METN 132 (Material Science) Course - Presentation

Material Science
METN 132 Course

CH 3
Presented By:
Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Yehia Shash

Mechanical Design & Production Dept.,
Faculty of Engineering,
Cairo University
Course Outline
! Introduction to Material Science
! Types of Material
! Crystal Structure
! Diffusion in Solids
! Phase Diagrams
! Fe-C Phase Diagram
! Types of Steels
! Ceramics
! Polymers
! Mechanical Properties and Testing
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Shash Material Science
Course Outline
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Lecture 1
! Introduction:
Classification of Materials
Metallic Non-Metallic
Characteristics: Characteristics:
a. Good thermal conductors a. Good Thermal Insulators
b. Good electrical conductors b. Good Electrical Insulators
c. Relatively good strength, ductility & formability c. Low strength
Ex: Steel & Ferrous Alloys, Copper Ex: Ceramics, Polymers

and Aluminum Alloys and Composites
Metallic Materials
• Pure metals are used so rarely.
• Therefore for better mechanical properties a combination of
pure metals called alloys are used
• Alloys are used in industry in load bearing applications.
Ex: Power Transmission Gears Steel (Fe + Carbon) till
2% C
Engine Blocks Cast Iron (Fe + Carbon) 2.0 < 6.67% C
Metallic Materials
• Alloying Elements:
Interstitially added Carbon
+ Chromium
+ Cobalt
• Impurities:
Elements that have harmful effect
Sulfur + Phosphorous
• There are more than 81 pure metals out of the 103 element in periodic
table.
• There are million of alloys
Non-Metallic Materials
• Ceramics:
They are compounds of metals and non-metals (ex: Al2O3, TiC)
Characteristics:
a. Very strong and hard, but brittle.
b. Very high melting temperature.
c. Low electrical and thermal conductivity.
• Polymers:
A. Natural Polymers (Ex: Wood, Rubber, Leather) H H
B. Synthesis Polymers (Ex: Ethylene C2H4) C=C
H H
Polymerization:
a. Temperature,
b. b. Pressure &
c. Catalyst (R).
H H H H H H
R C C C C C C
H H H H H H
Mer-unit Mer-unit Mer-unit
Polymer Chain
Ex.: Polyethylene for Food Backing Industry
• Types of Polymers:
1. Thermoplastics:
a. Soft
b. Ductile &
c. Recyclable
2. Thermosets:
a. Hard
b. Brittle &
c. Non-Recyclable
3. Elastomer:
a. Very High Elastic
Deformation
• Polymers Manufacturing Process & Mechanical Properties:
Thermosets
Thermoplastics
Elastomer
• Composites:
A material formed from a combination of other materials with the
purpose of producing a new material with high strength to weight ratio.
Ex.: Cutting Tool Material

(Cermets: Titanium Carbide Particles in Cobalt Matrix)
Ceramics Metal
Car Tires
Rubber + Steel Wires + Carbon Particles
Polymer Metal
Summery
• Material Science Structure
Processing
Microstructure Mechanical Properties
Lecture 2
! Identification of Metals & Alloys:
1. Chemical Analysis:
This is the most accurate method of identification, but unfortunately
it is expensive and time consuming.
2. Fast Physical Tests:

a. Color: Copper Red
Brass & Bronze Yellow
b. Density: Magnesium 1.7 gm/cm³
Aluminum 2.7 gm/cm³
Zinc 7.1 gm/cm³
Iron 7.9 gm/cm³
Copper 8.9 gm/cm³
c. Magnetic Properties: (Iron, Nickel and Cobalt)
Metals and Alloys
d. Sound:
Gray Cast Iron Very Dull sound
Mild Steel Medium Metallic sound
High Carbon Steel Ringing sound
e. Melting Point:
Tin 232°C
Lead 327°C
Zinc 419°C
Aluminum 660°C
Copper 1083°C
Iron 1540°C
f. Used & Method of Production:
- Steel Products: Rivets – Fe + 0.1% C
Bolts – “ + 0.3% C
Gears – “ + 0.6% C
- Brass Products: Machined Parts – 58% Cu, 40% Zn, 2% Pb
Deep Drawings – 70% Cu, 30% Zn
Metals and Alloys
3. Simple Mechanical Tests:
a. Scratching:
b. Machining: Cast Iron Broken Chips
Steel Continuous Chips
4. Spark Tests:
It is mainly used for the Ferrous Metals.
5. Microscopic Examination:
a. Determination of the Carbon Content of Steel.
b. Identification of Cast Iron.
c. Detection of the Type of Heat Treatment.
Metals and Alloys
• Crystal Structure:
- All metals and alloys are crystalline solids.
- Crystalline special atomic arrangement extend through the entire material.
- The atoms form a repetitive pattern called crystalline lattice.
Crystalline Lattice:
Atoms are arranged such that each atom
has an identical surroundings.
Unit Cell:
The smallest building block of the crystalline
lattice.
There are 14 types of unit cells.
Crystal Structure
• Most Common Types:
A. Simple Cube (SC)
No. of Atoms per unit cell = 8 x ⅛ = 1 atom
B. Face Center Cubic (FCC)

No. of Atoms per unit cell = 8 x ⅛ + 6 x ½
= 4 atoms
Crystal Structure
C. Body Center Cubic (BCC)

No. of Atoms per unit cell = 8 x ⅛ + 1 = 2 atoms
D. Hexagonal closed Backed (HCP)

No. of Atoms per unit cell = 12 x 1/6 + 2 x 1/2 + 1
+ 3 = 6 atoms
Crystal Structure
• Lattice Parameters:
Cube:
a = b = c = ao
a=β=γ
Atomic radius versus Lattice Parameter:

Close Packed Direction: Directions in unit cell over which the atoms are in
continuous contact.
- Simple Cube - FCC (Al, Cu) - BCC (Iron)
r r
2r 2r
r r
r
r
ao
ao ao
ao = 2r √2 ao = 4r √3 ao = 4r
ao = 2√2 r ao = 4r / √3
Crystal Structure
- HCP (Titanium, Cobalt, Magnesium)
ao
ao = 2r
ao = 2r, and L = 1.6 ao
• Atomic Packing Factor:
A. P. F = Volume occupied by atoms / Volume of unite cell
= (No. of atoms / Unit cell) x (Volume of one atom) / Vol. of unit cell
Ex. A.P.F for FCC = 4 x 4/3 Π r³ / (2√2 r)³ = 0.74
Crystal Structure
• Theoretical Density:
T.D. = (No. of atoms / Unit cell) x (atomic weight of one atom) / Vol. of unit cell x
Avogdros No.
Avogdros No. = 6.023 x 10²³ atoms / mole
Ex.
Copper has an atomic radius of 0.128 nm, is a FCC Crystal and with an atomic
weight 63.5 gm / mole.
ρ = (4 x 63.5) / [(2√2 x 0.129 x 10!"#$ %&6.023 x 10²³] = 8.89 gm / cm$
Crystal Structure
! 1- Iron ( Fe ) at 20 °C is BCC with atoms radius 0.124 nm.
Calculate the lattice constant a for the cube edge of the iron
unit cell.
! 2- Gold is FCC with atomic radius 0.144 nm, calculate the

volume of its unit cell in cubic meters.
! 3- Calculate the volume of the zinc ( Zn ) crystal structure unit

cell by using the following data: pure zinc has HCP crystal
structure with lattice constants a = 0.2665 nm, and c = 0.4947
nm.
! 4- Silver ( Ag ) is FCC and its atomic radius is 1.4 A°, find the
following:
! its lattice parameter,
! its density if its atomic weight is 108 g/mol, and
Crystal Structure
Z (0,0,1)
(0,1,1)
! Directions in unit cell
1 ,1 ]
[1,
[1,1,0] Y
(0,1,0)
(1,0,0)
X
Z (1,1,0) XYZ
! Planes in unit cell 11∞
1. Intercepts with the X-Y-Z Axes

2. Reciprocal
Y
X XYZ
(1,0,0)
1∞∞
Lecture 3
Deformation & Diffusion
! Elastic deformation: stretch & inter-atomic bond
! Plastic deformation: How does deformation happens in metal
b
(1900 sliding of planes of atoms)
b (burger vector): the distance between 2 adjacent atoms in slip direction

A single metallic bond need to be broken for the dislocation to move unit step
- Dislocation: is a material defect extra half plane of atom produced during
solidification when rapid cooled
Deformation
! Burger vector (b): Direction & Magnitude of the distance that the
dislocation moves each step.
FCC: BCC:
b = √2 ao / 2 b = √3 ao / 2
r r
2r 2r
r
r
ao ao
Deformation
! How many slip systems in FCC:
- Slip plane: (111), (111), (111) and (111)

- Slip directions: 3 for each slip plane
In FCC, there are 12 slip systems, composed of 4 slip planes & on each
slip plane there are 3 slip directions:
Z
X XYZ
111
Deformation
! Conditions for plastic deformation on single crystal?
Resolved force FR = F cos λ
Resolved shear stress ζR = F cos λ / A

= F/Ao cos λ cos ø, where A = Ao / cos ø
ζR = δ cos λ cos ø
Deformation
! Condition of slip:
ζR max = δ cos λ cos ø = ζCRSS
- Critical resolved shear stress (ζCRSS) shear stress required to break

metallic bond in order for slip to occur (metallic property)
- Angle between two vectors:
Deformation
Ex:
- Consider a single crystal of BCC iron Tensile stress is applied along
[0 1 0] direction.
a. Compute the resolved shear stress (ζR) along (110) plane & [111]
direction, when a tensile stress of 52 MPa is applied.
b. If slip occur on the (110) plane & in [111] direction & the ζCRSS = 30
MPa, calculate the applied stress.
N.B.: In cubic crystals the plane normal’s have the same indices as the
plane itself.
Tensile Axis ø Slip plane normal

[010] (110)
Tensile Axis λ Slip direction
[010] [111]
Deformation
a.
cos ø = (0x1) + (1x1) + (0x0) = 1 / √2
√1 √2
cos λ = (0x1) + (1x1) + (1x0) = 1 / √3

√1 √3
ζR = δ cos λ cos ø = 52 x 1/√2 x 1/√3 = 21 MPa
b.
ζR = δ cos λ cos ø = ζCRSS = 30
= δ √2 1/√3
δ = 74 MPa
Deformation
- Slip: plastic deformation by the movement of dislocation through the crystalline
lattice
- Dislocation density: No. of dislocations per unit area.
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Deformation
Ex:
- Compute & compare the linear density & linear packing factor for the [1 0 0] &
[1 1 0] direction in FCC unit cell.
[1 0 0]
r r
ao
L.D. = 1 / ao
L.P.F = 2r / 2√2 r = 0.707
r 2r r ao = 2√2 r
Ans: the dislocation will choose the direction with the highest density of atoms
L.D. = 2 / √2 ao
L.P.F = 4r / √2 (2√2 r) = 1
Deformation
! Planer slip
- Planer density = No. of atoms / Area of plane

- Planer packing factor = Area occupied by atoms / Area of plane
Ex:
- Compute & compare the planer density & planer packing factor for the (1 0 0) &
(1 1 1) in FCC unit cell
Z
X
Deformation
For plane (1 1 1)
P.D. = [(3 x 0.5) + (3 x 1/6)] / (½√2 ao x √2 ao sin60°)
√2 ao sin60°
√2 ao
For plane (1 0 0)
P.D. = 2 / ao²
P.P.F = 2 Π r² / ao² = 2 Π r² / 8 r² = 0.9
“Dislocation choose this plane”
Lecture 4
Diffusion
Important Concepts
! Applications of Diffusion
! Activation Energy for Diffusion
! Mechanisms for Diffusion
! Rate of Diffusion (Fick’s First Law)
! Factors Affecting Diffusion
! Composition Profile (Fick’s Second Law)
Diffusion
! How does diffusion occur?
! Why is diffusion an important part of processing?
! How can the rate of diffusion be predicted for some simple

cases?
! How does diffusion depend on structure and temperature?
Application of Diffusion
• Furnace for heat treating steel using carburization.
• Carburizing is the addition of carbon to the surface of low-carbon steels

at temperatures ranging from 850°C to 950°C.
• Hardening is achieved when a high carbon martensitic case with good

wear and fatigue resistance is superimposed on a tough, low-carbon steel
core.
Case Hardening
• Case hardening or surface hardening is
the process of hardening the surface of a
metal, often a low carbon steel, by diffusing
elements into the material's surface, forming
a thin layer of a harder alloy.
• Carbon atoms diffuse into the iron lattice

atoms at the surface.
• This is an example of interstitial diffusion.
• The C atoms make iron (steel) harder.
“Carbide band saw blade can cut

through case hardened materials.”
©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e 40
Hot-dip galvanizing
• Hot-dip galvanizing is a form of galvanization. It
is the process of coating iron, steel, or aluminum
with a thin zinc layer, by passing the metal through
a molten bath of zinc at a temperature of around
860 °F (460 °C).
• When exposed to the atmosphere, the pure zinc
(Zn) reacts with oxygen (O2) to form zinc oxide
(ZnO), which further reacts with carbon dioxide
(CO2) to form zinc carbonate (ZnCO3), a dull grey,
fairly strong material.
• In many environments, the steel below the coating
will be protected from further corrosion.
•Galvanized steel is widely used in applications
A hot-dip galvanizing 'kettle' with fume hood
where rust resistance is needed.
Galvanized steel and coils

popular for applications in
industrial goods, automobile
components, precision
tubes, consumer durable
and many more.
Galvanized i-beams.
Diffusion
! Mass transport by atomic motion. Diffusion is a consequence of the
constant thermal motion of atoms, molecules and particles that results in
material moving from areas of high to low concentration.
! Conditions of Diffusion
1. There must be an empty adjacent site
2. The atom must have sufficient energy to break all bonds
with neighboring atoms and more through the lattice
! Mechanisms of Diffusion
1. Vacancy diffusion
An atom that normally occupied normal lattice site, diffuses
to fill a vacant lattice site.
2. Interstitial diffusion
An interstitial diffuses to fill another interstitial sites.
Steady State Diffusion
1. Steady state diffusion:
J = M / At, (kg / m²s)
J. Flux:- (Rate of mass transfer) = mass in Kgs (No. of atoms) moving through and
perpendicular to a unit cross sectional area per unit time.
dJ/dt = 0 , J α ∆C/∆X C
∆C/∆x : Concentration Gradient CA
- Ficks 1st Law: CB
J = -D dc/dx X
A B
Where D is a diffusion coefficient
Steady State Diffusion
Ex:
! For a steady state diffusion calculate (J) if D = 3x10!³ m²/s
XA = 5mm, XB = 10mm
CA = 12 kg/m³, CB = 0.8 kg/m³
Sol.
J = [-3x10!¹¹ (0.8 - 1.2)] / [(10x10!³) – (5x10!³)]
J=√
Non-Steady State Diffusion
2. Non-steady state diffusion
dJ/dt ≠ 0 , ∆C/∆X varies with time
Ficks 2nd law: dC/dt = ∆ d²C/dx²
C( x, t ) − Co ⎛ x ⎞
= 1 − erf ⎜ ⎟
Cs − Co ⎝ 2 Dt ⎠
Cx : Concentration of depth x.
Cs : Concentration of surface.
Co : concentration at x = ∞ (uniform concentration)
D : Diffusion Coefficient
t : time
Ex:
For some applications, it is necessary to harden the surface of
steel, this can be accomplished by increasing the carbon
content at the surface (carburizing).
- Carburizing: It is the heating of the steel product in atmosphere

rich in carbon gas (methane)
Hard
Tough
Ex:
Alloy with uniform concentration of 0.25 wt.% carbon is heat treated at
950°C.
If carbon concentration at the surface = 1.2 wt.%. How long it would take
to achieve a carbon content of 0.8 wt.% at a position of 0.5mm below
the surface.
Diffusion coefficient of carbon in iron at 950°C is 1.6x10!¹¹ m²/sec.
Sol.: use Eqn.

Cs = 1.2 , Cx = 0.8
Co = 0.25
0.421 = 1 – erf(62.5/√t)
Get the Error function from tables
Ex:
An FCC iron-carbon alloy initially containing 0.20 wt% C is carburized at an
elevated temperature and in an atmosphere that gives a surface carbon
concentration constant at 1.0 wt%. If after 49.5 h the concentration of
carbon is 0.35 wt% at a position 4.0 mm below the surface, determine
the diffusion coefficient at which the treatment was carried out.
Sol.: use Eqn.
C( x, t ) − Co ⎛ x ⎞
= 1 − erf ⎜ ⎟
C s − Co ⎝ 2 Dt ⎠
C ( x , t ) − Co ⎛ x ⎞
= 1 − erf ⎜ ⎟
C s − Co ⎝ 2 Dt ⎠
t = 49.5 h x = 4 x 10-3 m
Cx = 0.35 wt% Cs = 1.0 wt%

Co = 0.20 wt%
C( x, t ) − Co 0.35 − 0.20 ⎛ x ⎞
= = 1 − erf ⎜ ⎟ = 1 − erf ( z )
Cs − Co 1.0 − 0.20 ⎝ 2 Dt ⎠
∴ erf(z) = 0.8125
We must now determine from Tables the value of z for which the
error function is 0.8125. An interpolation is necessary as follows
z − 0.90 0.8125 − 0.7970

=
z erf(z) 0.95 − 0.90 0.8209 − 0.7970
0.90 0.7970
z 0.8125 z = 0.93
0.95 0.8209
Now solve for D x x2

z= D=
2 Dt 4 z 2t
⎛ x2 ⎞ ( 4 x 10 −3
m) 2
1h
∴D = ⎜ ⎟= = 2.6 x 10 −11 m2 /s
⎜ 4z 2t ⎟ ( 4)(0.93)2 ( 49.5 h) 3600 s
⎝ ⎠
Lecture 5
Phase Diagrams
What is a Thermal Equilibrium Diagrams?
! Thermal equilibrium diagram / Phase Diagram:

- It is a map of phase fields which exist in an equilibrium for any different
combination of alloy compositions and different temperatures.
Phase Diagrams
How are the Phase Equilibrium Diagrams are obtained from cooling curves?
Phase Diagrams
- Cooling curves:
1. Pure Metals: solidifies at constant temp.
+ Eutectic alloy
+ Intermetalic compound
A pure metal solidifies at a

constant temp., while an alloy
solidifies over a wide range
of temp.
Phase Diagrams
2. Binary Alloys: solidifies over a range of temp.
Alloy phases = f (Alloy composition, Temperature)
Phase Diagrams
- Phase:
is a homogenous, physical distinct substance, which has the same
structure every where.
Ex.: ice
oil
water Tea
water water
Single phases Two phases
- Melting or freezing temperature:

is the temperature at which the following reaction takes place.
ice
liquid solid
water at 0°C heating (water + ice). existing side by side
Phase Diagrams
Definition of terms:
! Liquidus - The line separating the field of all liquid from that of
liquid plus crystals.
! Solidus - The line separating the field of all solid from that of
liquid plus crystals.
! Solvus - The line separating the field of a solid from another

solid.
! Eutectic point - the point on a phase diagram where the

maximum number of allowable phases are in equilibrium.
When this point is reached, the temperature must remain
constant until one of the phases disappears. A eutectic is an
invariant point.
Phase Diagrams
! Basic types of phase diagram:
1. Solid solution phase diagram:
- Solidification ends with single solid phase (α)
- No solubility limit
Ex. Cu + Ni
Phase Diagrams
2. Simple eutectic phase diagram:
Eutectic point: liquid solid (A+B)
Without passing through liquid+solid at constant temp.
Two solid phases of A & B.
(A+B) are solid solution phase 100% solubility
Phase Diagrams
3. Partial solid solubility phase diagram:
a. Single solid phase of α
b. Two solid phases of (α+β)
c. Solubility limit of β
d. Min. solid solubility of β
e. Max. solid solubility of α
Phase Diagrams
- Eutectic point (E):
is the point at which the following reaction takes place.
cooling
Liquid solid1 + solid2
heating
Ex.:
Structure diagram:
Mechanical property:
Phase Diagrams
! Eutectic Alloys:
1. In general, eutectic alloys have excellent casting properties.
2. Lowest melting point TE
3. Minimum freezing range.
The last liquid to freeze must have the eutectic composition:

a. Maximum fluidity
b. Eutectic structure
Eutectic systems:
(Fe + C) Cast Iron
(Al + Si) Silumin
(Zn + Al) Zanac
(Pb + Sn) Lead + Tn solders
Phase Diagrams
! Information obtained from Thermal Equilibrium Diagram:
1. Melting point of pure metal A.
2. Melting point of pure metal B.
3. The composition of the alloy which has the lowest melting points.
4. Freezing range of any alloy containing x B%.
5. The cooling curves of pure metals & alloys.
6. The different phases which exist in equilibrium for any combination of temp. &
alloy composition.
7. Calculation of the relative amounts of the different phase.
8. Understanding the microstructure at zone temp. & machine design.
9. Understanding the microstructure at elevated temp.
10. Chemical analysis from microscopic examination.
11. Variation of mechanical properties.
12. Variation of physical properties.
13. Alloys most suitable for plastic deformation.
14. Possibility for heat treatment.
15. Presence or absence of allotropy.
Phase Diagrams
! Lever Rule:
It is applicable in any two phase field.
Alloy x at temp. T1 consists of solid A1
(0% B) and liquid L1 of composition (x+y)% B.
B% in alloy x = wt.% of B in solid + wt.% of B in liquid

total wt.% of the alloy
=wt.% of solid (0) + wt.% of liquid (x+y) %B
wt.% of solid + wt.% of liquid
wt.% of solid (x) + wt.% of liquid (x) = 0 + wt.% of liq. (x+y)

To calculate the relative amounts of two phases
wt.% of solid (x) = wt.% of liquid (y)
wt.% of solid y
=
wt.% of liq. x
Phase Diagrams
! If an alloy consists of more than one phase, the amount of each phase present
can be found by applying the lever rule to the phase diagram.
! The lever rule can be explained by considering a simple balance. The

composition of the alloy is represented by the fulcrum, and the compositions of
the two phases by the ends of a bar. The proportions of the phases present
are determined by the weights needed to balance the system.
Fraction of phase 1 = (C2 - C) / (C2 - C1)
Fraction of phase 2 = (C - C1) / (C2 - C1).
Phase Diagrams
Ex.:
Point 1
! At point 1 the alloy is completely liquid, with a composition C. Let C = 65
weight% B.
Phase Diagrams
Point 2
! At point 2 the alloy has cooled as far as the liquidus, and solid phase b starts
to form. Phase b first forms with a composition of 96 weight% B. The green
dashed line below is an example of a tie-line. A tie-line is a horizontal (i.e.,
constant-temperature) line through the chosen point, which intersects the
phase boundary lines on either side.
Phase Diagrams
Point 3
! A tie-line is drawn through the point, and the lever rule is applied to identify the
proportions of phases present. Intersection of the lines gives compositions C1
and C2 as shown.
! Let C1 = 58 weight% B and C2 = 92 weight% B
Fraction of solid b = (65 - 58) / (92 - 58) = 20

weight%
Fraction of liquid = (92 - 65) / (92 - 58) = 80

weight%
Phase Diagrams
Point 4
! Let C3 = 48 weight% B
and
! C4 = 87 weight% B
Fraction of solid b = (65 - 48) / (87 - 48) = 44

weight%.
As the alloy is cooled, more solid β phase forms.
At point 4, the remainder of the liquid becomes a

eutectic phase of α+β and
fraction of eutectic = 56 weight%
Phase Diagrams
Point 5
! Let C5 = 9 weight% B and C6 = 91 weight% B
Fraction of solid β = (65 - 9) / (91 - 9) = 68

weight%
Fraction of solid α = (91 - 65) / (91 - 9) = 32

weight%.
Phase Diagrams
Ex.:
Phase Diagrams
Phase Diagrams
Ex.:
Phase Diagrams
Ex.:
Phase Diagrams
Ex.:
Phase Diagrams
Ex.:
Phase Diagrams
Phase Diagrams
Ex.:
Phase Diagrams
Ex.:
Phase Diagrams
Ex.:
Phase Diagrams
Ex.:
Lecture 6
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
It is a thermal equilibrium diagram, in which the rate of cooling (freezing)
must be very slow in order to establish equilibrium conditions.
There are six possible reactions in Materials science:

1. Eutectic Rx: L S1 + S2
2. Peritectic Rx: L + S1 S2
3. Eutectoid Rx: S1 S2 + S3
4. Monotectic Rx: L1 S + L2
5. Syntectic Rx: L1 + L2 S
6. Peritectoid Rx: S1 + S2 S3
It is an allotropic alloy.
Allotropy: is the ability of the material to have more than one crystal
structure, depending on the temperature to which it is heated.
it©2007 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing 3/e
Cooling Curve:
- Pure Iron melts at 1540°C.
- Pure Iron loses its magnetic
properties when heated above 768°C
In year 1913, X-Ray diffraction measurements showed that both α-Iron & β-Iron,
have the same crystal structural (B.C.C).
The term β is not used any more, & it is now called (non-magnetic α-Iron)
The Fe-C Thermal Equilibrium Diagram:
! Definitions:
- Malleable steel: It is soft and ductile, can be forged up to 2% C.
- White cast Iron: It is hard & brittle, can never be forged, over 2% C up
to 6.67% C.
- Peritectic point: (0.18% C, 1492°C),
liquid + δ ɣ
- Eutectic point: (4.3% C, 1130°C)
liquid ɣ + Fe3C
- Eutectoid point: (0.8% C, 723°C)
ɣ α + Fe3C
- Austenite (ɣ-phase): It is a solid solution of C in FCC ɣ-Iron, very soft
& ductile.
- Ferrite (α-phase): It is a solid solution of C in BCC α-Iron, soft &
ductile (BHN = 70).
- Cementite (Fe3C): It is a chemical compound Fe3C, hard & brittle
(BHN = 800). It is thermodynamically unstable and can’t exist by itself.
- Ledeburite: It is the eutectic structure from 1130°C down to 723°C, a

mechanical mixture of two phases (Austenite + Cementite), which is
hard and brittle (BHN = 700).
- Pearlite: It is an eutectoid structure below 723°C, a mechanical

mixture of two pahses (Ferrite + Cementite), which is strong and
tough (BHN = 160).
! Microstructure
! Microstructure
! Mechanical Properties
! White Cast Iron
Obtained by fast rate of freezing (thin section) & is favored by a low
silicon content structure diagrams.
! Gray Cast Iron
Obtained by very slow rate of freezing (sand cast iron) & is favored by a
high silicon content (2 – 3% Si for graphitization).
Graphite flakes
! Malleable Cast Iron
Obtained by long heating (annealing) of white cast Iron.
Graphite nodule
Ferrite
! Ductile Cast Iron / Spheroidal Graphite (S.G)
Cast Iron
Obtained by inoculation, which is the addition of a very small amount of
magnesium (or cilium) to the melt just before casting.
Spheroidal Graphite
!How to distinguish between
Steel & Gray Cast Iron
Test Steel Gray C.I.
1. Chemical analysis 0 – 2% C practically up > 2% C

to 1% C
2. Microstructure Ferrite + pearlite + Graphite + ferrite +

cementite pearlite
3. Form of chips Continuous Broken
4. Tensile test Ductile Brittle
5. Spark Long spark Short spark
Lecture 8 & 9
Mechanical Properties
! Hardness test
- Subjects of interest
- Objective
- Definition
- Brinell hardness
- Vickers hardness
- Rockwell hardness

Hardness
! Objective
• It provides fundamental knowledge of hardness of materials
along with different methods of hardness measurements
normally used.
! Definition
- Hardness is a resistance to deformation.
(for people who are concerned with mechanics of materials,
hardness is more likely to mean the resistance to indentation)

Hardness
Deeper or Larger impression
Softer Materials
Hardness impression

Hardness
! Hardness tests can be used for many engineering
applications to achieve the basic requirement of mechanical
property.
! For Examples
1. surface treatments where surface hardness has been much improved.
2. Powder metallurgy
3. Fabricated parts: forgings, rolled plates, extrusions, machined parts.
Hardness
variation of
nitrided
Nitrided part part

Brinell Hardness
! J.A. Brinell introduced the first standardised indentation-hardness
test in 1900. The Brinell hardness test consists in indenting the metal
surface with a 10-mm diameter steel ball at a load range of 500-3000
kg, depending on hardness of particular materials.
! The load is applied for a standard time (~30 s), and

the diameter of the indentation is measured.
! Giving an average value of two readings of the
diameter of the indentation at right angle.
! The Brinell hardness number (BHN or HB ) is
expressed as the load P divided by surface area of
the indentation.
! Where P is applied load, kg

! D is diameter of ball, mm
! d is diameter of indentation, mm
! t is depth of the impression, mm
Unit kgf.mm!" =9.8 MPa

Brinell Hardness
! Advantages and disadvantages of
Brinell hardness test
• Large indentation averages out local
heterogeneities of microstructure.
• Different loads are used to cover a wide
range of hardness of commercial metals.
• Brinell hardness test is less influenced by
surface scratches and roughness than other
hardness tests.
• The test has limitations on small specimens
or in critically stressed parts where indentation
could be a possible site of failure.
Brinell Hardness
impression

Vickers Hardness
! Vickers hardness test uses a square-base diamond pyramid as
the indenter with the included angle between opposite faces of
the pyramid of 136º.
! The Vickers hardness number (VHN) is defined as the load
divided by the surface area of the indentation.
Where
P is the applied load, kg
L is the average length of diagonals, mm
θ is the angle between opposite faces of
diamond = 136º. Note: not widely used for routine
check due to a slower process and
Note: the unite can be VHN, DPH, Hv requires careful surface preparation.

Vickers Hardness
! Vickers hardness test uses the loads ranging from 1-120 kgf,
applied between 10 and 15 seconds.
! Provide a fairly wide acceptance for research work because it

provides a continuous scale of hardness, for a given load.

Vickers Hardness
! Vickers Hardness Values of Materials
Materials Hv
Tin 5
Aluminum 25
Gold 35
Copper 40
Iron 80
Mild steel 230
Full Hard steel 1000
Tungsten Carbide 2500

Rockwell Hardness
! The most widely used hardness test in the world
and generally accepted due to
1. Its speed
2. Freedom from personal error.
3. Ability to distinguish small hardness difference
4. Small size of indentation.
The hardness is measured according

to the depth of indentation, under a
constant load.

Rockwell Hardness
! Principal of the Rockwell Test
- Position the surface area to be
measured close to the indenter.
- Applied the minor load and a zero
reference position is established
- The major load is applied for a
specified time period (dwell time)
beyond zero
- The major load is released leaving
the minor load applied.
! The dial contains 100 divisions,

each division representing a The Rockwell number represents the
penetration of 0.002 mm. difference in depth from the zero reference
position as a result of the applied major
load.

Rockwell Hardness
! Both tensile strength and

hardness may be regarded as
degree of resistance to plastic
deformation.
! Hardness is proportional to
the tensile strength – but note
that the proportionality
constant is different for
different materials.

Rockwell Hardness
! Rockwell hardness scale
! Rockwell hardness number (RHN)
! represents in different scale, A, B, C,..
depending on types of indenters and major
loads used.
! The Hardened steel is tested on the C scale

with Rc20-70.
! Softer materials are tested on the B scale
with Rb30-100.

Impact Test
! Subjects of interest:
1. Objective
2. The brittle-fracture problem
3. Notch-bar impact tests
4. Ductile to metal transition temperature curve
! Objective: (why measure Impact toughness)

Materials are used to build load bearing structures. An engineer needs to
know if the material will survive the conditions that the structure will
see in service. Important factors which affect the toughness of a
structure include low test temperatures, extra loading and high strain
rates due to wind or impacts and the effect of stress concentrations
such as notches and cracks. These all tend to encourage fracture. To
some extent, the complex interaction of these factors can be included
in the design process by using fracture mechanics theory.

Impact Test
! The brittle-fracture problems:
Three basic factors contribute to a brittle cleavage fracture.
To determine the susceptibility of materials

to brittle behaviour.
Failure of Liberty Ships during services in The cause of failure was due to crack
World War II. initiated from defects in the welded area
and subjected to subzero temperature.

Impact Test
! Notch bar impact test
! Notched bar test specimens are used in different sizes and
designs.
! The Charpy impact specimen is the most widely used.
! Can use the test result to indicate how brittle the materials are.
The specimen is hit by

a pendulum until
fracture.
Method of loading in Charpy V notch and Izod tests.

Impact Test
! The Charpy impact test:
! The Charpy test measures the total energy absorbed during specimen
fracture.
• The standard Charpy specimen is hit by a
pendulum at the opposite side of the notch and the
energy required to break open is measured.
• Standard specimen size is 10x10x55 mm³ with a
V notch of 2 mm deep, 45o angle and 0.25 mm root
radius.
Charpy impact test diagram

Impact Test
! Ductile to brittle transition temperature curve
• The absorbed energy (Joule) is plotted against
testing temperature, giving a ductile to brittle
transition temperature curve (DBTT curve).
• The curve represents a change in fracture
behaviour
from ductile at high temperature to brittle at lower Lower shelf
temperature.
Transition-mixed mode
Upper shelf
Impact Test
! Ductile to brittle transition is defined in terms of the fracture
energy.
! A brittle fracture is a low energy fracture and a ductile fracture is
a high energy fracture.
Brittle vs. Ductile Fracture

• Ductile Materials – extensive plastic deformation and high energy absorption
(“toughness”) before fracture.
• Brittle Materials – little plastic deformation and low energy absorption before fracture.

Impact Test
! As temperature decreases a ductile material can become brittle –
ductile-to-brittle transition.
Raising the temperature activates more slip systems encourages ductile
behavior.
The effect of temperature on impact energy for several alloys

Impact Test
! Alloying usually increases the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature.
! BCC metals (e.g. Carbon steels) show a brittle-to-ductile transition – an abrupt
increase in impact energy as T
! The temperature of the transition varies from -100 to +100°C, depending on alloying
level.
! FCC metals (e.g. Al) remain ductile to very low T’s
! Some metals (e.g. Cast Irons, HCP metals) remain brittle even at high T’s
! For ceramics, this type of transition occurs at much higher temperatures than for
metals.
BDT in Plain Carbon Steels

Note:
! Sharp BDT below room T in low-carbon steels (dominated by BCC ferrite)
! As %C
! %Fe3C ductility , impact energy
! % Ferrite BDT becomes less severe
! BDT broadens and moves to higher T

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Material Science

METN 132 Course

Dr.-Ing. Ahmed Yehia Shash

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Ex: Steel & Ferrous Alloys, Copper Ex: Ceramics, Polymers

Ex.: Polyethylene for Food Backing Industry

Ex.: Cutting Tool Material

Microstructure Mechanical Properties

2. Fast Physical Tests:

There are 14 types of unit cells.

B. Face Center Cubic (FCC)

C. Body Center Cubic (BCC)

D. Hexagonal closed Backed (HCP)

Atomic radius versus Lattice Parameter:

Ex. A.P.F for FCC = 4 x 4/3 Π r³ / (2√2 r)³ = 0.74

ρ = (4 x 63.5) / [(2√2 x 0.129 x 10!"#$ %&6.023 x 10²³] = 8.89 gm / cm$

! 2- Gold is FCC with atomic radius 0.144 nm, calculate the

! 3- Calculate the volume of the zinc ( Zn ) crystal structure unit

1. Intercepts with the X-Y-Z Axes

b (burger vector): the distance between 2 adjacent atoms in slip direction

- Slip plane: (111), (111), (111) and (111)

Resolved force FR = F cos λ

Resolved shear stress ζR = F cos λ / A

- Critical resolved shear stress (ζCRSS) shear stress required to break

- Angle between two vectors:

Tensile Axis ø Slip plane normal

cos λ = (0x1) + (1x1) + (1x0) = 1 / √3

- Planer density = No. of atoms / Area of plane

P.D. = [(3 x 0.5) + (3 x 1/6)] / (½√2 ao x √2 ao sin60°)

“Dislocation choose this plane”

! How does diffusion occur?

! Why is diffusion an important part of processing?

! How can the rate of diffusion be predicted for some simple

! How does diffusion depend on structure and temperature?

• Furnace for heat treating steel using carburization.

• Carburizing is the addition of carbon to the surface of low-carbon steels

• Hardening is achieved when a high carbon martensitic case with good

• Carbon atoms diffuse into the iron lattice

• This is an example of interstitial diffusion.

• The C atoms make iron (steel) harder.

“Carbide band saw blade can cut

Galvanized steel and coils

∆C/∆x : Concentration Gradient CA

- Ficks 1st Law: CB

Where D is a diffusion coefficient

dJ/dt ≠ 0 , ∆C/∆X varies with time

Ficks 2nd law: dC/dt = ∆ d²C/dx²

- Carburizing: It is the heating of the steel product in atmosphere

Sol.: use Eqn.

Get the Error function from tables

Sol.: use Eqn.

Cx = 0.35 wt% Cs = 1.0 wt%

z − 0.90 0.8125 − 0.7970

Now solve for D x x2

! Thermal equilibrium diagram / Phase Diagram:

A pure metal solidifies at a

Alloy phases = f (Alloy composition, Temperature)

Single phases Two phases

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