeating the same process is too time-consuming and tedious.
Market experts are given the estimates and assumptions of forecasts made
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by other industry experts in this method. Based on the information provided by other
experts, experts may reconsider and revise their estimates and assumptions. The final
demand forecast is based on the consensus of all experts on demand forecasts.
Focus Groups
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A focus group is a small group of people (around 8-10 members) who meet to
discuss the problem’s common areas. Each person expresses his or her viewpoint
on the subject at hand. The discussion among the group members is moderated by a
moderator. The group comes to an agreement at the end of the discussion.
Questionnaire
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A questionnaire is a printed set of open-ended or closed-ended questions. The

respondents must respond based on their knowledge and experience with the topic at
hand. The survey includes the questionnaire, but the questionnaire’s end-goal may or
may not be a survey.
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Sources of Secondary data:

The various sources for secondary data collection may be classified into two broad
categories:
●● Published Sources
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●● Unpublished Sources
Published Sources:
International, governmental and local agencies are the ones to publish statistical

data, among which the following are important: T

Notes
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International Publications
We have international institutions and bodies like I.M.F, I.B.R.D, I.C.A.F.E and
U.N.O who occasionally publish on occasional reports on statistical and economic
matters.
Official Publications of Central and State Governments
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Reports on different subjects are published by several departments of the Central
and State Governments regularly. They collect all the additional information. Important
publications among these are: The Reserve Bank of India Bulletin, Census of India,
Statistical Abstracts of States, Agricultural Statistics of India, Indian Trade Journal, etc.
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Semi-Official Publications
Example: Municipal Corporations, District Boards, Panchayats, etc. that will publish
reports relating to different matters of public concern.
4. Publications of Research Institutions:
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Indian Statistical Institute (I.S.I), Indian Council of Agricultural Research (I.C.A.R),
Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute (I.A.S.R.I), etc., publish the findings of
their research programs.
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5. Publications of various Commercial and Financial Institutions:
6. Reports of various Committees and Commissions appointed by the Government:
Such as the Raj Committee’s Report on Agricultural Taxation, Wanchoo
Committee’s Report on Taxation and Black Money, etc. are also important sources of
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secondary data.
7. Journals and Newspapers:

Journals and News Papers are the powerful sources from where data is obtained.
Current and important materials on statistics and socio-economic problems are
provided by journals and newspapers like Economic Times, Commerce, Capital, Indian
Finance, Monthly Statistics of trade etc.
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Unpublished Sources
There are different examples of these source of data like records maintained by
various government and private offices, the theses of the numerous research scholars
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in the universities or institutions etc.,
Precautions to be taken in the use of Secondary Data

As secondary data is obtained already, it is better to scrutinize it to ensure its
accuracy. The investigator needs to be more careful when using this type of data.
I Prof. Bowley is right to say, “Secondary data should not be accepted at their face
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value.” This data can be erroneous in different respects due to biases and prejudiced
mindset of the information collectors along with the sample size being inadequate,
mistakes in definition, mathematical errors and substitution issues. Even without
error, such data still can be unsuitable for enquiry purpose. E According to Prof. Simon
Kuznet’s (which is of importance), “the degree of reliability of secondary source is to be

assessed from the source, the compiler and his capacity to produce correct statistics Notes
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and the users also, for the most part, tend to accept a series particularly one issued by
a government agency at its face value without enquiring its reliability”.
Thus we need to follow some of the given factors:
The Suitability of Data
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This is possible by judging the scope and nature of the present enquiry with the
original one. For example, if we are looking for trend in retail prices while the data
provided is meant for wholesale prices, then it is of no use.
Adequacy of Data
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Once it is ensured that the data is suitable for investigation, it should be checked
for the purpose of present analysis. Geographical area for the original enquiry can be
studied in this respect along with the time for which we are getting the data. In the
above example, if we want to study the retail price trend of India, and acquired data will
cover only the retail price trend in the state of UP, then it would not serve the purpose.
Reliability of Data
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This issue concerns whether research findings can be applied to a larger group
than those who participated in the study. To put it another way, would similar results
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have been obtained if a different group of respondents or a different set of data points
had been used? Is the information obtained from these 40 people sufficient to conclude
how the entire sales force feels about company policies, for example, if 40 salespeople
out of a 2,000-person corporate sales force participate in a research study focusing
on company policy? Would the results be the same if the study was repeated with 40
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different salespeople?
The main goal of reliability is to ensure that the data collection method produces
consistent results. This can be measured in some types of research by having different
researchers use the same methods to see if the results can be replicated. If the results
are similar, the data collection method is most likely reliable. The scientific research
method includes ensuring that research can be replicated and produces similar results.
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While editing primary data, the following considerations should be borne in mind:
●● The data should be complete in all respects

●● The data should be accurate
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●● The data should be consistent

●● The data should be homogeneous
For data to possess the above-mentioned characteristics, they have to undergo the
following editing types:
2.1.4 Tabulating and Validating the Collected Data

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Meaning of Tabulation
Tabulation is a systematic and logical presentation of numeric data in rows and

columns to facilitate comparison and statistical analysis. It facilitates comparison by

Notes bringing related information close to each other and helps in further statistical analysis
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and interpretation.
In other words, the method of placing organized data into a tabular form is called
as tabulation. It may be complex, double or simple depending upon the nature of
categorization.
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Tabulation of Data Collected
The objectives of tabulation of collected data are as follows:
●● Orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows

●● To bring out essential features of the data collected
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●● To simplify the data collected
●● Conserves space
●● Ease of comparison
●● Summation of items
●●
●●
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Enables easy detection of errors and omissions
Facilities Statistical Computation
Definition of Data Validation

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As defined by United Nations Economic Commission of Europe (UNECE 2013),
data validation is an activity aimed at verifying whether the value of a data item comes
from the given (finite or infinite) set of acceptable values.
Data validation means checking the accuracy and quality of source data before
using, importing or otherwise processing data. Different types of validation can be
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performed depending on destination constraints or objectives.
Data validation is a form of data cleansing.
For example, an email question will automatically check if the data entered is a
valid email. A phone number question can check whether the phone number has the
right number of digits, based on its country code.
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Reasons for performing Data Validation

The following are the reasons for validating data:
●● It is cost-effective because the collection of datasets saves the right amount of

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time and money.

●● Because it removes duplicates from the entire dataset, it is simple to use and
compatible with existing processes.
●● With improved information collection, data validation can directly aid in
business improvement.
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●● It’s made up of a data-efficient structure that provides information from a

standard database as well as a cleaned dataset.

Types of Validity
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1. Content validity:
The extent to which the items’ content adequately represents the universe of all
relevant items under investigation. Is it true that samples are representative of the
population/universe?
2. Criterion Validity
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The extent to which each criterion can be measured correctly. For instance,
consider a family’s income.
3. Construct Validity -
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The construct validity of a scale or test refers to how well it measures the construct.
For example, a doctor might assess the effectiveness of a painkiller. Each day, he
tries to assess the level of pain by asking his patients to rate pain on a 1-10 scale.
Whether its pain or numbness, he’s measuring it.
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Unit-2.3: Sampling
Notes
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Unit Objectives:
At the end of this unit, participants will be able to learn:
●● Describe sampling
●● Analyze sampling plan and sampling frame
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●● List steps involved in sampling process
●● Identify different sample selection methods
●● Describe probability and non-probability sampling techniques
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●● Identify sampling and non-sampling errors
2.3.1 Introduction to Sampling

Sample-
It is a subset of population

Bryman & Bell– ni
“Segment of population that is selected for investigation.”
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“Some of the elements of population”
Cooper & Schindler–
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A sample, in research terms, is a group of people, objects, or items selected for

measurement from a larger population. To ensure that the findings from the research
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sample can be applied to the entire population, the sample should be representative of
the population.
What is the purpose of sampling?

Inferential statistics enable us to determine a population’s characteristics by directly
observing only a portion (or sample) of the population, allowing us to draw conclusions
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about populations from samples.
We obtain a sample of the population for a variety of reasons, including the fact
that it is rarely practical and almost never cost-effective.

Many populations are quite large

Notes
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●● Inaccessibility of some populations: Access to some populations is so difficult
that only a sample can be used. Prisoners, people with severe mental illness, and
disaster survivors are just a few examples. And so on. The inaccessibility could be
due to a lack of funds, time, or simply access.
●● Destructiveness of observation: Sometimes just observing a product’s desired
characteristic destroys it for its intended use. Quality control is a good example of
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this. For example, a fuse must be destroyed to determine its quality and whether it
is defective.
●● As a result, if you tested all of the fuses, they’d all blow up.
●● Accuracy and sampling: A sample of the study population may be more accurate
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than the entire population. A population that has been incorrectly identified can
provide less reliable data than a sample that has been carefully selected.
2.3.2 Sampling Plan and Sampling Frame
Definition of Sampling Plan
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A sampling plan is a term widely used in research studies that provide an outline
on the basis of which research is conducted. It tells which category is to be surveyed,
what should be the sample size and how the respondents should be chosen out of the
population. Sampling plan is the base from which the research starts and includes the
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following major decisions:
i. Choose the population

Choosing the category of the population to be surveyed is the first and the foremost
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decision in a sampling plan that initiates the research.
ii. Determine the Sample Size

The second decision in sampling plan is determining the size of the sample i.e.,
how many objects in the sample is to be surveyed. Generally, “the larger the sample
size, the more is the reliability” and therefore, researchers try to cover as many samples
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as possible.
iii. Decide the Sampling Procedure

The final decision that completes the sampling plan is selecting the sampling
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procedure i.e., which method can be used such that every object in the population
has an equal chance of being selected. Generally, the researchers use the probability
sampling to determine the objects to be chosen as these represents the sample more
accurately.
Definition of Sampling Frame

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A sampling frame is a list or database from which a sample can be used. In market
research terms, a sampling frame is a database of potential respondents that can be
drawn from, to invite to take part in a given research project.

2.3.3 Steps involved in Sampling Process

Notes
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The following are the series of steps that are involved in the sampling process:
●● Define the population

●● Determine the sampling frame
●● Select the sampling techniques / method
●● Determine the sample size
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●● Execute the sampling process
2.3.3.1 Sample Selection Methods

The sample selection methods can be broadly classified into:
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●● Probability Sampling
●● Non-Probability Sampling
2.3.3.2 Probability Sampling

The various Probability sampling methods are given below:
●●
●●
●●
Simple random sampling
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Sampling ni
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●● Cluster Sampling
●● Multistage Sampling
2.3.4 Simple Random Sampling

A probability sample in which each element of population has a known & equal
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chance of selection
E.g. Population = Total students in AMITY (591)
Sample size = 25 students
Sample size
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Probability of selection = -----------------------

Population size
= 25/591
= 0.042 or 4.2%
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Systematic Sampling
Notes
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A probability sample drawn by applying a calculated skip interval to a sample
frame.
Formula to calculate skip interval-
Population sample frame (N)

Skip interval (k) = ------------------------------------------------
Sample Size (n)
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E.g. Population = Total students in AMITY (591)
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Population sample frame (N)
Skip interval (k) = ------------------------------------------------
Sample Size (n)
= 591/25
= 23.64 = 23
a gap of 23 numbers.
k = 23
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Select any number randomly between 1 – 23, and then select rest 24 numbers with
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Select any number randomly between 1 – 23, and then select rest 24 numbers with
a gap of 23 numbers.
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Stratified Sampling
A probability sampling technique in which the population is divided into different
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sub-homogeneous groups or strata and samples are randomly selected from such sub-
groups or strata.
E.g. Population = Total students in JSPM (591)
Sub groups-
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MBA = 272 MMM = 42
MPM = 59 DBM = 92

DIEM = 37 MCA = 59
Notes
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MCM = 30
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Cluster Sampling
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A probability sampling technique in which the population is divided into several
small sub groups and some groups selected randomly for study.
e.g. MBA = 272 MMM = 42

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MPM = 59 DBM = 92
DIEM = 37 MCA = 59
MCM = 30
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MCM = 30 and MMM = 42 randomly selected from above groups.

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Notes
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2.3.5 Non - Probability Sampling
been chosen with care.

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Also known as ‘deliberate,’ ‘purposeful,’ or ‘judgement’ sampling. The items have
The researcher’s choice of elements to include in the sample. There is no

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guarantee that each element will be given an equal chance to be chosen as a sample.
Convenience Sampling
A non-probability sampling technique where researcher use any readily available
individuals as participants
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Most cheapest& easiest to conduct
Least reliable
Researcher is free to select anybody as sample

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Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

A non-probability sample that conforms to certain criteria. The units or elements are
purposively selected.
Purposive sampling is a sampling method in which elements are chosen based on

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purpose of the study. Purposive sampling may involve studying the entire population of
some limited group or a subset of a population). As with other non-probability sampling
methods, purposive sampling does not produce a sample that is representative
of a larger population, but it can be exactly what is needed in some cases - study of
organization, community, or some other clearly defined and relatively limited group
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Quota Sampling
A purposive sampling where relevant characteristics are used to stratify the
samples.

This is useful to increase the representativeness of samples

Notes
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MBA = 272 46% 12
MMM = 42 7% 2
MPM = 59 10% 2
DBM = 92 16% 4
DIEM = 37 6% 2
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MCA = 59 10% 2
MCM = 30 5% 1
Total = 591 100% 25
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Snowball Sampling
A non- probability sampling in which subsequent participants are referred by
current sample elements.
Initial individuals are discovered/identified
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These initial individuals refer others who are similar to them and so on. Like a
snowball gathers subjects as its rolls along.
2.3.6 Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors

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Definition of Sampling Error
Sampling error refers to differences between the sample and the population that,
exist only because of the observations that happened to be selected for the sample.
Increasing the sample size will reduce this type of error.

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Definition of Non-Sampling Error

Non-sampling errors are more serious, and they occur as a result of data
acquisition errors or incorrect sample observation selection.
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Non-Sample Errors
Non-sample errors can be classified into:
●● Non-response Error
●● Response Error
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Non-Response Error
A non-response error occurs when units selected as part of the sampling procedure
do not respond in whole or in part.
Response Error
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A response or data error is any systematic bias that occurs during data collection,
analysis or interpretation.

Response errors occur due to the following factors:

Notes
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●● Respondent Error (example: lying, forgetting, etc.,)
●● Interviewer Errors
●● Recording Errors
●● Poorly designed questionnaires.
●● Measurement errors.
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Notes
Module-3: Experiments
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Structure:
Unit-3.1: Design of Experiments

3.1.1: Objectives
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3.1.2: Strategies
3.1.3: Pre-Experimental Research Design
3.1.4: Quasi-Experimental Research Design
3.1.5: True Experimental Research Design
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3.1.6: Factorial Experimental Design
3.1.7: Designing Engineering Experiments
3.1.8: Causal Attributions
3.1.9: Statistical Control
Unit-3.2: Basic Principles

3.2.1: Validity
3.2.2: Reliability
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3.2.3: Replication
3.2.4: Randomization
3.2.5: Blocking
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3.2.6: Orthogonality
3.2.7: Guidelines for designing experiments
3.2.8: False Positives
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Unit-3.1: Design of Experiments Notes
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Unit Objectives:
Objectives: From this chapter, we can learn about
●● How to design an experiment.

●● How many types of experiments are there.
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●● What is the basic principle for an experiment.
●● How an engineering experiment will be conducted.
●● The Attributes
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Experimental research is conducted with a scientific approach while keeping a
set of variables constant and measuring the other set of variables as the subject of an
experiment. A highly effective quantitative research technique, experimental research is
particularly useful when the researcher does not have enough information to arrive at
meaningful conclusions and have to carry out experiments to prove facts. Experimental
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research, thus, helps a researcher make important decisions. It is considered
successful only when the researcher assures that a change in the dependent variable is
wholly due to a change in the independent variable
3.1.1 Objectives
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The results of experimental research should help a researcher establish a causal
relationship between the dependent and independent variables in a given phenomenon.
Effects are observed, during an experiment, due to the underlying cause. Experimental
research is conducted when:
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●● There exists a constant and consistent relationship between the cause and the
effect
●● Time is a crucial factor for establishing a relationship between cause and effect
●● The factors that drive the success of experimental research are:
●● Control group (a group of research participants that are familiar with the
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experimental group but experimental research rules do not apply to them)

●● The experimental group (Research participants on whom experimental
research rules apply)
●● Variable that can be manipulated by the researcher
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●● Random assignment or distribution of the participants in a group
3.1.2 Strategies
It is the purpose of experimental design to obtain a maximum of information with
minimal time. Experiments mainly planned by knowledgeable people who can:
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a. Formulate the problem and find the desired set of properties.

For example, it may be desired to produce glass bottles in a factory with high
protections for some specific legal requirements.

b. Clarify all possible influences on those properties, including process parameters

Notes and the chemical glass composition.
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The preparation of good quality glass bottles could be influenced by the chemical
glass composition and the resulting transition temperature, the raw material suppliers,
the kind and amount of cullet used, the process parameters, the experience, salary, and
motivation of the personnel involved in the production, the day of production within a
weeks work (e.g., weekend or workday), and many other influences.
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c. Select thesignificant influences andprimary causes without oversimplifying or
overcomplicating the problem.
An experienced engineer may estimate that, for example, that the day of
production does not influence the quality of glass bottles significantly, despite the
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different working atmosphere on weekends. On the other hand, the engineer may
recognize the glass bottle annealing schedule and the transition temperature among
the most important influences on the quality that must not be neglected. The transition
temperature, however, may be deemed not to be a primary cause because it largely
depends on the chemical glass composition. Therefore, the transition temperature as a
possible variable could be replaced by the glass composition.
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d. Express the influences in numerical variables.
Most influences can be easily expressed in meaningful numbers, while qualities
such as the experience of personnel should be simplified and categorized in levels like
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1 (little experience) to 3 (much experience). Similarly, the type of raw material supplier
may be categorized.
e. Estimate the magnitude of expected effects, D, of those variables on the

desired properties, if possible, from similar studies, and define the required and
available measurement precision, for each technique used.
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An estimation of the magnitude of the expected effects in relation to the

measurement precision is important because if the variables are modified too little, no
effect will be observed. For instance, a change of the cooling rate during glass bottle
annealing of 1oC/min may result in a strength change of 5-20%, which may be well
measurable.
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f. predict whether the expected effects of the variables are linear, independently
of the values of the variables.
It could occur that a cooling rate change of 1oC/min is expected to influence the
glass bottle strength by 5-20%, but at the same time, a cooling rate change of 2oC/
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min is expected to influence the glass bottle strength for 20-50%, i.e., the effect of the
cooling rate is probably not linear.
g. Guess possible dependencies of variables on one another (variable interaction).

For example, it could be expected based on previous experience that a cooling rate
change of 1oC/min influences the glass bottle strength much more or less than 5-20% if
the percentage of cullet used for glass melting is modified or if alumina is introduced in
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the glass not as feldspar but as hydroxide. The influence of cullet and alumina may be
traced back to the glass composition as a primary cause.

h. Set practical upper and lower bounds on the variables, the desired properties,
and also on the variable combinations if variable interactions exist. Notes
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Variables seldom can be modified completely arbitrarily. For example, the cooling
rate during glass bottle annealing can not exceed the limits of safe operation of the
machine, and the chemical glass composition is subject to financial and environmental
restrictions. It may also not be reasonable to investigate the strength of glass bottles
below a certain limit where even careful handling leads to breakage. If variable
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interaction exists between the glass bottle cooling rate and the percentage of cullet
used for glass melting (i.e., the glass composition), it is likely that the full range of all
possible cooling rate - glass composition combinations should not be investigated
because undesirably low strength data may result or technical or financial limitations
exist.
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i. apply experimental design matrix types accordingly. The more information that
can be gathered beforehand, the less intensive work will be required for the
final experimental plan.
The mean of many measurements is more reliable than one single or a few
measurements. In other words: the error of the mean decreases with an increasing
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number of measurements as depicted. Similarly, the effect of a variable is best
determined by comparing means against means. When analyzing experimental
findings, two types of errors are possible: an effect could be declared although there
is none in fact (error type 1), or a real effect could go undetected (error type 2). To
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defend properly against both types of errors, one must run n = 16 • s2/D2 experiments
at each variable level (= variable value) and use a statistical significance test to
compare the mean of the results. For example, if it would be desirable to find out if
a change in the glass composition decreases the annealing point for 10oC (D = 10)
and the measurement precision is 5oC (s = 5), one would need to run 16 • 52 / 102
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= 4 experiments with each of the two glass compositions and compare the mean of
the results for statistical significance. If several variables need to be considered, the
number of experiments required for a thorough investigation could thus become very
large. A proper experimental design can reduce the effort significantly.
3.1.3 Pre-Experimental Research Design

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●● Simplest form of experimental research design

●● A group, or various groups, are kept under observation after the cause and effect
relationship is determined
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●● Generally conducted to understand whether further investigation needs to be

carried out on the target group(s)
●● Cost-effective
Ex:An example of this would be a teacher using a new instructional method for
their class.
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3.1.4 Quasi-Experimental Research Design

●● Resembles true experimental research but is not the same
●● The control group is missing
●● The participants of a group are not randomly assigned

Notes
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●● Used in cases where random assignment is either irrelevant or not required
Ex:We choose two similar groups of children who attend different schools, one of
which implements the new program while the other does not
3.1.5 True Experimental Research Design
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●● Most accurate form of experimental research design
●● Depends on statistical analysis to prove or disprove a hypothesis
●● Only type of experimental research design that can establish a cause-effect
relationship within a group/a few groups
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●● Commonly used in Physical Sciences
3.1.6 Factorial Experimental Design

With the help of factorial design, the researcher can test two or more variables at a
time moment. It helps to determine the effect of each and every variable and measure
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the interactingeffect of the several variables.
Example:A departmental store wants to study the impact of price reduction on a

product.Given that, there is also promotion (POP) being carried out in the stores
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(a) near the entrance
(b) atthe usual place, at the same time.
Now assume that there are two price levels, namely regular price P1 and reduced-
price P2. Let there be three types of POP, namely R1, R2, & R3. There are 3 ×2 =
6 combinations possible. The combinations possible are R1P1, R1P2, R2P1, R2P2,
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R3P1, R3P2.Which of these combinations is best suited is what the researcher is

interested in. Suppose there are120 departmental stores of the chain divided into
groups of 20 stores. Now, randomly assign theabove combination to each of these 20
stores as follows:
Combinations Sales
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R1P1 S1
R1P2 S2
R2P1 S3
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R2P2 S4
R3P1 S5
R3P2 S6
S1 TO S6 represents the sales resulting out of each variable. The data gathered
will provide
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details on product sales on account of two independent variables.
The two questions that will be answered are:
1. Is the reduced price more effective than the regular price?

2. Is the display at the entrance more effective than the display at the usual
location? Notes
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Also, theresearch will tell us about the interaction effect of the two variables.
The outcome of the experiment on sales is as follows:
1. Price reduction with a display at the entrance.

2. Price reduction with a display at the usual place.
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3. No display and the regular price applicable
4. Display at the entrance with regular price applicable
3.1.7 Designing Engineering Experiments
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In engineering,experiments are a natural part ofthe decision-making process.
Just like for an example, a civil engineer is investigating the effects of different
curing methods on the mean compressive strength of concrete. The experiment
consistsof several test specimens of concrete by using each and every proposed
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method of curing and then testing the compressive strength of each specimen. The
data collected from this experimentis used to determinewhich curing method is perfect
for providing maximum mean compressive strength.
If there are only two curing methods of interest, this experiment could be
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designed and analyzed using the statistical hypothesis methods for two samples. The
experimenter has a single factor of interest—curing methods—and there are onlytwo
levels of the factor. If the experimenter is interested in determining which curing
methodproduces the maximum compressive strength, the number of specimens to test
can be determinedfrom the operating characteristic curves, and the t-test can beused to
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decide if the two means differ.
Many single-factor experiments require that more than two levels of the factor be
considered.
For example, the civil engineer may want to investigate five different curing
methods.
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Statistically based experimental design techniques are useful in the engineering

world for increasing the performance level of a manufacturing process and also
used to development of new processes. Most processes can be described in terms
ofseveral controllable variables, like temperature, pressure, and feed rate. By using
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designedexperiments, engineers can determine which subset of the process variables

has the greatestinfluence on process performance. The results of such an experiment
can lead to
●● Improved process.
●● Reduced variability in the process and conformance to nominal or
targetrequirements
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●● Reduced design and development time

●● Reduced cost of operation

These methods are also useful in engineering design activities to develop new
Notes products and improve existing ones. Some typical applications of statisticallydesigned
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experiments in engineering design include
●● Evaluation and comparison of basic design configurations

●● Evaluation of different materials
●● Selection of design parameters by which the product will work well under a
wide varietyof field conditions
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●● Determination of key product design parameters that affect product
performance
The use of experimental design in the engineering design process can result in
products that are easier to manufacture, products that have better field performance
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and reliability than their competitors, and products that can be designed, developed,
and produced in less time.
Designed experiments are usually employed sequentially.
●● At first, experiment that with many controllable variables, a screening

experiment designed to determine which variables are most important.
●●
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Subsequent experiments are applied on these critical variables to refine
the collected information and determine which adjustmentsare required to
improve the process.
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●● Finally, the experimenter optimized which levels of the critical variables result
inthe best process performance.
●● Every experiment involves a sequence of activities like as:
1. Conjecture—the original hypothesis to motivate the experiment.
2. Experiment—the test performed to investigate the conjecture.
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3. Analysis—the statistical analysis of the data from the experiment.

4. Conclusion—what has been learned about the original conjecture from the
experiment.
Often the experiment will lead to a revised conjecture, and a new experiment, and
so on.The statistical methods are essential to goodexperimentation. All experiments are
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designed experiments; unfortunately, some of themare poorly designed, and as a result,

valuable resources are used ineffectively. But statisticallydesigned experiments permit
efficiency and economy in the experimental process, and theuse of statistical methods
in examining the data results in scientific objectivity when drawing conclusions.
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3.1.8 Causal Attributions

One of the essential elements of an impact evaluation is that it not only measures
or describes changes that have occurred but also find to understand the role of
particular interventions (programmes or policies) for producing these changes. That
process named causal attribution, causal contribution or causal inference. Here we
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described the various ways of causal attributionexamination with the help of research
design, respective data collection and strategies analysis. The OECD-DAC definition of
impact makes it clear that an impact evaluation must establish what has been the cause

of observed changes: “Positive and negative, primary and secondary long-term effects
produced by a development intervention, directly or indirectly, intended or unintended.” Notes
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1. Causal attribution is defined by OECD-DAC as: “Ascription of a causal link between
observed (or expected to be observed) changes and a specific intervention.”
2. This definition does not require that changes are produced solely or wholly by the
programme or policy under investigation
3. In other words, it takes into consideration that other causes may also have been
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involved, for example, other programmes/policies in the area of interest or certain
contextual factors (often referred to as ‘external factors’). Evaluations produce
stronger and more useful findings if they not only investigate the links between
activities and impacts but also investigate links along the causal chain between
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activities, outputs, intermediate outcomes and impacts.
Sole causal attribution: Here the programme or policy is both necessary and
sufficient to produce the impacts, independent or relatively independent of contextual
factors or other interventions.
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In practical view, science programmes or policies are not sufficient to produce the
intended impacts alone; that’s why they’re used various alternative ways to achieve the
intended impacts. So it’s called a rarely useful model of cause and effect for impact
evaluation.
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Joint causal attribution: Here,the programme or policy produced the impacts

using conjunction with other programmes/policies / certain contextual factors. It can
also include factors to do with the implementation environment, such as the skills
and infrastructure of implementing partners or to do with the participants. Just for an
example, in terms of their levels of motivation and prior knowledge. The impacts will not
be achieved or will be achieved to a much lesser extent if these contributing factors are
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either absent or negative.
This is a very common situation, where a programme will only work effectively if
favourable conditions are present and/or unfavourable conditions are removed. For
example, if a programme is found only to work in a place where there is transparency
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about government funding allocations, then it should only be implemented in situations

where this already exists or in conjunction with efforts to achieve transparency. In order
to identify these other contributing factors, it is important both to develop a good theory
of change that includes them – based on previous research and existing knowledge –
and to gather data about them.
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Notes
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Alternative (or multiple) causal paths: Here, the programme or policy is just one
of several possible ways to achieve the impacts. A particular programme or policy can
produce the impacts, but they can also come about through other interventions and/or
external factors.
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This can happen when participants are able to access services through an
alternative provider or when different programmes by different providers are intended to
produce the same impact. For example, a number of programmes might aim to reduce
infant mortality – some by improving nutrition, some by reducing waterborne diseases
and some through immunization.
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If a counterfactual design is used, where participants are compared to non-

participants, it is important to investigate what services the non-participants are
accessing. If a programme is intended to produce impacts that are also the goal of
other programmes, it is especially important to identify intermediate outcomes in the
theory of change and to collect data about these. There are three big strategies for
causal attribution in impact evaluations:
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●● Estimating the counterfactual (what will happen in the absence of the

intervention, compared to the observed situation)
●● Checking the consistency of evidence for the causal relationships made
explicit in the theory of changeruling out alternative explanations through a
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logical,evidence-based process.
●● Using a combination of these strategies can usually help to increase the
strength of the conclusions.
It is important that all impact evaluations systematically undertake causal
attribution. But there must also be recognition of what can be realistically achieved by
a single evaluation – especially when there is limited time for iterative data collection
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and analysis. A single impact evaluation can add to the evidence base, but even where
there is a reasonable degree of confidence that the programme or policy caused the
observed impacts, this does not mean that the evaluation has examined all aspects of

the intervention or how it will work in other settings or at other times. A synthesis of
findings across impact evaluations thus provides stronger evidence than can a single Notes
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evaluation about thegeneralizability of the effects observed.
Main points
Causal attribution investigates the causal links between a programme or other
intervention and observed changes.
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L attribution is an essential element of impact evaluation.
There are several strategies for examining causal attribution, all of which benefit
from being based on a sound theory of change.
The ‘best fit’ strategy for causal attribution depends on the evaluation context as
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well as what is being evaluated.
3.1.9 Statistical Control

Statistical control mainly happens through several control chart (provides
information which serves as a basis for action). Control charts are effective only
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if those responsible for making decisions act on the information the chart reveals. In
other words, control charts are tools that can be used, misused, or not used at all.
Their effectiveness is directly related to the understanding of and proper application by
the people. The control chart is a graphical representation of this monitoring process.
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Control charts are all basically like the conceptual chart with the vertical axis; a scale
is established consistent with the data being collected. The horizontal axis reflects the
data sequence or time interval. As data is obtained, it can be plotted relative to these
two axes.
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The two major divisions in control charts result from the fact that there are two
types of data - variable data and attribute data.
Whenever a record is made of an actually measured quality characteristic, such as

a dimension expressed in thousandths of an inch, the quality is said to be expressed by
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variables. Variables are
Variables Charts
_
X – R Average and Range

Notes X~- R Median and Range
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_
X - S Average and Standard Deviation
X – Rm Individual and Moving Range
Attributes Charts
p Fraction Nonconforming
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np Number of nonconforming Units
c Number of Nonconformities
u Number of Nonconformities per unit
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Requirements for Using Control Charts
Before applying control chart techniques to any process or operation, certain
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essential requirements must be satisfied. First, the people in decision-making positions
should understand and support efforts to continually improve processes and quality
through the use of statistical methods such as control charts. When this has been
achieved, the following criteria must be satisfied for a business to really experience
process improvement using control charts
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●● Understand the process being studied. Understanding is necessary in order
to make decisions regarding chart selection, sample size, sampling frequency,
characteristics to be monitored and actions that can be taken to reduce variability.
●● Determine what characteristics are to be monitored. Usually, these would be the
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ones most critical for the satisfactory functioning of the process or product or
perhaps the ones with the tightest specifications. They could be the characteristics
most often found to be nonconforming or the ones most expensive to repair. A
technique such as Pareto analysis is often used to select a single character to be
charted.
●● Define and understand the measurement system. The data on the chart is going
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to be no better than the measuring processor device. The required accuracy must
be established so that proper measuring equipment can be selected. Measuring
equipment should be reviewed for accuracy and repeatability and calibrated
regularly.
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●● Select a chart type to best accomplish the purpose. Often this is dictated by the
cost of measurement and the loss incurred if important changes go undetected
when and if they should occur. Also, the type of information needed may dictate
which chart to use.
●● In general, use an attribute chart if
●● Measurements are not possible, as in visual inspection.
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●● Measurements are not practical due to the cost of measuring equipment or

excessive testing time.

●● The part has many characteristics to evaluate.

Notes
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●● Plans are to use 100% inspection.
Use a variables chart if
●● A critical characteristic or a variable characteristic is involved.

●● More precise control is desired than is possible with attribute charts.
Also, determine the sample size and frequency, and in variables charts, the
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common sample size is five. The subgroup of a sample mustbe selected to allow a
minimum opportunity for variation within the group. However, the larger the sample size,
the more normal the distribution of subgroup averages even if the population is non-
normal. The economy is a big factor to determine the sample sizes.
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Whereas the attribute charts work with a much larger sample size (30 to several
hundred or more). Since the attribute data may be available from valid preexisting
reports or studies,thenthe time and expense have already been incurred.
Control Chart Selection
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In manufacturing plants, when unfortunately arise some type of process trouble,
then control charts can be invaluable trouble-shooting aids for the engineer as well as
for the operators. Control charts provide information mainly in four primary areas likes:
●● Primary variability of the characteristic

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●● Consistency of performance
●● The average level of the characteristic
●● Type of variability present
The following steps are a general flow chart selection guide for the different types
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of basic control charts.
●● Process control charts are tools that help us analyze data, mainly distinguish
between variability as a result of common causes or specialcauses.
●● If only common causes arepresent, then Processes are in control.
●● If special causes arepresent, then Processes are out of control.
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●● The two general categories of control charts are Variables Control Charts and
Attribute Control Charts.
●● Tables ofc onstants have been developed for use with control charts to utilize the
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relationship between the samples and the population.

●● When the population is used to determine the control limits for an average and
range chart, false indications of the state of control are evident because the
control limits are to be based on the sampling distribution of averages and not
the population distribution of individual values. The same holds true for the other
variables charts.
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Steps for Developing and Plotting A Variables Control Chart

●● Enter the heading information such as the name of the part, the part number,
Notes department, machine number, plant identification, an operation being performed,
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etc.,into the chart.
●● Record the information of the sample, likes the date, the sample was taken, the
time, the initials of the checker, and the shift on which the samples were taken.
●● Entered the measured data in particular places.
●● Calculate the statistic average, the median, the range, the standard deviation, or
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otherstatistics being monitored.
●● Establish the scales for the graphs becausescales should be used to do the
plotting. As a general rule, the range of values for the central tendency measure
should be either the product specification or twice the difference in the highest and
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lowest subgroup statistics.
●● Plot thedata.
●● Calculate and plot the central lines for both portions of the chart - central tendency
and variability. These should be drawn in as solid lines andlabelled.
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●● Calculate and plot the control limits. These are calculated
using the specific formulas for the statistics being monitored.
Thecontrollimitsshouldbedrawninasdashedlineson the chart andlabelled.
●● Interpret the chart.
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Control Limit Calculations
As you remember from the section “Introduction to Control Charts”, the upper and
lower control limits are, in reality, simply the ±3σ limits for the sample statistic. Let’s look
at the formulas which_
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Have been developed for X and R charts.

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SampleSize(n) Chart Type

>20, notconstant p chart
>20, constant np chart
>1; <20, not constant u chart
1 c chart
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Summary

●● What is design experiments

Notes
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●● Strategies applied to design an experiment.
●● Casual attribution applied in experiments.
●● Statistical control on experiments.
Questions:
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●● What is the factorial design?
●● Discus Quasi experiment with example
●● Discus Pre experiment with example
●● Discus True experiment with example
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●● Difference between the above three experiments.
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)A
(c

Unit-3.2: Basic Principles

Notes
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Unit Objectives:
●● Discus about the Validity function.
●● Discus about Reliability function.
●● Discus about the Replication function.
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●● Designing Engineering Experiments
3.2.1 Validity
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Validity refers to how accurately a method measures what it is intended to
measure. If research has high validity, that means it produces results that correspond
to real properties, characteristics, and variations in the physical or social world.High
reliability indicates that measurement is valid, but if a method is not reliable, thenit is
probablynot valid. For example,if the thermometer shows different temperatures each
time, even though you have carefully controlled conditions to ensure the sample’s
its measurements are not valid.
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temperature stays the same, the thermometer is probably malfunctioning, and therefore
If a symptom of questionnaire results in a reliable diagnosis when answered at

different times and with different doctors, this indicates that it has high validity as a
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measurement of the medical condition
However, reliability on its own is not enough to ensure validity. Even if a test is
reliable, it may not accurately reflect the real situation.
Construct The attachment of a A self-esteem questionnaire could be

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measure to existing theory assessed by measuring other attributes

and knowledge of the known or assumed to be related to the
concept being measured. concept of self-esteem, like social skills
and optimism). There hasa correlation
between the scores for self-esteem, and
associated attributes would indicate high
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construct validity.
Content The measurement covers A test to measure a class of students’ level
all aspects of the concept of Bengali contains reading, writing and
being measured. speaking components, but no listening
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component. Experts agree that listening

comprehension is an essential aspect of
language ability, so the test lacks content
validity for measuring the overall level of
ability in Bengali.
Concept. A survey is conducted to measure the
exit poll of voters in a region. If the results
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accurately predict the later outcome of an

election in that region, this indicates that
the survey has high criterion validity

3.2.2 Reliability
Notes
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Reliability is a measure of the stability or consistency of every test. We can also
think of it as the ability for a test or research findings to be repeatable. For example,
a medical thermometer is a reliable tool that would measure the correct temperature
each time it is used. In the same way, a reliable math test will accurately measure
mathematical knowledge for every student who takes it, and reliable research findings
can be replicated over and over. There are basically two types of reliability Internal and
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External reliability.
Internal reliability, or internal consistency, is a measure by whichour test is

actually measuring what we want it to measure.
External reliability means that our test or measure can be generalized beyond
ve
what we’re using it for.
For example, a claim that individual tutoring improves test scores should apply to
more than one subject (e.g. to English as well as math). A test for depression should be
able to detect depression in different age groups, for people in different socio-economic
statuses, or introverts.
Coefficient Reliability
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A reliability coefficient is a measure of how well a test measures achievement. It is
the proportion of variance in observed scoresattributable to true scores (the theoretical
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“real” score that a person would get if a perfect test existed).
The several different coefficients are calculating through the several methods of
test; these are test-retest, parallel forms and alternate-form:
●● Cronbach’s alpha — the most widely used internal-consistency coefficient.

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●● A simple correlation between two scores from the same person is one of the
simplest ways to estimate a reliability coefficient. If the scores are taken at
different times, then this is one way to estimate test-retest reliability; Different
forms of the test given on the same day can estimate parallel forms reliability.
●● Pearson’s correlation can be used to estimate the theoretical reliability
coefficient between parallel tests.
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●● The Spearman-Brown formula is a measure of reliability for split-half tests.

●● Cohen’s Kappa measures integrator liability.
The range of the reliability coefficient is from 0 to 1. Rule of thumb for preferred
levels of the coefficient:
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●● For high stakes tests (e.g. college admissions), > 0.85. Some authors suggest
this figure should be above .90.
●● For low stakes tests (e.g. classroom assessment), > 0.70. Some authors
suggest this figure should be above 0.80
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3.2.3 Replication
Replication
IT without replication, it is impossible to judge whether there is an actual difference

between conditions or whether an observed difference is merely due to chance.

Notes
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For example, if we want to compare the height of two plant varieties by only taking
one plant height measurement and observing a difference of 20 cm. On the other hand,
if multiple plants of each variety are measured, and the height differences always turn
out somewhere around 10 cm, the observed difference is less likely due to chance. The
difference is strong relative to the variability between the measurements.
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ve
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A comparison between two groups
Comparison of two groups. The difference is strong relative to the variability

between the measurements within each group.
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3.2.4 Randomization
After careful identification of blocks, other factors may still influence the
experimental goal, like mouse age and sex differences and various genetic
backgrounds. Try to balance these factors, and we can use randomization techniques.
Randomization reduces confounding effects (distortion of the association between
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an exposure and an outcome that occurs) by equalizing variables that influence

experimental units and that have not been accounted for in the experimental design.
This requires randomly allocating the experimental units to the experimental conditions.
The allocation of units to conditions should not be predictable.
)A
For example, if an experiment compares the effect of a genetic modification on

potato growth, many potentially complex factors apart from the genetic modification
itself could influence growth: For example, the growth chamber could be slightly warmer
on one end than the other, the quality of the compost variable or different irrigation
techniques used. In this case, it will be necessary to randomize the positioning of the
plants.
(c

3.2.5 Blocking
Notes
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We want to do experiments within a homogeneous group of experimental units.
Those particular homogeneous groups called blocks try to reduce the variability
between the units and increase the meaning of differences between conditions.
For example, it is beneficial to take measurements for many experimental

conditions at the same time. If the measurements are completed over a more extended
period of time, then day-to-day variability between the measurements needs to be
rs
estimated and eliminated. If all control conditions are measured on one day and all
treatment conditions on another day, then it is not possible to disentangle the day effect
from the treatment effect and, in the worst case, the data become inconclusive. As a
general rule, at least some “common conditions” are essential to assess potential block
effects.
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As an example, assume there are six treatment conditions we want to apply to
mice (the experimental units), but we can fit only five mice per cage (i.e. block). In this
case, not all treatments can be applied simultaneously in each cage/block. We can
apply four identical treatments to each of the cages and only alternate the fifth condition
each time.Now, the “cage effect” can be estimated by computing the mean of the
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differences between the four treatments that are identical, as given by the formula. A
priori ,the conditions E and F are not directly comparable since they were measured on
mice from two different cages. However, the replicated treatments allow computation
of a “cage effect” that corresponds to the average difference between the identical
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conditions measured in the two cages. Then, the difference between E and F can be
computed as E − F − “cage effect”.
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Example of a simple batch effect correction
Illustration of batches and how to correct them. All but two treatments have been
applied to mice in two different cages (= batches). The batch/cage effect can now be
computed based on the treatments that are shared between the cages.
3.2.6 Orthogonality
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Orthogonality means “uncorrelated.” That means in an orthogonal model;all

the independent variables are uncorrelated. Butif one or more than one independent
variables are correlated, then that model is called non-orthogonal.

Notes
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The design on the left is balanced because it has even levels.
That term “orthogonal” basically applies to classic ANOVA. Where an orthogonal

ANOVA has all categorical independent variables, and each cell in a two-way table
has the same number of observations (balanced). Whereas general linear models are
never orthogonal, as at least one independent variable is not categorical (have one
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continuous variable).
In calculus-based statistics, we might also come across orthogonal functions,

defined as two functions with an inner product of zero, particularly useful for finding
solutions to partial differential equations like Schrodinger’s equation and Maxwell’s
equations.
Running Tests with Orthogonality:

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Orthogonality also makes a difference in how statistical tests are run. In orthogonal
models have one way to estimate model parameters and run statistical tests. But non-
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orthogonal models have several ways to do this, which means that the results can
be more complicated to interpret. That means more correlation between independent
variables means that we have to interpret the result very cautiously.
Whether a model is orthogonal or non-orthogonal is sometimes a judgment call.

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For example, let’s say you had four cells in an ANOVA: three cells have ten subjects,
and the fourth cell has nine subjects. Technically this is a non-balanced (and therefore
non-orthogonal) design. However, the missing subject in one cell will have very little
impact on results. In other words, you can treat this semi-unbalanced design as
orthogonal.
Roots in Matrix Algebra

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The term orthogonality comes from matrix algebra. Here two vectors are
orthogonal if the sum of the cross-element products is zero. For example, the cross
products of these two vectors are zero:
)A
2(4) + 3(-4) + 4(1) + 0(2) = 0.
The same matrix multiplication can be applied to cells in a two-way table.

(c
Orthogonality is present in a model if any factor’s effects sum to zero across the effects
of any other factors in the table.

3.2.7 Guidelines for Designing Experiments

Notes
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●● Recognition of Problem and statement of the problem (Pre-experimental planning)
●● Factor screening; Optimization; Confirmation; Discovery; Robustness
●● Selection of the response variable(Pre-experimental planning) Choice of factors,
levels, and ranges(Pre-experimental planning) Controllable; Uncontrollable; noise
factors;
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●● cause-and-effect diagram
●● Choice of experimental design Performing the Statistical experiment analysis of
the graphical data methods; empirical model
●● Conclusions and recommendations
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The proper use of statistical techniques in experimentation requires that the

experimenter keep the following points in mind:
●● Use your nonstatistical knowledge of the problem: knowledge in their fields

●● Keep the design and analysis as simple as possible
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●● Recognize the difference between practical and statistical significance

●● Experiments are usually iterative
3.2.8 False Positives

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A false positive is that where we get a positive result for a test when we should
have received negative results. For that, sometimes it’s called a “false alarm” or “false
positive error.” It’s usually used in the medical field, but it can also apply to another area
like software testing.
Some examples of false positives:

(c
●● The covid-19 test is positive, but in fact, the patient is not a covid-19 patient.
●● A cancer screening test comes back positive, but the patient doesn’t have the
disease.

●● A prenatal test comes back positive for Down’s syndrome when the
Notes patientfactor does not have the disorder.
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●● Virus software on our computer incorrectly identifies a harmless program as a
malicious one.
False positives can be worrisome, especially when it comes to medical tests.
Researchers are consistently trying to identify reasons for false positives in order to
make tests more sensitive.
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A related concept is a false negative, where you receive a negative result when you
should have received a positive one. For example, a pregnancy test may come back
negative even though the patient is pregnant.
The False Positive Paradox
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If a test for a disease is 99% accurate and we receive a positive result, what are
the odds that the patient actually have the disease?
If we said 99%, we might be surprised to learn we’re wrong. If the disease is very
common, our odds might approach 99%. But the rarer the disease, the less accurate
the test and the lower the odds that the patient actually has the disease. The difference
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can be quite dramatic. For example, if we test positive for a rare disease (one that
affects, say, 1 in 1,000 people), our odds might be less than percent of actually having
the disease! The reason involves conditional probability.
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Summary:
●● Discuss validity, replication, reliability
●● What is blocking
●● Guidelines for designing experiments
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●● False Positives
Descriptive Questions for You

1. Is there a requirement of all the basic principle to develop experiments?
2. Define various types of experiments,for example.
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3. Construct experiments whichare the basic question asking by the questioner.
Short answer type Question.

1. A false positive is
)A
a. get a positive result for a test

b. get a negative result for a test
c. get a positive/ negative result for a test
d. none
(c
2. Orthogonality in matrix algebra, a matrix is orthogonal if

a. two vectors are orthogonal
b. a sum of the cross-element products is zero

c. diagonal elements are zero

Notes
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d. a & b
3. Recognition of Problem and statement of the problem is called
a. Pre experimental design
b. Post experimental deign
c. Quasi experimental design.
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d. None
4. If research has high validity, that means
1. it produces results that correspond to real properties
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2. it produces results that correspond to real characteristics
3. it produces results that correspond to all variations.
4. All the above
5. Attribute charts work with
a. larger sample size
b.small sample size
c. random sample size
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d. none
6. applying control chart techniques to any process or operation must be satisfied
a. the people in decision-making positions
b. Understand the process being studied
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c. Determine what characteristics are to be monitored

d. all
7. Here, the programme or policy is just one of several possible ways to achieve the
impacts it is
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a. Alternative (or multiple) causal paths

b. Joint causal attribution
c. Sole causal attribution
d. None
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8. Here, the programme or policy is both necessary and sufficient to produce the
impacts it is
a. Alternative (or multiple) causal paths
b. Joint causal attribution
c. Sole causal attribution
(c
d. None

9. Every experiment involves a sequence of activities

Notes
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A . conjecture, experiments, analysis, conclusion.
b. experiments, conjecture, analysis, conclusion.
c. analysis, conjecture, experiments, conclusion
d. none
10. With the help of factorial design, the researcher can test...........
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a. two variables at a time
b. more than two variables at a time
c. Two or more variables at a time
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d. one variable at a time
Identify whether the following statement is true or false.

1. True Experimental Research Design, Only type of experimental research design that
can establish a cause-effect relationship within a group/a few groups.
same as it.
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2. Quasi-Experimental Research DesignResembles true experimental research as the
3. Pre-Experimental Research Design is a cost-effective design.

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4. Strategy is the purpose of experimental design to obtain a maximum of information
with minimal time
5. In engineering,experiments are not a natural part ofthe decision-making process
6. experiment that with many controllable variables, a screening experiment designed
to determine which variables are most important.
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7. Conjecture is not the original hypothesis to motivate the experiment

8. The OECD-DAC definition of impact makes it clear that an impact evaluation must
establish what has been the cause of observed changes: “Positive and negative
9. In Joint causal attribution of the programme or policy produced the impacts using
conjunction with other programmes/policies / certain contextual factors.
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10. Reliability is a measure of the stability or consistency of every test.
Ans:
)A
1. A,
2. D
3. a
4. d
5. a
(c
6. d
7. a
8. c
9. a
Notes
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10. c
True / False
1. T
2. F
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3. T
4. T
5. F
6. T
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7. F
8. T
9. T
10. T
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)A
(c

Module-4: Models and Hypothesis

Notes
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Structure:
Unit-4.1: Hypothesis Testing

4.1.1: Single Factor Experiment
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4.1.2: Introduction to Hypothesis
4.1.3: Types of Hypothesis
4.1.4: Testing Hypothesis and significance levels
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4.1.5: Type I & Type II Error(with example)
4.1.6: One-tailed and Two-tailed test
4.1.7: Degree of Freedom
4.1.8: Confidence Intervals
4.1.9: Bayesian statistics
Unit- 4.2: Analysis Variance

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4.2.1: ANOVA for fixed effect model
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4.2.2: Total, Treatment & error of Squares
4.2.3: ANOVA for random effect model
4.2.4: Estimation of Variance Components

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4.2.5: Properties of Estimators
4.2.6: Methods of Variance Component Estimation
4.2.7: Model Adequacy Checking

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Unit-4.1: Hypothesis Testing

Notes
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Unit Objectives:
Learn about single factor experiments
●● What is hypothesis
●● Types and Error of hypothesis
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●● Degree of freedom.
4.1.1 Single Factor Experiment

Frequently we wish to investigate the effect of a factor (independent variable) on a
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response (dependent variable). Then we carried out an experiment where the levels of
the factor are varied. Such kind of experiments is known as a single-factor experiment.
Thereare various types of designs available to carry out such experiment. The most
popular ones are completely randomized design, randomized block design, Latin
square design, and balanced incomplete block design.
Completely randomized design (CRD)
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The CRD is the simplest design. Suppose there are v treatments to be compared.
All experimental units are considered the same, and no division or grouping among
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them exist.
●● In CRD, the v treatments are allocated randomly to the whole set of experimental
units, without
●● making any effort to group the experimental units in any way for more
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homogeneity. Design is entirely flexible in the sense that any number of

treatments or replications may be used.
●● The numbers of replications for different treatments need not be equal and may
vary from treatment to
●● treatment depending on the knowledge (if any) on the variability of the
observations on individual treatments as well as on the accuracy required for the
m
estimate of individual treatment effect.

Example: Suppose there are four treatments and 20 experimental units, then
- the treatment one is replicated, say three times and is given to 3 experimental
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units,
- the treatment two is replicated, say five times and is given to 5 experimental
units,
- treatmentthree is replicated, say six times and is given to 6 experimental units
and
- finally, treatment four is replicated [20-(6+5+3)=] six times and is given to the
(c
remaining six experimental units.

All the variability among the experimental units goes into experimented error.

CRD is used when the experimental material is homogeneous.

Notes
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CRD is often inefficient.
CRD is more useful when the experiments are conducted inside the lab.
CRD is well suited for the small number of treatments and for the
homogeneous experimental material.
The layout of CRD Following steps are needed to design a CRD:
rs
Divide the entire experimental material or area into a number of experimental
units, say n
Fix the number of replications for different treatments in advance (forgiven total
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number of available experimental units).
No local control measure is provided as such except that the error variance can
be reduced by choosing a homogeneous set of experimental un
Procedure Let the v treatments are numbered from 1,2,...,v and I n be the number
of replications required for i the treatment such that
Σ ni=n.
n=i
ni
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●● Select n1 units out of n units randomly and apply treatment 1 to these n1
●● Select n2 units out of ( n- n1) units randomly and apply treatment 2 to these n2
units
●● Continue with this procedure until all the treatments have been utilized.
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●● Generally, an equal number of treatments are allocated to all the experimental

units unless nopractical limitation dictates or some treatments are more
variable or/and of more interest.
Analysis There is only one factor that is affecting the outcome – treatment effect.
So the set-up of one-way analysis of variance is to be used. :
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yij :Individual measurement of j the experimental units for i th treatment i = 1,2,...,v , j

= 1,2,..., n i .
v
yij: Independently distributed following N (ai μ,σ2 ) withΣniai.
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n=i
µ: overall mean
αi : i th treatment effect
H0 :α1 =α2=……… =αv=0

(c
H1: All ‘ αi s are not equal.

Data Layout for Single-Factor Experiments

Notes
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Treatment observations totals averages
1 y11y12 · · · y 1 ny 1 y¯ 1.
2 y21y22 · · · y 2 ny 2. y¯ 2
..........···
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.........
A y a 1ya 2 · · · yanya. y¯a.
Analysis of Variance
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●● Statistical Model (Factor Effects Model): yij = µ + τi + ǫij i = 1, 2 . . . , a
j = 1, 2, . . . ,ni
µ - grand mean;
τi - ith treatment effect;
iid
ǫij∼ N(0, σ 2 ) – error;
Constraint:=0 Conceptual Approach; SAS: τa = 0

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Estimates for parameters:
ˆμ = y.
ˆτi = (y/i. – y/.)

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ˆǫij= yij – y/i.

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SSt = SStreatment+ SSe
SSTreatments: sum of squares of differences between treatment averages and

grand average.
It is a measure of differences between treatment means.

(c
It has (a-1) DOF
SSE: sum of squares of differences of observations within treatments from the

treatment average.
●● It is due to random error.

Notes ●● It has (N-a) DOF.
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●● E(MSE) =σ2
Example
Twelve lambs are randomly assigned to three different diets. The weight gain (in
two weeks) is recorded. Is there a difference between the diets?
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Diet 1 8 16 9
Diet 2 9 16 21 11 18
Diet 3 15 10 17 6
ve
●● N = 12, ∑∑yij = 156 and y/= 156/12 = 13.
●● n1 = 3, y1. = 33, y/1. = 11; n2 = 5, y2. = 75, y/2. = 15; n3 = 4, y3. = 48 andy/3. = 12.
●●
ᴧ
τ1 =
y/1– y/ = 11 − 13 = −2; Similarly, ˆτ2 = 15 − 13 = 2 and
●● ˆτ3 = 12 − 13 = −1.
●● SST = ∑i∑j (yij– y/)2 = 246.
●●
●● ni
SSTreatment = 3 * (−2)2 + 5 * (2)2 + 4 * (−1)2 = 36.
SSE = 246 − 36 = 210;
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MSE = ˆσ2 = 210/(12 − 3) = 23.33
●● F0 = (36/2)/(210/9) = 0.77;
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P-value > 0.25;
Fail to reject H0 :τ1 = τ2 = τ3 = 0.
4.1.2: Introduction to Hypothesis

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What is a Hypothesis :
A hypothesis is a statement about the research problem and may or may not be
true. It is a tentative and testable relationship between at least two variables that require
research methodology for testing its authenticity. You are required to test the hypothesis
)A
and ascertain the truth in the way of research. Theory and hypothesis are completely
different. Unlike a hypothesis, a theory is a tested, well-substantiated, complete
explanation for a set of proven factors.
The term “hypo” means “subject to verification”, and “thesis” means “statement
about the solution of a problem”. Thus, “hypothesis” is “ a tentative statement, which is
subject to verification and states the solution of a problem”. Hypothesis offers a solution
(c
to the research problem that must be verified empirically
Study the below illustration to grasp the concept better.

Illustration:
Notes
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A renowned asset management company is in the process of launching a new
Mutual Fund. The fund is aimed at catering to the wealth-building needs of the Indian
middle-class population. The company wants to conduct detailed market research on
the popular choices of investment options in India. It recruits a research team, which
comes up with the research problem:
“Is Mutual Fund a popular investment option in India?”
rs
The team constructs a trio of hypotheses, namely
H0: The Indian middle-class population does not invest in Mutual Funds
H1: At least 20% of the Indian middle-class population invests in Mutual Funds
ve
H2: Less than 20% of the Indian middle-class population invests in Mutual Funds
Note that all three hypotheses have been phrased in a manner so that anyone is
correct. However, note all three cannot be correct or incorrect simultaneously. Also,
note that in order to make an effective decision, you need to select the first act if H1
is true and the second act if H2 is true. The decision of launching or not launching the
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Mutual Fund depends on whether H1 or H2 is true. The hypothesis H0 suggests that
the Indian middle-class population is completely indifferent towards Mutual Funds
Decisions taken based on the hypothesis selected

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If H1 Selected, then a decision is taken that (Launching the Mutual Fund).
But If H2 selected, then a decision is (Not to launch the Mutual Fund ).
Thus, the asset management company chooses to launch the mutual fund if H1
is true, i.e. if it is established from the market research that at least 20% of the Indian
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middle-class population invests in mutual funds. If established otherwise, i.e. if H2 is

true, the company decides not to launch the mutual fund.
Formulation of Hypothesis
For Discussing the process of formulating a hypothesis, we have to discuss a few

concepts,which are related to that.
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4.1.3: Types of Hypothesis

There are several types of hypothesis likes:
)A
●● Simple Hypothesis
●● Complex Hypothesis
●● Empirical Hypothesis
●● Null Hypothesis
●● Alternative Hypothesis
●● Logical Hypothesis
(c
●● Statistical Hypothesis

Simple Hypothesis
Notes
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In a simple hypothesis,there exists a relationship between two variables; one
is called an independent variable or cause, and the other is a dependent variable or
effect. For example
1. Smoking leads to Cancer

2. A high rate of unemployment leads to crimes.
rs
Complex Hypothesis
In a complex hypothesis,there exists a relationship among more variables (more
than two dependent and independent). For example
ve
1. Smoking and other drugs lead to cancer, chest infections etc.
2. The high rate of unemployment,poverty, illiteracy leads to crimes like dacoit, Robbery,
Rape, prostitution & killing etc.
Empirical / Working Hypothesis
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Working hypothesis is mainly applied to a particular field. At the time of formulation,
it is an assumption, but when it is readyfor a test to become an empirical or working
hypothesis.
Null Hypothesis
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It iscontrary to the positive statement of the empirical hypothesis, which has no
relationship between dependent and independent variable. It is denoted by ‘h0”.
Alternative Hypothesis
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Generally,many hypotheses are selected but select one from them which is more
workable and most efficient. That hypothesis is introduced later on due to changes in
the old formulated hypothesis. It is denoted by “h1”.
Logical Hypothesis
Here hypothesis is verified logically. J.S. Mill has given four cannons of this
m
hypothesis, e.g. agreement, disagreement, difference and residue.
Statistical Hypothesis
A hypothesis may be logical or illogical but can be verified statistically, called a
)A
statistical hypothesis.
4.1.4: Testing Hypothesis and significance levels
Testing Hypothesis
The test statistic is a function or estimator of the sample observations upon which
(c
the statistical decision will be based. The rejection region (RR) specifies the values
of the test statistic for which the null hypothesis is rejected in favour of the alternative
hypothesis.

●● If for a particular sample, the computed value of the test statistic falls in RR, we
reject the null hypothesis Ho and accept the alternative hypothesis H1. Notes
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●● If the value of the test statistic does not fall into the rejection (critical) region, we
accept Ho. The region, other than the rejection region, is the acceptance region.
Significance Level
The significance level is the critical probability in choosing between the null and the
rs
alternative hypotheses. It is the probability level that is too low to warrant the support of
the null hypothesis.
The significance level is customarily expressed as a percentage, such as 5% or

1%. A level of significance of, say, 5% is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis if
ve
it is true.
When the hypothesis in question is accepted at the 5% level, the statistician is

running the risk that, in the long run, he will be making the wrong decision about 5% of
the time.
4.1.5: Type I & Type II Error
Errors in Selecting Hypotheses

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We know that we have to conduct each step of research extremely carefully
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because a minor error in a step may corrupt the entire process and lead to wrong
decisions. Note that chances of major errors lie in the choice of hypothesis. The
common errors involved in the choice of hypothesis are Type1 & Type 2, which are
described below.
Error Explanation
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Type I H0 wrongly rejected

H1 wrongly accepted
Type II H0 wrongly accepted
H1 wrongly rejected
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Illustration:
A renowned channel of children’s conducts market research to find out the need for
)A
advertisement. The research team constructs the below hypotheses:
H0: At least 20 % of the viewing audience for children’s TV programmes consists of

adults.
H1: Less than 20 % of the viewing audience for children’s TV programmes consists of
adults.
Note: that in case the null hypothesis H0 is true, the company should advertise. On
(c
the contrary, in case the alternative hypothesis H1 is true, there is no need to advertise.
A hypothesis must be framed very carefully. There are high possibilities of errors
during each step of constructing a hypothesis. Note that hypotheses are constructed
in such a way that they cannot both be correct or incorrect simultaneously. To avoid
Notes erroneous decisions, we are required to select the first action (first hypothesis), if the
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first action is true,and the second one (second hypothesis), if the second action is true.
Decision-making on the basis of hypothesis testing runs the chance of errors

at every possible step. To explain errors in hypothesis, it is important for us to get
acquainted with the term “state of nature”, which means the true scenario in the
universe. The first chance of error lies with the first step of constructing a hypothesis -
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determining the relationship between the states of nature and the recommended action.
The second chance of error may occur if the research findings stand erroneous w.r.t the
state of nature.
The below table would help us understand the relationship between the states of
nature and the recommended action. This comprises two plausible states of nature and
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two alternative courses of action.
True state Conclusions
H0 True H1 True
H0
H1
True
True
ni No error
Type II error
Type I error
No error
From the above table, it is evident that, given that the relationship between
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the two states of nature and the two actions is true, there is no error if we arrive at
the conclusion that H0 is true. Likewise, there would be no error if we arrive at the
conclusion that H1 is true.
What would happen if the team accepts the wrong hypothesis? Would the
company take the wrong decision? Let me explain with the help of the two scenarios
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that may arise.
Hypothesis Status of acceptance Type of error Decision taken

chosen
H0 H0 wrongly rejected Type I No advertise-

and H1 wrongly accept- ments
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ed
H1 H1 wrongly rejected Type II Unnecessary
and H0 wrongly accept- costs incurred
ed due to advertise-
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ments
4.1.6: One-tailed and Two-tailed test

In the one-tailed test, the values of the parameter being studied under the
alternative hypothesis are allowed to be either greater or less than the values of the
(c
parameter under the null hypothesis, but not both. We formulate null and alternative
hypotheses for a one-tailed test as follows:

Null Hypothesis H0 : μ = μ0

Notes
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Alternative Hypothesis H1 : μ < μ0 or μ > μ0
Inthe two-tailed test, the values of the parameter being studied under the
alternative hypothesis are allowed to be greater or less than the values of the
parameter under the null hypothesis.
We formulate the hypotheses under the two-tailed test as follows:
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Null Hypothesis H0 : μ = μ0
Alternative Hypothesis H1: μ ≠ μ1
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4.1.7: Degree of Freedom
Definition
In a statistical calculation, the degrees of freedom represent the values involved
in a calculation have the freedom to vary. The degrees of freedom can be calculated
to help ensure the statistical validity of chi-square tests, t-tests and even the more
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advanced f-tests. These tests are commonly used to compare observed data with data
that would be expected to be obtained according to a specific hypothesis.
For example, let’s suppose a vaccine trial is conducted on a group of patients, and
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it is hypothesized that the patients receiving the vaccine would show increased heart
rates compared to those that did not receive the vaccine. The results of the test could
then be analyzed to determine whether the difference in heart rates is considered
significant, and degrees of freedom are part of the calculations. Because degrees
of freedom calculations identify how many values in the final calculation are allowed
to vary, they can contribute to the validity of an outcome. These calculations are
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dependent upon the sample size, or observations, and the parameters to be estimated,
but generally, in statistics,
Degrees of freedom =( The number of observations) –( The number of

parameters).
The formula for Degrees of Freedom

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Degrees of freedom equal the number of values in a data set minus 1 in a

statistical formulalike :
Degree of Freedom = N-1

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Here N is the number of values in the data set (sample size). For example, we
assume
If there is a data set of 4, that means N=4.
Let the data set is Dwith the values: 15, 30, 25, 10
The mean value of the above data set is 20.

(c
Mean= Sum of the values / N
= (15+30+25+10)/4

=(80)/4
Notes
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= 20
Using the formula, the degrees of freedom would be calculated as Degree of

Freedom = N-1:
In this example, Degree of Freedom = 4-1 = 3
This indicates that, in this data set, three numbers have the freedom to vary as
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long as the mean remains 20.
4.1.8: Confidence Intervals

What exactly is a confidence interval?
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A confidence interval is the mean of our estimate plus and minus the variation
in that estimate. Exactly this is the range of values that we expect our estimate to fall
between if we redo our test within a certain level of confidence.
Confidence, in statistics, is another way to describe probability. For example, if we
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construct a confidence interval with a 95% confidence level, then we are confident that
95 out of 100 times, the estimate will fall between the upper and lower values specified
by the confidence interval.
In statistical test:
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Confidence level = 1 − a
So if we use an alpha value of p < 0.05 for statistical significance, then our
confidence level would be 1 − 0.05 = 0.95, or 95%.
We can use confidence intervals for many kinds of statistical estimates, likes:
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Proportions
Population means
Differences between population means or proportions
Estimates of variation among groups

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These are all point estimates, and don’t give any information about the variation
around the number. Confidence intervals are useful for communicating the variation
around a point estimate.
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Example: Variation around an estimate we survey 100 Indian and 100 Americans
about their television-watching habits, and find that both groups watch an average of 35
hours of television per week.
However, the Indian people surveyed had a wide variation in the number of hours
watched, while the Americans all watched similar amounts.
Even though both groups have the same point estimate (average number of hours
(c
watched), the Indian estimate will have a wider confidence interval than the American
estimate because there is more variation in the data.

4.1.9: Bayesian statistics

Notes
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Bayesian statistics are a mathematical procedure that applies probabilities
to statistical problems.In Bayesian statistics, the interpretation of probability is a
description of how certain some statement, or proposition, is true.
●● If the probability is 1, then we are sure that the statement is true

●● If the probability is 0,then we are sure that the proposition is false.
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●● If the probability is 0.5, then we are in as uncertain state as we would be about a
fair coin toss.
If the probability is 0.95, then we’re quite sure the statement is true, but it wouldn’t
be too surprising to us if we found out the statement was false.
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0......................probability..........................1
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The above figure can say that probability can be used to describe degrees of
certainty or how plausible some statement is. 0 and 1 are the two extremes of the scale
and correspond to complete certainty. However, probabilities are not static quantities.
When we get more information, our probabilities can change.
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It might sound like there is nothing more to Bayesian statistics than just thinking
about a question and then blurting out a probability that feels appropriate. For example,
we may be on “Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?” and not know the answer to a question,
so we might think the probability that it is A is 25%. But if we call our friend using “phone
a friend”, and our friend says, “It’s definitely A”, then we would be much more confident
that it is A! our probability probably wouldn’t go all the way to 100%.
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We will now look at a simple example to demonstrate the basics of how Bayesian
statistics works.
●● We start with some probabilities at the beginning of the problem are called prior
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probabilities.
●● And how exactly these get updated when we get more information? These
updated probabilities are called posterior probabilities.
●● To make all these clearer, we will use a table that we will call a Bayes’ Boxto help
us calculate the posterior probabilities easily.
Assume there are two balls in a bag, where:
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●● at least one of them is black,

●● but we’re not sure whether they’re both black

●● or whether one is black and one is white.

Notes For the above, we consider two possibilities either both are black in colour or one is
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white, and another is black so that we can label our two competing hypotheses BB and
BW. So, at the
beginning of the problem, we know that one and only oneof the following
statements/hypotheses is true:
BB: Both balls are black
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BW: One ball is black and the other is white.
Suppose an experiment is performed to help us determine which of these two

hypotheses is true. The experimenter reaches into the bag, pulls out one of the balls,
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and observes its colour. The result of this experiment is
D: The ball that was removed from the bag was black.
The Baye’s Box
A Bayesian analysis starts by choosing some values for the prior probabilities with
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our two competing hypotheses BB and BW, and we need to choose some probability
values to describe how sure we are that each of these is true. Since we are taking two
hypotheses, then there will be two prior probabilities, one for BB and one for BW. For
simplicity, we will assume that we don’t have much of an idea that is true, and so we will
use the following prior probabilities:
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P (BB) = 0.5
P (BW) = 0.5.
The above two hypotheses are mutually exclusive (they can’t both be true) and
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exhaustive (one of these is true, it can’t be some undefined third option). The choice of
0.5 for the two prior probabilities describes the fact that, before we did the experiment,
we were very uncertain about which of the two hypotheses was true. Now present a
Byes’ Box, which lists all the hypotheses that might be true and the prior probabilities.
There are some extra columns which we haven’t discussed yet, and will be needed in
order to figure out the posterior probabilities in the final column. The first column of a
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Bayes’ Box is just the list of hypotheses we are considering. In
Hypotheses prior likelihood prior × likelihood posterior

BB 0.5
BW 0.5
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Totals: 1
this case there are just two. If need to construct a Bayes’ box for a new problem
then just think about what the possible answers to the problem are, and list them in
the first column. The second column lists the prior probabilities for each of the
hypotheses. Above, before we did the experiment, we decided to say that there was
a 50% probability that BB is true and a 50% probability that BW is true, hence the 0.5
(c
values in this column. The prior column should always sum to 1. Remember, the prior
probabilities only describe our initial uncertainty, before taking the data into account.

Likelihood
Notes
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The third column is called likelihood by which we cancalculating the posterior
probabilities. It is synonymous with probability. In statistics, likelihood is a very specific
kind of probability. To fill in the third column of the Bayes’ Box, we need to calculate two
likelihoods, so you can tell from this that the likelihood is something different for each
hypothesis. But what is it exactly?
Here is the Bayes’ Box with the likelihood column filled in.
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Hypotheses prior likelihood h = prior × likelihood posterior
BB 0.5 1
BW 0.5 0.5
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Totals: 1
First calculate the value of the likelihood for the BB hypothesis. Remember, the
data we are analysing here is that we chose one of the balls in the bag “at random”, and
it was black. The likelihood for the BB hypothesis is therefore the probability that we
would get a black ball if BB is true.
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Imagine that BB is true. That means both balls are black. What is the probability
that the experiment would result in a black ball? That’s easy – it’s 100%! So we put the
number 1 in the Bayes Box as the likelihood for the BB hypothesis.
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Now imagine instead that BW is true. That would mean one ball is black and
the other is white. If this were the case and we did the experiment, what would be
the probability of getting the black ball in the experiment? Since one of the two balls
is black, the chance of choosing this one is 50%. Therefore, the likelihood for the BW
hypothesis is 0.5, and that’s why we put 0.5 in the Bayes’ Box for the likelihood for BW.
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Hypotheses Possible Data Probability

BB BlackBall 1
WhiteBall 0
BW Black Ball 0.5
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White Ball 0.5
In general, the likelihood is the probability of the data that you actually got,
assuming a particular hypothesis is true. In this example, it was fairly easy to get the
likelihoods directly by asking, “if this hypothesis is true, what is the probability of getting
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the black ball when we do the experiment?”. Sometimes this is not so easy, and it can
be helpful to think about ALL possible experimental outcomes/data you might have seen
– even though ultimately, we just need to select the one that actually occurred.
This table demonstrates a method for calculating the likelihood values by

considering not just the data that actually occurred but all data that might have
occurred. Ultimately, it is only the probability of the data which actually occurred that
(c
matters, so this is highlighted in blue.

The Mechanical Part

Notes
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The third column of the Bayes’ Box is the product of the prior probabilities and the
likelihoods, calculated by simple multiplication. The result will be called “prior times
likelihood”, but occasionally we will use the letter h for these quantities. This is the un
normalized posterior. It does not sum to 1 as the posterior probabilities should, but it is
at least proportional to the actual posterior probabilities.
To find the posterior probabilities, we take the prior likelihood column and divide
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it by its sum, producing numbers that do sum to 1. This gives us the final posterior
probabilities, which were the goal all along. The completed Bayes’ Box is shown below:
Hypotheses prior likelihood h = prior × likelihood posterior
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BB 0.5 1 0.5 0.667
BW 0.5 0.5 0.25 0.333

Totals: 1 0.75 1
We can see that the posterior probabilities are not the same as the prior
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probabilities because we have more information now! The experimental result made BB
a little bit more plausible than it was before. Its probability has increased from 1/2 to 2/3.
Interpretation
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The posterior probabilities of the hypotheses are proportional to the prior
probabilistic and the likelihoods. A high prior probability will help a hypothesis have a
high posterior probability. To understand what this means about reasoning, consider the
meanings of the prior and the likelihood. There are two things that can contribute to a
hypothesis being plausible:
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Suppose the prior probability is high. That is, the hypothesis was already plausible
before we got the data.
Suppose the hypothesis predicted the data well. That is, the data was what we
would have expected to occur if the hypothesis had been true.
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Bayes Rule:
Bayes’ rule is an equation from probability theory and conditional probabilities.
For example, the left-hand side of the equation is P (A B), and that means the
probability of A given B. That is, it’s the probability of A after taking into account the
)A
information B. In other words, P (A B) is a posterior probability, and Bayes’ rule tells us

how to calculate it from other probabilities. Bayes’ rule is true for any statements A and
B.
P(A\B)= P(B\A) P(A) / P(B)
In Bayesian, Statistics A has been replaced by H, and B has been replaced by D.

(c
The reason for these letters is that we should interpret H as hypothesis and D as data.
Then we can interpret Bayes’ rule as telling you the probability of a hypothesis given
some data, another words, a posterior probability.

P (H \D) = P (H)P (D\H)/ P (D)

Notes
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In Bayesian statistics, most of the terms in Bayes’ rule have special names. Some
of them even have more than one name, with different scientific communities preferring
different terminology. Here is a list of the various terms and the names we will use for
them:
P (H\D) is the posterior probability. It describes how certain or confident we are

that hypothesis H is true, given that we have observed data D. Calculating posterior
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probabilities is the main goal of Bayesian statistics!
P (H) is the prior probability, which describes how sure we were that H was true
before we observed the data D.
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P (D\ H) is the likelihood. If you were to assume that H is true, this is the probability
that we would have observed data D.
P (D) is the marginal likelihood. This is the probability that we would have
observed data D, whether H is true or not
Phone Example
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This example is based on the question from an example in David MacKay’s
wonderful book “Information Theory, Inference and Learning Algorithms” (available
online as a free PDF download. You’re welcome to check it out, but it is a large book
and only about 20% of the content is relevant to this course!).
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You move into a new house which has a phone installed. You can’t remember
the phone number, but you suspect it might be 555-3226 (some of you may recognise
this as being the phone number for Homer Simpson’s “Mr Plow” business). To test this
hypothesis, you carry out an experiment by picking up the phone and dialling 555-3226.
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If you are correct about the phone number, you will definitely hear a busy signal
because you are calling yourself. If you are incorrect, the probability of hearing a busy
signal is 1/100. However, all of that is only true if you assume the phone is working, and
it might be broken! If the phone is broken, it will always give a busy signal.
When you do the experiment, the outcome (the data) is that you do actually get
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the busy signal. The question asked us to consider the following four hypotheses and
to calculate their posterior probabilities: Note that the four hypotheses are mutually
exclusive and
Hypothesis Description Prior Probability

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H1 The phone is working, and 555-3226 is cor- 0.4

rect
H2 The phone is working, and 555-3226 is incor- 0.4
rect
H3 The phone is broken, and 555-3226 is correct 0.1
(c
H4 The phone is broken, and 555-3226 is incor- 0.1

rect

The above table has four hypotheses about the state of the phone and the phone
Notes number. The prior probabilities are also given.
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exhaustive. If you were to come up with hypotheses yourself, “phone is working”
and “555-3226 is correct” might spring to mind. They wouldn’t be mutually exclusive, so
you couldn’t do a Bayes’ Box with just those two, but it is possible to put these together
(using “and”) to make the four mutually exclusive options in the table.( Do Yourself)
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Summary :
From above, we can be knowledgeable with the following
●● Knowledge about single factor experiment

●● Bayesian statistics
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●● Testing Hypothesis and significance levels
●● Degree of Freedom
●● One-tailed and Two-tailed test
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Questions:
●● What are the type-1 and type-2 errors discuss with example
●● What is the significance level of hypothesis.
●● Discus about the degree of freedom with the following
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●● Example: a + b/2 = 5. fix a = 3, b has to be 7.
●● Which are the confidence interval.
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)A
(c

Unit-4.2: Analysis Variance

Notes
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Unit Outcomes:
●● Discuss Total, Treatment & error of Squares
●● ANOVA for random effect model
●● Estimation of Variance Components
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●● Methods of Variance Component Estimation
●● Model Adequacy Checking
Introduction:
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Definition: Variance analysis is that the study of deviations of actual behaviour
versus forecasted or planned behavior. This can be essentially concerned with how
the difference of actual and planned behaviors indicates how business performance is
being impacted.
Variance analysis can be broken down into two steps:

1. Calculating and recording individual variances
2. Understanding the reason for each variance ni
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We can use variance due to
1. Change in market conditions, which have rendered the quality budgeting practices
unrealistic, e.g. short supply of raw materials causing suppliers to hike prices
2. Budgeting standards followed could also be too idealistic in nature, e.g. output of a
machine could also be wrongly assumed
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3. Service delivery might not be up to the mark, e.g. planning may have taken into
consideration an eight hour every day, however actual ground conditions may only
allow six hours a day
4. In certain cases, there can be no basis for planning, e.g. output of creative activities
cannot be benchmarked to a high level of accuracy.
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Variances are also classified under the below-mentioned heads:

1. Material Variances: - These arise from the difference between actual costs of
materials utilized in production and standard costs of materials specified for the
product produced. This comes into play due to the difference in quantities consumed
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and the quantity initially allocated for production. This can also happen due to the
difference in price paid and the price budgeted for materials used.
2. Labour variances:- This denotes the particular wage paid to workers versus the
quality wage prevalent for the output specified. When the actual labour costs are
more than budgeted ones, the variance is unfavourable.
(c
3. Overhead variances:- It may be defined as the sum total of indirect material, labour
and expense costs. Overhead variances may arise due to the difference between
standard overhead costs budgeted and the actual overheads incurred.

4.2.1: ANOVA for fixed effect model

Notes
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This is easy to understand and few words with practical examples will make a
whole lot of sense while design and analysis of an actual experiment (in the next
section of this module). Curious and interested readers can consult the Oscar
Kempthorne textbooks for more real sugar (Kempthorne 1952; Hinkelmann and
Kempthorne 2005; Hinkelmann and Kempthorne 2008)!
Although identical twins are used for the experimental units with the exact same
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experimental conditions, there will be natural variations in almost anything in this world.
Therefore, the response is the function of the factors or the explanatory variables with
some experimental error as in Equation 1.
Response= f(factor)+ error
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Means Model
In the fuel economy study, the research question is “whether there is a difference
in fuel types with respect to the mean miles per gallon, mpg.” Therefore, Equation 1 can
be written for testing the mean difference in response (mpg) from treatment to treatment
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(different fuel types in this case) as in Equation 2. As the response is written with
respect to the mean treatment effect, this model is known as the means model. More
precisely, the population means model as the model is intended for the generalization
of the sample results for the population. It can also be noted that the model is linear as
the power of the mean term (μ) is one
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yij = µi +εij
µi= mean response due to ithtreatment.
The error term εij=is assumed to be identical, independent and normally distributed.
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Effects Model
Assume that the three fuel types are made by mixing three different ingredients
that improve fuel economy when added with a common base fuel. The base fuel without
the ingredients will run the vehicle just fine with some mileage. If the ingredient effects
are separated from the base fuel economy, the model Equation 2 can be written as
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Equation 3.
yij = µ +εij+ Ƭi
µ= mean response or overall mean

)A
Ƭi= ithtreatment effect
The error term εij =is assumed to be identical, independent and normally distributed
Error
The error could occur from many different sources, including the following
(c
Experimental Error
●● treatment error - error due to our inability to replicate a treatment from one
application to the next
●● state error - error due to random changes in the physical state of an EU

●● selection error - error due to the random selection of EUs for the experiment
Notes
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Observational Error
●● measurement error - error due to imprecision in our measurement or scoring
procedure
●● sampling error - error due to the random selection of observational units
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(OUs) for the investigation.
4.2.2: Total, Treatment & error of Squares

Once we have calculated the error sum of squares (SSE), then we can calculate
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the SSTR(treatment sum of squares) and SST( total sum of squares). When we
compute SSE, SSTR, and SST, you then find the error mean square (MSE) and
treatment mean square (MSTR), from which we can then compute the test statistic.
How to calculate the treatment sum of squares:
After you find the SSE, our next step is to compute the SSTR. This is a measure of
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how much variation there is among the mean lifetimes of the battery types. With a low
SSTR, the mean lifetimes of the different battery types are similar to each other.
Firstly we need to calculate the overall average for the sample, known as
the overall mean or grand mean.
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For example, say a manufacturer randomly chooses a sample of four Electrical
batteries, four Ready forever batteries, and four Voltages now batteries and then tests
their lifetimes. This table lists the results (in hundreds of hours).
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Battery Lifetimes (in Hundreds of Hours)

Sample Electrical Ready forever Voltage now
Battery 1 2.4 1.9 2.0
Battery 2 1.7 2.1 2.3
Battery 3 3.2 1.8 2.1
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Battery 4 1.9 1.6 2.2
If we have 12 total observations (four batteries chosen from each of three battery
types, as shown in the table), then we may obtain the overall mean by adding up the
12 sample values and dividing by 12:
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we then compute the SSTR with the following steps for each column:
1. Compute the squared difference between the column mean and the overall
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mean.
2. Multiply the result by the number of elements in the column.
So in this example, SSTR equals
Notes
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The calculations are based on the following results:
●● There are four observations in each column.

●● The overall mean is 2.1.
●● The column means are 2.3 for column 1, 1.85 for column 2 and 2.15 for
column 3.
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After you compute SSE and SSTR, the sum of these terms is calculated, giving the
SST.
How to compute the total sum of squares
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The total sum of squares (SST) equals the sum of the SSTR and the SSE. So
using the battery example, we get
4.2.3: ANOVA for random effect model
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Two way (factor) ANOVAThis is an extension of the one-factor situation to take
account of a second factor. The levels of this second factor are often determined by
groupings of subjects or units used in the investigation. As such, it is often called a
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blocking factor because it places subjects or units into homogeneous groups called
blocks. The design itself is then called a randomised block design.
Example :A computer manufacturer company wishes to compare the speed of 4 of

the firm’s compilers. The manufacturer can use one in every two experimental designs.
1. Use 20 similar programs, randomly allocating 5 programs to every compiler.

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2. Use 4 copies of any 5 programs, allocating 1 copy of each program to every

compiler.
Solution
In (1), although the 20 programs are similar, any differencesbetween them may
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affect the compilation times and hence perhaps any conclusions. Thus within the ‘worst
scenario’, the 5 programsallocated to what’s really the fastest compiler could be the
5requiring the longest compilation times, leading to the compiler appearing to be the
slowest! If used, the results would require a one factor analysis of variance; the factor
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being compiler at 4levels.
In (2), since all 5 programs are run on each compiler, differences between
programs must not affect the results. Indeed it’s going to be advantageous to use 5
programs that differ markedly so thatcomparisons of compilation times are more
general. For thisdesign, there are two factors; compiler (4 levels) and program (5
levels). The factor of principal interest is compiler whereas theopposite factor, program,
(c
may be considered as a blocking factor because it creates 5 blocks each containing 4

copies of the identical program.
Thus (2) is the better designed investigation.

The actual compilation times, in milliseconds, for this two factor (randomised block)
design are shown in the following table. Notes
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1 Compiler
2 3 4
Program A 29.21 28.25 28.20 28.62
Program B 26.18 26.02 26.22 25.56
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Program C 30.91 30.18 30.52 30.09
Program D 25.14 25.26 25.20 25.02
Program E 26.16 25.14 25.26 25.46
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Assumptions and interaction
The 3 assumptions for a 2 correlational analysis of variance when there’s only one
observed measurement at every combination oflevels of the two factors are as follows.
●●
distributed.
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The population at every issue-level combination is (approximately) usually
●● These traditional populations have a typical variance, s2 .

●● The impact of one issue is that the same at all levels of the other issue.
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Hence from assumptions 1 and 2, when one factor is at level i and the other at
level j, the population has a distribution which is
(
N mij,s2 . )
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Assumption 3 is equivalent to stating that there is no interaction between the two

factors. Now interaction exists when the effect of one factor depends upon the level of
the other factor. For example consider the effects ofthe two factors:
sugar (levels none and 2 teaspoons), and stirring (levels none and 1 minute), on
the sweetness of a cup of tea.
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Stirring has no effect on sweetness if sugar is not added butcertainly does have an
effect if sugar is added. Similarly, adding sugar has little effect on sweetness unless the
tea is stirred.
)A
Hence factors sugar and stirring are said to interact.
Interaction can only be assessed if more than one measurement is taken at each
combination of the factor levels. Since suchsituations are beyond the scope of this text,
it will always beassumed that interaction between the two factors does not exist.
Thus, for example, since it would be most unusual to find onecompiler particularly
suited to one program, the assumption of no interaction between compilers and
(c
programs appears reasonable.
Is it likely that the assumption of no interaction is valid for the data you collected in

each of Activities 3 and 4?

Notes
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Notation and computational formulae
As illustrated earlier, the data for a two-factor ANOVA can bedisplayed in a two-way table.
It is thus convenient, in general, to label the factors asa row factor and a column factor.
Notation, similar to that for the one-factor case, is then as follows.
Number of levels of row factor =r
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Number of levels of column factor =c
Total number of observations =rc
Observation in ( ij) thcelloftable =x ij
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(ithlevel of row factor and i=1,2,K,r
jthlevel of columnfactor) j=1,2,K,c
Sum of c observations in ithrow =TRi=åx
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Sum of r observations in jth column =TCj=åx
Sum of all rcobservations =T =∑åxij=åTRi=åTCj
These lead to the following computational formulae which again are similar to
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those for one factor anova except that there is anadditional sum of squares, etc for the
second factor.
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What are the degrees of freedom for SST , SSR and SSC whenthere are 20
)A
observations in a table of 5 rows and 4 columns?What is then the degrees of freedom

of SSE ?
Anova table and hypothesis tests
For a two factor analysis of variance this takes the following form
(c

Source of variation Sum of Degrees of Mean F ratio

Notes
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squares freedom square
Between rows SSR r-1 MSR MSR MS
E
Between columns SSC c-1 MSC MSC MS
rs
Error (residual) SSE (r - 1)(c - 1) MSE
Total SST rc- 1
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4.2.4: Estimation of Variance Components
Abstract
Estimating variance components is a method often used in population genetics and
its application in animal breeding. Even experienced population geneticists nowadays
feel lost if confronted with the huge set of different methods in variance component
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estimation,especially due to the fact that there exists no uniformly best method; a
decision on which method should be used is often difficult to fell.However,the one-way
lay-out is of limited practical interest but can best be used to explain to animal scientists
the basic principles(valid for higher classifications) of the methods. The symbols used
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are the standard biometric symbols as given in Raschet. al. (1994). We can say that all
the methods offered by SPSS can be recommended.
Introduction
We characterize methods of variance component estimation for the simplest case,
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the one-way ANOVA and demonstrate most of them by some data set. For this, we
assume that a sample of levels of a random factor A1 has been drawn from the universe
of factor levels which is assumed to be large. Not to be too abstract, let us assume that
the levels are sires. From the i-th sire a random sample of ni daughters is drawn and
a
their milk yield yij recorded. The scheme of the N =
∑n i
observations is given in Table
m
i =1
1. This case is called balanced if for each of the sires the same number of daughters
has been selected. Balancedness in higher nested classification means equal
subclass numbers as well as equal numbers of levels of nested factors within each
)A
of the levels of factors of a higher order in the hierarchy. Some of the methods
described below differ from others only in the case of unbalanced data what means
in the one-way ANOVA that not for all the sires the number of daughters are the
same. Therefore we simulated an unbalanced data set.
Not for all methods formulae will be given and only the principle is explained. The
reason is that we wrote this paper mainly for non-mathematicians who often use several
methods and need some basic understanding of what they are doing in applying special
(c
methods. Advantages and disadvantages of the methods are discussed.

Observations in a one-way layout of ANOVA – unbalanced case

Notes
ity
level A1 level A2 … level Aa
y11 y21 … ya1
y12 y22 . ya2
.
. . .
.
. . .
.
. .
rs
y1n1 y 2n2 … y an a
Following Rasch et al (1999) the model equation is given in (1)
(1)
ve
The ai are the main effects of the levels Ai. They are random variables. The e.ijare
the errors and also random. The constant µis the overall mean. Model (1) is completed by
the assumptions (E() = expectation of=mean of;:V() = variance of).
E(a.i) = 0, V(a.i) = σ 2a , E(eij)=0, V(eij)=σ2 ; all components on the right hand side of (1)
are independent (2)
σ a2
ni
and s2are called variance components. The total number of observations is
always denoted by N , in the balanced case we have N = an . In the sequel we give the
formulae for the balanced case, generalization can be found in the references.
U
Let us assume that all the random variables in (1) are normally distributed even if
this is not needed for all the methods.
The normal distribution (Gauss-distribution) has the density (or likelihood) function
ity
1
1 - ( y − µ )2
f ( y )= e 2σ 2
(σ > 0 ) (3)
σ 2π
We say that y isN(µ;σ2) – distributed. If we have a random sample yT= ( y1 ,..., y n )

its density is equal to the product of the densities of its components.
From (1), (2) and the normality assumption it follows that the ai and the eijare
m
independently from each other N(0;σa2) - and N(0;σ2) – distributed respectively. The
yijare not independent from each other N(µ; σ2+ σa2) – distributed.
The dependence exists between variables within the same factor level because
( ) ( )
cov y ij , y il = cov µ + a i + e ij , µ + a i + e il = cov(a i , a i ) = var(a i ) = σ a , if j ≠ l .
2
)A
A standardized measure of this dependence is the intra-class correlation coefficient
σ a2
ρ IC = 2
σa +σ 2
(c
The Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Table is that of Table 2

Table 2: ANOVA Table of the one-way ANOVA model II in the balanced case
Notes
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Source of SS df MS E(MS)
variation
Factor A a n a-1 s2+nsa2
= ∑∑ ( y i⋅ − y )
2
S S A
A
M
S = n
i =1 j =1 A
a −1 σ2+ ∑ ai2
a −1
rs
Residual a n a(n-1) s2
= ∑∑ ( y ij − y i⋅ )
2
S e s
R S Res
M
S =
a(n − 1)
i =1 j =1 Res
Total an-1
ve
a n
= ∑∑ ( y − y)
2
S T ij
i =1 j =1
ni
1
y i. =
ni
∑y ij Some of the methods are developed for unbalanced data. We
ni
j =1
assume therefore also a generalization of (1) by a general linear model for one random
factor in (5).
Y = Xa + Uâ + e
U
(5)
with random vectors Y and e of length N, design matrices X (Nxq)

and U (Nxm), a vector αof length q with fixed effects and a random
vector β of length m. We complete the model (5) by the following
assumptions:
ity
rank(X) = q; rank(U) = m. e and β are independently normally

distributed with expectation vector zero and covariance matrix σ2IN and
σa2Im respectively.
Note: For more details seeSorensen,A. and Gianola, D. (2002).
m
4.2.5 Properties of Estimators:

Estimation is a division of statistics and signal processing that determines the
values of parameters through measured and observed data. The process of estimation
)A
is carried out in order to measure and diagnose the true value of a function or a
particular of information. It is done on the basis of observations on the samples, which
are a combined piece of the target population or function. Several statistics are used to
perform the task of estimation.
There are two very important properties of estimators that are used: the estimator
and the estimate. To understand the concept of the estimator and estimate in detail,
(c
we will use an example. Let’s say that a1, a2, a3 and so on is a collection of samples
from some group of a certain population with ‘x’ as its parameter. Here, if T= T (a) is
a statistic, then E (T(a)) = x. From these equations we can realize that an estimation
of the statistic has been carried out, where the statistic T is an estimator and the

parameter ‘x’ is the estimator.

Notes
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Estimation has many important properties for the ideal estimator. These properties
include unbiased nature, efficiency, consistency and sufficiency.
The estimators that are unbiased while performing estimation are those that have
0 bias results for the entire values of the parameter. Hence, Unbiased estimators are
those where the mathematical expectation or the mean proves to be the parameter of
the target research. In the above mentioned example for estimation, T is going to be
rs
the unbiased estimator only if its estimate comes out to be equal to ‘x.’
In estimation, the estimators that give consistent estimates are said to be the
consistent estimators. As the number of random variables increase, the degree of
concentration should be higher and higher around the estimate in order to make the
ve
estimator of estimation the consistent estimator. If the estimator gives an unbiased
estimate and the variance of the estimator comes out to be zero, then the estimator of
estimation is called the consistent estimator. These two conditions need to be fulfilled
only if the numbers of random variables reach infinity.
In estimation there are many estimators that have ample incidences of consistent
ni
estimators, and according to the property of efficiency in estimation, the consistent
estimators should be normally distributed. This kind of property was taken into account
in the theory of estimation, because there were incidents of the estimators having
ample consistent estimations but were not the efficient estimators.
U
An estimator is known as the sufficient estimator only when the joint conditional
distribution function of the sample/observation has the condition of T1 T2 T3 T4 (and
so on and so forth), and are the values under the given estimator function ‘T.’ Thus, the
resultant joint conditional estimation has to be absolutely sovereign of the parameter
‘x.’While carrying out the task of estimation, a researcher should always know that the
ity
best estimator is the one that is the minimum variance unbiased estimator (MVUE).
This means that the estimator has the minimum variability when it is compared to other
estimators.
4.2.6 Methods of Variance Component Estimation

Before we discuss some of the existing methods of estimation let us make some
m
general considerations.
Definition 1: An estimator èˆ = èˆ ( y ) is a mapping y on the parameter space of the

)A
parameter θ of the distribution of this sample. The realization of an estimator is called
an estimate θˆ( y ) .
Definition 2: An estimator () ()
èˆ = èˆ ( y ) is unbiased if E èˆ = θ . The difference E èˆ
- θ = vn(θ ) is the bias of an estimator. The bias of an unbiased estimator is zero. The
(c
{
expression is
} ()
E  èˆ − θ  = V èˆ + v 2 n (θ )

2


èˆ = èˆ ( y ) (MSE). The mean squared error of an unbiased estimator equals its Notes
ity
variance. In Figure 1 èˆ1 èˆ 2 n
∑ yi
Example 1The estimator ìˆ = = y of the mean µ of the components of a
i =1
n
random sample yT = ( y ,..., y ) is unbiased.
1 n
Definition 3An estimator èˆ = èˆ ( y ) of θ is called minimum variance unbiased
rs
linear (MVUL) orminimum variance unbiased quadratic (MVUQ) estimator, if its variance
is minimum amongst all unbiased linear and quadratic estimators respectively.
èˆ = èˆ ( y ) of θ is called minimum mean squared error
ve
Definition 4 : An estimator
estimator (MMSE) , if its mean squared error MSE is minimum.

n
The estimator
∑y i
ìˆ = i =1
= y of the mean µ in example 1 is a minimum variance
m
unbiased linear estimator.
ni
Definition 5: Let f(y,θ) be the density function of θ , the parameter of the distribution
of a random variable y . This is a function of two variables, θ and y. If we call itdensity
function we consider it as a function of y for a fixed θ. But the same function f(y,θ) as a
function of θ for fixed y is called likelihood function. If we estimate θ sothat it maximizes
U
the likelihood function in the parameter space of θ , we call the corresponding estimator
a Maximum- Likelihood Estimator (MLE).
Definition 6 An estimator is called minimum norm quadratic unbiased invariant

estimator - MINQUE, if it is a quadratic form of Y in ( describe in 5), unbiased and
invariant against translation of the fixed effect Xa and minimizing some matrix norm.
ity
Note :For more details see Rao (1971), the first paper on MINQUE.
remark. In previous topics we discus about the model equation of the random
variables y. Mathematical operations as minimizing (least squares) or maximizing
(likelihood) can be performed for the realizations only. The result of such an
m
optimisation is the estimate, a function of the y. If this is an explicit formula, we obtain

the estimator by replacing the y-s in that formula by the random variables y.
The various methods of variance component estimation are like as:

)A
Analysis of variance method (ANOVA-Method)

The oldest and simplest method of estimating the two variance components is
due to Fisher (1925). By using this method we can replace in the column E(MS) of the
ANOVA table the variance components any σ by it’s estimate s and put the resulting
expressions = to the observed MS and finally we solve the resulting equations
s2+nsa2 = MSA
(c
s2= MSres
Solving these equations gives:

s2= MSres
Notes 1
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sa2 = (MSA – MSres)
n
Properties of the estimators:
Minimum variance unbiased quadratic estimator for any continuous distribution

with existing first two moments and Minimum variance quadratic estimator for normal
distributions.
rs
The probability of a negative estimator is given by
 
  .
(
P sa
2
)
< 0 = P  F (a − 1, a(n − 1)) <
1

ve
 σ 2 
 1 + n a2 
 σ 
( ( ))
Where F a − 1, a n − 1 is a random variable with an F –distribution with a-1 and
a(n-1) d.f.Tables for these probabilities are given by Verdooren (1982).
If we in our simulated example assume approximately a mean sample size of 26,

then above expression gives.
(


)
P s a < 0 = P  F (9 ,2497 ) < q =
2

1
1 + 26
ni=
1 5,3
1


= 0,1875 = 0.

U
 6 
2
For some other values of σ a and σ 2 0 1 the corresponding probabilities can be
found in bellow table
Table for2 Probabilities of negative estimates for f1=99, f2=2497, n = 26 and several
σ
ity
values of a
h2 q probability
value of σ a 2 /σ 2
6 0,4 0,19 ,000000000
20 0,17 0,43 ,000000233
m
25 0,14 0,49 ,000005901

30 0,12 0,54 ,000052454
40 0,09 0,61 ,000790015
)A
To have a real chance to find negative estimates, the environmental

variance should be for instance 30 instead of 6 or the degrees of
freedom must be smaller (this means, we expect negative estimates only
for insufficient sample sizes).
Quasi-Maximum-Likelihood method (QML)

(c
Maximum likelihood estimate is obtained by maximizing the likelihood

function of the sample under the restriction that the solution lies in
the parameter space because without this restriction some variance

component may be negative. Because we then do not have an estimator

in the sense of definition 1 describe previous unit, we call the method Notes
ity
quasi-maximum-likelihood method. If we replace in this minimum the
realizations of the random variables by the random variables we obtain
the quasi-maximum likelihood estimator. Because the family of normal
distributions is a two-parametric exponential family with the set of
complete minimal sufficient statistics (see Rasch (1995))
rs
1 a n
y. =
an
∑∑ y
i =1 j =1
ij , S res ,S A ,
the likelihood function can be written as
ve
 1 1 1 an 
−  2 S res + S A+ ( y. − µ )2  
 2 σ σ 2 + nσ 2 a σ 2 + nσ 2 a
e 
f ( y1 ,..., y ab ) = a ( n −1) a
(2π ) 2 (σ 2 ) (σ )
an
2 2
+ σ 2a 2
With respect to µderiving the logarithmof this likelihood function and the two
variance components without side conditions to restrict the solutions to the parameter
space leads to the following estimators:
µˆ = y. ni
U
s2= MSres

1 a −1
sa2 = ( MSA – MSres)
n a
ity
The estimator of µ is needed to replace the µ in the equations stemming from the
derivations with respect to the variance components only.
Maximum-Likelihood method (ML)
Real maximum likelihood estimator (solutions restricted to the parameter space)

derived by Herbach (1959) .
m
S res +S A
S2 =min[MSres, ]
an
 a − 1  
)A
s 2 a = max  M
S A −M
S res ;0 .
 a 
Both estimators are biased.
Restricted Maximum-Likelihood method (REML)

In 1952 Anderson and Bancroft introduced restricted ML method. In this method
(c
uses a translation invariant restricted likelihood function depending on the variance

components to be estimated only and not on the fixed effects like µ. This restricted
likelihood functionwork as a function of the sufficientstatistics for the variance
components. The latter is thenderived with respect to the variance components under
the restriction that the solutions are non-negative. The solutions are:
Notes
ity
S res+S A
s2 =min[MSres, ],
an − 1
1
s2a = max{[M
S A −M
S res ];0}
n
rs
Modified Maximum-Likelihood method (MML)
ML-estimators which have uniformly smaller mean squared error compared with
the ML estimators of Herbach , derived by Stein (1964) and Kotz et al. (1969) .
They are given by:
ve
S res+S A S res + S A + an y 2 .
s2 =min[MSres, , ],
an + 1 an + 2
ni 
 S A + an y .  
2
1  a − 1  
s2a = min max  M
S A −M
S res  ;0 ; max   −M
S res ,0
n  a + 1   
 a+2  
Federer´s Estimator:
U
Some of the truncated estimators above are inadmissible from Bayesian point of
view. The following non-truncated and nonnegative estimators could not be proved to
be inadmissible but also not be proved to be admissible (there is no uniformly better
estimator). The advantage of the estimators proposed by Federer (1968) is that they
ity
and their distribution function can be expressed in an analytical form.
S2= MSres
1
sa2 [ MSA – MSres (1 − e −δM
S A
) ]
n
 1 
For δFederer proposed to choose a value in the interval δ ∈ 0,  .
m
1  S res 
In our numerical example we will useδ = 0 and δ= .
S res
4.2.7 :Model Adequacy Checking
)A
Estimation of parameters testing of hypothesis properties of the estimator, is

predicted on the subsequentassumptions like as:
1. Relation of the study variable and explanatory variables is linear, a minimum of

approximately.
2. The error is zero mean.
(c
3. The error incorporate a constant variance.

4. The errors are uncorrelated.
5. The errors are normally distributed.

The validity of those assumptions is required for the results to be meaningful.

If these assumptions are violated then the result could also be incorrect.If these Notes
ity
violations are small, the ultimate result might not be changed. But if the deviations
are large, the model obtained may become unstable within the sense that a different
sample could lead to an entirely different model with opposite conclusions. One main
thingconfine mind is that these assumptions are for the population, and that we work
only with a sample. Therefore the main issue is to create a choice about the population
on the basis of a sample of knowledge. Several diagnostic methods to check the
rs
violation of regression assumption are based on the study of model residuals with the
help of varities of graphics.
Checking of the linear relationship between study and explanatory variables
ve
1. Case of one explanatory variable If there’s only one explanatory variable in a model,
then it’s easy to test the existence of the linear relationship between y and X by
scatter diagram with the assistance of accessible data. If the scatter diagram shows
a linear trend, it indicates that the relationship between y and X is linear. If the pattern
is not linear, then it suggests that the relationship between y and X is nonlinear. For
instance, the subsequent figure indicates a linear trend
ni
U
ity
whereas the following graph suggests a nonlinear trend:

m
)A
Case of more than one explanatory variables : To test the idea of linearity
among the study variable and also the explanatory variables, the scatter plot matrix of
the information is used. A scatter plot matrix could be a two-dimensional array of two-
dimension plots where each form contains a scatter diagram aside fromthe diagonal.
Each scenario established the link between a pair of variables. It gives more information
(c
than the coefficient of correlation between each pair of variables because it provides
a way of linearity or nonlinearity of the relationship and some awareness of how the
individual data points are arranged over the region. It is a scatter diagram of (Y versus
X1 ), (Y versus X 2), …, (Y versus X3).
Another option to present the scatterplot is

Notes
ity
●● display the scatterplots within the upper triangular part of the plotmatrix.
●● Mention the corresponding correlation coefficients within the lower triangular
part of thematrix.
Suppose there are only two explanatory variables and the model is y =X1b1 +X 2
b2 +ε,matrix looks like as follows.
rs
ve
ni
U
ity
Residual analysis
The residual is outlined because as the distinction between the discovered and
m
fitted worth of study variable. The residual is outlined as
ei=yi~ŷi=yi-ŷi,i=1,2,...,nith
whereyi is an observation and ŷiisthecorrespondingfittedvalue
)A
Residual can be viewed as the deviation between the data and the fit. So it is
also a measure of the variability in the response variable that is not explained by the
regressionmodel. Residuals can be thought of as the observed values of the model
errors. So it can be expected that if there is any departure from the assumptions on
random errors, then it should be shown up by the residual. The analysis of residuals
facilitate to find the modelinadequacies.
(c
Assuming that the OLSE estimates the regression coefficients in the model y =X
β+ε, we find that:
●● Residuals have zero meanas

E(ei)=E(yi-ŷi)
Notes
ity
=E(X i β+ei -X i b)
=Xi β+ 0 -Xi b
=0
Multiple Choice Questions:
rs
1. Analysis of variance is a statistical method of comparing the of several populations.
a. Means
b. Variances
ve
c. Standard Deviations
d. None Of The Above
2. Sum of squares calculate the variability of the observed values around their respective
treatment means.
a. Error
b. Total
c. Treatment
d. Interaction
ni
U
3. When conducting an ANOVA, FDATA will always fall within ....... and.........range?
a. between 0 and infinity
b. between 0 and 1
c. between negative infinity and infinity
ity
d. between 1 and infinity

4. Think that there is having no overlap between the box and whisker plots for three
drug treatments where each drug was administered to 35 individuals. The box plots
for these data:
m
A. represent evidence against the null hypothesis of ANOVA

B. provide no evidence for, or against, the null hypothesis of ANOVA
C. represent evidence for the null hypothesis of ANOVA
D. none of the above
)A
5. In ANOVA with 4 groups and a total sample size of 44, the computed F statistic is
2.33 In this case, the p-value is:
A. < than 0.05
B. exactly 0.05
C. cannot tell - it depends on what the SSE is
(c
D. > than 0.05

6. Determine whether the test statistic of ANOVA is statistically significant, it may be

Notes compared to a critical value. What two pieces of information are needed to determine
ity
the critical value?
A. MSTR, MSE
B. mean, sample standard deviation
C. expected frequency, obtained frequency
rs
D. sample size, number of groups
7. Residual can be viewed as the deviation between the data and the fit(T/F)?
8. A scatter plot matrix could be a two-dimensional array of 3-dimension plots(T/F)?
9. Maximum likelihood estimate is obtained by maximizing the likelihood function of the
ve
sample(T/F)
10. Estimating variance components is a method often used in population genetics and
its application in animal breeding(T/F)
11. Which of the following is FALSE about hypothesis?
ni
a. Hypothesis is a tentative statement, which is subject to verification
b. Hypothesis is a tested, well-substantiated, complete explanation for a set of
proven factors
c. Hypothesis is conceptually different from theory
U
d. Hypothesis is a testable relationship between at least two variables
12. A research firm conducts a study to establish the minimum purchasing power
required for the medium and large retail stores as Rs. 150 million and Rs. 300 million,
respectively. Identify the INCORRECT statement.
ity
a. The null hypothesis is - total purchasing power is less than Rs. 150 million
b. One of the alternative hypotheses is - total purchasing power is between Rs.
150 million and Rs. 300 million
c. The null hypothesis is - total purchasing power is more than Rs. 300 million
d. One of the alternative hypotheses is - total purchasing power is more than Rs.
m
300 million
13. A renowned automobile company is under the process of launching a new luxury
car. The car is aimed at catering to the HNI (High Net Worth Individual) population.
The company wants to conduct a detailed market research on the popular choices
)A
of luxury cars in the country. It recruits a research team, which comes up with
the research problem - “Is luxury car a popular among HNI clients?” Which of the
following is FALSE about the case?
a. “The HNI population does not prefer luxury cars” can possibly be the null
hypothesis
(c
b. “At least 50% of the HNI population prefers luxury cars” can possibly be one of
the alternative hypotheses
c. Only one alternative hypothesis exists in this case

d. “Less than 50% of the HNI population prefers luxury cars” can possibly be one
of the alternative hypotheses Notes
ity
14. Read the below statements and identify the wrong one(s). 1 - Complex hypothesis
establishes a causal relationship between two variables 2 - Null hypothesis establishes
a relationship among more than two variables 3 - An alternative hypothesis is used
for a reverse strategy 4 - “Performance at work is not related to salary alone” is an
example of alternative hypothesis
rs
a. Only 1 and 3 are wrong
b. Only 4 is wrong
c. Only 2 and 4 are wrong
d. All 4 statements are wrong
ve
15. A renowned Fashion magazine conducts a market research to find out the need for
advertisement. The research team constructs the below hypotheses: H0: At least 30
% of the readers consists of women H1: Less than 30 % of the readers consists of
women What decision would the management take if the research team commits a
type II error?
b. The management does not invest in advertisements

ni
a. The management invests unnecessarily in advertisements
c. The management prepares a budget for promotional cost

U
d. The management hires more salespersons to carry out extensive sales across
the country
Ans:
ity
1. a
2. a
3. a
4. a
5. d
m
6. d
7. T
8. F
)A
9. T
10. T
11. b
12. c
13. c
(c
14. d
15. b

Module-5: Report Writing

Notes
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Structure:
Unit-5.1: Research Report Writing

5.1.1 Meaning of Research Report
rs
5.1.2 Structure of Scientific Report
5.1.3 Components of a Scientific Report
5.1.4 Types of Reports
5.1.5 Steps in Report Writing
ve
5.1.6 Format & Writing Style
5.1.7 Illustrations & Tables
5.1.8 Citing & Referencing Sources
5.1.9 Footnotes
Unit-5.2: Presentation
5.2.1 Oral Presentation
5.2.2 Making Presentation
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U
5.2.3 Use of Visual Aids
5.2.4 Importance of Effective Communication
5.2.5 Convention & Strategies of Authentication
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Unit-5.3: Writing a Research Paper

5.3.1 Preparing Research Papers for Journals
5.3.2 Design of Paper using Template
5.3.3 Calculation of Impact factor of a journal
m
5.3.4 Citation Index

5.3.5 ISBN & ISSN
Unit-5.4: Planning a Project Proposal

)A
5.4.1 Identifying and defining a problem

5.4.2 Research Problem aspects & considerations
5.4.3 Research Plan
(c

Unit-5.1: Research Report Writing

Notes
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Unit Objectives:
●● Research Report Writing
●● Presentation
●● Writing Research Paper
rs
●● Planning a Project Proposal
5.1.1 Meaning of Research Report

A report is a very formal document that is written for various purposes, such as
ve
sciences, social sciences, engineering and business disciplines. Basically
searching pertaining toa particular task are written up into a report. It may be noted that
reports are consideredas a legal documents in every workplace.
There have 3 characteristic in together, characterize report writing at a very basic

level:
●●
●●
a predefinedstructure,
independent sections ni
U
●● reaching unbiased conclusions.
Predefined structure: InBigger sense, these headings may indicate sections within
a report, suchas an introduction, discussion, and conclusion.
Independent sections: Each section in a report is separately written, because if

the reader want to selectively identify the report sections they are interested in, rather
ity
thanreading the whole report through in one go from top to bottom.
Unbiased conclusions: A third element of report writing is that it is an unbiased

andobjective form of writing.
5.1.2 Structure of Scientific Report

m
The preliminaries
●● Title page.
●● Preface or foreword, acknowledgements.
)A
●● Graphs or illustrations, tables, charts.

●● Table of contents.
Contents of the report:
1. Introduction
●● Objectives of the study, statement of the matter, hypotheses and definition of
(c
ideas.
●● Review of literature and analysis studies.
●● Time, place and materials of the survey.

●● Scope, assumptions and limitations.

Notes ●● Organisation and sampling procedures.
ity
●● Methods, tools and techniques used for knowledge gathering.
2. Analysis and presentation of results:

●● Report of facts— nature, volume and dimension.
●● Statistical analysis of knowledge.
rs
●● Summary of findings and recommendations.
3. The reference materials:

●● Bibliography.
ve
●● Appendices— questionnaires/statistical tables etc.
●● Glossary of terms
●● Index
5.1.3 Components of a Scientific Report
ni
A technical report is mainly written for fellow researchers and therefore might be
organized on a different footing altogether. In such kind of report, the researcher is
expected to give a full detail of the technical aspects, both in the sampling methods and
the subject matter. Fellow professionals are more concerned about the methods used.
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In fact, the amount of the searching depends on the techniques adopted. Conceptual
and analytical framework sample design must be clearly explained. A technical report
supports the bellow characteristics.
●● Main searching and contents: It will contain the main searching within two or three
pages.
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●● Nature of the research work:Which describes the general objectives of the study,
formulation of the problem in operational items, the working hypothesis, the type of
analysis, data required, etc.
●● Research methodology: Explains the various methods used and their limitations.
For instance, sample size, sample selection, etc.
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●● Data analysis: The report must analyze the data and their sources, characteristics
and limitations. If secondary data are used, then these data should be suitable to
the problem. In case of a survey, the manner of data collecting method should be
fully described.
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●● Presentation of findings: The researcher presents his main outcomes of the study
with supporting data in the form of tables and charts. This part is the main body of
the report, usually extending over several chapters.
●● Bibliography: This contains the main sources of secondary data.
●● Technical appendices: These contain all technical matters relating to
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questionnaires, mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular techniques of

analysis and the like.

5.1.4 Types of Reports

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There are two types of reports (1) Oral report (2) Written report
1. Oral Report When the researchers are asked to make an oral presentation then
they prepare this type of oral report.It is more difficult to prepare as compared to
the written report. Because here the reporter interact directly with the audience. Any
delay during an oral presentation can leave a negative impression on the audience.
This may also lower the self-confidence of the presenter. Communication plays a
rs
big role In an oral presentation. A lot of planning and thinking is required to decide
‘What to say’, ‘How to say’, ‘How much to say’. The presenter should have to face
a bunch of questions from the audience. A lot of preparation is required; the broad
classification of an oral presentation is as follows. Nature of an Oral
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Presentation Opening: A descriptive statement may be made on the basis of nature
of discussion that will follow. The opening statement might explain the characteristics of
the project, how it came about and what was attempted.
Finding/Conclusion: Every conclusion can be stated and backed up by findings.

Recommendation: Every recommendation should have the support of conclusion. At
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the end of the presentation, question-answer session may be follow from the audience.
Procedure of presentation: Visuals, if need to be exhibited then can be use. The use of
tabular form for statistical information must help the audience.
(a) What type of presentation is a root question? Is it read from a manuscript or

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memorized or delivered ex-tempo? Memorization is not recommended, since
there could be a slip during presentation.
(b) Secondly, it produces speaker-centric approach. . The best way to deliver in
ex-tempo, is to make main points notes, so that the same can be expanded.
Logical sequences should be followed.
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Points to remember in oral presentation:
●● Language used must be simple and understandable.

●● Time Management should be adhered.
●● Use of charts, graph, etc., will enhance understanding by the audience.
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●● Vital data such as figures may be printed and circulated to the audience so
that their ability to comprehend increases, since they can refer to it when the
presentation is going on.
●● The presenter should know his target audience well in advance to prepare
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tailor-made presentation. The researcher should have the knowledge about

the purpose of report like as “Is it for making a decision”, “Is it for the sake of
information”, etc
Following are the Various Types of Written Reports:
(A) Reports can be classified based on the time-interval such as:

(1) Daily
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(2) Weekly
(3) Monthly

(4) Quarterly
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(5) Yearly
(B) Type of reports:
(1) Short report
(2) Long report
(3) Formal report
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(4) Informal report
(5) Government report
Short report: Short reports are written when the problem is very well defined and if
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the scope is limited.
For example, Monthly sales report. It will run into about five pages. Itholds the
report about the advancement made with respect to a specific product in a particular
geographical locations.
2. Long report: It is a combination of a technical report as well as non-technical report.
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It canrepresent the outcome of the research in detail.
(a) Technical report: This will include the sources of data, research procedure,
and sample Design, tools employed for collecting info , information analysis
technique must be used, appendix,Conclusion and detailed recommendations
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with respect to specific findings. If anyjournal, paper or periodical is referred,
these references should be given for the benefitof reader.
(b) Non-technical report: This report is meant for those who are not technically
qualified.
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E.g. Chief of the finance department. He may be interested in financial implications

only, such as margins, volumes, etc. He may not be interested in the methodology.
3. Formal report:
Example: The report ready by the marketing headfor submitting to the Vice- President
of marketing on quarterly performance, reports on test marketing.
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4. Informal report: The report published by the supervisor by way of filling the shift log
book, to be used by his colleagues.
5. Government report: These may be prepared by state governments or the central
governmenton a given issue.
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Example: Programme announced for rural employment strategy as a part of five-

year plan.
5.1.5 Steps in Report Writing

Having decided on the type of report, the next step is report preparation. The
following is theformat of a research report:
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1. Title Page
2. Page Contents

3. Executive Summary
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4. Body
5. Conclusions and Recommendations
6. Bibliography
7. Appendix
1. Title Page: Title Page should indicate the topic on which the report is prepared. It
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should include the name of the person or agency who has prepared the report.
2. Table of Contents: The table of contents shows actually “what the report contains”.
The table of contents should indicate the various parts or sections of the report. It
might be indicate the chapter headings along with the page number.
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Chapter no. Title of the chapter Page no.
1 Declaration
2 Certificates
3 Acknowledgement
4
5
6
Executive summary
Introduction to the project
Research design and methodology ni
Theoretical perspective of the study
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Company and industry profile
Data analysis and interpretation
Summary of findings, suggestions and
conclusions
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Bibliography
Appendix
3. Executive Summary: If the report is long and drawn out, the person to whom we
have prepared the report may not have the time to read it in detail. For that introducing
an executive summary will help in highlighting major points. It is a summarized
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version of the whole report. It should be written in one or two pages. Since top
executives read only the executive summary, it should be accurate and well-written.
An executive summary should help in decision-making.
An executive summary should have,
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●● Objectives
●● Brief methodology
●● Important findings
●● Key results
●● Conclusion
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4. TheBody:This section includes

●● Introduction

●● Methodology
Notes ●● Limitations
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●● Analysis and interpretations
Introduction: Explain clearly the decision problem and research objective. The
background knowledge should be assign on the product and services provided by the
organization which is under study.
Methodology: How we collect the data is described in this section.
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As an instance, was primary data collected or secondary data used? Was a
questionnaire used? What was the sample size and sampling plan and method of
analysis? Was the design exploratory or conclusive?
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Limitations: Every report will have some limitation such as time, geographical
area, the methodology adopted, correctness of the responses, etc.
Analysis and interpretations: collected data will be tabulated. Statistical tools if any
will Notes be applied to make analysis and to take decisions.
5. Conclusion and Recommendation:
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(a) What was the outcomes drawn from the study?
(b) Based on the study, what recommendation do you make?
6. Bibliography: If the report are based on secondary data, use a bibliography section
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to list the publications or sources that you have consulted. The bibliography might
include the title of the book, name of the journal in case of article, volume number,
page number, edition, etc.
7. Appendix: In an appendix used to provide a place for material which is not absolutely
essential to the body of the report. The appendix may store the copies of data
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collection forms called questionnaires, details of the annual report of the company,
details of graphs/charts, photographs, CDs, interviewers’ instructions. Following are
the items to be placed in this section.
o Data collection forms
o Project related paper cuttings
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o Pictures and diagrams related to project

o Any other relevant things.
5.1.6 Format & Writing Style

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A well formed physical layout is most important, as it may help the report these are:
●● Make a good initial impression,

●● Encourage the readers,
●● Give them an idea of how the material has been organised so the reader can
make a quickdetermination of what he will read first.
(c
Particular attention should be paid to make sure there is:
●● An effective layout for the title page and a clear table of contents.

●● Consistency in margins and spacing.

●● Consistency in headings and subheadings, for example, font size 16 or 18
Notes
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bold, for headings of chapters; size 14 bold for headings of major sections;
size 12 bold, for headings of subsections, etc.
●● Good quality printing and photocopying. Correct drafts with carefully by spell
check and critical reading for clarity by other team-members.
●● Assign a particular number for each and every figures and tables, provision of
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clear titles for tables, and clear headings forcolumns and rows, etc.
●● Accuracy and consistency in quotations and references
Style of Report Writing
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Remember that the reader:
●● Has short of time,

●● Has many other urgent matters demanding his or her interest and attention,
●● Is probably not knowledgeable concerning ‘research jargon’.
Therefore, the rules are:
●●
●●
●●
Simplify. Keep to the essentials.
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Justify. Make no statement that is not based on facts and data.
Quantify when you have the data to do so. Avoid large, small, instead, say
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50%, one inthree.
●● Be precise and specific in your phrasing of findings.
●● Inform, not impress. Avoid exaggeration.
●● Use short sentences.Use adverbs and adjectives sparingly. Notes
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●● Avoid the passive voice, if possible, as it creates vagueness (e.g., ‘patients

were interviewed’leaves uncertainty as to who interviewed them) and
repeated use makes dull reading.
●● Aim to be logical and systematic in your presentation.
5.1.7: Illustrations & Tables

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Tables, figures, illustrations, and other such items can be identified with the word
“Table”, “Figure”, or other appropriate descriptor, and include a title and/or caption. The
title or caption must be included within the List of Tables, List of Figures, or other list.
We must use a homogeneous format for titles and captions of tables, figures,
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illustrations, and other such items throughout the thesis.
●● lettering in tables and figures should be minimum 2 mm high to make sure that the
information is easy to read
●● tables, figures, illustrations, and other such items must have titles or captions, and
must be numbered
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●● titles or captions can go either above or below the table, figure, or illustration
●● headings must be repeated on the second and subsequent pages of tables that
split over two pages or more

●● tables should be split at an appropriate place, e.g. just before a brand-new

Notes subheading
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●● the format for titles and captions of tables, figures, illustrations, and other such
items must be consistent throughout the thesis.
Numbering
Tables, figures, illustrations and other such items must be numbered consecutively
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so as of appearance within the thesis.
There are two methods for numbering Tables, Figures and other items:
●● sequentially throughout the thesis, e.g. 1, 2, 3…

●● chapter number first, then numbered sequentially within each chapter, e.g.:
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Tables in Chapter 1: Table 1.1, 1.2, 1.3…
Figures in Chapter 3: Figure 3.1, 3.2, 3.3…
Whichever method we decide, the numbering style must be the identical for all
numbered items; for example: Table 1.1 and Figure 1.3, or Table 1 and Figure 3, not
Table 1 and Figure 1.3.
Location
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There are three acceptable locations for tables and figures:
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●● within the chapter immediately following first relevancy them
●● grouped at the bottom of the relevant chapter
●● grouped at the bottom of the thesis before the bibliography
Whichever method weselect, we want to be consistent.
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If tables and figures are grouped at the bottom of the thesis, then there must
include an entry within the table of contents that directs the reader to their location.
If the caption for a figure, table, etc., won’t fit on the identical page as its
accompanying illustration, place the illustration on a separate page.
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Reproducing and Reducing

Copying and/or reducing the measurement of figures (e.g. charts, drawings,
graphs, photographs, maps, etc.) may confirm images illegible. After reduction, all
lettering must be large enough to meet the font size requirements, and must be clear
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and readable.
Copyrighted Material
If we remove copyrighted tables, figures, or illustrations from our thesis we need
to insert the subsequent at the spot where the table, figure, or illustration previously
appeared:
(c
●● A statement that the material has to be removed due to copyright restrictions

●● A description of the material and therefore the information it contained, plus a
link to an web source if one is available

●● A full citation of the initial source of the material

For longer reports that contain dozens of figures and tables , produce a separate
Notes
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lists of figures and tables. Place them along on similar page if they work, as shown in
the illustration below. we can combine the two lists under the heading, “List of Figures
and Tables,” and establish the things as figure or table as is done in the illustration
below.
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Ref: https://openoregon.pressbooks.pub/technicalwriting/chapter/10-5-list-of-
figures-and-tables
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5.1.8 : Citing & Referencing Sources

When victimizing footnotes, a number shows references inside the research report.
For example: ‘Recent research indicates that…’ This number refers directly on to the
references.
(c
These list the documented publications consecutive within the order they’re
referred to in our research report. This will be helpful as it enables us to incorporate
comments and footnotes as well as references.

●● The layout of individual references within the bibliography is the same as that for
Notes the Harvard system.
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●● If we discover that our refer to the similar item over once we will use standard
bibliographic abbreviations to save repeating the references in full.
●● The publications said solely embody those we have cited in our report. They must
so be headed ‘References’ rather than ‘Bibliography’ as shown below
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Abbreviation Explanation
Op. cit. (opereciato Meaning, in the work cited. This refers to a work previously
referenced and so you must give the author and date and
if necessary the page number, like: Robson (1993) op. cit.
pp. 23-4.
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Loc. Cit. (loco ciato Meaning, in the place cited. This refers to the same page of
a work previously referenced. So you must give the author
and date, like: Robson (1993) loc. Cit.
Ibid. (ibidem) Meaning, the same work given immediately before. This
refers to the work referenced immediately before and
5.1.9: Footnotes ni
replaces all details of the previous reference other than a
page number if necessary.
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Researchers must insert footnotes within the appropriate places. These fulfil two
purposes:
●● The correctidentification of materials utilised in quotations in the report.

●● The footnotes provide supplementary value to the main part(body) of the text.
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Based on the footnotes’ description, one can easily refer the cross references,
citation of authorities and sources, acknowledgement and elucidation or
explanation of a degree of view. The recent trend is to avoid footnotes. Some
people feel that they enhance display of the scholarship of the researchers. But it’s
neither an end nor a means of displaying scholarship.
When using footnotes, a varieties of references are shown within the research
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report.
For example: ‘Recent researchindicates that…’ This number refers directly to the
references
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(c

Unit-5.2: Presentation
Notes
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5.2.1: Oral Presentation
Oral Report
When the researchers are asked to make an oral presentation then they prepare
this type of oral report.It’s more difficult to prepare as compared to the written report.
rs
Because here the presenterdirectlyinteract with the audience. Any delay during an
oralpresentation can leave a negative impression on the audience and also violates the
selfconfidenceof the presenter. Communication plays a big roleIn an oral presentation.
A lot ofplanning and thinking is required to decide ‘What to say’, ‘How to say’, ‘How
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much to say’. Also,the presenter should have to face a bunch of questions from the
audience. A lot of preparation isrequired; the broad classification of an oral presentation
is as follows.
Nature of an Oral Presentation

Opening: A brief statement will be created on the character of dialog that may
place and what was tried.

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follow. The openingstatement ought to make the nature of the project, however it took
Finding/Conclusion: Every conclusion is also declared to protect by findings.

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Recommendation: Every recommendation should have the support of conclusion.
At the bottom of thepresentation, question-answer session should follow from the
audience.
Method of presentation: Visuals, if have to be compelled to exhibit, can be made

use of. The use of tabularform for statistical information would help the audience.
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(b) What form of presentation could be a root question? Is it brows out from
a manuscript or memorized ordelivered ex-tempo. Memorization is not
recommended, since there could be a slip during presentation.
(c) Secondly, it produces speaker-centric approach. Even reading from the
manuscriptis not recommended, because it becomes monotonous, dull and
m
lifeless. The best procedure to present an ex-tempo, is to make main points

notes, so that the same can be expanded.
Logical sequences should be followed.
)A
Points to remember in oral presentation:
o Language used must be simple and understandable.

o Time Management should be adhered.
o Use of charts, graph, etc., will enhance understanding by the audience.
o Vital data such as figures may be printed and circulated to the audience so
(c
that theirability to comprehend increases, since they can refer to it when the
presentation isgoing on.

o The presenter should know his target audience well in advance to prepare
Notes tailor-madepresentation.
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o The presenter should know the purpose of report such as “Is it for making a
decision”,”Is it for the sake of information”, etc.
5.2.2: Making Presentation
Golden rule
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Human attention is extremely limited. Don’t cram an excessive amount of
information, either in each slide, or within the whole talk. Avoid details: they will not be
remembered anyway.
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Organization
●● Have a really clear introduction, to motivate what we are doing and to present the
matter we want to resolve. The introduction isn’t technical in nature, but strategic.
●● If we have got a companion paper, mention it during the talk and recommend
it for more details. Don’t put all the main points within the talk. Present only the
●●
●●
important ones.
Use only 1 idea per slide.
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Have a good conclusions slide: put there the most ideas, those we actually want
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people to recollect. Use only 1 conclusions/slide.
●● The conclusion slide should be the last one. Don’t put other slides after
conclusions, as this may weaken their impact.
●● Having periodic “talk outline” slides (to show where we are within the talk) helps,
especially for extend talks. A minimum ofone “talk outline” slide is extreamly useful,
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usually after the introduction.

●● Don’t judge the audience to recollect any detail from one slide to another (like
color-coding, applications you measure, etc.). If we want to remember, re-state the
information a second time.
●● Especially if we’ve got to present many various things then try to build a unifying
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thread. The talk should be sequential in nature (i.e. no big conceptual leaps from
one slide to the next).
●● Try to chop out the maximum amount as possible; less is healthier.
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●● Help the audience understand where we’re going. Often it’s best to allow them
a high-level overview first, and then plunge into the details; then, while paying
attention to the details they can relate to the high-level picture. This also helps
them save important brain power for later parts of the talk which may be more
important.
Mechanics
(c
●● Use a decent presentation-building tool, like MS PowerPoint. Avoid Latex, aside

from slides with formulas.

●● Humour is extremely useful; prepare one or two couple of puns and jokes
beforehand. However, if we’re not familiar with jokes then better way to avoid them Notes
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altogether.
●● The more we rehearse the talk, the better it will be. A rehearsal is most helpful
once carried out loud. 5 rehearsals is a minimum for an important talk.
●● The more people criticize our talk (during practice), the better it will be; pay
attention to criticism, not necessarily to all suggestions, but try to see what and
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why people misunderstood your ideas.
●● Everything hasn’t to be written down.
●● Be enthusiastic.
●● Present to explain, ask instant questions, act surprisingly, etc.
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●● Give individuals some time to think about the vital facts by slowing down, or by
putting on a mute for a moment.
●● Do not go overtime under any circumstance.
●● Listen to the querries terribly carefully; several speakers answer totally different
●●
questions than the ones asked.
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Don’t treat audience as mentally-impaired: don’t explain the completely obvious
things.
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Text
●● Slides ought to have short titles. A extended title shows one thing is wrong.
●● Use uniform capitalization rules.
●● All the text on one slide ought to have the identicalstructure .
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●● Put little or no text on a slide. Don’t put more than one plan in one slide. If we
have lots of text, people will read it faster than we talk, and will not pay attention to
what we say.
●● Don’t use small fonts.
●● Use very few formulas (one per presentation). The identical goes for program code
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(maximum one code fragment for one presentation).

●● Do not place useless graphics on every slide: logos, grids, affiliations, etc.
●● Spell-check. A spelling mistake is an attention magnet.
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Illustrations
●● Use suggestive graphical illustrations to the maximum amount as attainable. Don’t
shun graphical metaphors. Prefer an image to text.
●● Do not put in the figures details which will not mention explicitly. The figures ought
to be as schematic as attainable.
(c
●● Don’t “waste” info by victimising spare color. Each different color should signify
something different, and something important but don’t use too many different
colors. Have high-contrast colors.

●● For some strange reason, rectangles with shadows appear to seem look far better
Notes than without .
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●● Sometimes a matte pastel background looks far better than a white one.
●● Exploit animation with restraint. Don’t use fancy animation effects unnecessarily.
●● However, there’re places where animation is much more effectible, e.g., to depict
the evolution of a complex system, or to introduce related ideas one by one.
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●● Use strong colors for important stuff, pastel colors for the unimportant.
●● Employ information cleverly: e.g. make arrow widths showing flows proportional to
the flow capacity.
●● Use thick lines in drawings (e.g. 1 1/2 points or more).
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5.2.3: Use of Visual Aids
Visual aids can enhance our presentations - they can increase the audience’s
understanding about topic, explain points, make an impact and create enthusiasm. It’s
become more useful to make data visual
What are visual aids?
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Visual aids are peripherals of a visual manner, like as graphs, photographs, video
clips etcare rather than spoken information. Visual aids shall be selected depending on
their purpose, as an example:
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Summarise information.
Reduce the amount of spoken words, for example, show a graph of results rather
than reading them out.
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Clarify and show examples.
Create more of an impact, for example, if our presentation is on the health risks of
smoking,then show images of the effects of smoking on the body rather than describing
this.
●● Emphasise what you’re saying.

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●● Make a point memorable.

●● Enhance credibility.
●● Engage the audience and maintain their interest.
●● Make something easier for the audience to understand
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●● Preparation and use of visual aids

If we decide that we want to use as a visual aid, then we mustmake sure that
the audience is able to easily understand the image (it must be clear). They should be
employed throughout our speech but try to only use visual aids for essential points as it
can be tiring for the audience to skip from one visual to another.
(c
Preparation
Think about how can a visual aid support our message and what do you want the
audience to do?
●● Ensure that our visual aid follows what we’re saying or this will confuse the
audience. Notes
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●● Avoid cluttering of the picture.
●● Visual aids must be clear, concise and of a high quality.
●● Keep the style consistent, such as, the same font, colours, positions etc
●● Use graphs and charts to present data.
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●● The audience should not be trying to read and listen at the same time - use visual
aids to highlight points.
●● One message per visual aid, for example, on a slide there should only be one key
point.
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●● Employ visual aids in moderation to emphasise and support main points.
●● Ensure that presentation still works without visual aids in case of technical
problems.
During the presentation

●●
●●
●●
Avoid reading from the visual aid.
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Make sure that the visual aids should be seen by everyone in the audience.
As soon as show the visual aid the audience’s attention will be drawn to it so must
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immediately explain it.
●● Make it clear to the audience why using it.
●● When no need the visual aid ensure that the audience can’t see it.
There are a variety of different types of visual aids like as:
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PowerPoint
Microsoft PowerPoint is vastly employed for presentations because it’s too easy
to create. We can insert a range of visual items into the slides which will improve the
audience’s focus. Also, the audience can generally see slideshows better than other
visual aids.
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Tips:
1. Have a clear and simple background.
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2. Avoid using too many different types of fonts or font sizes.

3. Only use animations for a purpose, such as, to reveal the stages of a process,
otherwise this can be distracting and look amateurish.
4. Use a large font size - a minimum of 24pt.
5. Use bullet points to summarise key points.
(c
6. Consider providing handouts of diagrams because the audience will find the
diagrams easier to read.
7. Avoid putting too much text on a slide.

8. Avoid using red or green text as it’s difficult to read.

Notes
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9. There should only be one key point for each slide.
Whiteboards
Whiteboards are great for providing further explanations, such as, showing the
order of a process, creating diagrams or explaining complex words or phrases. They’re
often used to display headings and write down audience suggestions. Whiteboards are
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also ideal for displaying vital data for the whole period of the presentation, such as, key
definitions, as a result of the audience will simply look at the whiteboard for a reminder.
Tips:
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●● Ensure that enough time has passed for the audience to take notes before
rubbing something off of the whiteboard.
●● Write concisely to avoid facing away from the audience for too long.
●● Handwriting must be large and legible.
Handouts
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Handouts are papers that contain key information from presentation or they may
provide further information that prevent us from overwhelming the audience as there’ll
be less data on the slides and soless data they have to put in while writing down.
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Tips:
●● If given at the beginning and middle of presentation the audience may be
reading rather than listening.
●● If given at the end of presentation the audience may be trying to take lots
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of notes which may reduce the amount of information they are actually
understanding.
To manage this, provide the audience with partially completed handouts so they will
have to listen to what we’re saying to be able to fill in the gaps. Providing the audience
with graphs and charts beforehand is also beneficial because the audience will find
them easier.
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Video clips
Using videos are a good way to engage the audience and increase their attention.
Use video to bring motion, pictures and audio into presentation.
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Tips:
●● Ensure that any videos used are relevant to the presentation’s content.
●● Only show as much of the video as necessary.
●● Never show a really long clip.
(c
●● Inform the audience how long the video will last.
Flip chart
Flip charts offer a low cost and low tech solution to record and convey information.
They’re more beneficial for smaller audiences and they are favoured for brainstorming
sessions for gathering ideas easily. Flip charts are also widely used for summarising Notes
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information and, like with a whiteboard.
Posters
Poster boards can be created using a variety of visual devices, such as graphs and
images. They’re generally quite portable and we can make them as elaborate as we
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want. However, they can be expensive to produce if the poster is quite complex.
5.2.4 Importance of Effective Communication

Good communication plays an essential role to get success in the workplace and in
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personal life also. Leaders who know how to communicate effectively with those around
them and will see better productivity and improved relationships in every aspect of their
lives.
Effective communication involves knowing how to listen attentively. It’s the ability
to offer empathy, open-mindedness, and helpful feedback. Also, a friendly demeanour,
confidence, and quality nonverbal communication will also help us, as a manager,
develop good relationships with the members of our team.
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Let’s explore some benefits of effective communication you will see in- and outside
your office when you take the time to nurture these skill.
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1. Building trust
Effective communication fosters trust with others. Our ability to listen attentively
and embrace different points of view helps others keep a trust that we are making
optimal decisions for everyone in the group.
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2. Preventing or resolving problems

The ability to communicate effectively plays a large role in resolving conflicts and
preventing potential ones from arising. The key is to remain calm, make sure all parties
are heard and find a solution that is ideal for everyone involved.
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3. Providing clarity and direction

With effective communication skills, we’re able to deliver clear expectations and
objectives for our team. This involves finding constructive ways to point out when
something isn’t working as well as providing helpful feedback to get people back on
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track. They will understand their specific tasks and responsibilities, as well as those of
their teammates, which will help eliminate conflicts and confusion.
4. Creates better relationships

Good communication also improves relationships, both with employees and in our
personal life with friends and family members.. This, in turn, nurtures mutual respect.
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5. Increases engagement
With people feeling more confident in their work and in their understanding of what
they need to do, they become more engaged with their work as a whole. According to
a recent study exploring the psychology of employee engagement, only 15% of adult
Notes employees are engaged with their employers. By prioritizing effective communication,
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we can increase engagement, and thus boost satisfaction, among our team members.
6. Improves productivity
When team members understand their roles, the roles of others and our
expectations, they can focus more on their work and less on workplace issues. With
effective communication, conflicts are resolved quickly, employees can better manage
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their workload and distractions are minimized. These benefits contribute to greater
productivity .
7. Promotes team building
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With improved communication, team members will be better able to rely on each
other. Build positive feelings and relationships between the team members, which leads
to improved morale and work experiences.
Good communication skills can play an important role in nurturing positive work
experiences for your entire team.
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5.2.5 Convention & Strategies of Authentication
Endless description without interpretation is another pitfall. Tables need
conclusions, not detailedpresentation of all numbers or percentages within the cells
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which readers can see for themselves.
Neglect of qualitative data is additionally quite common. Still, quotes of informants

as illustration ofour findings and conclusions make our report lively. They even have
scientific value in allowingthe reader to draw his/her own conclusions from the
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knowledgewe established. (Assuming we aren’t biased in our representation!)
Sometimes qualitative data (e.g., open opinion questions) are just coded and
counted like
quantitative data, without interpretation, whereas they’ll be providing interesting

illustrationsof reasons for the behaviour of informants or of their attitudes. This can be a
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serious maltreatment ofdata that needs correction.
The following must be avoided while preparing a report:
●● The inclusion of careless, inaccurate, or conflicting data.

●● The inclusion of outdated or irrelevant data.
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●● Facts and opinions that aren’t separated.

●● Unsupported conclusions and proposal.
●● Careless presentation and proofreading.
●● An excessive amount of emphasis on appearance and not enough on content.
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Unit-5.3: Writing & Research Paper

Notes
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5.3.1 :Preparing Research Papers for Journals
Here we described a series of steps to make research paper for journals.Such as
1. Determine the authors. When designing a search project, we recommend

preparing an initial list and order of authors. Such an inventory authors should
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be supportedbyestablished guidelines and should make explicit the estimated
contribution of every individual to the project. We recommend that every research
group establish and make known to its members the criteria for authorship on papers
resulting from the work to be conducted. A list of authors makesure that all individuals
to be involved within the project understand at the outset whether or not they will
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expect to be an author and, if so, what their contribution is to be.
2. Start writing before the experiments are complete. We have to Start writing while
we are still doing the experiments. Writing often evokes new ideas: we may realize
that there are additional experiments to run or additional controls that we need to
add. If we wait until completion in the lab, have dismantled the equipment, and
these ideas.
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possibly moved on to another position, then we will not have the opportunity to test
3. Decide it is time to publish. It is time to publish when our findings represent

a complete chapter, one that will make a significant contribution to the scientific
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literature.
4. Draft a title & abstract. Drafting a working title and an abstract helps define the
contents of the paper, identifying which experiments we’ll want to publish during this
paper, and which studies we will save for inclusion in another paper.
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5. (Re)examine the list of authors. When we are determined which experiments will
be included in this paper then we must select the authors and the order in which
they will appear. Re-evaluate it based on the contributions that were made to
those experiments and the additional contributions that will be made through the
preparation of the manuscript. If an inventory already exists, make adjustments to
make sure about the compliance with guidelines.
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6. Determine the basic format. There are three basic formats for peer-reviewed
research articles:
●● Full-length research articles: These articles contain a comprehensive
investigation of the subject matter and are viewed as the standard format. It
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uses the format: Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion.

●● Short (or brief) communications: While not as comprehensive in scope as
full-length research articles, these papers also make a big contribution to the
literature. Their length are going to be set by the journal but is typically 3500
words or less and can contain up to 2 tables and figures.
●● Rapid communications: These articles quickly disseminate particularly
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“hot” findings, usually during a brief communication format. Articles that have
immediate implications for public health would be appropriate for such a
format, as it might findduring a highly competitive and quickly moving field.

7. Select the journal. There are several factors to think about when choosing a journal.
Notes It’s unlikely that one journal will have all the features we are looking for, so we may
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have to compromise. However, there’s one essential feature we should always not
compromise on – manuscripts must be peer reviewed for publication if they’re to be
considered research articles.
Language: If we are interested in communicating our results widely to the
international scientific community, then it is essential to publish in English. If, on the
other hand, we wish to communicate to a more localized community then we can chose
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a journal that permits another language.
Focus: What type of research does the journal publish? Is its focus broad or
narrow? Which disciplines are represented? What is the journal’s orientation – for
instance, is it clinical or basic, theoretical or applied?
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Indexing: Is the journal indexed in the major electronic databases .
Availability: Is the journal broadly available? Is there an online version of the

journal? Are papers provided in PDF format?
Reputation: Ask colleagues which journals they respect. Look at recent articles
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and judge their importance. Check the members of the editorial board and determine
if they are leaders in their fields. Determine the journal’s impact factor. How selective is
that the journal in accepting papers for publication? Try to find out the acceptance rate
of the journal.
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Format: Do we like the appearance of published articles – the format, typeface,
and style used in citing references? If relevant, does the journal publish short and/or
rapid communications?
Figures: Do figures published within the journal have the resolution that we
simply need? Time to Print: Using the “date submitted” and a “date accepted” that are
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published on the article, along with the date of the issue, we can estimate the length of
the review process also because the time from acceptance to publication in print.
Charges: Some journals bill the author for page charges, a price per final printed
page. Most journals have a separate charge for color plates. This may be as much as
$1000 per color plate. Many journals will waive page charges if this presents a financial
hardship for the author; color plate charges are less-readily waived and would at least
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require evidence that the color is imortant to the presentation of the information.
8. Stock the sections of your paper. As we think about your paper, store relevant
material in folders marked with Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. This
may save time and avoid frustration once the writing begins. Stored items might
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include figures, references, and ideas.

9. Construct the tables, figures, and legends. Create figures and tables before the
writing begins! The entire paper should be organized around the data needed to
present. By preparing the tables and figures we will be certain of our results before
we worry too much about their interpretation.
Note: except under unusual circumstance, we may not include any data that we
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have already published.
10. Outline the paper. An outline is like a road map which define how we will get from
here to there, and helps ensure that we take the most direct and logical route. If
there have co-authors, then we may wish to get feedback from them before proceed
to the actual writing phase. Notes
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11. Write the first draft. Write the primary draft of the complete manuscript. If we are
writing with co-authors, then may wish to assign different aspects of the manuscript
to different authors. This will save time, enable a lot of people to feel that are making
substantive contributions to the writing method, and make sure that the best use
of expertise. However, it also can result to a mix of design. Thus, if you take this
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approach, be certain that the final product is carefully edited to provide a single
voice. “Components of a Research Article” discusses what goes into each section of
the manuscript.
12. Revise the manuscript. This step involves three major tasks, each to be carried out
in the order given:
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Make major alterations: Fill in gaps, correct flaws in logic, restructure the
document to present the material in the most logical order.
Polish the style: Refine the text, then correct grammar and spelling.
Format the document: Make manuscript attractive and easy to read. It is
time for revising material that we delete later.
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important to do the tasks in the stated order. Otherwise, we may be spending a lot of
13. Check the references. Make sure that the citations are correct and complete. Do
one last literature search to make certain that we’re up to date.
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14. Write the final title and abstract. Several changes are created throughout the
editing method. Make certain that our title and abstract match the final version.
15. Reread the journal’s Instructions to Authors. Review the main points of however
the manuscript is to be formatted and submitted.
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16. Prepare the final illustrations. Ensure that tables, figures, and figure legends are
complete, clear, self-contained, and in the format required by the journal.
17. Get feedback on manuscript and then revise manuscript again. Getting feedback
is one of the most important things by which we can improve our article. First, be
sure our co-authors have had a chance to read and comment on the draft. Then,
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once it’s prepared, provide the manuscript to some colleagues. After you get their
comments (on the science, logic, language, and/or style), revise our manuscript to
address their concerns.Do not submit manuscript until it is ready for publication.
Once it is accepted.
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18. Submit the manuscript to the editor. Follow the Instructions to Authors to determine
what items we need to submit, how to submit them, and to whom we should send
them. Note that some journals permit (or even require) a “pre-review,”i.e., a letter
indicating the content of the article so that the editors can determine whether they
will accept the manuscript for a full review. At this point we may wish to list possible
reviewers (or individuals to be avoided). If required then contact with the editor to
make sure that the manuscript was received.
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19. Deal with reviewers’ comments. Most manuscripts are not accepted on the
first submission and ask forresubmitting a revised manuscript. If we agree withit
then we need to respond to the reviewer comments. Answer every comments of

the reviewers, and highlight where the corresponding changes were made in the
Notes manuscript if happened, indeed, made. We do not need to make all of the changes
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that the reviewer recommended, but we do need to provide a convincing rationale
for any changes that we did not make. When we resubmit the manuscript, indicate in
our cover letter that this is a revised version.
20. Check the proofs. Once the manuscript is accepted and ready for print, the
publisher may send the corresponding author page proofs of the article. It should be
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accompanied by a list of queries, such as missing information regarding a reference.
The proofs either be sent through e-mail or as hard copy. If there is a chance that
we will be away when the proofs arrive, have a plan for making certain that they are
received and we are notified.
20+. Celebrate! Robert Day says in How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper (1998),
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“The goal of scientific research is publication…. A particular experiment, no matter
how spectacular the results, is not complete until the results are published.” Your
experiment – at least one phase of it – is now complete.
5.3.2 Design of Paper using Template
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Notice that no correct number of letters or numbers exists; the sole determining
factor is that the number of points we need to create for the specified length of our
paper.
I. Introduction
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A. Background information connecting the reader to the topic
B. Thesis statement
II. First Main Point
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A. First sub point

1. Corresponding example or detail—either our insight or a critic’s comment
paraphrased or directly quoted
Never start a sentence with a quote that we simply haven’t introduced.
a) First comment for support

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b) Second comment for support

2. Supporting example or detail (our discuss on supporting detail from a
critic)
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a) First comment
b) Second comment
B. Second sub point
1. Supporting example or detail
2. Supporting example or detail
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C. Third sub point (same as A, B above)

At this time continue with D, E... if needed

III. Second Main Point

Notes
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A. First sub point—Comment on sub point (only one inquiry into this detail)
B. Second sub point
1. Supporting example—only one comment on this example:
2. Supporting example
a) Comment
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b) Comment
Continue with the identical sequence alternating numerals and letters
IV. Critical Thinking Section
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A. Incorporate reactions to the source
B. Include insights about the research topic
C. Synthesize critical thinking threads
V. Conclusion
Affirm that the thesis has been proven
Example:
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5.3.3 Calculation of Impact factor of a journal

Notes
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The impact factor (IF) may be a calculation of the frequency with that the typical
article in a very journal has been cited in a explicit year. It’s employed to measure the
importance or rank of a journal by calculative the daysits articles are cited.
The way of Impact Factor is Calculation?

The calculation is predicted on a 2yr period and involves dividing the quantity of
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times articles were cited by the quantity of articles that are citable.
Calculation of 2010 IF of a journal:

A = the quantity of times articles published in 2008 and 2009 were cited by indexed
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journals throughout 2010.
B = the overall range of “citable items” published in 2008 and 2009.
A/B = 2010 impact factor
What is the vary of IF:
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The impact factor of ten or higher is taken into account as a wonderful score where
3 is flagged nearly as good and also the average score is less than 1. This is often
a rule of thumb. However, the wild card to concentrate to is that impact factor and
examination journals are most effective in the same category.
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Example:
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5.3.4 :Citation Index

A citation is that the text reference and acknowledgement of a documented
information. A scientifically written article comprises a reference section at the top
where all the references mentioned within the document are cited serially, and every
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reference may be a citation. A citation count is that the frequency of a writing article
cited by other articles. A citation index could be a kind of bibliographic database, an
index of citations between publications, allowing the user to simply establish which later
documents cite which earlier documents
Major Citation Indexing services

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There are two major publishers of general-purpose academic citation indexes:
a. Institute for Scientific Information (ISI): Citation indexing has long been
dominated by the ISI, which is now a part of Thomson Reuters. It publishes the

citation indexes in print and CDforms, which are generally accessed through
the online under the name ‘Web of Science’ (WOS). WOS provides access Notes
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to 7 databases: Science Citation Index (SCI), Social Sciences Citation Index
(SSCI), Arts & Humanities Citation Index (A&HCI), Index Chemicus, Current
Chemical Reactions, Conference Proceedings Citation Index: Science and
Conference Proceedings Citation Index: Science and Humanities.
b. Elsevier Which publishes Scopus, is offer online only. Scopus is one among
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the biggest abstract and citation database of peer-reviewed literature and web
sources with smart tools to trace.
There are also varity of other readily available citation databases. Few of the
notable ones among these are:
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●● CiteSeer is both a citation engine and a digital library. CiteSeer is predicted on
the SmealSearch engine and provides citation, citation graph analysis, related
document retrieval and other searching of scientific literature.
Research Papers in Economics (RePec) provides databases in economics and
otherdisciplinespecific indexes.
●●
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Google Scholar (GS) provides citation and search of scholarly literature
across many disciplines and sources. Although limited to the recent articles,
it’s a freely-accessible web programe. Google Scholar is mostly praised for its
speed.
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●● EBSCOhost is one among of the world’s foremost, mostused, premium,
reference database service.
●● Compendex (Engineering Index, COMPuterizedENgineeringinDEX) is thatthe
computerized version of the Engineering Index and is one in all the foremost
comprehensive engineering literature databases.
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Indian Citation Index Indian Citation Index (ICI) database was developed with
specific motives to market knowledge contents, published in Indian journals and bridge
the gap between the content sources and content users via World Wide Web. ICI
database covers about 1000 Indian scholarly journals, encompassing all disciplines of
information including the sciences, social sciences, arts, and humanities’
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The ICI database also produces other useful by-products like Indian Science
Citation Index (ISCI), Indian Social Science and Humanities Citation Index (ISSHCI),
Indian Journals Citation Reports (IJCR), Indian Science and Technology Abstracts
(ISTA) and Directory of Indian Journals (DOIJ).
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5.3.5 ISBN & ISSN

“ISBN” stands for “International Standard Book Number” where as “ISSN” is
“International Standard Serial Number.” Both ISBN and ISSN are codes that are utilized
by publishers for numbering or serialising their publications.
International Standard Book Number is assign for monographs or books but the
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International Standard Serial Number is given to a series of monographs or books.
ISBN is assigned for one or separate book, and ISSN is assigned for a series of
books.

ISBN identifies the particular volume or issue, the ISSN only identifies the series of
Notes the amount or issue.
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IISSN is simply optional, which implies that the publisher isn’t legally sure to use it.
Butthe ISBN is obligatory if the book falls under the ISBN application.
Unlike the ISBN, the ISSN are the identical altogether in all the volumes or the
problems of a single series. But the ISBN is different for each volume and issue.
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The ISBN could be a 13-digit standard code. It absolutely was Gordon Foster
who created for the beginning a nine-digit ISBN code. Later the world Organization for
Standardization developed the ten-digit standard number code. After 2007, the ISBN
incorporate a 13-digit number standard code.
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The International Standard Serial Number is an eight-digit standard number. It’s
the amount given to single set of the series, and once the series changes, another
ISSN code is allotted. It was in 1971 that the ISSN system was first drafted. The
ISSN standard number codes are assigned by the ISSN National Centres and are
coordinated by the ISSN International Centre that’s based in Paris.
Summary:
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1. “ISBN” is “International Standard Book Number” and “ISSN” is “International Standard
Serial Number.”
2. One of the person differences between the ISBN and ISSN is that the previous one
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identifies the publisher whereas the latter one doesn’t identify the publisher.
3. International Standard Book Number is given for monographs or books whereas
International Standard Serial number is given to a series of monographs or books.
4. Inthe case of the ISSN, it’s only optional, which suggest that the publisher isn’t
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legally bound to use it. But the ISBN is obligatory if the book falls under the ISBN
application.
Bellow are the example
Sample ISSN numbers of the publications ISSN 0027-9633 (online)
ISSN 0027-9634 (print)

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ISBN 978-951-45-9693-3 (hardback)

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ISBN 978-951-45-9694-0 (paperback)
ISBN 978-951-45-9695-7 (PDF)
ISBN 978-951-45-9696-4 (EPUB without DRM)
ISBN 978-951-45-9999-5 (EPUB with ACS4 DRM)
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Planning a Project Proposal
Discuss with an example

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Color Psychology Paper
Research Question:
How does color affect one’s mood?
Review of Literature:
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Colors may just seem simple and unimportant, but they affect our daily lives more
than we may know. If someone is feeling angry, it could just be because they’re angry,
or it could be perhaps that they are surrounded by or looking at the color red. That’s
right! People’s moods can change just because they are looking at different colors!
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There are many theories on how just a simple color can change one’s whole mood.
According to Johnson (2007), color does affect mood by producing certain

chemicals and stimulating different feelings such as hunger. For example, blue can
make one feel calm because it releases calming chemicals, and red can make one
hungry because it is an appetite stimulant. Yellow can make one feel irritated, and it is
a fact that people lose their temper most in yellow rooms. However, pink is tranquilizing
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and can make one feel weak. In conclusion, Johnson says that depending on the color,
one’s body can do things (like producing chemicals) that cause a certain emotional
reaction (mad, sad, etc.).

Another idea, by Smith (2007), is that the effect color produces is based on what
Notes one’s body does in response. For example, yellow is mentally stimulating, and activates
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memory, whereas red increases confidence. Also, brown can make a person feel
orderly and stable, while a dark blue can make one feel sad. Therefore, Smith says that
different colors do in fact change one’s mood and the consequences can be negative or
positive.
A third writer, Wollard, (2000) seems to think that color can affect one’s mood, but
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the effect also can depend on one’s culture and what one’s personal reflection may be.
For example, someone from Japan may not associate red with anger, as people from
the U.S. tend to do. Also, a person who likes the color brown may associate brown with
happiness. However, Wollard does think that colors can make everyone feel the same,
or close to the same, mood. According to Wollard, pink reduces aggression, which
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is why the walls of the jail cells in the Seattle prison are pink! Also, brown can make
one feel comforted. Wollard feels that colors do affect one’s mood, but there are other
factors that can alter what one is supposed to feel.
Eric, John, and Paraag’s (2007) main point about color psychology is that color has
both a physiological and psychological effect. For example, green makes people feel
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relaxed because it relaxes their muscles and makes them breathe deeper and more
slowly. Furthermore, blue lowers blood pressure, which makes one feel calm. Eric,
John, and Paraag conclude that color affects one’s mood because of what it does to the
body.
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Yet another idea, by Airey (2006), is that color is energy, and it can have a physical,
mental, spiritual, and/or emotional affect on people. He states that black can make one
feel sophisticated and secure, but it can also make one feel depressed. Also brown can
make a person feel reliable and serious, while yellow lifts self-esteem. Therefore, Airey
concludes that different colors can have different kinds of affects on people.
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Analysis
There are three ideas about color psychology in these sources, and they all say
that color affects one’s mood. They differ based on what factors influence the effects of
color, such as culture, opinion, and what goes on inside one’s body. One of the three
ideas is that color affects mood based on one’s personal opinions. For example, if a
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person dislikes the color pink, he may associate pink with hate. Another idea states that
color affects mood based on one’s culture. For example, someone from the U.S. may
think of the color green when referring to envy, while people in Japan think of yellow in
connection with wanting what someone else has. However, the majority of the sources
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consulted say that color affects mood by influencing what goes on inside of people. For
example, seeing the color blue releases calming chemicals, which in turn makes one
calm. Also, because yellow is the hardest color for the eye to focus on, people may
become irritated when looking at yellow, and it is a proven fact that babies cry most in
yellow nurseries. These theories do not seem to have much in common.
Methodology
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In order to test ideas about how color affects one’s mood (color psychology) this
researcher will test sixty middle school students (thirty girls and thirty boys) on how the
colors green, blue, black, yellow, red, pink, and brown make them feel. The students will

mark the feeling that each color makes them feel, according to the choices shown on
the example survey below. Notes
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Example Survey
(The only thing that changes in each different survey is the color being tested and
the gender of the student responding):
Choose as many answers as fit your feeling for the color. Does the color make you
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feel:
Mad/Angry?
Sad/Depressed/Cold?
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Secure/Safe?
Irritated/Annoyed?
Calm?
Relaxed?
Fun/Excited?
Happy/Cheery?
Tired/Sleepy/Drowsy?
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Bored?
Losing Energy/Weak?
Neutral/Balanced?
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Love/Affection?
Dislike/Hate?
Survey Results:
Most female middle school students associated these feelings with these colors…
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Black Green Yellow Pink Brown Red Blue

Sad/Cold/ Neutral/
Depressing
(43%)
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B a l a n c e d Happy/Cheery H a p p y / B o r e d Mad/Angry C a l m
(27%) (53%) Cheery (27%) (40%) ( 3 0 % ) (23%)
and Love/ and Love/
Affection Affection
(27%) (30%)
So, the greatest number of female middle school students thought that black made
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them feel sad, cold, and depressed; and green made most of them feel neutral and
balanced, and so on. The numbers in parentheses by the feelings show the percentage
of girls that felt that way. The reason most of these percentages are so low is that there

were many different responses, and for most feeling categories there were only one or
Notes two girls who felt that way.
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Most male middle school students associated these feelings with these colors…
Black Green Yellow Pink Brown Red Blue

Sad/Cold/ Secure/Safe H a p p y / L o v e / B o r e d Mad/Angry Relaxed
Depressed (27%) C h e e r y A f f e c t i o n (20%) (27%) (23%)
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(37%) (17%) (33%)
So, the greatest number of male middle school students thought that black made
them feel sad, cold, and depressed; and green made most of them feel secure and
safe, and so on. The numbers in parentheses by the feeling show the percentage of
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boys that felt that way. The reason these percentages are so low is that there were
many different responses, and for most feeling categories there were only one or two
boys who felt that way.
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Unit-5.4: Planning a Research Project

Notes
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Unit Outcomes:
At the end of this unit, participants will be able to:
●● List the methods of identifying and defining the research problem

●● Identify the factors influencing the complication of a research problem
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●● Identify the salient features of a research project
5.4.1 Identifying and Defining Issues or Problems

In research process, the first and foremost step happens to be that of selecting
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and properly defining a research problem. A researcher must find the problem
and formulate it so that it becomes susceptible to research. Like a medical doctor, a
researcher must examine all the symptoms (presented to him or observed by him)
concerning a problem before he can diagnose correctly. To define a problem correctly, a
researcher must know: what a problem is?
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Identifying a research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty in the context of
either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same.
Hence, identifying a research issues or problems is a phenomenon as it might

be called in many forms of qualitative research, is the topic is to be addressed,
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investigated, or studied, whether descriptively or experimentally. It is the focus or
reason for engaging in the research. It is typically a topic, phenomenon, or challenge
that required to be addressed.
Defining issues or Problems

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Defining a research problem is the fuel that drives the scientific process and is the
foundation of any research method and experimental design.
Research problem: A situation or circumstances that require a solution to be

described explained or predicted.
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The components of a research problem can be:
●● There must be an individual or group which has some difficulty or the problem.
●● There must be some objective(s) to be attained at.
●● There must be an alternative means for obtaining the objectives one wishes to
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attain.
●● There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the
selection of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question
concerning the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.
●● There must be some environment to which the difficulty pertains.
●● The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected.
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●● If there is a knowledge gap in an area that need to be investigated, the

research problem identifies this gap.

●● This difficulty in selecting a problem or the gap arise not due to limited range
Notes of reachable problems but he inability to locate the socially relevant topic
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without duplicating earlier studies.
5.4.2 Research Problem aspects and considerations
Problem Aspects:
Let us start with the question: What does one mean when he/she wants to define a
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research problem? The answer may be that one wants to state the problem along with
the bounds within which it is to be studied. In other words, defining a problem involves
the task of laying down boundaries within which a researcher shall study the problem
with a pre-determined objective in view.
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How to define a research problem is undoubtedly a herculean task. However, it is a
task that must be tackled intelligently to avoid the perplexity encountered in a research
operation. The usual approach is that the researcher should himself pose a question
(or in case someone else wants the researcher to carry on research, the concerned
individual, organization or an authority should pose the question to the researcher)
ni
and set-up techniques and procedures for throwing light on the question concerned for
formulating or defining the research problem. But such an approach generally does not
produce definitive results because the question phrased in such a fashion is usually in
broad general terms and as such may not be in a form suitable for testing.
U
Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research
study and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this
frequently overlooked which causes a lot of problems later on. Hence, the research
problem should be defined in a systematic manner, giving due weightage to all relating
points. There are a lot of aspects which needs to kept in mind before we deal with it.
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The aspects are:
(i) Statementof the problem: Problems should be stated in either practical or scientific
or some intellectual interest. It is can be stated through a preliminary field survey or
observation. This helps in stating the problem clearly; it also helps in narrowing the
concern in a phrase the problem in operational terms. In case the problem is stated
in a broad and general way it will involves a lot of ambiguities which can be resolved
m
by a looking at the detailed observations and surveys available. Thus the feasibility
of a particular solution can be considered.
(ii) Understanding the nature of the problem: Another aspect to be kept in mind is to
understand the origin of the problem. The best way to understand is to find out the
)A
source of occurrence or need for study.

(iii) Surveying the available literature: All available literature concerning the problem at
hand must necessarily be surveyed and examined before a definition of the research
problem is given. This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with
relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature.
Sufficient time must be devoted in reviewing of the problem. This is done to find out
(c
what materials are available at the moment and what other materials are required.
“Knowing what data are available often serves to narrow the problem itself as well
as the technique that might be used.”This would also help a researcher to know if
there are certain gaps in the theories, or whether the existing theories applicable to
the problem under study are inconsistent with each other, or whether the findings
of the different studies do not follow a pattern consistent with the theoretical Notes
ity
expectations and so on.All this will enable a researcher to take new strides in the
field for furtherance of knowledge i.e., moving up starting from the existing premise.
Studies on related problems are useful for indicating the type of difficulties that may
be encountered in the present study as also the possible analytical shortcomings. At
times such studies may also suggest useful and even new lines of approach to the
present problem.
rs
(iv) Deduction from the theory: This related to deductions made from the available
source. Once the irrelevant details of the problems are kept aside and the core of the
problem is identified then we can carry out a systematic investigation to the research
to assess the data.
ve
(v) Rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition: Rephrasing is important
because the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, defined. Through
rephrasing, the researcher puts the research problem in as specific terms as possible
so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of the
research.
Considerations
ni
The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is
a difficult one, although it may not appear to be so. Help may be taken from a research
guide in this connection. A research guide can thus help in considering a problem.
U
Considering a problem can be defined in three categories:
1. Identify concepts and terms that make up the topic statement: The research
problem can have many aspects which needs to be kept in mind but identifying
the concept and terms which comprises of the topic makes its easier for the
ity
consideration and thus the research.

2. Review related literature to help refine how you will approach examining the topic
and finding a way to analyze it: its can be done by reading through background
information for from other books and materials related to it. A preliminary review
of the research literature can be done using multidisciplinary databases.
m
3. Additional sources: since the research work can be extensive it ban be helped
with additional data which can broaden the knowledge and strengthen the initial
thoughts and arguments related to the research.
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5.4.3 Research Plan
Locating and Defining Issues or Problems

This step focuses on determining the nature and parameters of a situation or
question involving marketing strategy or implementation. The researcher should
consider the study’s purpose, relevant background information, what information
is needed, and how it will be used in decision-making when defining the issues or
(c
problems.

Designing the Research Project

Notes
ity
This step focuses on developing a research strategy or overall approach to
resolving the identified issue or problem. A research plan or approach is a blueprint
or framework for carrying out a marketing research project. Its purpose is to design
a study that will test the hypotheses of interest, determine possible answers to the
research questions, and provide the information required for decision making.
The steps in the research design are as follows:
rs
●● Analyzing secondary data
●● Qualitative analysis
●● Quantitative data collection methods (survey, observation, and
experimentation)
ve
●● Definition of the data required
●● Procedures for measurement and scaling
●● Designing a questionnaire
●● Process of sampling and sample size
●● Data analysis strategy
Collecting Data
ni
This step was all about gathering the data you’ll need to solve the issue or problem
U
you’ve identified. A field force or staff collects data in the field (in-home, mall intercept,
or computer-assisted personal interviewing), over the phone (telephone or computer-
assisted telephone interviewing), or through the mail (traditional mail and mail panel
surveys with recruited households).
The following are some examples of date collection techniques:

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●● Interviews entail questioning people about their prior knowledge.

●● Observations are the act of gathering information without asking questions.
●● Questionnaires: Ask a group of people a series of questions.
●● Interviewing and observing a group of people is what a focus group is.
m
●● Old-fashioned research with documents and records
Interpreting Research Data

Interpreting research data: The goal of this step is to examine the data and come
up with a solution to the problem.
)A
Begin by putting your findings and the information you gathered in Step 3 into
order. After that, write a rough draught of your conclusion, recommendations, and
findings. The rough draught will assist you in organising your thoughts. The last step
is to refine the draught into your final research conclusion. Before the final product is
ready for Step 5, you will most likely revise the draught as many times as necessary.
(c
Report Research Findings

The final step is to present the findings of the research to those who require
the information to make decisions. The results should be presented in an easily

understandable format so that they can be used in the decision-making process quickly.
In addition, to improve clarity and impact, an oral presentation to management should Notes
ity
be made using tables, figures, and graphs.
Formats for Research Reporting:
●● Formal Paper
●● Published Article
rs
●● PowerPoint Presentation
●● Audio or Video
●● Spreadsheet
Multiple Choice Questions
ve
1. The research report will differ based on the …………of the particular managers using
the
report.
a) need
b) position
c) designation
ni
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2. Accuracy refers to the degree to which information reflects……………..
a) reality
b) light
c) unreality
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3. Availability refers to the communication process between researcher and
the………………..
a) decision maker
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b) trainees
c) other researchers
4. …………….refers to the time span between completion of the research project and
)A
presentation of the research report to management

a) Currency
b) custom
c) taxation
(c

5. …………………is regarded as a major component of the research study
a) Research report

b) final report
Notes
ity
c) formal report
6. Writing of report is the ………..step in a research study and requires a set of skills
somewhat different from those called for in respect of the former stages of research.
a) final
rs
b) semifinal
c) primary
ve
7. ………………means bringing out the meaning of data.
a) Interpretation
b) translation
c) transformation
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8. Successful interpretation depends on how well the data is……………...
a) analysed
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b) collected
c) interpreted
9. In the ………………method, one starts from observed data and then generalisation
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is done
a) induction
b) conduction
c) coronation
d) invention
m
10. In an oral presentation, ……………….plays a big role.

a) communication
b) presentation
)A
c) visual effects
11. ………….report presents the outcome of the research in detail.
a) Long
b) short
(c
c) medium

12. The …………….statement should explain the nature of the project, how it came
about and Notes
ity
what was attempted.
a) opening
b) Closing
c) Starting
rs
d) ending
13. The ………………..should indicate the various parts or sections of the report.
a) table of contents
ve
b) chair of contents
c) stool of contents
14. …………..Page should indicate the topic on which the report is prepared.
ni
a) Title
b) introduction
c) conclusion
U
15. A selected bibliography lists the items which the author thinks are of ………….
interest to
the reader.
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a) primary
b) secondary
c) no
16. In a report there must be …………….in margins and spacing.
m
a) Consistency
b) inconsistent
c) aligned
)A

17. Aim must be logical and ……………in the report presentation
a) systematic
b) unsystematic
c) illogical
(c

Answers:
Notes
ity
1. need
2. reality
3. decision maker
4. Currency
5. Research report
rs
6. final
7. Interpretation
8. analysed
ve
9. induction
10. communication
11. Long
12. opening
13. table of contents
14. Title
15. primary
ni
U
16. Consistency
17. systematic
ity
m
)A
(c

CSIT745 - Research Methodology

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Research Methodology 1

●● Define research methodology

Unit-1.2: Research Process

1.2.5 Research Proposal& Aspects

Unit-1.3: Types of Research Design

1.3.1 Pure & Applied (with examples)

1.3.4 Experimental, Semi-experimental & Non-Experimental (with example)

Unit-1.4: Research Modeling

1.4.3 Data Consideration & Testing

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Unit-1.1: Introduction to Research Methodology

●● List various definitions of research

1.1.1 Definition and Objectives of Research

Slesinger& Stephenson, Encyclopedia of Social Sciences:

“the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to

theory or in the practice of an art”.

●● Redman & Mory:

General objectives, also known as secondary objectives, provide a detailed view

1.1.2 Characteristics of Research

new group of subjects or at a different time.

that will allow its findings to be implemented.

●● The research must be straightforward, timely, and time-bound, with a

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●● The research should be as inexpensive as possible.

1.1.3 Differences between Research Methods and Research

for gaining knowledge. Its goal is to provide a research work plan.

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Unit-1.2: Research Process

●● Identify and learn about process of research

of integrity, greater trust in the research is warranted.

At every stage of the marketing research process, systematic planning is required.

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Marketing research should be conducted impartially to provide accurate information

Step 1: Problem Definition

Step 3: Research Design Formulation

Step 4: Field Work or Data Collection

Step 5: Data Preparation and Analysis

1.2.2 Different Approaches of Research

conclusions from premises or propositions. Deduction starts with a pattern “that is

●● Probability to clarify the relationships between variables and concepts.

●● Probability to measure concepts in quantitative manner.

1. Deducing hypothesis from theory

4. Examining the result and decide whether it is confirming or rejecting and it is

Abductive Reasoning or Abductive Approach

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It is cleared that abductive reasoning is similar to deductive and inductive

Qualitative research: It is a non-statistical process of inquiry. It helps with in-depth

Quantitative research: Quantitative Research is a structured way of collecting

Advocacy/participatory approach to research

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Study the below illustration to grasp the concept better.

“Is Mutual Fund a popular investment option in India?”

The team constructs a trio of hypotheses, namely

Decisions taken based on the hypothesis selected

If H1 Selected then decision is taken that (Launching the Mutual Fund).

But If H2 selected then decision is (Not launching the Mutual Fund ).

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middle-class population invests in mutual funds. If established otherwise, i.e. if H2 is

For Discussing about the process of formulating a hypothesis we have to discuss a

Consider a school decides to launch an online learning management system

Variables Example as per the illustration Explanation

Independent Number of practice tests taken Other variablesdepend on it.

factor measured to establish