Buyer Guide To Offshore Oil and Gas Materials and Equipment - 1st Ed

BUYER GUIDE TO
OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT
COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT
PTSC MECHANICAL AND CONSTRUCTION JSC
CONTENTS
Page
Preface ii
Section 1 - Introduction to Oil and Gas 1
Section 2 - Overview of Offshore Platform Design and Materials 39
Section 3 - Steels and Structural Steels for Offshore Application 70
Section 4 - Bolting 86
Section 5 - Grating 100
Section 6 – General Introduction to Process Piping 108
Section 7 - Introduction to Process Piping (Pipe) 123
Section 8 - Introduction to Process Piping (Fittings & Flanges) 137
Section 9 - Valves 154
Section 10 – Pressure Vessel 226
Section 11 – Pumps 244
Section 12 – Compressors 275
Section 13 – Heat Exchanger 297
Section 14 – Instrumentation and Control System 325
Section 15 – Pressure Relief Devices 359
Section 16 – Choke Valve 387
Section 17 - Cabling System 398
Section 18 – Pigging System 420
Section 19 – Telecommunication System 431
Appendix I – Measurement And Conversion Unit 455
Appendix II – Classification Of Hazardous Area 459
Appendix III - Design Legends and Symbols 509
<<i>>
Preface to the first edition
This Guide is intended to be a brief difficult topic, even to engineers. While fully
introduction on offshore oil and gas materials to aware of potential errors and omissions, I am
non-engineering personnel. It aims to assist glad that we have been confident enough to
commercial executives in understanding the handle the topics without support from
basics of design and manufacturing process of engineering department. One always falls short,
main materials and equipment in a fixed but it is striving that counts.
offshore platform.
Although I drafted most of the sections and did
Each section is written as stand-alone reading auditing works on the others, the Guide is
and there is no strict requirement to study in indeed a collaboration; our special thank goes to
order; however I believe it is more productive Huynh Thi Cam Loan for providing her draft
to firstly gain some knowledge on safe area on fitting and flange section, Le Anh Tuan on
classification mentioned in Section 2 and process vessel, Nguyen Le Thanh Danh on
Appendix II before you delve into other choke valve, Nguyen Long Quan on grating and
sections. tray/ladder system and Nguyen Hong Ha on
telecommunication.
The variety of materials and technologies
involved in offshore platform are almost My experience at PTSC M&C has shown me
limitless, due to time constraint the Guide the importance of knowledge and what an
leaves out some important areas like crane and organization can achieve when people
continually learn from experience and from
material handling, power generators, subsea
each others, when new thinking is nurtured and
pipeline and coating, just to name a few. I hope when knowledge is generously and
these categories will be addressed and covered systematically shared. It is in this learning
in the subsequent revisions. tradition that the Guide was started and I do
hope it is only one of many other initiatives in
Offshore engineering is highly technical and the coming years.
- Tran Minh Tam
Vungtau, 18th December 2011
<<ii>>
Buyer Guide – Section 1 – Introduction to Oil and Gas
SECTION 1 - CONTENT IN BRIEF
1. Origin and Accumulation of Oil and Gas
2. The Well and Drilling Process
3. The Nature of Oil and Gas
4. Vietnam Oil and Gas Potentials
5. Oil and Gas Price
6. Industry Structure
7. Offshore Oil and Gas
1
1. ORIGIN AND ACCUMULATION OF OIL AND GAS
Both crude oil and natural gas are mixtures of molecules formed by carbon and hydrogen atoms.
There are many different types of crude oils and natural gases, some more valuable than others.
Heavy crude oils are very thick and viscous and are difficult or impossible to produce, whereas light
crude oils are very fluid and relatively easy to produce. Less valuable are sour crude oils that contain
sulfur and sour natural gasses that contain hydrogen sulfide. Some natural gases burns with more
heat than others, contain natural gas liquids and gasoline, and are more valuable.
In order to have a commercial deposit of gas or oil, three geological conditions must have been met:
1. First, there must be a source rock (Sedimentary rocks – lớp đá trầm tích) in the subsurface of
that area that generated the gas or oil at some time in the geological past.
2. Second, there must be a separate, subsurface reservoir rock to hold the gas or oil.
3. Third, there must be a trap on the reservoir rock to concentrate the gas or oil into commercial
quantities.
1.1 Sedimentary rocks
The uppermost crust of the earth in oil- and gas-producing areas is composed of sedimentary rock
layers. Sedimentary rocks are the source and reservoir rocks for gas and oil. These rocks are called
sedimentary rocks because they are composed of sediments. Sediments are 1) particles such as
sand grains that were formed by the breakdown of pre-existing rocks and transported, 2) seashells, or
3) salt that precipitated from of water. The sedimentary rocks that make up the earths crust are
millions and sometimes lions of years old. During the vast expanse of geological time, sea level has
not been constant. Many times in the past, the seas have risen to cover the land and then fallen to
expose the land. During these times, sediments were deposited. These sediments are relatively
simple materials such as sands deposited along beaches, mud on the sea bottom, and beds of
seashells. These ancient sediments, piled layer upon layer, form the sedimentary rocks that are
drilled to find and produce oil and gas.
The source of gas and oil is the organic matter that is buried and preserved in the ancient
sedimentary rocks. These rocks contain not only inorganic particles such as sand grains and mud, but
also dead plant and animal material. The most common organic-rich sedimentary rock (the source
rock for most of the gas and oil) is black shale. It was deposited as organic-rich mud on an ancient
ocean bottom. In the subsurface, temperature is the most important factor in turning organic matter
2
into oil. As the source rock is covered with more sediments and buried deeper in the earth, it becomes
hotter and hotter. The minimum temperature for the formation of oil, about 150°F (65°C), occurs at a
depth of about 7000 ft (2130 m) below the surface (Fig. 1-1). Oil is generated from there and down to
about 300°F (150°C) at about 18,000 ft (5500 m). The reactions that change organic matter into oil
are complex and take a long time. If the source rock is buried deeper where the temperatures are
above 300°F A50°C), the remaining organic matter will generate natural gas.
1.2 Reservoir rock to hold the gas or oil
Gas and oil are relatively light in density compared to water that also occurs in the subsurface
sedimentary rocks. After oil and gas have been generated, they rise due to buoyancy through
fractures in the subsurface rocks. The rising gas and oil can intersect a layer of reservoir rock. A
reservoir rock is a sedimentary rock that contains billions of tiny spaces called pores. A common
sedimentary rock is sandstone composed of sand grains similar to the sand grains on a beach or in a
river channel. Sand grains are like spheres, and there is no way the grains will fit together perfectly.
There are pore spaces between the sand grains on a beach and in a sandstone rock. Limestone,
another common sedimentary rock, is deposited as shell beds or reefs, and there are pores between
the shells and corals. The gas and oil flow into the pores of the reservoir rock layer.
Any fluid (water, gas, or oil), either on the surface or in the subsurface, will always flow along the path
of least resistance, the easiest route. In the subsurface, the path of least resistance is along a
reservoir rock layer. This is because most of the pore spaces interconnect, and the fluid can flow from
pore to pore to pore up the angle of the rock layer toward the surface. The ease in which the fluid can
flow through the rock is called permeability, and the movement of the gas and oil up the angle of the
reservoir rock toward the surface is called migration. Because of migration, the gas and oil can end up
a considerable distance, both vertically and horizontally, from where it was originally formed. (Fig. 1-1)
3

1.3 Traps on the reservoir rock to concentrate the gas or oil into commercial quantities
As the gas and oil migrates up along the reservoir rock, it can encounter a trap. A trap is a high point
in the reservoir rock where the gas or oil is stopped and concentrated. Because the pores in the
reservoir rock are filled with water, the gas and oil will flow to the highest part of the reservoir rock.
One type of trap is a natural arch in the reservoir rock (Fig. 1-2) called a dome or anticline.
In the trap, the fluids separate according to their density. The gas is the lightest and goes to the top of
the trap to form the free gas cap. The oil goes to the middle to form the oil reservoir. The salt water,
the heaviest, goes to the bottom.
To complete the trap, a caprock must overlie the reservoir rock. The caprock is a seal and doesn't
allow fluids to flow through it. Without a caprock, the oil and gas would leak up to the surface of the
ground. Two common sedimentary rocks that can be seals are shale and salt.
How are subsurface deposits of gas and oil located? During the early days of drilling, it was thought
that there were large, flowing underground rivers and subsurface pools of oil. Early drillers, however,
had some success because many subsurface traps are leaky. There are small fractures in the
caprock, and some of the oil and gas leaks up and seeps onto the surface.
The early drillers located their wells on the seeps. By the early 1900s, the principles of subsurface gas
and oil deposits were becoming better known. Oil companies realized that by mapping how the
sedimentary rock layers crop out on the surface of the ground, the rock layers could be projected into
the subsurface, and traps could be located. Geologists were hired to map rock outcrops.
Later, seismic mediod was developed to detect hidden traps in the subsurface. Seismic exploration
uses a source and detector (Fig. 1-4). The source, such as dynamite, is located on or near the
surface and gives off an impulse of sound energy into the subsurface. The sound energy bounces off
sedimentary rock layers and returns to the surface to be recorded by the detector, sound echoes are
used to make an image of the subsurface rock layers.
4
Figure 1-5: TGT
5
Figure 1-6: TGT
6
2 THE WELL AND DRILLING PROCESS
The only way to know for sure if a trap contains commercial amounts of gas and oil is to drill a well. A
well is a hole drilled through the earth’s surface layers to recover fluids from a subsurface formation.
Crude oil, natural gas, and water reservoirs are found in formation below the surface of the earth; the
well is drilled to these formations. Pipe is then run into the hole to provide a conduit for the fluid to flow
to the surface. Wells may be grouped into two relatively broad categories: straight holes and
directionally drilled wells. Straight hole wells, shown in figure 2-1, are those drilled to target essentially
beneath the surface location of the well, although some small deviations in the well bore are likely to
occur during the drilling process.
Directionally dirlled wells are those which are drilled to targets not directly beneath the surface
location of the well. Directionally drilled wells can be classified further into straight kick, S-kick, and
horizontal wells.
Figure 2-1 Figure 2-2

Figure 2-3
Figure 2-4
7
A well drilled to find a new gas or oil field is called a wildcat well. Most wildcat wells are dry holes with
no commercial amounts of gas or oil.
2.1 Drilling Process
The well is drilled using a rotary drilling rig (Fig. 2-5). There can be thousands of feet of drillpipe with a
bit on the end, called the drillstring, suspended in the well. By rotating the drillstring from the surface,
the bit on the bottom is turned and cuts the hole. As the well is drilled deeper, more drillpipe is added.
The power is supplied by diesel engines. A steel tower above the well, the derrick, is used to raise
and lower equipment.
Figure 2-5

An important system on the rig is the circulating mud system. The drilling mud (dung dịch khoan) is
pumped down the inside of the drillpipe where it jets out from nozzles in the bit and returns up the
outside of the drillpipe to the surface (Fig. 2-6). The drilling mud removes the rock chips made by the
bit, called well cuttings, from the bottom of the hole. This prevents them from clogging up the bottom
of the well. The well is always kept filled to the top with heavy drilling mud as it is being drilled. This
prevents any fluids such as water, gas, and oil from flowing out of the subsurface rocks and into the
well. If gas and oil flowed up onto the floor of the drilling rig, it could catch fire. Even if only water
flowed out of the surrounding rock into the well, the sides of the well could cave in and the well could
be lost. The drilling mud keeps the fluids back in the surrounding rocks. Offshore wells are drilled the
same as on land. For offshore wildcat wells, the rig is mounted on a barge, floating platform, or ship
that can be moved. Once an offshore field is located, a production platform is then installed to drill the
rest of the wells and produce the gas and oil.
Figure 2-6

8
Because the drilling mud keeps gas and oil back in the rocks, a subsurface deposit of gas or oil can
be drilled without any indication of the gas or oil. To evaluate the well, a service company runs a
wireline well log. A long cylinder containing instruments called a sonde is lowered down the well on a
wireline (Fig. 2-7). As the sonde is brought back up the well, the instruments remotely sense the
electrical, sonic, and radioactive properties of the surrounding rocks and their fluids. These
measurements are recorded on a long strip of paper called a well log (Fig. 1-8). It is used to
determine the composition of each rock layer, whether the rock layer has pores, and what fluid (water,
gas, or oil) is in the pores.
Figure 2-7

Depending on the test results, the well can be plugged and abandoned as a dry hole or completed as
a producer. Setting pipe is synonymous with completing a well. To set pipe, a long length of large
diameter steel pipe (casing) is lowered down the hole. Wet cement is then pumped between the
casing and the well walls and allowed to set (Fig. 2-8). This stabilizes the hole. In most wells, the
casing is done in stages called a casing program during which the well is drilled, cased, drilled
deeper, cased again, drilled deeper, and cased again.
Figure 2-8

9
In order for the gas or oil to flow into the well (called “completion”), there are many methods of
completion which depend on the type of reservoir. If the oil-producing oil is well consolidated, the oil-
producing-zone may be left entirely opened, with no perforated casing or liner used to protect the
hole. In loose, soft-sand, it may be necessary to cement the production string through the producing
zone and use a slotted screen or a gravel pack (see figure 2-11). One of the most common types of
completion, shown in figure 2-10, where the casing is shot with explosives to form holes called
perforations. A long length of narrow diameter steel pipe (tubing) is then suspended down the center
of the well. The produced fluids (water, gas, and oil) are brought up the tubing string to the surface to
prevent them from touching and corroding the casing that is harder to repair. The tubing is relatively
easy to repair during a workover.
Figure 2-9
Figure 2-10
Figure 2-11
10
Figure 2-12
11
3 THE NATURE OF OIL AND GAS
The word petroleum comes from the Greeks. Petro means rock, and oleum means oil. In it strictest
sense, petroleum includes only crude oil. By-usage, however, petroleum includes both crude oil
and natural gas.
3.1 Chemical Composition
The chemical composition by weight of typical crude oil and natural gas is shown in Table 3-1. The
two most important elements in both crude oil and natural gas are carbon and hydrogen. Because of
this, crude oil and natural gas are called hydrocarbons.
Table 3-1
The difference between crude oil and natural gas is the size of the hydrocarbon molecules. Under
surface temperature and pressure, any hydrocarbon molecule that has one, two, three, or four carbon
atoms occurs as a gas. Natural gas is composed of a mixture of the four short hydrocarbon
molecules. Any hydrocarbon molecule with five or more carbon atoms occurs as a liquid. Crude oil is
a mixture of more than 100 hydrocarbon molecules that range in size from 5 to more than 60 carbons
in length. The hydrocarbon molecules in oil form straight chains, chains with side branches, and
circles.
Crude Oil
Hydrocarbon Molecules
Four types of hydrocarbon molecules, called the hydrocarbon series, occur in each crude oil. The
relative percentage of each hydrocarbon series molecule varies from oil to oil, controlling the chemical
and physical properties of that oil. The hydrocarbons series includes paraffins, naphthenes,
aromatics, and asphaltics. Hydrocarbons that have only single bonds between carbon atoms are
called saturated. If they contain one or more double bonds, they are unsaturated.
The paraffin or alkane molecule is a straight chain of carbon atoms with saturated (single) bonds
between the carbon atoms (Fig. 3-1). The general formula for paraffins is CnH2n+2. They are five
carbon atoms and longer in length. If the paraffin molecule is longer than 18 carbons in length, it is a
wax and forms a waxy crude oil.
Figure 3-1

12
The naphthene or cycloparaffin molecule is a closed circle with saturated bonds between the carbon
atoms (Fig. 3-2). The general formula for naphthenes is CnH2n. These molecules are five carbon
atoms and longer in length. Oils with high naphthene content tend to have a large asphalt content that
reduces the value of the oil.
Figure 3-2

The aromatic or benzene molecule is a closed ring with some unsaturated (double) bonds between
carbon atoms (Fig. 3-3). Their general formula is CnH2n-6. Aromatic molecules are six carbon atoms
and longer in length. At the refinery, an aromatic-rich crude oil yields the highest-octane gasoline and
makes a valuable feedstock for the petrochemical industry. The refiner often pays a premium for
aromatic crude oil. Fresh from the well, normal crude oil has a pungent odor of gasoline. An aromatic-
rich crude oil, however, has a fruity odor.
Figure 3-3

The asphaltic molecule has 40 to more than 60 carbon atoms. Asphalt is brown to black in color and
is solid to semisolid under surface conditions. It has a high boiling point.
Table 3-2 shows the hydrocarbon content of crude oil.
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Table 3-2
There are two types of crude oils at the refinery. An asphalt-based crude oil contains little or no
paraffin wax. It is usually black. When refined, it yields a large percentage of high-grade gasoline and
asphalt. A paraffin-based crude oil contains little or no asphalt. It is usually greenish. When refined, it
yields a large percentage of paraffin wax, high-quality lubricating oil, and kerosene. A mixed-base
crude oil is a combination of both types.
API Degree
Crude oils are compared and described by density. The most commonly used density scale is °APL
API stands for the American Petroleum Institute, based in Washington, D.C. It standardizes petroleum
industry equipment and procedures. The formula for computing °API is:
°API = 141.5/Specific Gravity – 131.5
Fresh water, for example, has an °API of 10. The °API of crude oils varies from 5 to 55. Average
weight crude oils are 25 to 35. Light oils are 35 to 45. Light oils are very fluid, often transparent, rich in
gasoline, and are the most valuable. Heavy oils are below 25. They are very viscous, dark-colored,
contain considerable asphalt, and are less valuable.
Sulfur
Sulfur is an undesirable impurity in fossil fuels such as crude oil, natural gas, and coal. When sulfur is
burned, it forms sulfur dioxide, a gas that pollutes the air and forms acid rain. During the refining
process, the refiner must remove the sulfur as the crude oil is being processed. If not, the sulfur will
harm some of the chemical equipment in the refinery. Crude oils are classified as sweet and sour on
the basis of their sulfur content. Sweet crudes have less than 1% sulfur by weight, whereas sour
crudes have more than 1% sulfur. The refiner usually pays a US $1 to $3 per barrel premium for
sweet crude. In general, heavy oils tend to be sour, whereas light oils tend to be sweet. At a refinery,
low sulfur crude has 0 to 0.6% sulfur. Intermediate sulfur crude has 0.6 to 1.7% sulfur, and high sulfur
crude has above 1.7% sulfur. Most of the sulfur in crude oil occurs bonded to the carbon atoms. A
very small amount can occur as elemental sulfur in solution and as H2S gas.
Benchmark Crude Oils
A benchmark crude oil is a standard against which other crude oils are compared, and prices are set.
In the United States, West Texas Intermediate (WTI) is 38 to 40 °API and 0.3% S, whereas West
Texas Sour, a secondary benchmark, is 33 °API and 1.6% S. Brent, the benchmark crude oil for the
North Sea is very similar to WTI and is 38 °API and 0.3% S. Dubai is the benchmark crude oil for the
Middle East. It is 31 °API and 2% S.
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Pour Point
All crude oils contain some paraffin molecules. If the paraffin molecules are 18 carbon atoms or
longer in length, they are waxes. Waxes are solid at surface temperature. A crude oil that containing a
significant amount of wax is called a waxy crude oil In the subsurface reservoir where it is very hot,
waxy crude oil occurs as a liquid. As it is being brought up the well, it cools, and the waxes can
solidify. This can clog the tubing in the well and flow-lines on the surface. The well then has to be shut
in for a workover to clean out the wax.
The amount of wax in crude oil is indicated by the pour point of the oil. A sample of the oil is heated in
the laboratory. It is then poured from a container as it is being cooled. The lowest temperature at
which the oil will still pour before it solidifies is called the pour point Crude oil pour points vary
between +125° to -75°F (+52° to -60°C). Higher pour points reflect higher oil wax content. Cloud point
is related to pour point. It is the temperature at which the oil first appears cloudy as wax forms when
the temperature is lowered. It is 2° to 5°F A° to 3°C) above the pour point. Very waxy crude oils are
yellow in color. Slightly waxy crude oils can have a greenish color. Low or no wax oils are black.
In the North Sea, Ekofisk oil has a pour point of + 10°F (-12°C). Brent oil has a pour point of +27°F (-
3°C) whereas oil from the Statfjord field is +40°F (+4.5°C) and has a higher wax content.
Properties
The color of crude oil ranges from colorless through greenish-yellow, reddish, and brown to black. In
general, the darker the crude oil, the lower the °API. The smell varies from gasoline (sweet crude) to
foul (sour crude) to fruity (aromatic crude). Crude oil has a calorific heat value of 18,300 to 19,500
Btu/lb.
Crude Streams
A crude stream is oil that can be purchased from an oil-exporting country. It can be from a single field
or a blend of oils from several fields. Table 3-3 describes some crude streams.
Table 3-3
Property of Bach Ho Oil
1. °API 40.2
2. S% 4.1
3. Pour Point 36
15
Measurement
The English unit of crude oil measurement is a barrel (bbl) that holds 42 U.S. gallons or 34.97 imperial
gallons. Oil well production is measured in barrels of oil per day (bopd or bld). The metric units of oil
measurement are metric tons and cubic meters. A metric ton of average crude oil (30 °API) equals 7-
19 barrels. A metric ton of heavy oil (20 °API) equals 6.75 barrels whereas a metric ton of light oil (40
°API) equals 7.64 barrels. A cubic meter (m3) of oil equals 6.29 barrels of oil.
Refining
During the refining process, various components of crude oil are separated by their boiling points. In
general, the longer the hydrocarbon molecule, the higher its boiling temperature. At the refinery, crude
oil is first heated in a furnace until most is vaporized. The hot vapor is then sprayed into a distilling
column. Gasses rise in the distilling column and any remaining liquid falls. In the distilling column are
bubble trays filled with liquid. The rising vapors bubble up through the trays and are cooled. The
cooling vapors condense into liquid on the trays where they are then removed by sidedraws. Each
liquid removed by cooling is called a cut (Fig. 3-4). Heavy cuts come out at high temperatures,
whereas light cuts come out at low temperatures. In order of cooling temperatures, the cuts are heavy
gas oil, light gas oil, kerosene, naphtha, and straight run gasoline.
Figure 3-4
Gasoline is the refining product in most demand. A process called cracking is used to make gasoline
from the other cuts. Gasoline is composed of short molecules with 5 to 10 carbon atoms. The longer,
less valuable, niolecules of other cuts are used as cracking stock. Cracking stock is put into cracking
towers at the refinery where high temperatures and pressures and caustic chemicals split the longer
molecules to form gasoline.
Refineries also produce pure chemicals, called feedstocks, from crude oil. Some common feedstocks
are methane, ethylene, propylene, butylene, and naphthene. These feedstocks are sold to the
petrochemical industries, where the molecules are reformed, and a large variety of products are
made. Plastics, synthetic fibers, fertilizers, Teflon, polystyrene, drugs, dyes, explosives, antifreeze,
and synthetic rubber are examples.
The average percent yield of crude oil in a refinery is shown in Table 3-4.
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Table 3-4
Natural Gas
Composition
Natural gas is composed of hydrocarbon molecules that range from one to four carbon atoms in
length. The gas with one carbon atom in the molecule is methane (CH4), two is ethane (C2H6), three
is propane (C3H8), and four is butane (C4H10). All are paraffin-type hydrocarbon molecules. A typical
natural gas composition is shown in Table 3-5.
Table 3-5
These percentages vary from field to field, but methane gas is by far the most common hydrocarbon.
Many natural gas fields contain almost pure methane. The gas from pipelines that burned in homes
and industry is methane gas. Propane and butane burn giving off more heat than methane. They are
often distilled from natural gas and sold separately. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is made from
propane gas.
The nonhydrocarbon, gaseous impurities that don't burn in natural gas are called inerts. A common
inert is water vapor (steam). Another inert is carbon dioxide (CO2), a colorless, odorless, gas.
Because it doesn’t burn, the more carbon dioxide natural gas contains, the less valuable the gas is. In
some gas reservoirs, carbon dioxide is greater than 99% of the gas. Large fields of almost pure
carbon dioxide probably formed by the chemical reaction of volcanic heat on limestone rock. Carbon
dioxide can be used for inert gas injection, an enhanced oil recovery process, in depleted oil fields.
Nitrogen (N), another inert, is also a colorless, odorless gas that can be used for inert gas injection.
17
Helium is a light gas used in electronic manufacturing and filling dirigibles. Gas from the Hugoton gas
field in western Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas contains 0.5 to 2% helium. It is thought to have formed
by the radioactive decay of K40 in granite. Amarillo, Texas, near the giant gas field, is called the
"helium capital of the world."
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a gas that can occur: mixed with natural gas or by itself. It is not an inert
and is a very poisonous gas that is letnal in very low concentrations. The gas has the foul odor of
rotten eggs and can be smelled in extremely small amounts. It is associated with the salt domes of
the Gulf of Mexico and ancient limestone reefs of Mexico, West Texas, and Louisiana. Hydrogen
sulfide is common in Alberta, the overthrust belt of Wyoming, offshore Southern California, Utah, and
the Middle East. Hydrogen sulfide gas is very corrosive. When it occurs mixed with natural gas, it
causes corrosion of the metal tubing, fittings, and valves in the well. Hydrogen sulfide must be
removed before the natural gas can be delivered to a pipeline. Sweet natural gas has no detectable
hydrogen sulfide, whereas sour natural gas has detectable amounts of hydrogen sulfide.
Occurrence
Because of high pressure in the subsurface reservoir, a considerable volume of natural gas occurs
dissolved in crude oil. The formation, dissolved or solution gas/oil ratio is the cubic feet of natural gas
dissolved in one barrel of oil in that reservoir under subsurface conditions. The volume measurements
are reported under surface conditions. In general, as the pressure of the reservoir increases with
depth, the amount or natural gas that can be dissolved in crude oil increases. When crude oil is lifted
up a well to the surface, the pressure is relieved, and the natural gas, called solution gas, bubbles out
of the oil. The producing gas-oil ratio (GOR) of a well is the number of cubic feet of gas the well
produces per barrel of oil.
Nonassociated natural gas is gas that is not in contact with oil in the subsurface. A nonassociated gas
well produces almost pure methane. Associated natural gas occurs in contact with crude oil in the
subsurface. It occurs both as gas in the free gas cap above the oil and gas dissolved in the crude oil.
Associated gas contains other hydrocarbons besides methane.
Condensate
In some subsurface gas reservoirs, at high temperatures, shorter-chain liquid hydrocarbons, primarily
those with five to seven carbon atoms in length, occur as a gas. When this gas is produced, the
temperature decreases, and the liquid hydrocarbons condense out of the gas. This liquid, called
condensate, is almost pure gasoline, is clear to yellowish to bluish in color and has 45 °AP1 to 62
°API. Condensate is commonly called casinghead gasoline, drip gasoline, white gas, or natural
gasoline. Condensate can be added to crude oil in the field in a process called spiking to decrease
the °API and increase the volume of the oil. Condensate removed from natural gas in the field is
classified as crude oil by regulatory agencies.
Refiners pay almost as much for condensate as crude oil. It doesn't have a high octane and must be
mixed with high-octane gasoline made by cracking in the refinery. Because of the low octane, the
posted price for condensate is usually slightly less than that for crude oil. Natural gas that contains
condensate is called wet gas, whereas natural gas lacking the condensate is called dry gas. The
condensate along with butane, propane, and ethane that can be removed from natural gas is called
natural gas liquids (NGL).
Measurement
The English unit of volume measurement for natural gas is a cubic foot (cf). Because gas expands
and contracts with pressure and temperature changes, the measurement is made under or is
converted to standard conditions defined by law. It is usually 60°F and 14.65 psi (15°C and 101.325
kPa) and is called standard cubic feet (scf). The abbreviation for 1000 cubic feet is Mcf, a million cubic
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feet is MMcf, a billion cubic feet is Bcf and a triltrillion cubic feet is Tcf. Condensate content is
measured in barrels per million cubic feet of gas (BCPMM).
The unit used to measure heat content of fuel in the English system is the British thermal unit (Btu).
One Btu is about the amount of heat given off by burning one wooden match. Pipeline natural gas
ranges from 900 to 1200 Btus per cubic foot and is commonly 1000 Btu. The heat content varies with
the hydrocarbon composition and the amount of inerts in the natural gas. Natural gas is sold to a
pipeline by volume in thousands of cubic feet, by the amount of heat when burned in Btus or by a
combination of both. If the pipeline contract has a Btu adjustment clause, the gas is bought at a
certain price per Mcf, and the price is then adjusted for the Btu content of the gas.
In the metric system, the volume of gas is measured in cubic meters (m3). A cubic meter is equal to
35.315 cf. Heat is measured in kilojoules. A kilojoule is equal to about 1 Btu.
The Btus in one average barrel of crude oil are equivalent to the Btus in 6040 cubic feet of average
natural gas and is called barrel of oil equivalent (BOB). Different companies often have a slightly
different BOE numbers depending on the oil and gas composition of their production.
Reservoir Hydrocarbons
Chemists classify reservoir hydrocarbons into 1) black oil, 2) volatile oil, 3) retrograde gas 4) wet gas,
and 5) dry gas. Laboratory analysis of a sample is used to determine the type.
Both black and volatile oils are liquid in the subsurface reservoir. Black oil or low-shrinkage oil has a
relatively high percentage of long, heavy, nonvolatile molecules. It is usually black but can have a
greenish or brownish color. Black oil has an initial producing gas-oil ratio of 2000 scf/bbl or less, the
°API is below 45.
Volatile oil or high-shrinkage oil has relatively more intermediate size molecules and less longer size
molecules than black oil. The color is brown, orange, or green. Volatile oil has an initial producing
gas-oil ratio between 2000 and 3300 scf/bbl. The °API is 40 or above.
Retrograde gas is a gas in the reservoir under original pressure but liquid condensate forms in the
subsurface reservoir as the pressure decreases with production. The initial gas-oil ratio is 3300 scf/bbl
or higher.
Wet gas occurs entirely as a gas in the reservoir, even during production, but produces a liquid
condensate on the surface. It often has an initial producing gas-oil ratio of 50,000 scf/bbl or higher.
Dry gas is pure methane. It does not produce condensate either in the reservoir or on the surface
19
4. VIETNAM OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL
20
Block Operator Remark

112‐113 Vietgazprom
114 Essar
120 NEON Energy SONG HONG
121 Origin Energy BASIN
102&106 Petronas
101‐100/04 Santos
104‐109/05 Premier Oil
103 PV
15‐2 JVPC
Bach Ho VSP
15‐2/01 Thang Long JOC
01&02 Petronas
01/97&02/97 Lam Son JOC
09‐2 Hoan Vu JOC
09‐3 VRJ CUULONG BASIN
15‐1 CuuLong JOC
16‐1 Hoang Long JOC
16‐2/03 Phu Quy
DBSCL1 Salamander
31 Salamander (PVEP)
DBSCL2&3 Total (PVEP)
15‐1/05 PVEP (SK/Total)
123 Santos
122 Chevron PHU KHANH
124 POGO BASIN
127‐128 ONGC Videsh
07&08 VAMEX
133&134 CONOCO
05.1B&05.1C IDEMNITSU
11.2 KNOC NAMCONSON
12W&12E PREMIER OIL BASIN
28&29/03 Mitra Energy Ltd
06‐1; 05‐2&05‐3 BP
Table 4-1: Current active PSCs and JVs in Vietnam 05‐2 Bien Dong
46/02 TRUONG SON MALAY‐THOCHU
Oil & Gas Industry
B&48/95&52/97 CHEVRON BASIN
PetroVietnam Annual Production and Revenue in past 5 years
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Oil Production 18.76 M tons 13.9 M tons 15.91 M tons 15 M tons 15.86 M tons
Gas Production 6.93 B M3 8.49 B M3 6.86 B M3 7.5 B M3 8 B M3
Revenue 10.5 B USD 11 B USD 13.33 B USD 17.5 B USD 12.5 B USD
21
22
23
24
25
5. OIL AND GAS PRICE
Oil (Brent
sweet grade)
and Natural
Gas prices –
Quarter 1, 2010
26

6. INDUSTRY STRUCTURE
Structurally the petroleum industry is usually divided into three major components:
Upstream, midstream and downstream, though midstream operations are usually included
in the downstream category.
The upstream oil sector is a term commonly used to refer to the searching for and the
recovery and production of crude oil and natural gas. The upstream oil sector is also known
as the exploration and production (E&P) sector.
Upstream consists mostly of exploration and field development such as:
1. Geographic survey (2D, 3D..etc)

2. Drilling
3. Facilities development
4. O&M
The downstream is commonly used to refer to the refining of crude oil, and the selling and
distribution of natural gas and products derived from crude oil. Such products include
liquified petroleum gas (LPG), gasoline or petrol, jet fuel, diesel oil, other fuel oils, asphalt
and petroleum coke.
The downstream sector includes:
1. Refineries and petrochemical plants

2. Petroleum product storage, transportation, distribution, retail outlets and natural gas
distribution companies.
Geographic survey & appraisal drilling/windcat Investor
Drilling (development phase)
Upstream Facilities development (Platforms, FPSO...)
Operation and Maintainance
Oil & Gas Operator
Refineries and petrochemical plants
Downstream Derivatives product manufacturers
Service Co
Petroleum product distribution
27
7. OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS
Offshore is one segment (upstream) of Oil and Gas industry dealing with finding, exploration and
production of hydrocarbon in the sea-bed.
Definition of Offshore Structures
An offshore structure has no fixed access to dry land and may be required to stay in position in all
weather conditions. Offshore structures may be fixed to the seabed or may be floating. Floating
structures may be moored to the seabed, dynamically positioned by thrusters or may be allowed to
drift freely
Historical Development
The birth of the offshore industry is commonly considered as in 1947 when Kerr-McGee completed
the first successful offshore well in the Gulf of Mexico in 15 ft (4.6 m) of water off Louisiana.
Since the installation of this first fixed platform in the Gulf of Mexico over 60 years ago, the offshore
industry has seen many innovative structures, fixed and floating, placed in progressively deeper
waters and in more challenging and hostile environments. By 1975, the water depth extended to 475
ft (144 m). Within the next three years the water depth dramatically leapt twofold with the installation
of COGNAC platform that was made up of three separate structures, one set on top of another, in
1025 ft (312 m). COGNAC held the world record for water depth for a fixed structure from 1978 until
1991. Five fixed structures were built in water depths greater than 1000 ft (328 m) in the 1990s. The
deepest one of these is the Shell Bullwinkle platform in 1353 ft (412 m) installed in 1991. The
progression of fixed structures into deeper waters upto 1988 is shown in fig. 6.1
28
Figure 6-1

29
Since 1947, more than 10,000 offshore platforms of various types and sizes have been constructed
and installed worldwide. As of 1995, 30% of the world’s production of crude came from offshore.
Recently, new discoveries have been made in increasingly deeper waters. In 2003, 3% of the world’s
oil and gas supply came from deepwater (> 1000 ft or 305 m) offshore production. This has projected
to grow to 10% in the next fifteen years. The bulk of the new oil will come from deep and ultra
deepwater production from three offshore areas, known as the “Golden Triangle”: the Gulf of Mexico,
West Africa and Brazil.
Fixed structures became increasingly expensive and difficult to install as the water depths increased.
It became clear in the 1980s that the water depth limit for fixed platforms, from a functional and an
economic perspective, was restricted to 1,500 ft. An innovative and cheaper alternative to the fixed
structure, namely, the Lena guyed tower (or compliant tower) was introduced in 1983. The platform
was built in such a way that the upper truss structure could deflect with the wave and wind forces.
Piles extending above the sea floor could bend, and horizontal mooring lines attached midway up the
platform could resist the largest hurricane loads. The Lena platform was installed in 1000 ft (305 m) of
water. Two more “compliant” towers were installed in the Gulf of Mexico in 1998: Amerada Hess
Baldpate in 1648 ft (502 m) and ChevronTexaco Petronius in 1754 ft (535 m). Petronius is the world’s
tallest free-standing structure.
Although nearly all of these platforms are of steel construction, around two dozen large concrete
structures have been installed in the very hostile waters of the North Sea in the 1980s and early
1990s and several others offshore Brazil, Canada and the Philippines. Among these, the Troll A gas
platform is the tallest concrete structure in existence. It was installed offshore Norway in 1996. Its total
height is 1210 ft (369 m), and it contains 245,000 m3 of concrete, equivalent to 21 5,000 home
foundations. Gravity structures differ from other fixed structures in that they are held in place strictly
by the weight contained in their base structures. The Troll platform, for example, penetrates 118 ft (36
m) into the seabed under its own weight.
Baldpate Compliant Tower
30

In the 1970s and 1980s, for discoveries remote from existing infrastructure, ship-shaped floating
production, storage, and offloading systems (FPSOs) provided a solution to economic development
as they offered oil-storage capability. In 1977, off the coast of Spain, oil was drawn from a subsea well
in 370 ft of water into a tanker moored to an oscillating mooring tower. Other similar developments
followed (e.g., the Nilde field offshore Italy in 1982). Because of the motions of the FPSO vessel, the
concept required that the wellheads be located on the seabed, known as wet or subsea wellheads. A
variant to this approach was the use of dry wellheads, located on a fixed steel platform, in
combination with an FPSO.
31

32
An alternative concept in regions with an economically accessible infrastructure was the

semisubmersible floating production system (FPS). This system consists of a buoyant floating facility
moored to the seabed. The system offers reduced motions compared to an FPSO. In 1975, a
production semi-submersible was used in the Argyll field in the North Sea in 254 ft of water. Two
years later, the first production semisubmersible was placed offshore Brazil in the Enchova field. From
that time, the use of production semisubmersibles gained increasing popularity, particularly offshore
Brazil in water depths up to 6,000 ft.
33
Most floating production systems, and virtually all of the semi-submersible, FPSs and FPSOs.
produce oil and gas from wells on the seabed, called “subsea wells”. Unlike wells on fixed platforms
and on land, subsea wells do not allow operators to have direct access to the wells for maintenance,
or for re-completion (drilling into new reservoirs from an existing well).
The well consists of a wellhead, which supports the well casing in the ground, and a pod, which
contains valves to control the flow and to shut-off the flow in the case of an emergency or a leak in the
riser. This pod is called a “submerged Christmas tree”, or simply a “wet tree”. Subsea wells are
expensive, but not as expensive in deepwater as placing a platform at the site. If a subsea well
ceases to produce, or if its rate of production falls below economic limits, it is necessary to bring in a
mobile drilling unit to remove the tree and perform the work-over. This can be an extremely expensive
operation and if the outcome of the work-over is in doubt, the operator may choose to abandon the
well instead. Because of this, much of the oil and gas in reservoirs produced through subsea trees
may be left behind. Subsea wells may also result in lower reservoir recovery simply because of the
physics of their operation. The chokes and valves placed in a subsea tree result in a pressure drop in
the flow of oil or gas. When the well formation drops below a certain threshold, production ceases to
flow. The difference in cut-off pressure between a subsea well and a surface well can be as much as
1000 psi vs. 100 psi
These facts motivated operators to seek floating platforms, which could support Christmas trees at
the surface, “dry trees”. Fixed and compliant platforms were safe for this kind of production because
they could protect the well casings from the environment. Floating platforms generally had too much
motion to protect the wells during extreme storms. A group of engineers in California invented a
floating system in the early 1970s, which could be tethered to the sea floor, effectively making it a
tethered compliant platform. This gave rise to what is called the Tension Leg Platform (TLP). A TLP is
a vertically moored, buoyant structure anchored to the seabed with vertical taut steel tendons. The
system relies on the tension in the tendons for its stability. The advantage of the TLP is reduced
motion compared to FPSOs or conventional FPS facilities. The reduced motions permit the use of dry
wellheads. As with an FPS, a TLP has no storage capacity and, therefore, requires a separate
storage tanker or a pipeline or shuttle tanker for export.
The first commercial application of this technology, and the first dry tree completion from a floating
platform, was the Conoco Hutton TLP installed in the UK sector of the North Sea in 1984. Dry trees
are possible on a TLP because the platform is heave-restrained by vertical tendons, or tethers. This
restraint limits the relative motion between the risers and the hull, which allows for flowlines to remain
connected in extreme weather conditions.
With the focus in the late 1980s and throughout the 1990s firmly on the development of deepwater
production technology, a number of new concepts, or variants of established concepts, have
emerged. Of these, the most widely used has been the deep draught caisson vessel (DDCV) or
spar concept. The spar is a floating system comprising a deep draught cylindrical hull (caisson),
which supports a topsides structure, and is moored using a system of mooring lines from the hull that
are anchored to the seabed. Spars, like TLPs, reduce vessel motions compared to FPSO and FPS
options, permitting the use of dry wellheads.
Spars have proved a popular development choice in the Gulf of Mexico, where three classic spars
and six truss spars have been installed or sanctioned for installation as of 2002 in water depths up to
5,610 ft.
34
Other recent technology development efforts have focused on a variant of the semisubmersible FPS
concept. This concept extends the draught of the hull structure of a conventional FPS to reduce
motions. These systems also can be designed to be self-installing. Engineering is under way for a
production semisubmersible for the development of the Thunder Horse field in the Gulf of Mexico in
6,000 ft of water, with a topsides weight in excess of 50,000 tons.

35
Typical Phases in Offshore Oil and Gas Development Project
Exploration
The exploration phase consists of activities involved in locating oil-bearing strata within the ground
underneath the ocean. Geologist and geophysicist are the experts involved in the activities.
Geophysicist uses methods of remote data gathering such as seismic exploration and instrumentation
for measuring gravity fields and make interpretation as to the possible presence of oil-bearing strata.
He will systematically survey the ground structure underneath the ocean, and when an area thought
to be favourable is found, sample cores are drilled for further investigation. The Geologist then studies
surface formations and core samples to describe the geometry of the earth’s fault and strata and
identifies the areas that may contain oil-bearing strata.
Once it is decided that an area may contain oil-bearing strata, an exploratory drilling need to be
carried out in order to confirm or deny the presence of hydrocarbon. The formation can yield gas or
oil, or both. The exploratory drilling also provides information on quantity and quality of the
hydrocarbon. As such, further analysis could be done to determine whether the reserves are
commercially feasible to develop.
Development
The development of the offshore oil and gas fields begins when it is decided that the fields contain
producible amount of oil or gas. It is during this stage that decisions are made on the types of facilities
that are required to process the extracted mixture of oil, gas and water and to transport the crude
hydrocarbon products to onshore for further processing. These facilities, such as, the necessary
drilling and production equipment, are normally contained on large permanent offshore platforms.
During this stage, much of the Oil Company’s efforts will be concentrating on the planning and
managing the contracts for the design, procurement of materials and construction of the required
platforms. A project team will be set up to undertake the tasks. The offshore platforms are normally
36
constructed in fabrication yard for cost savings and to facilitate construction. Once completed, the
platforms will then be transported offshore by barge to the final location for installation
Production
Once all the platform facilities are successfully installed, hook-up and commissioned, the facilities are
then ready to be start-up and the production and operation phase will begin. The extracted
hydrocarbon will be processed from the offshore platforms and transported onshore, through pipelines
or ships, for further processing and refining before they become consumable products. The facilities
will continue to produce and transport the crude hydrocarbon until it is no longer economic, normally
after 15-20 years. Then, the platforms will be decommissioned, dismantled and removed from their
locations.
Activities in Development Phase
The offshore oil and gas development projects take place during the ‘Development Phase’ of the
overall oil and gas activities. The main objective of such development projects is to provide offshore
facilities for extracting, processing and transporting the hydrocarbon onshore for further processing.
The facilities to be provided for that purpose are normally the offshore platforms and sub-sea
pipelines.
Like other engineering and construction projects, a typical offshore oil and gas development project
covers a whole range of activities from its inception up to ultimate realisation i.e. production of the oil
and/or gas. Traditionally, typical offshore development projects will cover, inter-alia, the following
activities:
Stage 1: Design of Offshore Platforms

Stage 2: Procurement of long lead materials and specialist equipment
Stage 3: Construction of Offshore Platforms
Stage 3: Transportation and Installation Offshore Platforms
Stage 4: Offshore Hook-up and Commissioning of Offshore Platforms
37
38
Buyer Guide – Section 2 – Overview of Offshore Platform Design and Materials
1. General
2. Jacket
3. Topsides
4. Hazardous Area and Explosion Proof Equipment
39
I - General:
The development of the offshore oil and gas fields begins when it is decided that the fields contain
producible amount of oil or gas (called “commercial discoveries”). It is during this stage that decisions
are made on the types of facilities that are required to process the extracted mixture of oil, gas and
water and to transport the crude hydrocarbon products to onshore for further processing.
As mentioned in previous section, fixed structures became increasingly expensive and difficult to
install as the water depths increased. It became clear in the 1980s that the water depth limit for fixed
platforms, from a functional and an economic perspective, was restricted to 1,500 ft (490m).
Till date, the water depth in Vietnam discovered fields is less than 200m and all the field
developments are based on concept of fixed platform structures (Figure 2-1).
Fixed platforms are required to stay fixed, on station during its lifetime, which is usually from 20 to 30
years. The most common type of fixed platforms consists of lower fixed piled structures, commonly
known as jackets in the offshore industry, and upper section called topsides.
Topsides
Jacket
Figure 2-1

40
II - Jacket:
Jacket structures consist of tubular members interconnected to form a three-dimensional space frame
(fig. 2-2). Jackets typically have three, four, six or eight legs battered to achieve stability against
toppling in waves (figure 2-3). Jackets with three legs are known as tripods (Figure 2-4), in some
minimal design jacket can be designed as mono-pod structure (single caisson type leg).
.

Figure 2-2: BD1 Jacket structure
41
Figure 2-3: fabrication of CS 4 legs jacket at PTSC yard
Figure 2-4: Bunga Tulip A Tripod jacket
Jacket is fixed to the seafloor by means of driven or drilled and grouted piles (Figure 2-5).
Piles driven through the jacket legs or skirt pile sleeves fix the jacket to the seabed.
Jacket size dictates the method of pile installation, on the smaller jackets tubular piles are driven
through jacket legs to a pre-determined depth of 50-60m (100 to 165 feet), or inserted into pre-drilled
holes when the formation resists conventional piling techniques. The piles are located centrally within
the leg by means of spacers attached to the piles. On completion of piling the piles is cut level with
the jacket and it may be cemented in place (grouted), swaged or welded. This arrangement has been
used to secure jackets in water depths of up to 100 metres (335 feet). This is the method utilized for
STDNE jacket. (see fig. 2-6)
The immense size of the deep water jackets makes piling through the legs impractical so a pile cluster
(or skirt pile sleeves) is fitted to the base of each leg. The piles can then be driven through the cluster
guides to the required depth of 60-90 metres (200-300 feet) before being grouted into position. Chim
42
Sao Primer Oil and Bien Dong 1 project utilized this piling method to fix the jacket into sea bed. (see
fig. 2-7)
Figure 2-5: CS piles were transported by barge to offshore

Pile
Jacket
Leg
Figure 2-6: piling through jacket legs

Figure 2-7: piles driven by hammer to required depth

43
Typical Jacket component includes:
Conductor Guide Frame: Guide frames are located at regular intervals both above and below sea
level to restrain the wellhead conductors against lateral movement (Fig. 2-8).
Conductor: section of pipe extending from the sea bed to the wellhead area, the conductor supports
the Christmas tree and contains the piping system or casing strings which conduct oil or gas from the
reservoir to the installation (Fig. 2-8)
Riser: section of the subsea pipeline extending from the sea bed to the emergency shutdown valve
(ESDV) on the installation (Figure 2-9). These sections (risers and pipeline) will export, transport the
produced oil and gas to tanker or to onshore location).
Riser Clamps: clamp or clamps used to secure the riser to the jacket (Fig. 2-10)
Caisson: tubular steel pipes or casings extending to a position below the lowest sea level. They may
accommodate deep well pumps for fire fighting and service water facilities, or provide a disposal route
for unwanted liquids and drains (Fig. 2-10).
Mud mats: steel plates attached to the base of each leg to prevent over penetration of jacket into a
soft sea bed (Fig. 2-10).
Pile cluster/Skirt pile sleeves: fitted on deep water jackets to house the foundation piles (Fig. 2-10).
“J” tubes: open ended “J” shaped pipe attached to the jacket structure and extending from cellar deck
to sea bed. Provides protection for flexible flowlines and umbilicals emanating from subsea wells (Fig.
2-9).
Anode: jacket structure stays in salty sea-water for 10-20 years, to provide for protection against
corrosive sea environment, jacket is normally equipped with sacrificial anode.
Conductors
Conductors guide frame
Figure 2-8

44
Figure 2-9: CS Jacket Structure

45
Main piles, which are tubular. are usually carried with the jackets and
driven through the jacket legs into the seafloor. The term jacket structure has evolved
from the concept of providing an enclosure (“jacket”) for the well conductors
Figure 2-10: Jacket Layout
Installation of the Jacket:
As previously explained, Jacket is pinned into seabed by piles. The piles installed inside the jacket
legs normally extend to the top of the legs. Through leg piles are connected to the jacket legs at the
46
top using shim plates, known as “crown shims”, that are installed in the annulus between the leg and
the pile and are welded to both. In some structures, the annulus between the jacket and the pile is
grouted, although this is no longer a common practice. Piles installed through sleeves on the outside
of the leg structure are connected to the sleeve by grouting the pile-sleeve annulus.
Jackets need to have adequate buoyancy (i.e. more than their own self-weight) to stay afloat during
installation. Thus, they are typically constructed of small diameter tubular (braces) that form a space
frame, in addition Buoyancy Tanks and flooding system are normally designed and supplied for the
installation of jacket.
Regardless of the size or the type of jacket installation, once the jacket is on the seabed, its weight is
temporarily supported by mudmats (Fig. 2-10). Mudmats are added to the bottom of the jacket legs to
provide the required bearing area to support the jacket weight and resist environmental loading during
installation and until the strength of the piles has sufficiently developed. This phase is known as the
“unpiled stability” phase. They are flat panels that are made of stiffened steel plate or, to reduce
weight, from glass reinforced plastics or timber/wood.
The method of installation depends on the weight and the physical dimensions of the jacket and on
the capacity of the installation equipment. The following methods are the most common for a jacket
installation:
1. Lift and Lower in Water
This method is used for small jackets, in very shallow water, which are transported on barges in the
upright position already pre-rigged for offshore lift and installation by a crane vessel. Once offshore,
the jacket is lifted off the deck of the barge and lowered down to the seabed. Jackets installed in such
a configuration are typically less than 50 m tall.
The foundation piles for this size of jacket structure are typically transported together with the jacket
on the same cargo barge. Once the jacket is set on the seabed, the piles are installed using the same
crane vessel and a pile hammer of an adequate size.
2. Lift and Upend
As the size of a jacket structure increases, it is built and transported on a cargo barge in the horizontal
position. The jacket is lifted off the cargo barge using one or two cranes. Following pick-up, the cargo
barge is withdrawn and the jacket is upended. Single cranes with two blocks can be used for
upending smaller jackets with the jacket length aligned with the plane of the crane boom. There are
several methods of upending jackets:
 Two-block upending - upending in air or partially in water using two crane blocks. In this
method, the jacket does not have sufficient buoyancy to float without crane assistance.
Instead, the upending is achieved by hoisting down the block of one of the two cranes while
the other is hoisted up. Figure 2-11 shows a two-block upend operation. The size of the
jackets that can be upended with a single crane is limited
Fig. 2-11: Jacket Installation –

two block upending lifting
47

 Single-block upending. A jacket installed using this method needs to have sufficient buoyancy
to float in the horizontal position by itself. In this method, the jacket is prerigged with two sets
of four slings. The first set of slings - the lifting slings - are attached somewhere along the top
jacket frame, while in the horizontal position. The second set of slings - the upending slings -
are attached to padeyes at the top of the legs when the jacket is in the upright position. The
jacket is lifted off the cargo barge with the lifting slings and lowered into the water until its
buoyancy balances its weight. The lifting slings are then disconnected from the crane hook
and the upending slings are connected to the hook. The jacket is then ballasted in a
controlled manner until it is upended a few meters above the seabed. Further ballasting is
then carried out until the jacket is positioned on the seabed. This method only requires one
crane albeit it has to be capable of lifting the full jacket weight without assistance. The jacket
legs need to be made buoyant by installing rubber diaphragms at the bottom of the legs and
steel caps at the tops. Additional equipment such as flooding valves, umbilicals and pumps
are also needed. The jacket buoyancy has to be designed so as to allow easy access for
rigging the upending slings, while the jacket floats horizontally. Sufficient buoyancy and
subdivision is also required to ensure that flooding of one compartment does not lead to the
jacket sinking or making the installation operation impossible to complete. Some
consideration should be given to provide remotely operated valves with manual back-up.
Figure 2-12 shows a single block upend operation.
Fig. 2-12: Jacket Installation –

single block upending lifting
3. Launching
Jacket structures that are too heavy to be lifted can be launched into the sea off a launch barge. A
launch barge is a flat top cargo barge equipped with skid beams, a rocker arm, launch winches and a
suitable ballasting system. Jackets are designed to be either self-upending or upended with the
assistance of a crane vessel. Launched jackets need to have sufficient reserve buoyancy in order to
ensure they float at the end of the launch sequence. The jacket legs are made buoyant by the use of
rubber diaphragms at their bottom ends and steel caps at the top. Additional buoyancy located
appropriately is sometimes required to achieve the required level of reserve buoyancy or to ensure
the jacket will upend itself at the end of the launch sequence.
Launching operations require the jacket to be fitted with a launch truss. The launch truss is an integral
part of the jacket structure and serves to transfer the weight of the jacket into the skid beams and the
rocker arm during the launching operation. The weight of the launch truss normally constitutes a
significant part of the jacket weight.
48
The rocker arms are two beams that are installed at the stern of the barge in line with the skid beams.
They are connected to the stern through hinges. The rocker arms serve to support the jacket weight
as it rotates over the barge stern and dives into the water. As such, the rocker arms and the
supporting hinges can be substantial structures. Figure 2-13 shows a typical launching sequence of a
jacket that was designed to be self-upending.
Fig. 2-13: Jacket Installation – launching
Procurement of materials for Jacket:
Materials that constitute jacket structure will be discussed in details in Part 1 – “Structural” of this
Guide book; here it is sufficed to summary as follows:
Majority of jacket materials (including Jacket, risers, conductors and piles) is steel tubular: tubular with
diameter below 600mm normally supplied in seamless type and those with diameter exceeding
600mm normally produced by rolling from plates.
Other materials and services that may require for jacket fabrication and installation include:
 Timber (for mudmat, launching..etc)
 Pile grippers and gout seal
 Levelling system (for jacket installation)
 Rolling service (for rolling of piles)
 Boyancy tanks and flooding system (for jacket installation)
 Sacrifice Anode
49
Jacket leg Anodes
Braces
Conductor Guide
Figure 2-14: STDNE Jacket, fabricated by VSP

50
III - Topsides:
Oil or gas wells produce a mixture of hydrocarbon gas, condensate, or oil; water with dissolved
minerals, usually including a large amount of salt; other gases, including nitrogen, carbon dioxide
(CO2), and possibly hydrogen sulfide (H2S); and solids, including sand from the reservoir, dirt, scale,
and corrosion products from the tubing.
For the hydrocarbons (gas or oil) to be sold, they must be separated from the water and solids,
measured, sold, and transported by pipeline, truck, rail, or ocean tanker to the user. Gas is usually
restricted to pipeline transportation but can also be shipped in pressure vessels on ships, trucks, or
railroad cars as compressed natural gas or converted to a liquid and sent as a liquefied natural gas
(LNG). The purpose of topsides (or oil well facilities) is to refine, process the hydrocarbon from well to
certain specification before oil and gas can be sold.
Fig. 2-15: schematic of CS field development

Fig. 2-16: Bunga Tulip A Topsides
51
A topsides normally consists of following main systems:
1. Process system
2. Utility Systems
3. Accessory systems
4. Process Control and Safety Control System
1. Process System
An oilfield facility is different from a refinery or chemical plant in a number of ways. The process is
simpler in a facility, consisting of phase separation, temperature changes, and pressure changes, but
no chemical reactions to make new molecules.
Oil or gas pumped from reservoir through conductors (figure 2-8) at high pressure, the first point of
encounter at platform therefore need to be equipped with special heavy valves and control equipment.
This group of valves controls the flow of oil and gas from the well, and is called a Christmas Tree (X-
tree) because of its shape and the large number of fittings branching out above the wellhead. Figure
2-17 and 2-18 show a typical Christmas tree on a well.

Fig. 2-17: Christmas Tree
Fig. 2-18: X-mas

and Wellhead area
– CS platform
52
The cutting effect due to high pressure and velocity of well fluid (which contains fine sand
particles...etc) can cause erosion and severe damage to even strongest materials. The pressure of oil
well fluid therefore needs to be reduced to level acceptable to subsequent processing system, Choke
Valve are normally installed as part of Christmas tree to serve this purpose. (Fig 2-19 and 2-20)

Fig. 2-19: Choke valve
Fig. 2-20: Choke valve installed

in CS Platform
53
Since the choke valve is subjected to corrosion and damage, it will be corroded and need to be
replaced. When replacing the choke, the flow valve (also called the wing valve) upstream (before)
the choke valve is closed (wing valve is stalled before choke valve), the pressure in the line bled off,
and the choke replaced.
Because the wing valve is used to open or shut in the well, it is also subject to cutting effect. When
the wing valve becomes cut and needs replacement, the master valve is closed, the pressure bled
off the tree, and the wing valve is replaced.
The key to closing the well in an emergency is the master valve. It must be kept in good and
dependable condition. It is accepted practice to use it only when absolutely necessary to avoid its
being cut. With such practice, it is possible to use the same valve for the life of the well. Should the
master valve have to be replaced, special procedures are required to ensure the well cannot flow
while the valve and tree are off the well.
On offshore platform and other high-risk situations, an automatic shutdown valve is installed on the
wellhead as additional safety precaution to choke, wing and master valves.
Wing valve and master valve are controlled by “Wellhead Control Panel” which will apply hydraulic
force to close or open the valves. In some minimal design such as those using for Chim Sao project,
Wellhead Control Panel is sometimes called Hydraulic Control Panel. (Fig. 2-21)
Fig. 2-21: CS Hydraulic Control

Panel
Oil and Gas from reservoir can contain undesirable characteristics such as highly corrosive, waxy,
contain chemical damaging to equipments or prone to dewing...etc. To mitigate these side effects and
control the characteristic of oil and gas suitable for subsequent processing equipment, some kind of
chemical is injected into the line. “Chemical Injection Skid” is therefore normally installed in the
platform to injection controlled chemicals into line at various points (before choke valves or at some
downstream line in the platform). (Fig. 2-22 and 2-23)
A chemical-injection skid enables various types of chemicals to be dosed into the stream to optimize
the treatment process. In many operations, each chemical-injection stream is equipped with two
dedicated diaphragm pumps, a duty and a standby pump, both of which are rated for 100% capacity.
Storage-tank (to store chemicals) capacity is designed to allow the plant to run for several days
between refills. Tank-construction materials can be carbon steel, stainless steel, or other material
appropriate to withstand the action of the stored chemicals.
54
Fig. 2-22: Chemical Injection Skid

Fig. 2-23 BD1 Chemical Injection Skid
As previously mentioned, the main function of surface facility (topsides) is to separate the well stream
into three components, typically called “phases” (oil, gas, and water), and process these phases into
some marketable product(s) or dispose of them in an environmentally acceptable manner. Therefore,
after choke valve, well stream will enter a mechanical devices (process vessel) called “separators,”
or “test separator” in which gas is flashed from the liquids and “free water” is separated from the oil.
These steps remove enough light hydrocarbons to produce a stable crude oil with the volatility (vapor
pressure) to meet sales criteria. (Fig. 2-24 and 2-25)
55
Fig. 2-24: Cutaway view of a horizontal two-phase separator

Fig. 2-25: BD1 Test

Separator
Gas Treatment:
Usually, the separated gas after “test separator” is saturated with water vapor and must be
dehydrated (to dry the gas) to an acceptable level, normally less than 7 lb/MMscf (110mg H2O/Sm3).
This is normally done in a glycol dehydrator skid. (Fig. 2-26)
56

Fig. 2-26: Isometric view of gas dehydration skid
After dehydrated, gas must be compressed and treated for sales. Compression is typically done by
engine-driven reciprocating compressors. In large facilities or in booster service, turbine-driven
centrifugal compressors, such as that shown in Figure 2-27, are used. Large integral reciprocating
compressors are also used.

Fig. 2-27: BD1 Gas Turbine Generator – Isometric view
In some locations it may be necessary to remove the heavier hydrocarbons to lower the hydrocarbon
dew point. Contaminants such as H2S and CO2 may be present at levels higher than those
acceptable to the gas purchaser. If this is the case, then additional equipment will be necessary to
“sweeten” the gas
Oil and Water Treatment:
After “test separator”, the oil and emulsion must be treated to remove water. Most oil contracts specify
a maximum percent of basic sediment and water (BS&W) that can be in the crude. This will typically
vary from 0.5% to 3% depending on location. Some refineries have a limit on salt content in the crude,
57
which may require several stages of dilution with fresh water and subsequent treating to remove the
water. Typical salt limits are 10 to 25 pounds of salt per thousand barrels. Oil treatment is done by
subsequent process vessels.
The water that is produced with crude oil can be disposed of overboard (pump or drain directly to sea)
in most offshore areas, or evaporated from pits in some locations onshore. Usually, it is injected into
disposal wells or used for waterflooding/water injection into wells. In any case, water from the
separators must be treated to remove small quantities of produced oil. If the water is to be injected
into a disposal well, facilities may be required to filter solid particles from it. (“Further see “Produced
Water System” in this Guide book)
Water treating can be done in horizontal or vertical skimmer vessels/tanks, which look very much
like separators. Water treating can also be done in one of the many proprietary designs such as
upflow or downflow CPIs, flotation units, cross-flow coalescers/separators, and hydrocyclones.
Any solids produced with the well stream must also be separated, cleaned, and disposed of in a
manner that does not violate environmental criteria. Facilities/Topsides may include sedimentation
basins or tanks, hydrocyclones, filters, or “desander” skid ...etc.
The facility must provide for well testing and measurement so that gas, oil, and water production can
be properly allocated to each well. This is necessary not only for accounting purposes but also to
perform reservoir studies as the field is depleted.
Treated oil and gas sell to purchaser or export to FSO, to onshore through pipeline need to be
gauged and metered. Metering skid therefore is installed in the facilities to count the volume of oil
and gas sale. (Fig. 2-28)
Fig. 2-28: GA view of metering skid
58
Fig. 2-29: Schematic model of processing

system from wellbore to separation and
storage
Process system in minimal design
Some fields such as Chim Sao utilize the minimal design in which well-stream fluid is transferred from
Topsides to FPSO for further processing. Processing system is located in FPSO and therefore there
is no separation, metering …etc in the topsides
Fig. 2-30: CS WHP Field Layout
59

Pipes, fittings and valves
Pipes, fittings and valves constitute major parts in process system. Pipes, fittings and piping valves
are discussed in more detailed in Part II of this Guide Book.

2. Utility System
Utilities systems include Electrical system, fuel gas and utility/compressed air system.
2.1 Electrical system:
Offshore platform needs electrical power to provide:
 Control of instrumentation system (actuators; instrumentation, control and shutdown

systems...etc)
 Lighting, telecommunication, navigation aids...
 Heat, ventilation system (HVAC)
 Living conditions for men (Refrigerator, water maker, microwave, coolers, fan, macerator, air-
con in living quarter section...etc)
 Electric power for working tools and equipment in the platforms (welding machine, hand
tools...etc)
60Fig. 2-31: Offshore Platform illuminated by lighting

Typical electrical system consists of power generation, power distribution, electric motors and system
protection.
a) Power generation
The main source of power for offshore platform is generated by engine- or turbine-driven generator
sets (“gas turbine generator” as used in Topaz or BD1 platforms). The engines or turbines may use
diesel or natural gas as a fuel. Some units are dual-fueled, using natural gas and diesel. Natural gas-
fueled prime movers are most practical for normal power generation for most applications. Diesel is
used where natural gas is unavailable and for units that provide black-start and emergency power.
Some fields such as Chim Sao field, main source of power generation is provided from FPSO vessel
to Platform through umbilical/subsea cable. The topsides is equipped with only emergency generator.

Fig. 2-33: Topaz Main Gas Turbine Generator

Fig. 2-32: BD1 Main Gas Turbine Generator
In addition to normal generators, a standby generator might be needed to provide emergency power
and black-start capability. Sometimes, a standby or portable generator is designed to handle the total
facility electrical load, but usually it is designed only for essential loads (called emergency generator).
Another source of power supply is Uninterrupted Power System (UPS) which use the above main
sources to charge for battery. UPS contain an inverter which converts the DC current from battery to
AC current supplies to loads. Converted AC current from UPS is used in emergency case for critical
system (ICSS/DCS, Telecom...etc) when main sources lost.
b) Power distribution
Power generated from Main Turbine Generator or portable generator will be distributed to individual
electric using load/component/equipments through switchgear/switchboard/distribution panel.
Sometime these distribution panels/boards are gathered and located in an enclosed rooms called
“Motor Control Room – MCC”, “Local Control Room – LCR) or “Centre Control Room – CCR”...etc.
However since the power source from Turbine Generator is normally high or medium voltage (HV or
MV), it need to be converted or transformed to low voltage (LV) for suitable use of normal LV
61
equipments (lighting, pumps, heat tracing...etc). The conversion from HV to LV current is done by
device called “Transformer”
Main Power Generation (Turbine

Generator/from FPSO…etc)

Fig. 2-34: Electrical System Schematic
2.2 Fuel gas or fuel oil/diesel
A number of equipments in the platforms (such as pumps, portable generator, compressors...) need
to use gas or oil (diesel) as fuel for their operation. In addition, some process devices such as heater
require the use of gas for heating. Fuel gas or oil can also be used for men living in the living quarter.
Fuel gas system is the system which generate from wellstream (directly or after some stage of
separation) gas or diesel with required chemical contents to use as fuel for various devices in the
platforms. Fuel gas/oil system may consist of tanks, filters, compressors...
2.3 Instrument Air
Just like the use of fuel gas, air energy may also needed to operate instrument device (such as
pneumatic actuators), to feed in combustion chamber of turbine, engine...etc to increase the
efficiency.
Instrument Air skid takes air outside the environment, filter and compress it (through “air
compressor”) and feed into air-required devices.
62
3. Accessory Systems
Accessory systems include the materials handling system, living quarter, fire fighting and safety,
navigation aids.
3.1 Living Quarter
Manned platform is equipped with living quarter section to enable normal living for men in offshore
environment. Living Quarter includes various items like architectural (doors, beds, ceiling, book
case...etc), recreation equipments (billiards, radio...etc) and others (refrigerator, drinking water,
microwave, macerator, air-con, plumbing, sanitary...etc)
3.2 Crane and materials handling equipment
For the handling and transport of cargo, catering or even personnel to and from supply vessels as
well as for purpose of in-platform operation/work-over, crane and other materials handling
equipments (trolley, hoist...etc) are provided. (Fig. 2-9)
3.3 Helideck
Helicopters provide the means by which personnel are transported to and from offshore platform and
they are used as the primary means of evacuation in the event of an emergency. (Fig. 2-9)
3.4 Fire Fighting Equipment
Offshore platform must provide protection against the hazard of fire and the release of gas by
employing a combination of active and passive fire fighting/protection measures.
3.4.1 Active Fire Protection
Offshore regulations require the provision of fire and gas detection systems, remote control safety
devices, fire extinguishers and fireman’s equipment on all platforms (manned or un-manned) and fire
alarms, fire mains, hydrants and hoses, water deluge systems or monitors, and automatic sprinkler
system on all platforms that are normally manned.
3.4.1.1 Fire detection
Automatic fire detection systems must be fitted throughout the platform and the equipment used
must be of a self monitoring design so that if a fault develops a warning alarm will be activated.
Manually activated alarm points must be provided at strategic positions in the accommodation and in
working areas.
Detectors sensitive to smoke, heat, ultraviolet light and gas may be used individually or in
combination depending on the hazard most likely to occur in any particular location.
The main control room (ICSS/DCS...etc) is usually dedicated for use as fire control station because
the operation of production equipment and communication can most easily be co-ordinated at that
point.
It is a requirement that should a detector sense a hazard or a manual alarm point be activated, then
an audible and visual alarm will be initiated at the hazard and in the main control room.
3.4.1.2 Fire fighting system normally includes the following items:
a. Fire-water Pumps:
63
The fire pumps will pump up sea-water for fire fighting purpose. It consists of a centrifugal deepwell
pump that is normally powered by a self contained diesel engine although electric drives are
occasionally used.
Normally, at least two independently powered fire pumps are required on each platform. They must
be located remotely from each other in areas of minimal risk and be capable of operating for a 12
hour period unattended. Each pump should be capable of supplying adequate water to operate the
largest section of deluge equipment and still maintain an adequate fire main pressure.
b. Hose Reels:
A number of hose reel stations must be provided so that water can be brought to bear on a fire from
at least two directions using no more than two sections of hose joined together.
c. Deluge:
The deluge system is required to protect any equipment used to process hydrocarbon. It covers the
wellheads in its entirety and it may be manual or automatic in operation.
The deluge system is similar in design to a sprinkler system with the exception that frangible bulbs are
not fitted, the pipework remaining “dry” until the deluge valves are opened. The water supply is
intended to cool the plant and reduce the escalation of a fire. The deluge system is frequently
extended to cover the main structural steelwork to prevent it from weakening if exposed to fire.
d. Sprinkler system
Every accommodation space must be protected by an automatic sprinkler system. It must be

supplied with a water source remote from the accommodation which is capable of operating for a
period of at least 4 hours.
Operation of the sprinkler system must activate an audible and visual alarm and indicate the location
of the hazard at the main control station.
The sprinkler frangible bulbs will operate at approximately 70 deg.C (158 deg.F) in most
accommodation spaces with the exception of the galley where higher settings may be used.
3.4.1.3 Fixed Fire Fighting Equipment:
It is a requirement that certain locations such as control room and machinery spaces are protected by
fixed fire extinguishing system.
The medium for the extinguishant may be carbon dioxide and dry powder. Initiation of the fixed fire
fighting equipment may be automatic but manual operation is often preferred for normally manned
locations.
3.4.1.3 Portable Fire Fighting Equipment.
A considerable number of portable fire fighting extinguishers are located throughout offshore
platforms. Extinguishers using water, foam, dry powder and CO2 will be installed at vantage points as
specified on the fire fighting plan.
3.4.2 Passive Fire Protection.
Passive fire protection involves the use of non-combustible heat resisting materials to insulate
strategic location against the effects of fire and smoke. The materials used are generally mineral
wools, fibre partitioning boards and cementatious coatings and all must be certified as having had
their effectiveness proved by type testing within a controlled furnace atmosphere. The manufacturers
of these materials provide literature to show how their products must be installed to achieve the
desired protection.
64
Various designations are used to specify the structural fire protection requirements and A, B and H
class division will be terms frequently encountered. A time interval is normally included within the fire
rating so that if of example an A-60 barrier is specified then this will maintain the integrity required of
an A class division for a period of 60 minutes.
The most commonly used divisions may be briefly described as follows:
A-class divisions:
These must be capable of withstanding a standard fire test and preventing the passage of smoke and
flame for the specified period. For example A-60 barrier/panel must withstand and remain intact for a
period of 60 minutes under fire temperature exceeds 925 Deg.C.
This most arduous of specifications must be used to protect the main control room, emergency
sources of power and communications, and all accommodation boundaries that face a hazardous
area on platform.
B-class divisions:
Same like class A but duration is typically only 15 minutes.
B-15 fire rated fibre board partitioning panels are used extensively in the construction of bulkheads,
ceilings, and corridors in the vicinity of non-critical areas such as accommodation rooms located in
safe areas.
H-class divisions:
These are constructed in a similar manner to A class divisions but additional or improved ceramic
fibre based insulations must be applied to withstand the more rigorous demands of a hydrocarbon fire
test. H-120 can withstand at least 1100 Deg.C for 120 minutes.
3.5 Life Savings Appliances
All offshore platform must have life saving appliances which includes the following system
3.5.1 Alarm and Public Address System
A general alarm must be provided which is clearly audible at all locations on the platform.
A public address system which permits aural communication (a talk back facility) must be provided at
all part of the platform
Where the alarm and public address sytems are located in noisy surroundings a visual form of
indication is to be provided. Both systems must be supplied with two separate sources of electrical
power, one of which is designed to function in an emergency situation.
3.5.2 Survival Craft:
a. Life boats:
Every normally manned installation must be provided with a totally enclosed motor propelled survival
craft capable of containing all persons on board (POB)
Clear instructions are to be provided which will enable one person to launch and operate the life boat.
The life boat must be self righting, constructed of fire retardant materials and protected against heat
by an external sprinkler system. There must be sufficient fuel on board to propel the boat for 12 hours
and a compressed air supply which will enable the occupants to breath, and the engine to run for at
65
least ten minutes. A radio which can transmit distress signals must also be included in the survival
equipment.
Fig. 2-35: BD1 Life Boat provided on the main deck

b. Life rafts
The requirements for life raft depend on the capacity of the life boats. If one life boat can
accommodate the entire POB then additional capacity equal to the POB must be provided by life rafts.
That is to say the combined capacity of life boats and life rafts equals 2 x POB.
The alternative is to provide two life boats whose combined capacity equals 1.5 x POB in which case
no life rafts need be fitted. In practice inflatable life rafts are positioned at strategic locations regarless
of life boat capacity. These inflatable life rafts should be serviced annually.
All survival craft must contain a first aid kit, an adequate supply of drinking water and a waterproof
electric hand lamp suitable for signalling purposes.
c. Life jackets.
Each individual on platform is required to be equipped with a lifejacket, in addition immersion suit, a
smoke hood, torch and fireproof gloves will also be provided.
The must be located on each platform a quantity of life jackets equal to 1.5 x the POB. One must be
stored by each bed with the remainder being located at embarkation or muster points. Donning
instruction must be provided wherever the jackets are stored. Each jacket should be capable of
keeping a person afloat for a period of 24 hours and be fitted with a whistle and preferably a light.
d. Life buoys
The number of life buoys required will depend on the number of POBs, but at least eight must be
sited at locations readily available to assist a person who has fallen into the sea. The life buoy must
be fitted with a light which will operate for at least 45 minutes
Life boats and life buoys must bear the name of the platform
3.6 Navigation Aid
66
Navigation Aid provides alarm and protection against shipping, it uses flash light and hood to signal
and inform shipping vessels...etc about the existence and location of the platform.

Fig. 2-36: Topaz Navigation Aid system
4. Process Control and Safety Control System
If the process, utility and accessory systems make up the physical body of the offshore platform, the
process control and safety control system is the head and mind of it.
4.1 Process Control:
Automatic process control is concerned with maintaining process variables, temperatures,

pressures, flows, compositions, and the like at some desired operating value.
As we shall see, processes are dynamic in nature. Changes are always occurring, and if appropriate
actions are not taken in response, then the important process variables-those related to safety,
product quality, and production rates-will not achieve design conditions.
For example if the temperature of fluid inside a process vessel must be maintained at 60 Deg.C,
should there is any chance in that desired temperature (for whatever reasons) some mechanism must
be in place to automatically detect that change, analyse it and prompt appropriate corrective actions.
This is the job of Process Control System.
4.2 Safety Control:
Safety, to personnel and property, is utmost important issue in offshore oil and gas. Any potential
hazard even latent or dormant must be identified early and be prevented or mitigated. That is reason
why safety control is designed and installed for the purpose of ensuring the platform in a safe state.
Safety Control can be called by various other names like Safety interlock system, safety
instrumented system (SIS), safety shutdown system (SSD), emergency shutdown system (ESD),
protective instrument system...etc
In design of some platforms, both control and safety functions are located within the same system,
usually called the Distributed Control System (DCS). The typical benefits touted included single
source of supply, integrated communications, reduced training and spares, simpler maintenance, and
67
potentially lower overall costs. Some believe that the reliability, as well as the redundancy, of modern
DCSs are “good enough” to allow such combined operation.
The combination of process and control into one system is done in STDNE (called Facility Control
System - FCS), BD1 project (called Integrated Control and Safety System - ICSS)...etc.
Fig. 2-37: schematic architecture of a process control system (PCS)
IV – Hazardous Area and Explosion Proof Equipments:
The platform is in itself a hazardous item, contained and processed explosive chemical (gas and oil),
materials and equipments used for offshore platforms (be it electrical, instruments or mechanical
items) therefore must satisfy strict requirements in term of safety, ability to withstand or contain the
fire. In other words, most of them need to be certified as “Ex-prof” (explosion proof) items.
This is one of the most frequent requirements for materials in O & G and basic understanding on
zoning classification and “zone” equipments is of benefit. Appendix II of this Guide provides some
basis information on the subject of hazardous area classification.
68

Fig. 2-38: BD1 Production and Quarter Platform (PQP)
69
Buyer Guide – Section 3 - Steels and Structural Steels for Offshore Application

I. Overview of Steel Metallurgy
1. Steel Classification
2. Mechanical Properties
3. Steel Specification
4. Steel Making Process
II. Structural Steels
1. Sections/Beams
2. Channels/Angles
3. Plates
4. Structural Pipe/Tubular
5. Appendices
70

I. OVERVIEW OF STEEL METALLURGY
Steels are defined primarily by chemical composition, namely, that they are alloys composed of iron (Fe) and
other elements. For the structural and heat treatable steels, carbon is an essential alloying element; thus steel
may be defined as an alloy of iron and small amounts of carbon and other elements.
Steel is made by dissolving carbon into iron. Pure iron melts at an extremely high temperature, 1540 °C
(2800 °F), and at such temperature carbon readily dissolves into the molten iron, generating a liquid solution.
When the liquid solution solidifies, it generates a solid solution, in which the carbon (C) atoms are dissolved
into the solid iron. If the amount of carbon dissolved in the molten iron is kept below 2.1 weight percent
(2.1%), the result is steel. If Carbon content is above this value, one has cast iron.
In addition to carbon, all modern steels contain the element manganese (Mn) and low levels of the impurity
atoms of sulfur (S) and phosphorus (P). Hence, steels can be thought of as alloys of three or more elements,
given as Fe + C + X, where Fe and C are the chemical element symbols for iron and carbon, and X can be
thought of as third-element additions and impurities.
 Traditionally carbon steels are steel with carbon content below 2.1%.
 Alloys without carbon are irons.
 Alloys containing more than 2 wt% Carbon are called cast irons because of their dominant iron
content, low melting points, and good castability. However, cast irons historically were brittle, a
characteristic that differentiated them from steels with good combinations of strength and ductility
(cast iron is less expensive).
1. Steel Classification
There are various ways to classify steel, one of the often-used method divides steels into three main groups:
 Carbon Steels (non-alloy)

 Alloy steels
 Stainless steels
Of course as above mentioned every steel is indeed an “alloy”. But in practice not all steels are called "alloy
steels" and the term "alloy steel" is the standard term referring to steels with other alloying elements in
addition to the carbon.
Stainless steels are usually defined as alloys having a minimum of 11% chromium in addition to other
alloying additions. Stainless steels are large group of special alloys developed primarily to withstand
corrosion. Other desirable features may include excellent formability, high room-temperature and cryogenic
toughness, and good resistance to scaling, oxidation, and creep at elevated temperatures. Chromium is the
alloying element that imparts corrosion resistance to stainless steels (“stainless” characteristic).
The commonly recognized classes of stainless steels are:
 Martensitic stainless steels

 Ferritic stainless steels
 Austenitic stainless steels
 Duplex stainless steels
 Precipitation - hardening stainless steels
Carbon steel, also called plain-carbon steel, is steel where the main alloying element is carbon. Carbon Steel
are divided into four categories based on the percentage of carbon: low carbon (less than 0.15%); mild
carbon (0.15-0.29%); medium carbon (0.3-0.59%) and high carbon (0.6-1.7%).
2. Mechanical Properties
71

Strength: For most applications, the strength of a metal is the most important property. Strength can be
defined in a number of ways, but most industrial specifications set targets for yield strength and ultimate
tensile strength.
The tensile strength (resistance to elongation) of metals is measured by pulling a standard metal in tension
and recording the elongation of the gauge length in the smallest diameter section, where most of the
elongation occurs.
The yield stress is the stress at which elastic deformation, stretching of the sample that will recover to the
original length of the sample once the load is removed, ceases and plastic or permanent deformation starts to
become apparent, and the sample will not return to its original length once the load is removed
Hardness: Hardness is a material property that is often important, for example, for wearing surfaces. In
oilfield practice, it is also used as a convenient method for field inspection of carbon steel products to
determine if the metal in question has the necessary strength for the application in question. The hardness of
a metal increases as the strength increases, and tables to convert measured hardness into approximate
tensile strength are available.
The principle behind hardness testing is very simple. A penetrator of a known hardness, greater than the
material being tested, is forced into the sample with a predetermined load. The larger the indentation
produced, the softer the sample being tested. A number of hardness testers have been developed, but the
Rockwell hardness test, developed in the United States in the early twentieth century, has been the most
popular test for steels in North America. Other tests, differing primarily in the shape of the indenter, have
gained use in other locations.
Ductility: Ductility is usually considered to be the ability of a metal to be stretched in tension before fracture.
Toughness: Toughness is a measure of the resistance of a material to impact loading
3. Steel Specifications
A widely used system for designating carbon and alloy steel grades has been developed by the American Iron
and Steel Institute (AISI) and the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).
Steel specifications are written not only by SAE but also by other organizations that represent various user
groups of steels. Such organizations and specification systems include the American Petroleum Institute
(API), the Steel Founders Society of America (SFSA), Aerospace Materials Specifications (AMS), the
American National Standards Institute (ANSI), the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), the American Welding Society (AWS), and Military
Specification (MIL). Many countries throughout the world have their own unique specification organizations
and designation systems.
AISI — The American Iron and Steel Institute
AISI steel specifications refer to chemical composition ranges and limits on steels, in the same way as SAE
steel designations, and they are often stated together, for example, AISI/SAE 4340.
ASTM International — formerly the American Society for Testing and Materials
ASTM has a long history of supplying alloy designation standards. Metal standards are listed by the
sponsoring committee.
Standards starting with the letter A pertain to ferrous metals, for example, A36 - Carbon Structural
Steel, and ASTM A353 - Pressure Vessel Plates, 9 Percent Nickel, Double - Normalized, and Tempered.
Standards starting with the letter B pertain to nonferrous metals, for example, B209 - Aluminum and
Aluminum Alloys, and B337 - Titanium and Titanium Alloy Pipe.
72

Other letters are used for non-metallic materials, test methods, etc. In addition to ASTM standards for alloys,
ASTM has cooperated with other organizations to develop a UNS described in ASTM E527 - Numbering
Metals and Alloys in the Universal Numbering System
ASME
ASME Materials Specifications are derived from ASTM standards and have an additional S in the prefix. As
an example, ASTM A106 becomes ASTM A106/ASME SA 106 - Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe for High
Temperature Service.
There is considerable overlap, as well as differences, for steels in the specifications written by various
organizations, not only in the United States but also in Europe and Asia. As a result, the Unified Numbering
System (UNS) has been developed to cross reference various numbering systems used to identify similar
grades of steel.
The variety of steel standards (API, ASTM in USA, JIS in Japan, BS in UK and EN in Europe) have been a
source of considerable difficulty to purchasers in comparing and making decision regarding alternative and
comparable steel specifications.
4. SteelMaking
Modern steelmaking processes are broken into two categories: primary and secondary steelmaking. Primary
steelmaking uses mostly new iron as the feedstock, usually from a blast furnace. Secondary steelmaking
uses scrap steel as the primary raw material.
73

II. STRUCTURAL STEELS
Majority of structural steels are carbon steel in the mild carbon category.
1. Sections/Beams
The most commonly used section is wide-flange shape (or W beam) which is formed by hot rolling in the steel
mill. The wide-flange shape is designated by the nominal depth and the weight per foot, such as a W18x97
which is nominally 18 in. deep (actual depth = 18.59 in. according to AISC Manual) and weighs 97 pounds per
foot. (in SI units the W18x97 section could be designated W460x144, meaning nominally 460 mm deep and
having a mass of 144 kg/m.). W beam is equivalent to Universal Beam (U Beam) under British Standard.
The American Standard Beam, commonly called the I-beam, has relatively narrow and sloping flanges and a
thick web compared to the wide-flange shape. Use of I-beams has become uncommon because of excessive
material in the web and relative lack of lateral stiffness resulting from the narrow flanges.
2. Channels/Angles
The channel (fig c) and angle (fig d) are commonly used either alone or in combination with other sections.
The channel designated, for example, as C12x20.7, a nominal 12 – in. deep channel having a weight of 20.7
pounds per foot. Angles are designated by their leg length (long leg first) and thickness, such as, L6x4x3/8.
The structural tee is made by cutting wide-flange or I-beams in half. The tee is designated, for example, as
WT5x44, where the 5 is the nominal depth and 44 is the weight in pounds per foot, this tee being cut from a
W10x88.
74

3. Plates
Plate and tubular are the most often-used structural members in oil and gas facilities. The popular
specification is ASTM A36 which is comparable to SS400 (Japan standard) and S275JR from Europe.
Materials ASTM API Japan (JIS) UK Europe
Normal (Type III) A36 SS400 BS 4360 – 43A S275JR

Carbon Steel
High Strength A 131 – grade API 2H, 2W EN10025 grade S355

(Type I&II) CS AH36 & EH 36
(for ship
building) Certified by ABS and sometimes called
ABS Grade A/E….
AH36/EH36 is almost equivalent to A36
Plate Standard Sizing:
1. Width: 1.524m, 2.438m, 3.048m – wide exceeding these ranges may cause problem with transportation
and price expensive.
2. Length: 6.096m, 9.144m, 12.1m – loose/bulked vessel can take up to 13m L, however local transportation
may cause problem.
3. “Cut-to-size” for big quantity and for rolling mills – special size can order from Mill provided quantity is
large enough and price increase around 100usd/ton.
4. Minimum mill plate size: 1.5 x 6m
Below is sizing difficult to source:
 Thickness above 50mm

 Big size: 3x9m or 3x12m
Major Plate Mills:
 Nippon Steel/Sumitomo Metal

 JFE
 POSCO
 Acerlo Mittal
 Baosteel (China)
4. Structural Pipe/Tubular
Structural Pipe/Tubular can be one of the following types:
 Seamless Pipe (for small diameter pipe of less than 16” or less than 12”)
 Welded Pipe
 Structural rolled tubular
75

a. Seamless Pipes
Seamless (SMLS) pipe is formed by drawing a solid billet over a piercing rod to create the hollow shell.
Historically seamless pipe was regarded as withstanding pressure better than other types, and was often
more easily available than welded pipe. SMLS pipe is normally more expensive than welded pipes.
b. Welded Pipes
Depending on welding technology, welded pipes could be either High Frequency Welding (Electric Resistance
Welding (ERW)) or Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
ERW pipe has a diameter of up to 16" (in line with API standard) while SAW pipe has a diameter of up to 80”.
Different between SAW and ERW:
 ERW pipe is welded without the use of filler metal in the weld
 SAW is produced using a filler metal in the weld
 SAW pipe weld is generally considered to be stronger and more reliable, and thus SAW pipe is preferred
for low-temperature or deep water environments in oil and gas transmission.
 ERW pipe can be produced in longer joint sizes (lengths) than SAW pipe, thus making it less costly to
install.
 ERW pipe is made normally from coiled plate, and SAW pipe is usually made from cut-to-length plate.
 Physical and metallurgical characteristics of ERW and SAW is almost identical
 ERW is produced by ERW process; SAW can be produced by either U-O-E or pyramid rolling process
 ERW pipe is normally cheaper than SAW around 5-10%
76

Welded Pipes Manufacturing Processes
77

High Frequency Welding – ERW Process
Submerged Arc Welding – UOE Process
78

Spiral Welded Pipes is sub-branch of welded pipes produced by Submerged Arc Welding (SAW). Unlike UOE
process, spiral welded pipe use is mostly limited to onshore or piling application.
Spiral Welded Pipe
79

Welded Pipes can also be produced by Rolling and Press Bending Mills, several rolling mills in Vietnam
(Lilama, VSP...etc) or region (DSAW in Batam) can produce structural welded pipes by this method.
Rolling and Press Bending method is normally utilized to manufactured pipes at large diameter and heavy
wall thickness.
Production Ranges of popular Rolling and Press Bending workshops:
DSAW (Batam)
 Length: 3.5; 4.1 or 6.1m

 Thickness: maximum 110 mm
 Diameter: from 508mm to 4m
Lilama
 Diameter: min 600mm
Alpha ECC
 Diameter: min 600mm
80

c. Popular Specification for Seamless and Welded Pipes
Manufacturing Process Specification:
Materials ASTM API Japan (JIS) UK Europe ISO
Tubular rolled from Plates for ASTM A252 API 2B (14” above)
main structural (truss,
piling..etc)
Seamless/welded line pipe API 5L EN 10208 ISO3183
Material Specification: any available materials but the most popular ones in O&G are API 2H/2W,
EH36/AH36, A36...etc
d. Sizing/Dimensions and Tolerances:
For Structural Pipe:
1. Length:
 Pipe length ordered under API 2B will be as per PO requirement (taking into account rolling range and
transportation allowance).
 Pipe length order under ASTM A252 will be single random length; double random length or “uniform
length” under PO.
 Single random length: 16 to 25 foot (4.88 to 7.62m)
 Double random length: over 25 ft (7.62m) with a minimum average of 35 ft (10.67m)
 Uniform length: length as specified with a permissible variation of +/- 1 in.
 Lengths that have been spliced at the mill by welding shall be acceptable as the equivalent of un-spliced
lengths provided tension test specimens cut from sample slices conform to the tensile strength
requirements. (ASTM A252)
2. Pipe ends:
 Under ASTM A252, Pipe shall be furnished with plain ends.

 Under API 2B, Pipe shall be furnished with beveled ends with an angle of 30 +/-2.5 degrees.
3. Tolerance regarding outside diameter/wall thickness and weight are specified in relevant standard.
For Line Pipe:
1. Length for plain-end pipe: 20 ft (6m) (random length); 40 ft (12m) (double random length), 50 ft, 60 ft and
80 ft – Tolerance is specified in the standard (for example: 20 ft pipe can have tolerance from 9 ft (2.74
m) to 22.5 ft (6.86 m)
2. Pipe ends: API 5L specified pipe ends as plain or threaded end depending on the particular of standard.
81

e. Manufacturers/Suppliers:
Manufacturers Origin Capacity Product Range Specification

Acerlo Mittal EU Seamless and
Welded
Tenaris (welded and seamless). Argentina/US/Japan/C API 5L, 2B and
anada/Ukraina/Indone Tenaris proprietary
sia spec
Nippon Steel (welded and Japan 1.5 – 2 million tons of API 5L, ASTM
seamless) pipes annually A252
JFE Japan SMLS & Welded

Tata EU/Asia/India SMLS & Welded
SeAh (welded pipe) Korea 1.2 million tons/year ERW from ½” up to
20”
SAW from 26” to 120”
Strong in ERW
EEW (welded pipe) Germany/Korea 105,000 tons/year Only SAW
Steeflower (welded pipe) Korea 120,000 tons/year Strong in SAW API 2B, API 5L
SamKang M&T (welded pipe) Korea 70,000 tons/year SAW
Dong Yang (welded pipe) Korea SAW
KHI Pipe Industry Indonesia ERW API 5L

(http://khipipe.com/)
Lilama Vietnam Roll & Press Bending API 2B
DSAW Vietnam Roll & Press Bending API 2B
82

5. APPENDICES
83

Equivalent of Structural Steel Specifications
84

PLATE WEIGHT CHART
85
Buyer Guide – Section 4 - Bolting
I. Definition
II. Types
III. Typical uses of bolting
IV. Popular Specification
V. Coating of Bolts and Nuts
VI. Designation of Bolts and Nuts
VII. Ordering Information
VIII. Typical Manufacturer/Suppliers
IX. Buyer Notes
X. Other special types of bolts and nuts
86
I - Definition:
Bolts and nuts are the fasteners that provide compressive clamping forces to joints, secure and
create a joint. The term bolting applies to the bolt, nuts, and if required, the washer.
II - Types
For offshore oil & gas, three types of Bolts are normally used: machine, stud and U-Bolt
Machine Bolt
Machine bolts have a “head” on one end and threads on the other.
Head Threaded
Nuts
The most popular type of Machine bolts is Hex Bolts and Nuts: hex bolt has head and nut in form
of hexagonal-sided (six sides)
Hex bolt
Typically used with bolts and nuts are washers: a metal or plastic thin plate (typically disk-
shaped) with a hole (typically in the middle) that is normally used to distribute the load,
strengthening or secure the clamping forces.
87
Washer
Stud Bolt
Stud bolts have threads throughout their entire length and require the use of two nuts. Stud bolts
are the most commonly used type and are available in two grades, A-193-B7 and A-193-B16. B7
grade bolts are used for temperatures to 1,000°F. B16 bolts are used when temperatures exceed
1,000°F.
U-Bolt
A bolt in the shape of a U, threaded on both ends. U-bolts are widely used in piping system.
88
III - Typical uses of bolting:
1. To create leak-free joints in piping system:
2. To support or secure pipes:
IV - Popular Specification:
1. Typical specification of Machine Bolts (Hex Bolts) for structural application:
 BS 3692 Gr 8.8, 10.9, 12.9

 ASTM A325 High Strength Bolts
 JIS 1186 F10T, BS 4395 Part 1,2,3 High Strength Friction Girp Bolts
 Torque Shear Type High Strength Bolts (TC Bolts)
 BS EN ISO 3506 A4-70/80, BS EN ISO 3506 A2-70/80
 SAE Grade 5, 8, 10
89
 A490 Type 1
 SS 316, SS 304, SS 316L
2. Typical specification of Stud Bolts (Hex Bolts) for piping application:
90
V - Coating of Bolts and Nuts
Offshore environment is salty and “exotic”. Materials, including bolts and nuts, must withstand the
corrosion and other severe condition offshore. Coating is one of the methods that offer protection
of bolts against both environment and the damage caused by chemical contents.
Popular Coating Method/Specifications
 Hot Dipped Galvanising

 Electro-Plating:
- Zinc,
- Cadmium,
- Electroless-Nickel,
- Bi-Chromating,
- Phosphating,
- Moly Coating.
 Fluorocarbon Polymer Coating:
- PTFE,
- Teflon,
- Xylan,
- Status-Coat
 SermaGard
 Aluminium Coating
 Magni Coatings
Degree of protection for

different kinds of coating
Fluorocarbon coating can offer very strong protection over the corrosion and severe environment;
it is therefore widely used in offshore oil & gas although the price is normally more expensive than
other types of coating.
91
VI - Designation of Bolts and Nuts
The designation and dimension measurement of bolts and nuts differs between metric and US
system. Below are few example of designation system, for a specific project one should check
with the relevant specification in order to correctly understand and compare the prices.
Hex Bolts
US and Metric system measure bolt dimension differently. For example in metric system a bolt
dimension of M 8 x 1.25 x 20 means:
 M: metric system
 8: diameter of head in millimetre
 20: length of bolt in millimetre
 1.25: the length of each thread in millimetres
20mm length
8mm
diameter
1.25mm each thread

length
More on bolt dimension can be found at: http://autospeed.com.au/cms/title_All-You-Need-to-

Know-About-Nuts-Bolts/A_2871/article.html
Stud-Bolts
Stud bolts are normally measured by diameter of stud x length of bolt.
92
U-Bolts
Typical U-Bolt dimension
93
VII - Ordering Information
Type of bolt Bolt Material Bolt sizing
Nut Materials Type of coating
Type of bolt Sizing under metric designation
Type of coating
VIII - Typical Manufacturer/Suppliers
Supplier’s Name : Tri-Star Industries Pte Ltd

Supplier’s Address : No.36, Kian Teck Road Singapore 628781
Tel : 65 6266 3636
Fax : 65 6265 3635
Contact : Evonne Teo – Sales and Marketing Manager
E-mail : eteo@tristar.com.sg
Note : Manufacturer of bolts and nuts in Malaysia; in-house fluorocarbon
coating system coded name “MasterCote”.
Tri-star is sister company with SBN, another bolt & nuts company
(both SBN and Tri-star belong to same owner)
Supplier’s Name : Seng Heng Engineering Pte Ltd

Supplier’s Address : No. 3 Eunos Avenue 8A Singapore 409458
Tel : 65 6745 1277
Fax : 65 6748 9634
Contact : Alan Goh Kah Heng – Sales Manager
E-mail : alan@she.com.sg
Note : Manufacturer in Singapore who only do bolt and nuts (unlike SBN/Tri-
star who also do tray/ladder, anode…etc
94
Supplier’s Name : Chin Yuan Metal Pte Ltd

Supplier’s Address : No. 75 Tuas Avenue 1 Singapore 639513
Tel : 65 6265 0550
Fax : 65 6262 0550/6264 0550
Contact : Lawrence Yeo – Sales Manager
E-mail : sm@chinyuan.com.sg
Note :
Supplier’s Name : Activia International (Pte.) Ltd

Supplier’s Address : 180 Paya Lebar Road #07-01, Yi Guang Building Singapore 409032
Tel : 65-68489515/9415
Fax : 65-68489516
Contact : Xu Fang
E-mail : xufang@activiaintl.com
Note : Trading company
Supplier’s Name : Vungtau Trading Technical Services Corporation

Supplier’s Address : 65 Huyen Tran Cong Chua, Ward 8, Vungtau city, S.R Vietnam
Tel : 8464 3856417/3856688. EXT: 105
Fax : 8464 3856915
Contact : Pham Van Hien– Sales Manager
E-mail : hienpv@vttsc.vn
Note : Trading company
IX - Buyer Notes: Bolts and Nuts are quite simple product for evaluation both technically and
commercially. Attention should be paid to type of coating required, since the price different
between fluorocarbon and other types of coating are considerable.
X - Other special types of bolts and nuts
 Lag Bolts
95
 Hex head lag Bolt
 Eye Bolts
 Shoulder eye bolt
 Tap Bolts
 Step Bolt
 Flat Head Machine Screws
 Hex Head machine Screws
 Oval Head machine Screws
 Pan Head Machine Screws
 Truss Head machine Screws
 Round Head machine Screws
 Fillister Head Machine Screws
96
1. Nuts & Lock Nuts
 : Hex Nut
 Nylon Insert Lock
 Hex Jam Nut
 Nylon Insert Jam Lock
 Wing-nut
 Cap-nut
 Acorn-nut
 Flange-nut
 T-nut
 Square nut
 Prevailing-torque-lock-nut
97
 K Nut
 Coupling-nut
 Hex-nut-slotted
 Castle-nut
2. Washer
 : Flat
 : Fender
 : Fishing
 Slip lock
 External Tooth Lock
 Internal Tooth Lock
 Square
98
 Dock
 Ogee
99
Buyer Guide – Section 5 - Grating
I. Definition
II. Types
III. Grating Installation
IV. Grating Surface
V. Buyer Notes
VI. References and Further Reading
100
I. Definition
Grating is the grid-plat structure made from steel, fiberglass or aluminum…etc. Grating is
used in offshore platforms as floor, staircase, walk-way…etc.
Some of the common uses for Oil & Gas fabrication include:
 Flooring
 Stair tread
 Sun shades
 Drain covers
 Security screens
 Manhole covers
 Mezzanine flooring
 Earth mats
 Shelving
 Stanchions (hand rails)
Fig. 1: Stair Tread Grating
Fig. 2: Grating Floor
101
II. Types
1) Steel Grating:
Steel Grating is made by stainless or mild steel Materials: Mild carbon steel (AS3679
of certain sizes through the processing of or equivalent) provides an economical,
grooving, lock-pressure, welding, finishing and high strength for uses in most
other treatment. Industrial bar gratings can be industrial and commercial applications.
actually made from copper, aluminum and other
materials, while galvanized steel grating is the
mostly used one due to its economic cost and
durable mechanical properties.
Steel grating, with robust design and spanning

abilities, is very strong and safe for the support
of floors and elevated walkway. It can be used
for ceiling, interior decoration, decoration,
platform aisle, ventilation windows, (Wells),
advertising plaque and other construction.
Stainless Steel (SS) Grating: Stainless steel bar grating is a choice for corrosive
environments such as chemical, food and hydro processing areas. It is available in welded
and press locked as well as in many bearing bar sizes.
SS Materials: The most common material is Type SS304. However, type SS316 or Type
SS316L is also available. SS304 stainless steel is the most popular type contains both
chromium and nickel to provide excellent balance resistance and workability. SS316 is better
corrosion, pitting resistance and higher strength at elevated temperatures than 304. 316L is
extra low carbon variation of 316 to avoid carbide precipitation due to welding.
Steel Grating, especially the mild carbon steel grating, are prone to corrosion and attacks
from chemical and surrounding environment. For this reason, mild carbon steel grating
normally need to be coated with a thin layer of Zinc to make it more corrosive resistant. The
process of this coating is called “Hot Dip Galvanizing”.
Hot dip Galvanized Grating:
Typical specifications of Hot Dip Galvanized Grating for structural application are:
 ASTM A123
102
 ASTM A15
 JIS H8641/H0401
 ISO 1461
Processing of Hot Dip Galvanizing:
Hot Dip Galvanized can offer very strong protection over the corrosion and severe
environment; it is therefore widely used in offshore oil & gas although the price is
normally expensive than other types of Cold Dip Galvanized.
2) Aluminum Grating:
As a natural resource, aluminum is our most abundant metallic element. Its light weight mass
(about a third the weight of copper or steel), unmatched strength-to-weight ratio and excellent
corrosion resistance under the majority of service conditions makes it an excellent material
for the manufacturing of bar grating.
Aluminum can be recycled and as a result, makes it an environmentally friendly material

unlike some other grating material. Aluminum is durable and will offer years of service without
103
showing wear or decay. It is also non-toxic so it can be easily cleaned and does not absorb
bacteria sustaining particles. As a result it is a good candidate for food processing facilities.
The material is also resilient; it can deflect under loads and then spring back.
Aluminum grating is used when light weight is an important consideration/requirement.
Aluminum Rectangular, I-Bar & Lite-Bar: A type of pressure

locked grating made by permanently attaching cross bars to
bearing bars through a pressure applied swaging process.
Aluminum Flush Top: A type of pressure locked grating in

which the cross bars are in the same plane relative to the top
surface of the grating
Aluminum Dove Tail: A type of pressure locked grating where

bearing bars and cross bars are precision slotted, assembled
in egg-crate fashion, and hydraulically pressed together to
form a panel grid
Aluminum Riveted: A type of aluminum grating which

combines straight bearing bars and bent connecting bars
riveted together at their contact points. Riveted grating,
although being the oldest style of industrial footwalk, is still the
choice of many engineers due to its reliability and durability. All
popular sizes and spacings of riveted grating are
manufactured by Ohio Gratings with an emphasis on quality
and service.
Aluminum Plank: A type of aluminum grating which is available in

6" wide sections, and either plain sided or interlocking. Plank can
be provided in sections up to 26' 0" in length, or fabricated per
plans and specs. Plank grating is available un-punched as an
economical and structurally superior substitute for aluminum
checker plate, or with a variety of punch/patterns.
104
3) GRE Grating:
Grating can be made from GRE (Glass Reinforced Epoxy) or FRP (Fibre Reinforced Plastic).
GRE/FRP Grating have some distinctive features (notably light weight and corrosive
resistance) such as:
 Excellent strength to weight  Easy fabrication and installation

ratio  Outstanding durability
 Corrosion and chemical  Cost Effective
resistance  Impact resistance
 Low thermal conductivity  Anti-slip
III. Grating Installation.
Normally, we have 2 methods to install Grating:
1. Welding: Grating will be welded directly to grating support or Beam.
2. Grating Clip & Disc. solution:
a. Grating Clip:
When grating can not be fixed by welding the grating to its support, we can use
fastening clips as below:
   
b. Grating disc.:
Disc installation is same as functional grating clip, however Stainless Steel Studs and
Fasteners will be shot directly to beam by a “gun” & grating fastener will be wrenched in.
105
IV. Grating Surface:
Surface of grating is normally either “plain surface” or “serrated surface”
V. Buyer Notes:
1) Vendor List:
1. King’s Grating Company Limited (http://www.kingsgp.com.tw/ or

http://my.yellowpages.vn/vn/supplier.php?supplier=3636&ids=21dbf14c7fa986fdafe8983b
21d1c843&lang=vn )
106
2. Webforge (Thailand) Limited (http://www.webforge.com.au/ )

3. Redman Fisher Engineering Ltd (http://www.redmanfisher.co.uk/ )
4. Intralink Techno Sdn Bhd for FRP grating (http://www.intralinktechno.com/ )
5. Sin Hiap Chuan Hardware & Engineering Pte Ltd
6. SouthWest Co.,Ltd
2) Pricing:
Grating prices are heavily depended on prices of materials (steels, aluminum and FRP…etc),
this should be born in mind when evaluating quoted price as well as in coming up with proper
comparison to historic price data-base.
Current metal price trend can be found at http://www.metalprices.com
VI. References and Further Reading:
Webforge technical brochure/catalog
107
Buyer Guide – Section 6 – General Introduction to Process Piping
I. General
II. Piping Components
III. Piping Codes and Standards
IV. Piping Materials
V. Documentation
VI. Mechanical Properties of Piping Components
108
I. General
Piping is used for industrial (process), marine, transportation, civil engineering and for
“commercial” (plumbing) purposes.
This section is primarily concerned with industrial piping for processing and service systems.
Process piping is used to transport any commodity possessing flow characteristics such as those
found in liquids, gases, vapors, liquefied solids, and fine powders. This definition differs piping
pipe from Structural pipe which is mainly used as force-bearing component for platform structure.
The term "pressure piping" refers to piping systems or pipelines operating at or above 15 psig,
one atmosphere above the atmospheric pressure
II. Piping Components
Piping components includes:
 Pipe & tube (covered in Section 2 of this Part II)

 Fittings (e.g. elbows, reducers, branch, connections, flanges, etc.) (covered in Section 3
of this Part II)
 Gaskets, bolting (covered in Section 3 of this Part II)
 Valves (covered in Section 4 of this Part II)
 Pipe support (covered in Section 3 of this Part II)
 Special items such as expansion joints, corrosion probe, chemical injection quills, etc.
(covered in Section 3 of this Part II)
PIPE
Fig. 1 – Piping Components
109
III. Piping Codes and Standards
Main governing bodies involve in the development of oil and gas engineering in general and
pressure piping in particular
 American Petroleum Institute (API).

 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
 American Welding Society (AWS).
 National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE).
 American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
 Manufacturers Standardization Society (MSS)
 American Water Work Association (AWWA)
 British Standardization (BS Standard)
Some organization like The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a federation of
standards writing bodies, government agencies, companies and consumers that coordinates the
activities of standard writing organizations, and offers accreditation to standards writing
organizations and product certifiers, including regular audits
A) ASME (ANSI) Pressure Piping Code B31:
In 1926 the American Standards Association initiated Project B31 to develop a piping code.
ASME was the sole administrative sponsor. The first publication of this document, American
Tentative Standard Code for Pressure Piping, was in 1935. From 1942 through 1955 the Code
was published as the American Standard Code for Pressure Piping, ASA B31.1. The document
was subsequently developed and split off, a number of separate Sections have been prepared;
the various Section designations are as follows:
 B31.1 Power Piping

 B31.2 Fuel Gas Piping (withdraw in 1988)
 B31.3 Process Piping
 B31.4 Liquid Transportation Systems for Hydrocarbon
 B31.5 Refrigeration Piping
 B31.6 Chemical Plant Piping (later merge into B31.3)
 B31.7 Nuclear Piping (moved to ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section III)
 B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping System
 B31.9 Building Services Piping
 B31.10 Cryogenic Piping (never published)
 B31.11 Slurry Piping
At the moment, ANSI (or more correctly ASME) Pressure Piping Code B31.3 is the most popular
standard used for offshore oil and gas
B) What is the difference among codes, standards and specifications?
A code identifies the general requirements for the design, materials, fabrication, erection, test,
and inspection of process piping systems. For example, ASME B31.3-Process Piping is classified
as a design code. This is the most commonly used international design code for process plants.
A standard contains more-detailed design and construction parameters and standarddimensional

and tolerance requirements for individual piping components, such as various types of valves,
pipe, tee, flanges, and other in-line items to complete a piping system. For example, ASME B16.5,
110
Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings, is classified as a dimensional standard, but it also references
ASTM material specifications.
A specification, as the word implies, gives more specific information and data on the component;
and ASTM’s are considered to be material specifications, although they sometimes are
ambiguously called standard specifications. ASTM A105 is the “standard specification for carbon
steel forgings for piping applications.”
To conclude and combine these definitions, ASME B31.3 is a design code, with flanges designed
to the ASME B16.5 standard, which are constructed to the material specification ASTM A105
C) Main pressure piping standards and specifications under API, B31 and ASTM codes
Below is main standards and specification developed under API, ASME B31 and ASTM codes:
1. API Spec 5B. Specification for Threading, Gauging and Thread Inspection of Casing,
Tubing and Line Pipe Threads.
2. API Spec 5L. Specification for Line Pipe (see more in pipeline section of this guide)
3. API Spec 6A. Specification for Wellhead and Christmas Tree Equipment (see more in
valve section of this guide)
4. API Spec 6D. Specification for Pipeline Valves
5. API Spec 6FA. Specification for Fire Test Valves
6. ANSI/API Spec 6FB. Fire Test for End Connections
7. API Spec 6FC. Fire Test for Valve with Automatic Backseats
8. API Spec 6FD. Specification for Fire Test For Check Valves
9. ANSI/API RP 574. Inspection Practices for Piping System Components
10. ANSI/API Std 589. Fire Test for Evaluation of Valve Stem Packing
11. API Std 598. Valve Inspection and Testing
12. Under ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Sections, there are main pressure piping
standards as below:
 B16.1 (1998), Cast Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings.

 B16.3 (1998), Malleable Iron Threaded Fittings.
 B16.4 (1998), Cast-Iron Threaded Fittings.
 B16.5 (1996), Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings.
 B16.9 (1993), Factory-made Wrought Steel Butt Welding Fittings.
 B16.10 (2000) Face-to-Face and End-to-End Dimensions of Valves.
 B16.11 (2001) Forged Steel Fittings, Socket-Welding and Threaded.
 B16.12 (1998) Cast-Iron Threaded Drainage Fittings.
 B16.14 (1991) Ferrous Pipe Plugs, Bushings and Locknuts with Pipe Threads.
 B16.15 (1985; R1994), Cast Bronze Threaded Fittings.
 B16.18 (1984; R1994), Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings.
 B16.20 (1998), Metallic Gaskets for Pipe Flanges—Ring-Joint, Spiral-Wound,
and Jacketed.
 B16.21 (1992), Nonmetallic Flat Gaskets for Pipe Flanges.
 B16.22 (1995), Wrought Copper and Copper Alloy Solder Joint Pressure Fittings.
 B16.23 (1992), Cast Copper Alloy Solder Joint Drainage Fittings (DWV Drain,
Waste, and Vent).
 B16.24 (1991; R1998), Cast Copper Alloy Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings.
 B16.25 (1997), Butt Welding Ends.
 B16.26 (1988), Cast Copper Alloy Fittings for Flared Copper Tubes.
 B16.28 (1994), Wrought Steel Butt Welding Short Radius Elbows and Returns.
 B16.29 (1994), Wrought Copper and Wrought Copper Alloy Solder Joint
Drainage Fittings DWV).
111
 B16.33 (1990), Manually Operated Metallic Gas Valves for Use in Gas Piping
Systems up to 125 psig.
 B16.34 (1996), Valves—Flanged, Threaded, and Welding End.
 B16.36 (1996), Orifice Flanges.
 B16.38 (1985; R1994), Large Metallic Valves for Gas Distribution.
 B16.39 (1986; R1998), Malleable Iron Threaded Pipe Unions.
 B16.40 (1985; R1994), Manually Operated Thermoplastic Gas.
 B16.42 (1998), Ductile Iron Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings, Classes 150 and
300.
 B16.44 (1995), Manually Operated Metallic Gas Valves for Use in House Piping
Systems.
 B16.45 (1998), Cast Iron Fittings for Solvent Drainage Systems.
 B16.47 (1996), Large Diameter Steel Flanges: NPS 26 through NPS 60.
 B16.48 (1997), Steel Line Blanks.
 B16.49 (2000), Factory-made Wrought Steel Butt Welding Induction Bends for
Transportation and Distribution Systems.
 B16.104/FCI70-2, Control Valve Seat Leakage.
13. Below are main ASTM specification under ASME B31 Code:
Section 01: Iron and Steel Products
01.01. Steel—Piping, Tubing, Fittings
 A53/A53M-02. Standard specification for pipe—steel, black and hotdipped, zinc-coated,

welded, and seamless.
 A105/A105M-02. Standard specification for carbon steel forgings for piping applications.
 A106-02a. Standard specification for seamless carbon steel pipe for hightemperature
service.
 A134-96(2001). Standard specification for pipe—steel, electric-fusion (arc)-welded (sizes
NPS 16 and over).
 A135-01. Standard specification for electric-resistance-welded steel pipe.
 A139-00. Standard specification for electric-fusion (arc)-welded steel pipe (NPS 4 and
over).
 A179/A179M-90a(2001). Standard specification for seamless cold-drawn low-carbon
steel heat-exchanger and condenser tubes.
 A181/A181M-01. Standard specification for carbon steel forgings, for general-purpose
piping.
 A182/A182M-02. Standard specification for forged or rolled alloy-steel pipe flanges,
forged fittings, and valves and parts for high-temperature service.
 A193/A193M-03. Standard specification for alloy-steel and stainless steel bolting
materials for high-temperature service.
 A194/A194M-03b. Standard specification for carbon and alloy steel nuts for bolts for high-
pressure or high-temperature service or both.
 A210/A210M-02. Standard specification for seamless medium-carbon steel boiler and
superheater tubes.
 A234/A234M-03. Standard specification for piping fittings of wrought carbon steel and
alloy steel for moderate- and high-temperature service.
 A268/A268M-03. Standard specification for seamless and welded ferritic and martensitic
stainless steel tubing for general service.
 A269-02a. Standard specification for seamless and welded austenitic stainless steel
tubing for general service.
 A312/A312M-03. Standard specification for seamless and welded austenitic stainless
steel pipes.
112
 A320/A320M-03. Standard specification for alloy-steel bolting materials for low-

temperature service.
 A333/A333M-99. Standard specification for seamless and welded steel pipe for low-
 A334/A334M-99. Standard specification for seamless and welded carbon and alloy-steel
tubes for low-temperature service.
 A335/A335M-03. Standard specification for seamless ferritic alloy-steel pipe for high-
 A350/A350M-02b. Standard specification for carbon and low-alloy steel forgings,
requiring notch toughness testing for piping components.
 A358/A358M-01. Standard specification for electric-fusion-welded austenitic chromium-
nickel alloy steel pipe for high-temperature service.
 A369/A369M-02. Standard specification for carbon and ferritic alloy steel forged and
bored pipe for high-temperature service.
 A376/A376M-02a. Standard specification for seamless austenitic steel pipe for high-
temperature central-station service.
 A381-96(2001). Standard specification for metal-arc-welded steel pipe for use with high-
pressure transmission systems.
 A403/A403M-03a. Standard specification for wrought austenitic stainless steel piping
fittings.
 A409/A409M-01. Standard specification for welded large-diameter austenitic steel pipe
for corrosive or high-temperature service.
 A420/A420M-02. Standard specification for piping fittings of wrought carbon steel and
alloy steel for low-temperature service.
 A437/A437M-01a. Standard specification for alloy-steel turbine-type bolting material
specially heat treated for high-temperature service.
 A453/A453M-02. Standard specification for high-temperature bolting materials, with
expansion coefficients comparable to austenitic stainless steels.
 A524-96(2001). Standard specification for seamless carbon steel pipe for atmospheric
and lower temperatures.
 A530/A530M-03. Standard specification for general requirements for specialized carbon
and alloy steel pipe.
 A587-96(2001). Standard specification for electric-resistance-welded low carbon steel
pipe for the chemical industry.
 A671-96(2001). Standard specification for electric-fusion-welded steel pipe for
atmospheric and lower temperatures.
 A672-96(2001). Standard specification for electric-fusion-welded steel pipe for high-
pressure service at moderate temperatures.
 A691-98(2002). Standard specification for carbon and alloy steel pipe, electric-fusion-
welded for high-pressure service at high temperatures.
 A789/A789M-02a. Standard specification for seamless and welded ferritic/austenitic
stainless steel tubing for general service.
 A790/A790M-03. Standard specification for seamless and welded ferritic/austenitic
stainless steel pipe.
 A815/A815M-01a. Standard specification for wrought ferritic, ferritic/austenitic, and
martensitic stainless steel piping fittings.
01.02 Ferrous Castings, Ferroalloys
 A47/A47M-99. Standard specification for ferritic malleable iron castings.

 A48/A48M-00. Standard specification for gray iron castings
 A126-95(2001). Standard specification for gray iron castings for valves, flanges, and pipe
fittings.
 A216/A216M-93(2003). Standard specification for steel castings, carbon, suitable for
fusion welding, for high-temperature service
113
 A217/A217M-02. Standard specification for steel castings, martensitic stainless and alloy,
for pressure-containing parts, suitable for hightemperature service.
 A278/A278M-01. Standard specification for gray iron castings for pressurecontaining
parts for temperatures up to 6508F (3508C).
 A351/A351M-03. Standard specification for castings, austenitic, austeniticferritic (duplex),
for pressure-containing parts.
 A352/A352M-03. Standard specification for steel castings, ferritic and martensitic, for
pressure-containing parts, suitable for low-temperature service.
 A395/A395M-99. Standard specification for ferritic ductile iron pressureretaining castings
for use at elevated temperatures.
 A426/A426M-02. Standard specification for centrifugally cast ferritic alloy steel pipe for
high-temperature service.
 A451/A451M-02. Standard specification for centrifugally cast austenitic steel pipe for
high-temperature service.
 A487/A487M-93(2003). Standard specification for steel castings suitable for pressure
service.
 A494/A494M-03a. Standard specification for castings, nickel and nickel alloy.
 A571/A571M-01. Standard specification for austenitic ductile iron castings for pressure-
containing parts suitable for low-temperature service.
01.03 Steel—Plate, Sheet, Strip, Wire; Stainless Steel Bar
 A167-99. Standard specification for stainless and heat-resisting chromiumnickel steel

plate, sheet, and strip.
 A240/A240M-03c. Standard specification for chromium and chromiumnickel stainless
steel plate, sheet, and strip for pressure vessels and for general applications.
 A263-03. Standard specification for stainless chromium steel-clad plate.
 A264-03. Standard specification for stainless chromium-nickel steel-clad plate, sheet, and
strip.
 A265-03. Standard specification for nickel and nickel-base alloy-clad steel plate.
 A479/A479M-03. Standard specification for stainless steel bars and shapes for use in
boilers and other high-pressure vessels.
01.04 Steel—Structural, Reinforcing, Pressure Vessel, Railway
 A20/A20M-02. Standard specification for general requirements for steel plates for
pressure vessels.
 A36/A36M-03a. Standard specification for carbon structural steel.
 A202/A202M-03. Standard specification for pressure vessel plates, alloy steel, chromium-
manganese-silicon.
 A203/A203M-97(2003). Standard specification for pressure vessel plates, alloy steel,
nickel.
 A204/A204M-03. Standard specification for pressure vessel plates, alloy steel,
molybdenum.
 A285/A285M-03. Standard specification for pressure vessel plates, carbon steel, low-
and intermediate-tensile strength.
 A299/A299M-03e1. Standard specification for pressure vessel plates, carbon steel,
manganese-silicon.
 A302/A302M-03. Standard specification for pressure vessel plates, alloy steel,
manganese-molybdenum and manganese-molybdenum-nickel.
 A353/A353M-93(1999). Standard specification for pressure vessel plates, alloy steel, 9%
nickel, double-normalized and tempered.
 A387/A387M-03. Standard specification for pressure vessel plates, alloy steel, chromium-
molybdenum.
114
 A515/A515M-03. Standard specification for pressure vessel plates, carbon steel, for
intermediate- and higher-temperature service.
 A516/A516M-03. Standard specification for pressure vessel plates, carbon steel, for
moderate- and lower-temperature service.
 A537/A537M-95(2000). Standard specification for pressure vessel plates, heat-treated,
carbon-manganese-silicon steel.
 A553/A553M-95(2000). Standard specification for pressure vessel plates, alloy steel,
quenched and tempered 8% and 9% nickel.
 A645/A645M-99a. Standard specification for pressure vessel plates, 5% nickel alloy steel,
specially heat treated.
01.05 Steel—Bars, Forgings, Bearings, Chains, Springs
 A508/A508M-03. Standard specification for quenched and tempered vacuum-treated

carbon and alloy steel forgings for pressure vessels.
 A675/A675M-90a(2000). Standard specification for steel bars, carbon, hotwrought,
special quality, mechanical properties.
01.06 Coated Steel Products
 A123/A123M-02. Standard specification for zinc (hot-dip galvanized) coatings on iron and
steel products.
 A153/A153M-03. Standard specification for zinc coating (hot-dip) on iron and steel
hardware.
01.08 Fasteners; Rolling Element Bearings.
 A307-03. Standard specification for carbon steel bolts and studs, 60,000 psi tensile
strength.
 A325-02. Standard specification for structural bolts, steel, heat-treated, 120/105 ksi
minimum tensile strength.
 A325M-03. Standard specification for structural bolts, steel heat-treated 830 MPa
minimum tensile strength (metric).
 A354-03a. Standard specification for quenched and tempered alloy steel bolts, studs, and
other externally threaded fasteners.
 A563-00. Standard specification for carbon and alloy steel nuts.
Section 02: Non-Ferrous Metal Products
02.01 Copper and Copper Alloys
 B21/B21M-01e1. Standard specification for naval brass rod, bar, and shapes.
 B42-02. Standard specification for seamless copper pipe, standard sizes.
 B43-98. Standard specification for seamless red brass pipe, standard sizes.
 B61-02. Standard specification for steam or valve bronze castings.
 B62-02.Standardspecification forcompositionbronzeorouncemetalcastings.
 B68-02. Standard specification for seamless copper tube, bright annealed.
 B68M-99. Standard specification for seamless copper tube, bright annealed (metric).
 B75M-99. Standard specification for seamless copper tube (metric).
 B75-02. Standard specification for seamless copper tube.
 B88-02. Standard specification for seamless copper water tube.
 B88M-99. Standard specification for seamless copper water tube (metric).
 B96/B96M-01. Standard specification for copper-silicon alloy plate, sheet, strip, and rolled
bar for general purposes and pressure vessels.
 B98/B98M-03. Standard specification for copper-silicon alloy rod, bar, and shapes.
115
 B148-97(2003). Standard specification for aluminum-bronze sand castings.

 B150/B150M-03. Standard specification for aluminum bronze rod, bar, and shapes.
 B152/B152M-00. Standard specification for copper sheet, strip, plate, and rolled bar.
 B169/B169M-01. Standard specification for aluminum bronze sheet, strip, and rolled bar.
 B171/B171M-99e2. Standard specification for copper-alloy plate and sheet for pressure
vessels, condensers, and heat exchangers.
 B187/B187M-03. Standard specification for copper, bus bar, rod, and shapes and
general-purpose rod, bar, and shapes.
 B280-02. Standard specification for seamless copper tube for air conditioning and
refrigeration field service.
 B283-99a. Standard specification for copper and copper-alloy die forgings (hot pressed).
 B466/B466M-98 Standard specification for seamless copper-nickel pipe and tube.
 B467-88(2003) Standard specification for welded copper-nickel pipe.
 B584-00 Standard specification for copper alloy sand castings for general applications.
02.02 Aluminum and Magnesium Alloys
 B26/B26M-03. Standard specification for aluminum-alloy sand castings.

 B209-02a. Standard specification for aluminum and aluminum-alloy sheet and plate.
 B209M-03. Standard specification for aluminum and aluminum-alloy sheet and plate
(metric).
 B210-02. Standard specification for aluminum and aluminum-alloy drawn seamless tubes.
 B210M-02. Standard specification for aluminum and aluminum-alloy drawn seamless
tubes (metric).
 B211-02. Standard specification for aluminum and aluminum-alloy bar, rod, and wire.
 B211M-02. Standard specification for aluminum and aluminum-alloy bar, rod, and wire
(metric).
 B221M-02. Standard specification for aluminum and aluminum-alloy extruded bars, rods,
wire, profiles, and tubes (metric).
 B221-02. Standard specification for aluminum and aluminum-alloy extruded bars, rods,
wire, profiles, and tubes.
 B241/B241M-02. Standard specification for aluminum and aluminum-alloy seamless pipe
and seamless extruded tube.
 B247-02a. Standard specification for aluminum and aluminum-alloy die forgings, hand
forgings, and rolled ring forgings.
 B247M-02a. Standard specification for aluminum and aluminum-alloy die forgings, hand
forgings, and rolled ring forgings (metric).
 B345/B345M-02. Standard specification for aluminum and aluminum-alloy seamless pipe
and seamless extruded tube for gas and oil transmission and distribution piping systems.
 B361-02. Standard specification for factory-made wrought aluminum and aluminum-alloy
welding fittings.
 B491/B491M-00. Standard specification for aluminum and aluminum-alloy extruded
round tubes for general-purpose applications.
02.04 Nonferrous Metals—Nickel, Cobalt, Lead, Tin, Zinc, Cadmium, Precious, Reactive,
Refractory Metals and Alloys; Materials for Thermostats, Electrical Heating and Resistance
Contacts, and Connectors
 B127-98. Standard specification for nickel-copper alloy (UNS N04400) plate, sheet, and
strip.
 B160-99. Standard specification for nickel rod and bar.
 B161-03. Standard specification for nickel seamless pipe and tube.
 B162-99. Standard specification for nickel plate, sheet, and strip.
 B164-03. Standard specification for nickel-copper alloy rod, bar, and wire.
116
 B165-93. Standard specification for nickel-copper alloy (UNS N04400)* seamless pipe
and tube.
 B166-01. Standard specification nickel-chromium-iron alloys (UNS N06600, N06601,
N06603, N06690, N06693, N06025, and N06045) and nickelchromium-cobalt-
molybdenum alloy (UNS N06617) rod, bar, and wire.
 B167-01. Standard specification for nickel-chromium-iron alloys (UNS N06600, N06601,
N06603, N06690, N06693, N06025, and N06045) and nickel-chromium-cobalt-
molybdenum alloy (UNS N06617) seamless pipe and tube.
 B168-01. Standard specification for nickel-chromium-iron alloys (UNS N06600, N06601,
N06603, N06690, N06693, N06025, and N06045) and nickel-chromium-cobalt-
molybdenum alloy (UNS N06617) plate, sheet, and strip.
 B265-02. Standard specification for titanium and titanium-alloy strip, sheet, and plate.
 B333-03. Standard specification for nickel-molybdenum alloy plate, sheet, and strip.
 B335-03. Standard specification for nickel-molybdenum alloy rod.
 B338-02. Standard specification for seamless and welded titanium and titanium-alloy
tubes for condensers and heat exchangers.
 B363-03. Standard specification for seamless and welded unalloyed titanium and
titanium-alloy welding fittings.
 B381-02. Standard specification for titanium and titanium-alloy forgings.
 B407-01. Standard specification for nickel-iron-chromium alloy seamless pipe and tube.
 B409-01. Standard Specification for nickel-iron-chromium alloy plate, sheet, and strip.
 B435-03. Standard specification for UNS N06002, UNS N06230, UNS N12160, and UNS
R30556 plate, sheet, and strip.
 B443-00e1. Standard specification for nickel-chromium-molybdenumcolumbium alloy
(UNS N06625) and nickel-chromium-molybdenumsilicon alloy (UNS N06219) plate, sheet,
and strip.
 B444-03. Standard specification for nickel-chromium-molybdenum-columbium alloys
(UNS N06625) and nickel-chromium-molybdenum-silicon alloy (UNS N06219) pipe and
tube.
 B446-03. Standard specification for nickel-chromium-molybdenum-columbium alloy (UNS
N06625), nickel-chromium-molybdenum-silicon alloy (UNS N06219), and nickel-
chromium-molybdenum-tungsten alloy (UNS N06650) rod and bar.
 B462-02. Specification for forged or rolled UNS N06030, UNS N06022, UNS N06200,
UNS N08020, UNS N08024, UNS N08026, UNS N08367, UNS N10276, UNS N10665,
UNS N10675, and UNS R20033 alloy pipe flanges, forged fittings and valves and parts
for corrosive hightemperature service.
 B463-99. Standard specification for UNS N08020, UNS N08026, and UNS N08024 alloy
plate, sheet, and strip.
 B464-99. Standard specification for welded UNS N08020, UNS N08024, and UNS
N08026 alloy pipe.
 B493-01(2003). Standard specification for zirconium and zirconium alloy forgings.
 B514-95(2002)e1. Standard specification for welded nickel-iron-chromium alloy pipe.
 B517-03. Standard specification for welded nickel-chromium-ironalloy (UNS N06600,
UNS N06603, UNS N06025, and UNS N06045) pipe.
 B523/B523M-02. Standard specification for seamless and welded zirconium and
zirconium alloy tubes.
 B550/B550M-02. Standard specification for zirconium and zirconium alloy bar and wire.
 B551/B551M-02. Standard specification for zirconium and zirconium alloy strip, sheet,
and plate.
 B564-00a. Standard specification for nickel alloy forgings.
 B574-99a. Specification for low-carbon nickel-molybdenum-chromium, low-carbon nickel-
chromium-molybdenum, low-carbon nickel-molybdenum-chromium-tantalum, low-carbon
nickel-chromium-molybdenumcopper, low-carbon nickel-chromium-molybdenum-
tungsten alloy rod.
117
 B575-99a. Specification for low-carbon nickel-molydbdenum-chromium, low-carbon

nickel-chromium-molybdenum, low-carbon nickel-chromium-molybdenum-copper, low-
carbon nickel-chromium-molybdenumtantalum, low-carbon nickel-chromium-
molybdenum-tungsten alloy plate, sheet and strip.
 B619-00. Standard specification for welded nickel and nickel-cobalt alloy pipe.
 B620-03. Standard specification for nickel-iron-chromium-molybdenum alloy (UNS
N08320) plate, sheet, and strip.
 B621-02. Standard specification for nickel-iron-chromium-molybdenum alloy (UNS
N08320) rod.
 B622-00. Standard specification for seamless nickel and nickel-cobalt alloy pipe and tube.
 B625-99. Standard specification for UNS N08904, UNS N08925, UNS N08031, UNS
N08932, UNS N08926, and UNS R20033 plate, sheet, and strip.
 B658/B658M-02. Standard specification for seamless and welded zirconium and
zirconium-alloy pipe.
 B675-02. Standard specification for UNS N08367 welded pipe.
 B688-96. Standard specification for chromium-nickel-molybdenum-iron (UNS N08366
and UNS N08367) plate, sheet, and strip.
 B690-02. Standard specification for iron-nickel-chromium-molybdenum alloys (UNS
N08366 and UNS N08367) seamless pipe and tube.
 B705-00. Standard specification for nickel-alloy (UNS N06625, UNS N06219 and UNS
N08825) welded pipe.
 B725-93. Standard specification for welded nickel (UNS N02200/UNS N02201) and
nickel-copper alloy (UNS N04400) pipe.
 B729-00. Standard specification for seamless UNS N08020, UNS N08026, and UNS
N08024 nickel-alloy pipe and tube.
IV. Piping Materials
Marcel Dekker compared making piping product like baking a good pastry. To the base element
(iron in one case; flour in the other), we add key ingredients (alloys in one case; eggs, sugar, salt,
water, etc. in the other). Each alloying element, like each baking ingredient, brings a unique and
valuable characteristic to the mix. In the process of combining the key ingredients, we take care
to avoid the introduction of impurities (sulfur in one case, a hair in the other). The ingredients are
mixed and poured (casting or forging in one case; pouring in pots and pans in the other).
The mixture is then placed in the oven (heat treatment in one case; baking in the other). The
difference between annealing, stress relieving, tempering, etc. can be seen as the difference
between broiling, baking, grilling, etc. each with its heating rate, holding time and temperature,
and cooling rate. The item has now reached its desired texture (mechanical and physical
properties in one case; texture and moisture in the other). Moisture desirable for a cake can be
seen as ductility desirable for a pipe. Crisp desirable in a crust can be seen as hardness
desirable in a bearing surface.
The item is then given its final shape (machining in one case; carving in the other), its finish
(lining, coating, painting, pickling, cleaning in one case; icing and trimming in the other), and
finally its marking (specification required markings in one case; a "Happy Birthday" message in
the other). Care must be exercised in both cases not to cause damage during transportation and
storage.
In the final count, what will matter is the performance of the product: its compatibility with the fluid,
the environment and the service in one case; its compatibility with the host's palate and digestive
system in the other.
118
Piping
Materials
Metals Non-Metals
Non-Ferrous Ferrous Non-Plastic

(Concrete,
Glass, etc)
Nickel Alloys
Copper Alloys Iron Steel Plastics
Aluminum Alloys
etc.
Thermoplastic
Wrought Iron High Alloy Thermosetting
(Stainless, etc) Fiber Reinforce
Cast Iron Medium Alloy

(Cr-Mo, etc)
Gray Ductile Carbon

White Ductile
High Carbon Medium Carbon Low Carbon

Fig. 2 – Pipe and Fitting Materials
(Mild)
119
As illustrated in Figure 2, materials used in piping systems can be classified in two large
categories: metallic and non-metallic. Metallic pipe and fitting materials can in turn be classified
as ferrous (iron based) or non-ferrous (such as copper, nickel or aluminum based). Finally, within
the category of ferrous materials, we can differentiate between two large groupings: irons
(wrought or cast) and steels.
Cast/Wrought Iron
The term iron describes a series of iron and carbon alloys with a carbon in excess of 1.7%
(percents refer to weight).
Steel Pipe and Fitting:
Steel pipe and fittings are alloys of iron (Fe) and carbon, containing less than 1.7% carbon.
They can be classified in three groups: carbon steels, low alloy steels and high alloy steels.
Carbon steels consist of iron, less than 1.7% carbon, less than 1.65% manganese, incidental
amounts of silicon (Si), aluminum (Al), and limits on impurities such as sulfur (Su), oxygen (O),
nitrogen (N), and no specified minimum for elements such as Al, Cr, Co, Ni, Mo, Ni [ASM, ASTM
A 941].
Carbon steel is the most common pipe material in the power, chemical, process, hydrocarbon
and pipeline industries. Carbon steel pipe specifications commonly used include ASTM A106,
ASTM A36 and ASTM A53. A common steel for pipelines is API 5L. Carbon steels can in turn be
classified as "mild", "medium" and "high" carbon. Mild steel is a carbon steel with less than 0.30%
carbon. Medium carbon steel has 0.30% to 0.60% carbon. High carbon steel has over 0.6%
carbon.
Alloy steels are steels containing deliberate amounts of alloying elements, such as 0.3%
chromium (Cr), 0.3% nickel (Ni), 0.08% molybdenum (Mo), etc [ASTM A 941]. Low alloy steels
are alloy steels that contain less than the minimum percentages of alloys that define an "alloy
steel". In other definitions, low alloy steels are steels with less than 5% total alloys [ASM].
Alloy steels are common in high temperature service, such as high-pressure steam lines in power
plants, heat exchanger and furnace tubes, and chemical reactor vessels. Examples of low alloy
steels include 0.5Cr-0.5Mo (ASTM A 335 P2), lCr-0.5Mo (ASTM A 335 P12), 1.5Cr-0.5Mo (ASTM
A 335 Pll), 2Cr-lMo (ASTM A 335 P3b), 2.25Cr-lMo (ASTM A 335 P22), 3Cr-lMo (ASTM A 335
P21). Intermediate alloy steels contain between 3% and 10% Cr, such as 4 to 9Cr - 0.5 to IMo
(ASTM A 335 P5 to P9).
High alloy steels contain over 10 % Cr. A common high alloy steel is stainless steel, with a Cr
content in the order of 18% [ASTM A 941]. Stainless steels are fabricated either as martensitic
steels (for example ASTM A 217 castings), ferritic steels (for example ASTM A 268 Tubing Types
405, 430), or austenitic stainless steels (for example ASTM A 312 or A 376 piping). Type 304
stainless steel (C max 0.08%) is commonly used because it has good corrosion and oxidation
resistance, excellent strength and ductility, is easily welded, formed, even cold, and machined.
Type 316 is similar to 304 but with more molybdenum, which makes it generally more resistant to
sea water, chlorides, and sulfurs; and it exhibits better high temperature properties. The low
carbon types (304L and 316L) have a maximum carbon of 0.03%, which is useful in decreasing
the precipitation of intergranular carbides and the risk of intergranular corrosion (Chapter 20).
Types 321 and 347 are comparable to 304, and generally more resistant to intergranular
corrosion.
Non-Ferrous Materials:
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Non-ferrous pipe and fitting materials are metallic materials with a non-iron matrix; for example,
aluminum and its alloys, nickel and its alloys, and copper and its alloys.
Aluminum Alloys
Aluminum is obtained by mining and processing aluminum ore (bauxite), which contains
aluminum oxide, iron, silicon and impurities. Aluminum is about one third the density of steel; it is
easily machined or formed and readily welded. It is reactive with oxygen and forms a tough
protective oxide layer. However, useful mechanical properties are typically limited to no more
than 300°F. Wrought aluminum and alloys are identified by a four-digit number. The 1000 series
corresponds to pure aluminum, 2000 series corresponds to Al-Cu alloys, 3000 series
corresponds to Al-Mn alloys, 4000 series corresponds to Al-Si alloys, 5000 series corresponds to
Al-Mg alloys, 6000 series corresponds to Al-C Mg-Si alloys (with 6061 being a common aluminum
pipe material), and 7000 series corresponds to Al-Zn alloys. The four-digit number of Aluminum
alloys is usually followed by a letter that identifies the type of heat treatment applied to the
material. For example F is as-fabricated, H is strain hardened, W is solution heat-treated, T
corresponds to other heat treatment.
Nickel Alloys
Nickel is a ductile metal, with high strength, and good corrosion resistance, it is helpful in
stabilizing the austenitic structure of stainless steel, which is why close to half the production of
nickel is used as stainless steel alloy. Nickel based alloys are valuable in corrosive or high
temperature applications, they include Hastelloy R (40% to 60% Ni and 15% to 25% Cr) ASTM B
282, ASTM C 276 (Ni-Mo-Cr); MonelR (66%Ni and 32%Cu) ASTM B 165 (seamless pipe), ASTM
B 164 (flange), and ASTM B 366 (fittings); InconelR (50% to 75% Ni and 10% to 25% Cr) ASTM
B 167 (seamless Pipe), ASTM B166 (flange), and ASTM B 366 (fittings).
Copper Alloys
Copper (and alloys containing over 90% Cu), bronze (Sn and Cu alloys) and brass (Cu with 20%
to 40% Zn) have been used to make pipes as early as 3000 BC because they are soft, easy to
form, and corrosion resistant in water service. A common copper tube material is ASTM B 88,
available in three tubing sizes: K, L and M
V. Documentation
Coming out of the pipe or fitting mill, the finished product is typically traceable to a heat number
(steel mill identification) and lot number (pipe mill identification). A heat typically identifies material
produced in the steel mill from a single melt. Chemical analysis is usually reported on a heat
basis. Parts of a same heat have the same chemistry. A lot generally, but not always, refers to
parts subjected to the same fabrication process and finishing treatment (such as same machining,
welding, heat treatment). Parts of the same lot therefore have similar metallurgy, chemistry and
mechanical properties. The heat number is assigned in the steel mill, while the lot number is
assigned in the pipe mill. A lot can be made from one or several heats of material.
A material test report (MTR) documents the chemistry and mechanical properties of the pipe or
fitting. It is common practice for the owner to obtain a copy of the MTR for alloy pipe (such as
stainless steel or nickel alloys) and carbon steel line pipe (API 5L) and for all materials in critical
service. A certificate of conformance (C-of-C) is a statement by the pipe or fitting manufacturer
that the product conforms to a certain specification, it does not record the actual chemistry or
mechanical properties measured during fabrication. A C-of-C may be sufficient for carbon steel
pipe in non-critical applications
A positive material identification (PMI) is a check of alloy composition of a metal, possibly using a
hand-held alloy analyzer
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VI. Mechanical Properties of Piping Components
Mechanical properties of pipe and pipe component materials consist of strength, hardness,
toughness and fatigue strength
1. Strength
Yield stress, ultimate strength and elongation at rupture are fundamental mechanical properties of
pipe and fitting materials. They reflect the ability of the material to be fabricated and to resist
applied loads in service. All three properties are essential for piping systems.
Minimum strength properties are typically required in standard material specifications. For ASTM
pipe, a standard size tensile test specimen of pipe material is cut out from the pipe wall or, for
small pipe and tubing, made out of a section of pipe or tube [ASTM A 370]. The specimen is
placed in a tensile test machine and a steadily increasing tensile force is applied to the specimen,
at a rate between 10,000 psi/min and 100,000 psi/min. Passed yield, the maximum strain rate is
0.5/min [ASTM E 8].
2. Hardness
Hardness is the resistance of a material to indentation by a hard object of standard shape pushed
with a predefined force against the surface. Hardness is an interesting property because it is,
indirectly, a reflection of tensile strength and ductility. Hardness is also a good measure of the
efficiency of a weld heat treatment process. In certain cases, welding can cause local hard spots
(martensitic regions in the case of steel) that are more prone to post-weld or environmental
cracking. These hard spots can be eliminated by post-weld heat treatment followed by
confirmatory hardness testing. With several alloys, the ASME B31.3 code requires heat treatment
of weldments to be followed by hardness check to verify that the heat treatment has achieved the
objective of softening the weld and heat affected zone, eliminating hard spots. As such, hardness
is an indication of the resistance of a weldment to post-weld or environmental cracking.
3. Toughness
Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb impact energy prior to rupture. It is also defined as
the material's ability to absorb plastic energy, dynamic or static. It is a function of the material, its
temperature and its thickness.
Popular toughness tests include Charpy V-Notch Toughness, Drop Weight Test and Fracture
Toughness
4. Fatigue Strength
Fatigue strength is the ability of a material to sustain cyclic stresses without developing a
propagating crack
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Buyer Guide – Section 7 - Introduction to Process Piping (Pipe)
I. Definition
II. Manufacturing Methods
III. Sizing of Pipe
IV. Method of Joining Pipes
V. Piping Codes, Standards and Specifications
VI. Commercial Issues
123
I. Definition
Applied in a general sense, pipe is a term used to designate a hollow, tubular body used to
transport any commodity possessing flow characteristics such as those found in liquids, gases,
vapors, liquefied solids, and fine powders. This definition differs piping pipe from structural pipe
which is mainly used as force-bearing component for platform structure.
1. Steel pipe can be manufactured using several different techniques, each of which
produces a pipe with certain characteristics. These characteristics include strength, wall
thickness, and corrosion resistance, and temperature and pressure limitations. For
example, pipes having the same wall thickness but manufactured by different methods
may vary in strength and pressure limits.
2. The manufacturing methods we will mention include seamless, butt-welded (Rolled),

and spiral-welded pipe
Fig. 1 – Seamless, Rolled and Spiral Welded Pipes
Fig. 2 – Pipes and Tubes
+ Seamless pipe is formed by piercing a solid, near-molten, steel rod, called a billet, with a
mandrel to produce a pipe that has no seams or joints. Figure 3-4 depicts the manufacturing
process of seamless pipe.
Note 1: Fig. 3 – Seamless Pipes Production Process

ANSI: The American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
ASME: American Society of Mechanical Engineers
124
Fig. 4 – Detailed Seamless Pipes Production Process
125
Fig. 4 – Seamless Pipes Production Process (Cont)
+ Butt-welded pipe is formed by feeding hot steel plate through shapers that will roll it into a
hollow circular shape. Forcibly squeezing the two ends of the plate together will produce a fused
joint or seam. Figure 5 shows the steel plate as it begins the process of forming butt-welded pipe
Fig. 5 – Butt-welded Pipes
126
Least common of the three methods is spiral-welded pipe. Spiral-welded pipe is formed by
twisting strips of metal into a spiral shape, similar to a barber's pole, then welding where the
edges join one another to form a seam.
This type of pipe is restricted to piping systems using low pressures due to its thin walls. Figure 6
shows spiral welded pipe as it appears before welding.
Fig. 6 – Spiral-welded Pipes
Fig. 7 – Summary of Pipe Manufacturing Method
Each of the three methods for producing pipe has its advantages and disadvantages. Butt-welded
pipe, for example, is formed from rolled plate that has a more uniform wall thickness and can be
inspected for defects prior to forming and welding. This manufacturing method is particularly
useful when thin walls and long lengths are needed. Because of the welded seam, however,
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there is always the possibility of defects that escape the numerous quality control checks
performed during the manufacturing process.
Code B31.1.0 assigns a strength factor of 85% for rolled pipe, 60% for spiral-welded and 100%
efficiency for seamless pipe.
Generally, wider wall thicknesses are produced by the seamless method. However, for the many
low-pressure uses of pipe, the continuous welded method is the most economical. Seamless pipe
is produced in single and double random lengths. Single random lengths vary from 16'-0" to 20'-
0" long. Pipe 2" and below is found in double random lengths measuring 35'-0" to 40'-0" long.
III. Sizing of Pipe
Just as manufacturing methods differ, there are also different ways to categorize the size of a
pipe. Pipe is identified by three different size categories: nominal pipe size, outside diameter,
and inside diameter (see Figure 8)
Fig. 8 – Pipe Diameters
Nominal pipe size (NFS) is used to describe a pipe by name only. In process piping, the term
nominal refers to the name of the pipe, much like the name 2 x 4 given to a piece of lumber. The
lumber does not actually measure 2" x 4", nor does a 6" pipe actually measure 6" in diameter. It's
just an easy way to identify lumber and pipe.
Outside diameter (OD) and inside diameter (ID), as their names imply, refer to pipe by their
actual outside and inside measurements.
Pipe 1/8" to 12" has an outside diameter greater than its nominal pipe size, while pipe 14" and
above has an outside diameter equal to its nominal pipe size
In process piping, the method of sizing pipe maintains a uniform outside diameter while varying
the inside diameter. This method achieves the desired strength necessary for pipe to perform its
intended function while operating under various temperatures and pressures
Wall thickness:
Wall thickness is a term used to describe the thickness of the metal used to make a pipe. Wall
thickness is also commonly referred to as a pipe's weight. Originally manufactured in weights
known as standard, extra strong, and double extra strong, pipe has since increased in complexity
with the development of new chemical processes. The ever-changing corrosive properties, high
temperatures, and extreme pressures have necessitated the development of numerous additional
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selections of wall thicknesses for pipe. Now called schedules, these additional wall thicknesses
allow a pipe to be selected to meet the exact requirements needed for safe operation. A term
“weight” seems not proper, however its original wording as “standard”, “extra strong (XS)” and
“double extra strong (XXS)” are still maintained until today.
An example of this variance in wall thickness is shown in Figure 9.
Fig. 9 – Pipe Wall Thickness
The following formula can be used to calculate a pipe's inside diameter (ID): ID = OD minus (2 x
WALL THICKNESS)
General speaking, there is a correlation between STD/Sch40, XS/Sch80, and XXS/Sch 160.
Wall thickness normally is quoted by one of the following ways:
1. Standard weight (STD), extra strong (XS), double extra schedule (XXS).
2. Carbon steel pipe in schedules: Sch 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 120, 160.
3. Stainless steel pipe in schedules: Sch 5S, 10S, 40S, 80S, 160s.
4. Calculated wall thickness in U.S. customary units (inches) or metric units (mm)
Pipe End:
Pipe end normally is prepared in following type:

 BE (bevel end)
 PE (plain end)
 T&C (threaded, treaded and coupled, rating of coupling shall be specified)
IV. Method of Joining Pipes
There are several methods for joining pipe together. The three methods we will focus on are
those most widely used in piping systems, as shown in Figure 10. They are butt-welded (BW),
screwed (Scrd), and socket-weld (SW).
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Fig. 10 – Pipe Joints
1. Butt-weld joint is made by welding the beveled ends of pipe together. Bevelled ends
(BE) indicate that the ends of the pipe are not cut square, but rather are cut or ground to
have a tapered edge. In preparation for the welding process, a welder will separate two
pieces of pipe by a 1/16" space, known as a root gap. During the welding process, the
two ends are drawn together and the 1/16” gap disappears. If two pieces of pipe 3'-0"
long were welded together in this manner, the result would be a total length of 6'-0".
Fig. 11 – Butt-welded joint
2. Screwed or Threaded Connections
Another common means of joining pipe is the threaded end (TE) connection. Typically
used on pipe 3" and smaller, threaded connections are generally referred to as screwed
pipe. With tapered grooves cut into the ends of a run of pipe, screwed pipe and screwed
fittings can easily be assembled without welding or other permanent means of
attachment. Screwed pipe and its mating fittings will have threads that are either male or
female. Male threads are cut into the outside of a pipe or fitting, while female threads are
cut into the inside of the fitting (see fig. 12)
Fig. 12 – male threaded pipes
The English mechanical engineer and inventor, Sir Joseph Whitworth devised a uniform
threading system in 1841 to address the incompatibility problem. The Whitworth thread
form is based on a 55 degree thread angle with rounded roots and crests. This became
known as the British Standard Pipe thread (BSP Taper or BSP Parallel thread). The
Whitworth thread is now used internationally as a standard thread for jointing low carbon
steel pipes.
130
In America, William Sellers set the standard for threaded pipes which became the
National Pipe Tapered Thread (NPT) in 1864. His 60 degree thread angle, in common
use by early American clockmakers, enabled the American Industrial Revolution. This is
the best known and most widely used connection where the pipe thread provides both
the mechanical joint and the hydraulic seal. NPT has a tapered male and female thread
which seals with Teflon tape or jointing compound.
3. Socket-Weld Connections
The third method of joining carbon steel pipe is socket welding. When assembling pipe
with socket-weld fittings, the pipe is inserted into the fitting before welding, unlike a butt-
weld connection that has the pipe and fitting placed end-to-end. Inside the socket-weld
fitting is a collar that prevents the pipe from being inserted too deeply into the fitting.
Pipe used for socket-weld connections will be prepared with a plain end. Plain end (PE)
means the pipe is cut square, or perpendicular to, the long axis, unlike butt-weld fittings
that have bevelled ends (fig.13)
Fig. 13 – socket weld joint
V. PIPING CODE, STANDARD AND SPECIFICATION
As mentioned in Section 1 of this Part II, B31.3 is the most popular pressure piping code in
offshore oil and gas.
Under B31.3, there are various pipe standards (covered under separate sections of B31.3
code) as below:
 Standard B36.10M, Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe, covers the
standardization of dimensions of welded and seamless wrought steel pipe for high or
low temperatures and pressures
 Standard B36.19M, Stainless Steel Pipe, covers the standardization of dimensions of

welded and seamless wrought stainless steel pipe
131
In addition, American Petroleum Institute also published standard for line-pipe called API 5L
Table 1 and 2 below provide pipe popular dimension and dimension conversion (between
metric and inch systems) under B31 Code
Table 1:
132
133
Table 2:
134
135
VI. COMMERCIAL ISSUES
Supply Length:
Pipe is normally supplied in:

 Random length (17 to 25 ft)
 Double random length (38 to 48 ft)
Ordering Information
Pipe type (seamless) Pipe end (bevel) Pipe size and wall thickness
Materials origin Unit Price
Vendor List:
There are large numbers of pipe suppliers in the region, but pipes and fittings industry is
plagued with “fake”, low-quality and lousy small manufacturers. One therefore must exercise
caution and due diligence in vendor list selection since piping is one of the most critical
components in offshore platforms.
1. Van Leeuwen Pipe and Tube (Singapore) Pte Ltd (stockist)

2. Steel trade S.r.l.
3. PFP Singapore Pte Ltd
4. Sin Soon Huat International Trading Pte Ltd
5. Kim Seng Huat.
6. Allied International Fittings Pte Ltd.
Pricing:
Pricing of pipes depend heavily on the size, wall-thickness, materials of construction. These
factors are listed down as below:
1. Exotic material, super duplex, duplex, SS 316/304/ 409 and Carbon steel/ Graphite.
2. Seamless, Welded/Threaded.
3. Ring type joint (RTJ), Threaded/Welded type.
4. Non Standard, Standard.
5. Wall thickness
6. Rating and sizing.
As rule of thumb, seamless pipe is more expensive than welded pipe (at same size/WT and
materials). Non-standard (example 20mm WT) is more expensive than standard pipes
(example 1 inch). Exotic materials (SS, Duplex, Inconel…etc) is more expensive than normal
ones (CS, CS low tempt…etc)
136
Buyer Guide - Section 8 - Introduction to Process Piping (Fittings & Flanges)
I. Definition
III. Types of Fittings
IV. Flanges
V. Gasket
VI. Commercial Issues
137
I. Definition
Fittings are fabricated pieces of pipe or from forging, bars or plates that are used to make
changes of direction (elbow), branch from a main pipe (tee), or make a reduction in line size
(reducer) (see Figure 1).
PIPE
Fig. 1 – Piping Components
Because fittings are part of the piping system, they must match as closely as possible in
specification and rating to the pipe to which they are being attached. Fittings, like pipe, are
manufactured and classified according to their wall thickness. There are many more wall
thicknesses of pipe however than there are thicknesses of fittings. Fittings are commercially
manufactured in standard weight, extra strong, Schedule 160, and double extra strong.
Similar to those mentioned in Section 2 – Pipe, fittings can also be classified in according to
joining methods: butt-weld fittings, socket-weld fittings or screwed fittings. Generally 3” and larger
fittings will be fabricated with butt-welded connections. However, this is not a strict rule. There
may be cases where small bore pipe is butt-welded, while larger sizes may be screwed or socket-
welded.
1. Forging:
Many pipe fittings and almost all flanges are made by forging. The forging process starts with the
fitting fabricator buying bar stock or billets from a steel mill or from a supplier's warehouse. The
chemistry of the initial bars or billets is important since it will not be altered during the fabrication
process. The chemistry of the base metal, its alloys and carbon content, is verified by the fitting
manufacturer, and sometimes the metallurgy will also be checked. When specified in the order,
special chemistry, such as equivalent carbon content, is also verified. If specified by the buyer,
corrosion testing in acids or other environment, such as testing of stainless steel for susceptibility
to intergranular corrosion [ASTM A 262] usually takes place at the mill's laboratory.
138
Mechanical properties (such as yield stress, ultimate strength, elongation at rupture, fracture
toughness) will be affected by the forging process, and for that reason they are verified at the end
of the forming process. The mechanical properties of a forging can be verified on a section of the
actual component, or on a "test bar" that has undergone the same forging and heat treatment
process as the part. Soundness of the base metal, the lack of defects or inclusions, is important,
particularly at .the center of large billets where flaws will not be removed by machining of the
surface. In the fabrication sequence, the bar or billet is first cut into disks or smaller bars, as
determined by the forging designer, and illustrated in Fig. 2(a)
Fig. 2 – Simplified Diagram of the Forging Process
The cut material is then placed in a furnace, Figure 2(b), and heated to white metal, then placed
either in an open die or a closed die. In open die forging, the piece is pressed while manually
rotated and shaped into a round bar or other simple solid shape, or pressed against a die to give
it shape. In closed die forging, the piece of hot metal is hammered into shape between a top and
bottom contoured die, Figure 2(c), then trimmed. The forged shapes are heat treated in a furnace,
Figure 2(d), and then cooled either rapidly by water quenching, or more slowly in air, or even
slower if left to cool in the furnace. Mechanical properties are measured by destructive testing of
a sample that has undergone the full fabrication process, including heat treatment, Figure 2(e).
The parts are then machined in mills or lays to the required dimensions and surface finish, Figure
139
2(f). They are cleaned, stamped with standard markings and heat number, coupled to their
material test report and then readied for shipment.
2. Casting:
A casting is made by pouring a molten metal into a mold. The metal then solidifies into the
desired shape. The mechanical properties of castings are usually verified on a tension specimen
from each heat. They may be either cut from an appendage to the actual casting or fabricated as
a test specimen undergoing the same heat treatments as the casting.
3. Machining and Finishing:
After initial forming by forging or casting, pipe and fittings can be formed, machined or finished in
many ways: cutting by hand tools (for example cutting soft tubing, or preparing pipe bevels for
welding), drilling using a rotating drill bit (such as drilling of bolt holes in a flange forging), bending
(cold bending of tubing or small diameter pipe or hot induction bending of large diameter line
pipe). Pipe bending may be accomplished with a mandrel (a solid mandrel with articulated end
disks inserted inside the pipe and rotate as the pipe is bent) or with packed sand, or without
mandrel or packed sand. Finishing the pipe surface is achieved by grinding, sandblasting,
brushing or polishing. The surface finish is typically defined in average surface roughness
(arithmetic average of deviations of the actual surface from the mean line) or as the root mean
square "rms" (root mean square of deviations of the actual surface from the mean line) [ASME
B46.1]. The surface finish is typically expressed in microinches (ɱin). For example, the typical
average surface roughness of a flange face for a metal ring is very smooth at 60 ɱin or less,
while it is serrated at 500 ɱin for a soft sheet gasket.
4. Manufacturing Imperfections:
It is clear from the wide range of fabrication techniques that pipes, fittings (such as tees or
elbows) and components (such as valves or strainers) can contain imperfections introduced in the
foundry or during the fabrication process. If these imperfections are large they would constitute
flaws or defects and the pipe or component would be rejected or repaired if permitted in the
material specification.
Flaws, if they do exist, may consist of shrinkage porosities or cracks, inclusions, laminations, laps,
seams, holes, or hot tears.
While significant flaws (the kind of flaws that must be repaired or could cause failure in service)
area a rare occurrence in reputable pipe mills, shallow surface scratches and marring as a result
of machining, handling and transport are inevitable. These shallow surface marks are generally
acceptable, provided (a) they are not a source of corrosion (for example scratching a stainless
steel surface with a carbon steel tool or brush would leave a carbon steel residue on the surface
that would form rust), (b) the remaining wall is above the minimum required by specification, (c)
the pipe is not intended for high pressure service (hoop stress larger than 50% yield), and (d)
they do not affect the flow or process. A gouge (knife-like cut on the pipe surface) can cause
rupture in large hoop stress service and therefore deserves special attention.
III. Types of Fittings
1. Elbows
Of all the fittings, the 90° elbow is the one most often used. Simply put, the elbow, or ell, is used
when a pipe changes direction. Elbows can turn up, turn down, turn left, right, or any angle in
between.
Ninety degree ells can be classified as one of the following:
140
1. long-radius ell
2. short-radius ell
The long-radius elbow shown in Figure 3, is the one used

most often.
Fig. 3 – long radius elbow
Another elbow that may be used under certain circumstances and with permission from the
customer is the 90° short-radius elbow. The 90° short-radius ell makes a much sharper turn than
does the long-radius ell (see Figure 4). Conversely, the short-radius ell also creates a rather large
pressure drop inside the line and does not have the smooth flow characteristics the long radius ell
has. For these reasons the short-radius ell is seldom used
Fig. 4 – Long-radius and short radius elbows Fig. 5 – 45° Elbows
45° Elbows
Another important fitting is the 45° elbow. This elbow is also used to make changes in direction
within the piping system. The obvious difference between the 90° and 45° elbows is the angle
formed by the turn. Because the 45° elbow is one-half of a 90° elbow, as shown in Figure 5, it is
obviously shorter
2. Tees
The name of this fitting comes from its

resemblance to the letter T. It is a three-way fitting
used to make perpendicular connections to a pipe
(see Figure 6). The main run of pipe is often called
the header and lines that connect to the main run
of pipe are known as branches.
141
Fig. 6 – Weld Tee
Two types of tees (fig. 7) are used in the piping industry:
1. Straight—all three outlets are the same pipe size.

2. Reducing—branch outlet is a smaller pipe size (let say 12” x 8” red. tee).
Barred Tee
Figure 8 shows that bars have been fabricated inside the outlet of a tee. The bars limit the
direction a pipeline scraper (or "Pig"), can travel inside a pipeline
Fig. 7 – Header and Branch Connection
Fig. 8 – Barred Tee
3. Reducers:
When the piping designer wants to reduce the diameter of a straight run of pipe, a reducing fitting
must be used. Appropriately named, the reducer is available in two styles as shown in Figure 9.
1. Concentric—having a common centerline.

2. Eccentric—having offset centerlines.
The concentric reducer maintains the same centerline at both the large and small ends of the
fitting. The eccentric reducer has offset centerlines that will maintain a flat side on the top or the
bottom of the fitting, depending on how the fitting is rolled prior to welding.
Fig. 9 – Concentric and Eccentric Reducer
142
4. Closure:
Closure (in form of cap or flat) is fitting that used to seal an open end of pipe (fig.10).
Fig. 10 – Closure (cap or flat closure)
5. O-lets:
O-lets have one end shaped to the contour of the header and the other end manufactured to
accept the type of end connections being used on the branch. Weldolets are manufactured for
butt-weld fittings. Sockolets are made for socket-weld fittings. And threadolets are available for
screwed fittings. Figure 11 shows a typical threadolet.
Fig. 11 – Threadolet Fig. 12 – Stub-in connection
Stub-in:
Another method of making a branch connection is called a stub-in. The stub-in is most commonly
used as an alternative to the reducing tee. The stub-in is not an actual fitting but rather a
description of how the branch connection is created. A hole is bored into the header pipe, either
the size of the OD or ID of the branch, and the branch is then stubbed into it. The two pipes are
fitted together and then welded. Although the branch connection can be the same pipe size or
smaller as the header, it cannot be larger. Figure 12 depicts the attachment of a stub-in.
7. Screwed and Socket-weld fittings:
As mentioned in beginning of this section, screwed and socket-weld fittings perform the same
basic functions as butt-weld fittings. However, screwed and socket-weld fittings are normally
reserved for installations using fittings 3 and smaller.
143
Lines containing high pressure and temperature commodities, which are subject to movement
and vibration, require fittings made of forged steel. Forged steel screwed and socket-weld fittings
are manufactured in two pressure classes—3000# and 6000#.
Most screwed fittings are manufactured with internal, female threads per American Standard and
API thread guidelines. Some fittings, such as plugs and swages, however, are manufactured with
external threads (male).
Screwed and socket-weld fittings differ in size and shape, but they achieve the same purpose as
the butt-weld fittings. Figure 13 provides examples of some screwed and socket-weld fittings.
Fig. 13 – Screwed and Socket-weld Fittings
7.1 Union
The union, shown in Figure 14, is a fitting placed within a piping configuration that will allow the
assembly to be disassembled for inspection, repair, or replacement.
Fig. 14 – Union
7.2 Plug
The plug, like a cap, is designed to close off the end of a run of pipe. Plugs are manufactured for
screwed fittings with male threads and are screwed into the end of a pipe to create a seal.
7.3 Pipe and Swage Nipples
By design, screwed and socket-weld fittings cannot be assembled by placing one fitting directly in
contact with another fitting. Screwed fittings are manufactured with threads on the inside of the
144
fitting, and socket-weld fittings have an internal socket that prevents fitting makeup assembly. To
facilitate the assembly of screwed and socket-weld fittings, small lengths of pipe called pipe
nipples are used between fittings. Pipe nipples can vary in length depending upon the distance
required to fabricate the pipe configuration. A close nipple is one that provides the minimum
length of pipe (3”) between fittings.
Ni
Fig. 15 – Pipe and Swage Nipples Fig. 16 – Concentric Swage
One exception to the standard 3 minimum rule is the swage nipple. Swages are functionally
similar to reducers, but are specifically designed for screwed and socket-weld pipe. Screwed
swages have male (external) threads and can be connected to other screwed fittings without the
use of a pipe nipple. They are used to make reductions in the line size on a straight run of pipe.
Swages, like reducers, are available in either a concentric or eccentric shape. Figure 15-16
shows varying lengths and sizes of screwed pipe and swage nipples.
IV. Flanges
The flange is a ring-shaped device designed to be used as an alternative to welding or threading

various piping system components used throughout the piping system. Flanged connections are
used as an alternative to welding because they can be easily disassembled for shipping, routine
inspection, maintenance, or replacement. Flanged connections are preferred over threaded
connections because threading large bore pipe is not an economical or reliable operation. The
flange is an important component of any piping system.
Flanges are primarily used where a connecting or dismantling joint is needed. These joints may
include joining pipe to fittings, valves, equipment, or any other integral component within the
piping system.
Fig. 17 – Nozzle and Flange
145
To erect the piping system, every piece of mechanical equipment is manufactured with at least
one outlet called a nozzle. The nozzle is the point where, via the flange, the piping system is
connected to the equipment. From this flange, the piping system is begun. Figure 17 shows how
a nozzle and flange are used to connect the piping system to a piece of equipment.
1. Flange Rating
Rating, as applied to flanges, may best be defined as the maximum pressure allowed by the
pressure piping code for the specific temperature at which the flange will be operating. Flanges
and nozzles are sized according to pressure ratings established by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI). These pressure ratings sometimes called pound ratings, are divided
into seven categories for forged steel flanges. They are 150#, 300#, 400#, 600#, 900#, 1500#,
and 2500#.
2. Flange Facings:
The mating surface of a flange, nozzle, or valve is called the face. The face is usually machined
to create a smooth surface. This smooth surface will help assure a leak-proof seal when two
flanges are bolted together with a gasket sandwiched between. Although numerous types of
flange faces are produced, below three types are most popular:
 flat face
 raised face
 ring-type joint
Flat Face:
As the name implies, flanges with flat faces are

those that have a flat, level connecting surface
(see Figure 18). Forged steel flanges with a flat
face flange are commonly found in 150# and
300# ratings
Fig. 18 – flat face
Raised Face:
The most common face type in use, the raised

face is available in all seven of the
aforementioned pound ratings. Appropriately
named, this flange face has a prominent raised
surface. With shallow grooves etched into the
raised surface, this flange face assures a positive
grip with the gasket. Flanges rated 150# and
300# have a raised face, while flanges 400# and
above have a ¼ raised face (see Figure 19).
Fig. 19 – Raised Face
146
Ring-type joint:
Also known simply as ring joint, the ring-type joint

does not use a gasket to form a seal between
connecting flanges. Instead a round metallic ring
is used that rests in a deep groove cut into the
flange face (see Figure 20). The donut-shaped
ring can be oval or octagonal in design. As the
bolts are tightened, the metal ring is compressed,
creating a tight seal.
Although it is the most expensive, the ring-type

joint is considered to be the most efficient flange
used in process piping systems. The ring and
groove design actually uses internal pressures to
enhance the sealing capacity of the connecting
flanges. The superiority of this seal can have its
disadvantages, however. When dismantling ring
joint connections, the flanges must be forcibly
separated to release the ring from the groove. In
crowded installations, this could cause major Fig. 20 – Ring-type joint
problems.
3. Flange Types:
Flanges have been designed and developed to be used in a myriad of applications. Each one has
its own special characteristics, and serves specific function requirements. The following flanges
will be illustrated:
1. weld neck
2. Threaded
3. socket weld
4. slip-on
5. lap-joint
6. Reducing
7. Blind
8. Swivel
Weld Neck Flange:
The weld neck flange shown in Figure 21 is

occasionally referred to as the “high-hub” flange.
It is designed to reduce high-stress
concentrations at the base of the flange by Fig. 21 – Weld neck flange
transferring stress to the adjoining pipe. Although
expensive, the weld neck flange is the best-
designed butt weld flange available because of
its inherent structural value and ease of
assembly
This Flange is circumferentially welded into the

system at its neck, which means that the integrity
of the buttwelded area can be easily examined
by radiography. The bores of both pipe and
flange match, which reduces turbulence and
erosion inside the pipeline. The weld neck is
therefore favoured in critical application 147 Fig. 21a – Weld neck flange assembly
Slip-on Flange
The slip-on flange shown in Figure 22 has a low

hub that allows the pipe to be inserted into the
flange prior to welding. Shorter in length than a
weld neck flange, the slip-on flange is used in
areas where short tie-ins are necessary or space
limitations necessitate its use.
Fig. 22 – Slip-on flange
Slip-on flange is bored so that it does indeed slip onto the pipe so that the end of the pipe is just
inside the flange a fraction of an inch from the flange face. The pipe end has been cut square.
The flange bolt holes are aligned and the flange face squared to the pipe. Then a fillet weld is run
around that end of the pipe to fuse it to the inside of the bore of the flange. Another fillet weld is
run around the back end of the flange hub fusing it to the outside of the pipe. This is the most
common welding flange. Before the final full fillet welds are made, temporary tack welds are
made until alignment is assured. These tacks are easy to cut out so a correction can be made.
Slip-on flanges are easy to use in fabricated applications.
There are socket-type slip-on flanges where only the outside weld is made. The squared pipe end
butts against a lip inside the flange bore.
Fig. 22a – slip-on assembly
Lap-joint Flange
The slip-on flange shown in Figure 23 has a low

hub that allows the pipe to be inserted into the
flange prior to welding. Shorter in length than a
weld neck flange, the slip-on flange is used in
areas where short tie-ins are necessary or space
limitations necessitate its use.
Fig. 23 – Lap-joint flange
148
Threaded Flange
The threaded flange depicted in Figure 24 similar

to the slip-on flange, but the bore is threaded. Its
principal value is that it can be assembled
without welding. This feature makes the threaded
flange well-suited to extreme pressure services
that operate at normal atmospheric temperatures
and in highly explosive areas where welding may
create a hazard.
Fig. 24 – Threaded Flange
Socket Weld Flange
The socket weld flange shown in Figure 25 is

also similar to the slip-on flange. It was originally
developed for use on small diameter (½ through
4) high-pressure piping systems. Like socket
weld fittings, pipe is inserted into the socket then
welded. An internal weld is often employed for
added strength. By grinding the internal weld
smooth, turbulence and flow restriction are kept
to a minimum.
Fig. 25 – Socket Weld Flange
Reducing Flange
Like the reducer fitting, the reducing flange in

Figure 26 is used to make a reduction in the
diameter of the pipe. A reducing flange is most
frequently used in installations with limited space.
Crowded situations may necessitate the use of
the reducing flange because it has a shorter
overall length when compared to a weld neck
flange and reducer-fitting configuration
Fig. 26 – Reducing Flange
Blind Flange (mặt bích mù)
The blind flange depicted in Figure 27 serves a

function similar to that of a plug or cap. It is used
to terminate the end of a piping system. The
blind
Blind flange
Flangeis basically a flange that does not
have a hub or a bored center. Blind flanges can
also be used
The blind flangeto depicted
seal a nozzle
in Figure opening on a
27 serves a
pressure vessel. Because it is bolted, the blind
function similar to that of a plug or cap. It is used
flange provides
to terminate theeasy
end access to thesystem.
of a piping interior of
Thea
vessel or pipe, unlike a cap that is welded.
blind flange is basically a flange that does not
have a hub or a bored center. Blind flanges can
also be used to seal a nozzle opening on a
pressure vessel. Because it is bolted, the blind
Fig. 27 – Blind Flange
flange provides easy access to the interior of a
149
vessel or pipe, unlike a cap that is welded.
Fig. 27a – blind flange assembly
Swivel Flange
The Swivel-Ring Flange permits 360° rotation of an outer ring around a hub, to allow easy
alignment of bolt holes when attaching to a mating standard flange.
150
Flanges are normally identified by size, rating, face type and materials as fig. 28 below
Fig. 28 – Typical Flange Identification
V. Gasket
The primary purpose of any flanged assembly is to connect piping systems in such a manner as
to produce a leak-free environment. Hazardous and combustible materials and extreme
pressures and temperatures require the utmost in safety precaution. Creating a leak-proof seal
between two connecting metal surfaces in an industrial setting is almost impossible. Therefore,
gaskets perform a vital function in plant safety.
Using a gasket material softer than two adjoining flanges

is an excellent way to eliminate the possibility of a fluid
escape. Gaskets can be made of materials such as
asbestos, rubber, neoprene, Teflon, lead, or copper.
When bolts are tightened and flange faces are drawn
together, the gasket material will conform to any
imperfections in the flange faces to create a uniform seal.
There are three popular types of gaskets that can be
Fig. 29 – Gasket
found in piping systems. They are full face, flat ring, and
metal ring. Flat ring gaskets (Figure 30) are used on
raised face flanges. Metal rings (Figure 31) are used on
ring-type joint flanges. Full face gaskets (Figure 32) are
used on flat face flanges.
151
Fig. 30 – Flat Ring Gasket and Flange
Fig. 31 – Metal Rings for ring-type joint flanges
Fig. 32 – Full Face Gasket
152
VI. COMMERCIAL ISSUES
Ordering Information
Flange size (4” OD, Flange Type (weld neck, Ring

7.9mm wall-
type joint)
thickness)
Pressure Rating
(1500#)
Materials Origin Unit Price
Vendor List:
There are large numbers of pipe fittings suppliers in the region, but pipes and fittings industry
is plagued with “fake”, low-quality and lousy small manufacturers. One therefore must
exercise caution and due diligence in vendor list selection since piping is one of the most
critical components in offshore platforms.
1. Van Leeuwen Pipe and Tube (Singapore) Pte Ltd (stockist)

2. Steel trade S.r.l.
3. PFP Singapore Pte Ltd
4. Kim Seng Huat.
5. Allied International Fittings Pte Ltd.
Pricing:
Pricing of pipe fittings depend heavily on the size, wall-thickness, materials of construction,
manufacturing methods. These factors are listed down as below:
1. Exotic material, super duplex, duplex, SS 316/304/ 409 and Carbon steel/ Graphite.
2. Forge or cast.
3. Ring type joint (RTJ), Threaded/Welded type.
4. Non Standard, Standard.
5. Wall thickness
6. Rating and sizing.
As rule of thumb, forged fittings are more expensive than casted ones (at same size/WT and
materials). Non-standard (example 20mm WT) is more expensive than standard sizes
(example 1 inch). Exotic materials (SS, Duplex, Inconel…etc) is more expensive than normal
ones (CS, CS low tempt…etc)
153
Buyer Guide - Section 9 –Valves
Section 9 – Content in Brief
1. Definition
2. Parts of Valve
3. Valve Classification (Grouping)
4. Sealing Characteristic and Fluid Tightness of Valve
5. Valve End Connection
6. Pressure Classes
7. Materials
8. Manual Valve
9. Valve Actuator
10. Control Valve
11. Choke Valve
12. Pressure Relief Valve
13. Inspection and Testing of Valve
14. Valve Standards
15. How valve is made
16. Commercial Notes
154
Definition:
By definition, a valve is a device that controls the flow, rate, the volume, the
pressure, and the direction of a fluid, liquids, gases, vapors, slurries, or dry
materials. Valves can turn on or off, regulate, modulate, or isolate.
Valve Action Explanation
On/off stopping or starting flow
Regulating varying the rate of flow
Checking permitting flow in 1 direction only
Switching switching flow along different routes
Discharging discharging fluid from a system
155
Handwheel/Actuator.
Parts of Valve:
The basic parts that make up a valve:
1. A valve body is the housing for all the internal working components of a
valve and it contains the method of joining the valve to the piping system
2. The closure element, known as the disk or plug, is a valve component
that, when moved, opens or closes to allow the passage of fluid through
the valve. The mating surface of the disk bears against the seat Bonnet.
3. The actuator is a movable component that, when operated, causes the
closure element to open or close
4. The stem is a movable component that connects the actuator to the
closure element
5. The bonnet is a valve component that provides a leakproof closure for
the body through which the stem passes and is sealed
6. The seat is a component that provides a surface capable of sealing
against the flow of fluids in a valve when contacted by a mating surface
on the disk. The seat is attached to the valve body
7. The stuffing box is the interior area of the valve between the stem and
the bonnet that contains the packing
8. Packing is the material that seals the stem from leaking to the outside of
the valve. The packing is contained by the packing nut on the bonnet
9. The backseat is a seat in the bonnet used in the fully open position to
seal the valve stem against leakage into the packing. A bushing on the
stem provides the mating surface. Backseating is useful if the packing
Stem.
begins to leak and it provides a means to prevent the stem from being
ejected from the valve. Backseating is not provided on all valves
10. The stroke of a closure member is the distance the member must travel
from the fully opened to the fully closed position Body. Disk.
156
GROUPING OF VALVES BY METHOD OF FLOW
REGULATION
Manual valves may be grouped according to the way the

closure member moves onto the seat. Four groups of valves
are thereby distinguishable:
1. Closing-down valves. A stopper-like closure member is

moved to and from the seat in the direction of the seat
axis.
2. Slide valves. A gate-like closure member is moved across
the flow passage.
3. Rotary valves. A plug or disc-like closure member is
rotated within the flow passage, around an axis normal to
the flow stream.
4. Flex-body valves. The closure member flexes the valve
body
This grouping method is sometimes called linear-motion

valves (also commonly called linear valves) and rotary-motion
valves (also called rotary valves)
Buyer Guide - Section 9 – Valves

157
Close Down Valve – Piston Valve and Globe Valve

158
Slide Valve –
Gate Valve
159
Rotary Valve – Butterfly Valve, Ball Valve and Plug Valve
Buyer Guide - Section 9 – Piping Valves

160
Flex-body Valve – Pinch Valve and diaphragm Valve
161
GROUPING OF VALVES BY FUNCTION
By the nature of their design and function in handling process fluids, valves can be categorized
into three areas: on–off valves, which handle the function of blocking the flow or allowing it to
pass; nonreturn valves, which only allow flow to travel in one direction; and throttling valves,
which allow for regulation of the flow at any point between fully open to fully closed:
One confusing aspect of defining valves by function is that specific valve-body designs—such as
globe, gate, plug, ball, butterfly, and pinch styles—may fit into one, two, or all three classifications.
For example, a plug valve may be used for on–off service, or with the addition of actuation, may
be used as a throttling control valve. Another example is the globe-style body, which, depending
on its internal design, may be an on–off, nonreturn, or throttling valve.
On-Off Valves:
Sometimes referred to as block valves, on–off valves are used to start or stop the flow of the
medium through the process. Common on–off valves include gate, plug, ball, pressure-relief, and
tank-bottom valves. A majority of on–off valves are hand-operated, although they can be
automated with the addition of an actuator.
Non-return valves:
Nonreturn valves allow the fluid to flow only in the desired direction. The design is such that any
flow or pressure in the opposite direction is mechanically restricted from occurring. All check
valves are nonreturn valves. Nonreturn valves are used to prevent backflow of fluid, which could
damage equipment or upset the process. Such valves are especially useful in protecting a pump
in liquid applications or a compressor in gas applications from backflow when the pump or
compressor is shut down. Nonreturn valves are also applied in process systems that have varying
pressures, which must be kept separate
162
GROUPING OF VALVES BY FUNCTION
Throttling Valves:
Throttling valves are used to regulate the flow, temperature, or pressure of the service. These
valves can move to any position within the stroke of the valve and hold that position, including the
full-open or full closed positions. Therefore, they can act as on–off valves also. Although many
throttling valve designs are provided with a hand-operated manual handwheel or lever, some are
equipped with actuators or actuation systems, which provide greater thrust and positioning
capability, as well as automatic control.
Pressure regulators are throttling valves that vary the valve’s position to maintain constant
pressure downstream. If the pressure builds downstream, the regulator closes slightly to decrease
the pressure. If the pressure decreases downstream, the regulator opens to build pressure.
As part of the family of throttling valves, automatic control valves, sometimes referred to simply as
control valves, is a term commonly used to describe valves that are capable of varying flow
conditions to match the process requirements. To achieve automatic control, these valves are
always equipped with actuators. Actuators are designed to receive a command signal and convert
it into a specific valve position using an outside power source (air, electric, or hydraulic), which
matches the performance needed for that specific moment
163
GROUPING OF VALVES BY APPLICATION
Although valves are often classified according to function, they are also grouped according to the
application, which often dictates the features of the design. Three classifications are used: general
service valves, which describes a versatile valve design that can be used in numerous
applications without modification; special service valves, which are specially designed for a
specific application; and severe service valves, which are highly engineered to avoid the side
effects of difficult applications.
164
GROUPING OF VALVES BY PORT SIZE
Full Port Valve:

In process systems, most valves are designed to restrict the flow to some extent by allowing the
flow passageway or area of the closure element to be smaller than the inside diameter of the
pipeline. On the other hand, some gate and ball valves can be designed so that internal flow
passageways are large enough to pass flow without a significant restriction. Such valves are
called full-port valves because the internal flow is equal to the full area of the inlet port.
Full-port valves are used primarily with on–off and blocking services, where the flow must be
stopped or diverted. Full-port valves also allow for the use of a pig in the pipeline. The pig is a
self-driven (or flow-driven) mechanism designed to scour the inside of the pipeline and to remove
any process buildup or scale.
Reduced Port Valve:
On the other hand, reduced-port valves are those valves whose closure elements restrict the flow.
The flow area of that port of the closure element is less than the area of the inside diameter of the
pipeline. For example, the seat in linear globe valves or a sleeve passageway in plug valves
would have the same flow area as the inside of the inlet and outlet ports of the valve body. This
restriction allows the valve to take a pressure drop as flow moves through the closure element,
allowing a partial pressure recovery after the flow moves past the restriction.
The primary purpose of reduced-port valves is to control the flow through reduced flow or through
throttling, which is defined as regulating the closure element to provide varying levels of flow at a
certain opening of the valve
165
SEALING CHARACTERISTIC OR FLUID TIGHTNESS OF VALVES
One of important consideration in valve selection is its leakage when the valve is in close (leak
through seat) or open positions (leak through stem).
Industry standards have been established regarding the amount of permissible leakage of the
process fluid through a valve’s seat or seal. Usually this standard is applied to throttling valves,
but may be applicable to other types of valves also. Specifically, ANSI Standard 70-2-1976
provides the outline for six classifications of shutoff.
Shutoff classifications are determined by a percentage of a test fluid (usually water or air) that
passes through the valve, as part of the valve’s rated capacity. This must take into account the
predetermined pressure, temperature, and time limits. Shutoff classifications range from ANSI
Class I, where the valve does not require tight shutoff, to ANSI Class VI, where shutoff must be
complete or nearly bubble-tight. The following briefly describes each shutoff classification and
maximum leakage rates for each.
The ANSI Class I shutoff is an open classification that does not require a test, while allowing for a
specified agreement between the user and the valve manufacturer as to the required leakage.
The ANSI Class II shutoff is 0.5 percent of the rated valve capacity and is associated with double-
ported seats or pressure-balanced trims where metal piston rings and metal-to-metal seat
surfaces are used. The ANSI Class III shutoff is 0.1 percent of rated valve capacity and is
associated with the same types of valves listed in Class II, but is used for applications that require
improved shutoff.
166
The ANSI Class IV shutoff is the industry standard for single-seated valves with metal-to-metal
seating surfaces, which calls for a maximum permissible seat leakage of 0.01 percent of rated
valve capacity.
Both ANSI Classes V and VI were developed for throttling valves where shutoff is a primary focus.
The ANSI Class V shutoff is defined as 0.0005 cm2/min per inch of orifice diameter per pounds-
per-square inch (psi) differential.
The ANSI Class VI shutoff is commonly referred to as bubble-tight shutoff and is associated with
metal-to-elastomer soft seating surfaces (such as using an elastomer insert in the seat ring or the
plug head). Although with extremely high seating loads, it is possible to achieve Class VI shutoff
with a metal-to-metal seat

167
VALVE BODY END CONNECTION
A number of different end connections are available that allow the valve to be joined to the
system’s piping. In most cases, the valve’s end connection is designed or specified to match the
piping connection. In an ideal situation, end connections and materials between the valve and the
piping would be identical; however, this is not always the case
The general rule is that smaller-sized valves—smaller than 2-in (DN 50) valves—can use
threaded connections, while larger sizes—2-in (DN 50) and larger—use flanged connections. The
refining industry uses such a standard, since it is very conscious of fugitive-emission mandates
against leakage. Some process systems where fugitive emissions or process leakage is not a
problem (such as water systems) will use threaded connections in sizes up to 4 in (DN 100).
Most process system applications require both ends of the valve to have identical connections.
On some applications, such as vent and drain valves, one end may require one type of
connection on the upstream port and a different connection on the downstream port
Threaded End Connection:
Threaded connections are used in smaller sizes—1.5 in (DN 40) and smaller. The standard end
connection for valves smaller than 1 in (DN 25) is a threaded connection. If leakage is not a
concern, threaded connections can be used in sizes up to 4 in (DN 100).
The valve’s end connection is designed with a female National Pipe Thread (NPT), which mates
with the piping that uses a male NPT thread. Because of the leakage and pressure limitations of
threaded ends, they are only rated up through ANSI Class 600.
168
Flange End Connection:
Flanges are commonly required on valves larger than 2 in (DN 50). Flanges are easier to install
than threaded connections, because the valve’s face is matched up with piping and bolted
together without any rotation of the pipe or valve. Flanges can be applied in most temperatures,
from absolute zero to 1500°F (815°C). As the temperature increases, some limitations are placed
on high pressures.
Flange Ring Type Joint Valve End

Connection
169
Welded End Connection:
When zero leakage is required—for environmental, safety, sanitary, or efficiency reasons—the
piping can be welded to the valve, providing one-piece construction. Many users insist that high-
pressure applications— ANSI Class 900 (PN 160) and higher—require a permanent end
connection, especially if they involve high temperatures. Nearly all steam and water services in
the power industry call for welded connections. The two most common welded connections are
socketweld and buttweld connections
Other End Connections:

Nonmetallic valves, of which plastic is the most common, are equipped with other types of end
connections. Small plastic valves can be manufactured with union end connections, which are
used to join the plastic valve to plastic piping. Each end of the valve retains an external nut that
can be threaded onto the pipe to make a solid connection. Small plastic or metal valves used in
vacuum service can be equipped with an O-ring joint.
Valves made from polyvinylchloride (PVC) and chlorinated polyvinylchloride (CPVC) use a male–
female socket arrangement, similar to the socketweld design, except that a solvent cement is
used to fuse the two pieces together. Another method used to bond plastic piping and valves is
heat fusion, in which an outside heating source melts the plastic and allows the two parts to fuse
together.

170
PRESSURE CLASSES
A valve is designed to handle a certain range of internal pressure up to a certain point, which is
called the valve’s pressure rating. The higher the pressure rating for a valve, the thicker the wall
thickness must be so that the valve body subassembly will not rupture. The pressure rating is
affected by the temperature of the service also: the higher the process temperature, the less
pressure can be handled by the body subassembly. ANSI Standard B16.34 is used to determine
the pressure–temperature relationship, as well as applicable wall thickness and end connections
Valve’s pressure class can be designated as a standard class, a special class, or an intermediate
class:
Standard Classification:
The most common pressure class standard is ANSI B16.34, which specifies six standard classes:
Class 150, 300, 600, 900, 1500, or 2500. These classes apply to valves with NPT threaded,
flanged, socketweld, and buttweld end connections.
Special Classification:
Special class ratings are available when nondestructive examination requirements are met for
valves with buttweld end connections. ANSI Standard B16.34 allows buttweld valves to be
upgraded to ANSI Special Classes 15, 300, 600, 900, 1500, 2500, and 4500
Intermediate Classification:
This ANSI standard also permits the use of intermediate ratings for valves with buttweld end
connections, such as an ANSI Intermediate Class 3300.
171
MATERIALS:
Valve Body and Parts Material:
Table 2.9 lists a number of common valve materials and their temperature limits. Valve bodies are
manufactured from castings, forgings, or barstock, or can be fabricated from piping tees and
flanges. Castings are the least expensive choice because of the process and the higher volumes
run by the manufacturer. Forgings are required for special materials and/or higher-pressure
ratings, such as ANSI Classes 1500 (PN 250), 2500 (PN 400), or 4500 (PN 700). Barstock bodies
are required for critical deliveries where a cast or forged body is not readily available, or when
structural integrity is essential. Fabricated bodies are required for large angle valves.
As a general rule, bonnets or bonnet caps (which are used to seal the upper portion of the body
subassembly) are made from the same material as the body, although most are manufactured
from barstock instead of castings. One exception to this rule is a low-pressure chrome–
molybdenum valve, which often requires a stainless-steel bonnet as the standard for sizes 6 in
(DN 150) and smaller.
Several parts of a valve are exposed to pressure, process fluid, corrosion, and other effects of the
service, those parts are required by regulation to be manufactured from approved metals. These
parts are usually specified as the body, bonnet, bonnet bolting, plug, ball, disk, wedge, and/or
drainage plug.
Table 2.9 and 2.10 provides applicable body and bonnet material standards (ANSI Standards
B16.34 and B16.24) for castings, forgings, and barstock.
172
173
Manual Valve:
By definition, manual valves are those valves that operate through a manual operator (such as a
handwheel or handlever), which are primarily used to stop and start flow (block or on–off
valves), although some designs can be used for basic throttling.
Manual valves serve three major functions in fluid-handling systems: stopping and starting flow,
controlling flow rate, and diverting flow. Valves for stopping and starting flow are frequently
employed also for controlling flow rate, and vice versa, while valves for diverting flow are
designed for that single purpose.

174
Manual Globe Valve:
Gland Flange
As shown in Fig. 3.18, a manual globe valve is a linear-motion Packing box

valve characterized by a body with a longer face-to-face that
accommodates flow passages sufficiently long enough to ensure Bonnet
smooth flow through the valve without any sharp turns. It is used
for both on–off and throttling applications. The most common
Plug Stem
closure element is the single-seat design, which operates in linear
fashion and is found in the middle of the body. The single-seat
Plug Head
design uses the plug–seat arrangement: a linear-motion plug
moves into a seat to permit low flows or closure, or moves away
from the seat to permit higher flows. Seat Ring
Manual globe valves are found in sizes from 0.5 to 48 in (DN 6 to

1200). The majority of globe-valve designs feature top-entry to the
trim (the plug and seat). This design permits easier servicing of the
internal parts by disassembling the bonnet flange and bonnet-
flange bolting and removing the top-works, bonnet, and plug as
one assembly.
The largest drawbacks to the globe valve are that it can weigh
considerably more than a comparable rotary valve and is much
more costly. Size-wise, it is not as compact as a rotary valve.
Globe Valve’s trim consists two key parts: the plug, which is the male portion of the regulating element, and the
seat ring, which is the female portion. The portion of the plug that seats into the seat ring is called the plug head,
and the portion that extends up through the top of the globe valve is called the plug stem. The plug stem may be
threaded at the top of the stem to allow for interaction with the handwheel mechanism.
175
Manual Gate Valve:
Gland Flange
A gate valve is a linear-motion manual valve that uses a typically Packing box
flat closure element perpendicular to the process flow, which
slides into the flow stream to provide shutoff. Bonnet
The gate valve was designed primarily for on–off service, where
Plug Stem
the valve is operated infrequently. For the most part, it can be
used in either liquid or gas services. When compared to other
Plug Head
types of manual valves, the gate valve is relatively inexpensive
as well as easy to maintain and disassemble. When used with a
metal seat, a gate valve is inherently fire-safe and is often Seat Ring
specified for fire-safe service.
Gate valves are commonly found in sizes of 2 through 12 in (DN

50 through DN 300) in ANSI Class 150 (PN 16), although larger
sizes are sometimes custom designed.
The gate is attached to the manual operator through the gate stem, which may be either fixed (rising stem) to the
gate or threaded (nonrising stem) to the gate. The fixed-gate stem does not turn with the manual operator but
stays stationary with the gate. As the handwheel is turned, the threads (which are located above the packing box)
retract the gate from the flow stream, causing the threaded portion of the stem to rise above the handwheel. With
a threaded gate stem, the stem is threaded to the gate itself..

176
Manual Ball Valve:
Gland Flange
the manual ball valve is a quarter-turn, straight-through Packing box

flow valve that uses a round closure element with
matching rounded elastomeric seats that permit uniform Bonnet
seating stress. The ball has a flow-through port and is
seated on both sides..
Plug Stem
Manual ball valves are best used for on–off service, as

Plug Head
well as moderate throttling situations that require
minimal accuracy. Ball valves are used in both liquid and
gas services, although the service must be nonabrasive Seat Ring
in nature.
The ball itself can be either round or tapered, depending on the internal seat design. The flow-through port is a
reduced area from the body port, approximately 75 percent of the valve’s full area. Full-area ports are also
available when minimal pressure drop is needed, such as with on–off service, or when a pig is used to scrape the
inside diameter of the pipe and a narrow flow restriction in the line would prevent this. Unlike the one-piece plug of
plug valves where the stem is an integral part of the plug, the ball is separate from the stem in manual ball valves.
A key slot is machined or cast into the top of the ball, into which a key machined into the bottom portion of the
stem fits..

177
Manual Check Valve:
Gland Flange
Check valves are automatic valves that open with Packing box
forward flow and close against reverse flow. This mode
of flow regulation is required to prevent return flow, to Bonnet
maintain prime after the pump has stopped, to enable
reciprocating pumps and compressors to function, and to
Plug Stem
prevent rotary pumps and compressors from driving
standby units in reverse..
Plug Head
Check valves may be grouped according to the way the Swing Check
closure member moves onto the seat.
1. The swing check has a hinged disk, sometimes

called a flapper, that swings on a hinge pin. When
flow reverses, the pressure pushes the disk against
a seat. The flapper may have a composition disk,
rubber or Teflon, rather than metal when tight
closure is required. Swing checks offer little
resistance to flow
2. The lift check has a guided disk that is raised from

the seat by upward flow pressure. Reversal of flow
pushes the disks down against the seat, stopping
back flow. Lift checks have considerable resistance
to flow, similar to that of a globe valve. They are well
suited for high-pressure service Lift Check

178
3. Another common check is a wafer design which fits
between flanges in the same fashion as a butterfly
valve. Wafer checks come in two types: a dual
flapper that is hinged on a center post and a single
flapper that is similar to the standard swing check.
They are generally used in larger size piping (4 in
and larger) because they are much lighter and less
expensive than traditional flanged end swing check
valves
Single flapper wafer check valve
Piston check valve in gas plant

179
180
Manual Butterfly Valve:
The manual butterfly valve is a quarter-turn (0° to 90°)

rotary-motion valve that uses a round disk as the closure
element. When in the full open position, the disk is
parallel to the piping and extends into the pipe itself.
Butterfly valves are used for on–off and flow-control

applications. Common service applications include both
common liquids and gases.
The sizes of butterfly valves are limited to 2 in (DN 50)

and larger because of the limitations of the rotary design.
Because of the side loads applied to the disk, the
maximum size that a high-performance butterfly can
reach is 36 in (DN 900). Manual designs are limited to
ANSI Class 150 (PN 16), although some manufacturers
offer ANSI Classes 300 and 600.
The closure element of the butterfly valve is called the disk, of which the outside diameter fits the inside
diameter of the seat. The disk is described as a round, flattened element that is attached to the rotating shaft
with tapered pins or a similar connection. As the shaft rotates, the disk is closed at the 0° position and is wide
open at the 90° position. When the shaft is attached to the disk at the exact centerline of the disk, it is known as
a concentric disk. With a concentric disk, where the middle of the disk and the shaft are exactly centered in the
valve, a portion of the disk always remains in contact with the seat regardless of the position. At 0° open, the
seating surfaces are in full contact with each other. In any other position, the seating surfaces touch at two
points where the edges of the disk touch the seat. Because of this constant contact, the concentric disk–seat
design has a greater tendency for wear, especially with any type of throttling application.

181
Manual Butterfly Valve:
To overcome this problem of constant contact between the seating surfaces, butterfly-valve manufacturers
developed the eccentric cammed disk design. This design allows for the disk and seat to be in full contact upon
closure, but when the valve opens the disk lifts off the seat, avoiding any unnecessary contact. Such designs
allow for the center of the shaft and disk to be slightly offset down and away from the center of the valve, as
shown in Fig. 3.14. When the valve opens, the disk lifts out of the seat and away from the seating surfaces,
enough to avoid constant contact.

182
183
Manual Diaphragm Valve:
Diaphragm valves are flex-body valves in which the valve body

consists of a rigid and flexible section. The flexible body section is
provided by a diaphragm which, in connection with a compressor,
represents the closure member. The seat is provided by the rigid body
section and may consist of a weir across the flow passage, as in the
valve shown in Figure b, or be provided by the wall of a straight-
through flow passage, as in Figure a.
Straight through diaphragm valve
Weir diaphragm valve

184
Double Block and Bleed (DBB) Valve:
"Double block and bleed" means the closure of a line, duct, or pipe by closing and locking or tagging two in-line
valves and by opening and locking or tagging a drain or vent valve in the line between the two closed valves.
Double Block and Bleed valves have evolved to replace the process of bolting together individual valves to
provide dual isolation. This new assembly provides great savings in weight, space and installation times
especially in instrument or instrument cage isolation. These savings can be as much as 60% in weight and
studies have shown that a 70% installation time saving is also possible. However the greatest savings are to be
seen in the reduction of leak paths to atmosphere, therefore reducing the risk of the potential hazards this
entails.
Dual isolation is a necessary requirement when maintenance is taking place down stream of the first isolation
valve. Cavity venting is provided by either a ball or globe OS&Y vent valve so that trapped pressure between the
two isolation valves is safely vented.
These valves have also evolved to encompass the function of chemical injection (using a suitable quill) and
sample points. In-built check valves are often integrated in these valves.
All DBB valves are manufactured to EEMUA 182 latest revision
The simplest form of a double block and bleed setup is two gate valves with a short pipe between them with a
small, typically 3/4" "bleeder" gate valve in between them. The two primary gate valves can be closed and the
bleeder opened to bleed off any fluid which is trapped or is entering through a leaking upstream valve. The
likelyhood of the fluid continuing through the downstream valve with no pressure to drive it is minimal, thus
protecting the downstream piping (or equipment) from the fluid.
Other options include two back to back gate valves. One of the valves has a tap in the body to provide the bleed
function. Other valves exist which can perform the entire double block and bleed function with one valve (eg: a
double disk gate valve with the cavity in between discs equipped with a bleeder)
185
186
Manual Valve Manufacturer/Vendor:
Neeway (china) – not accepted (problem in STDNE)

BAF (Holland and China) – Holland origin ok, audit in China found poor result
Oliver (UK – DBB) – ok
Samson (Germany) – ok
KVC (China – subvendor Y.L.Machinery) – ok
Valveitalia (Italy and China) – ok
ChaoDa (China) – not yet qualified
Velan – not yet qualified
Crane (USA) – not yet qualified
187
Valve Actuator:
Manual Operator vs. Actuator.
1. A manual operator is any device that requires the presence of a human being to provide the
energy to operate the valve, as well as to determine the proper action (open, closed, or a
throttling position).
2. Automatic control of valves requires an actuator, which is defined as any device mounted on
a valve that, in response to a signal, automatically moves the valve to the required position
using an outside power source. The addition of an actuator to a throttling valve, which has
the ability to adjust to a signal, is called a control valve
188
Pneumatic Actuator:
The most commonly applied actuator is the pneumatically driven actuator, because the power
source—compressed air—is relatively inexpensive when compared to a human resource or
electrical or hydraulic power sources. For that reason, approximately 90 percent of all actuators in
service today are driven by compressed air.
Although not as powerful as hydraulic actuators, pneumatic actuators can generate substantial
thrust to handle a majority of applications, including high-pressure and high-pressure-drop
situations.
Pneumatic actuators also bleed compressed air to atmosphere, which is environmentally safe,
when compared to hydraulics. When pneumatic positioners are used with a pneumatic actuator,
they are ideal for use in explosive and flammable environments since they do not depend upon
electrical signals or power, which could potentially spark a fire if not explosion-proof or intrinsically
safe
189
Pneumatic Diaphragm Actuator:
The most commonly applied pneumatic actuator is

the diaphragm actuator. Most diaphragm actuators
are designed for linear motion, although some rotary-
motion designs exist. By definition, a typical
diaphragm actuator is a single-acting actuator that
provides air pressure to one side of an elastomeric
barrier (called the diaphragm) to extend or retract the
actuator stem, which is connected to the closure
element. The diaphragm is sandwiched between
upper and lower casings, either of which can be used
to hold air pressure, depending on the style of the
actuator.
Pneumatically operated diaphragm actuators use air

supply from controller, positioner, or other source.
In the single-acting design, the air chamber on one side of the diaphragm is opposed on the other
side of the diaphragm by an internal spring, called the range spring, that allows the actuator to
move in the opposite direction when the air pressure in the chamber is lessened
With the direct-acting design, air pressure is sent to the actuator, which extends the actuator stem
and allows the valve to close. This also means that the actuator will retract its stem upon loss of
air, allowing the valve to open and remain open.
. Buyer Guide - Section 9 – Piping Valves
190
Pneumatic Diaphragm Actuator:
With the reverse acting design, as the air pressure

is sent to the actuator, the stem retracts and the
valve opens. If the supply or signal air pressure is
interrupted, the actuator moves to the extended
position, allowing the valve to close
In the single-acting design, the air chamber on one side of the diaphragm is opposed on the other
side of the diaphragm by an internal spring, called the range spring, that allows the actuator to
move in the opposite direction when the air pressure in the chamber is lessened
With the direct-acting design, air pressure is sent to the actuator, which extends the actuator stem
and allows the valve to close. This also means that the actuator will retract its stem upon loss of
air, allowing the valve to open and remain open.
. Buyer Guide - Section 9 – Piping Valves
191
Pneumatic Piston Cylinder Actuator:
the piston cylinder actuator uses a sliding

sealed plate (called the piston) inside a
pressure-retaining cylinder to provide double-
acting operation. With the double-acting design,
air is supplied to both sides of the piston by a
positioner. As with all double-acting actuators, a
positioner must be used to take the pneumatic
or electric signal from the controller and send
air to one side of the piston while bleeding the
opposite side until the correction position is
reached. An opposing range spring is not
necessary with the piston cylinder actuator,
although a spring may be included inside the
cylinder to act as a fail-safe mechanism.
Like diaphragm actuator designs, piston cylinder actuators can be used with either linear or rotary
valves. Linear designs are the most efficient since the entire movement of the actuator stem is
transferred directly to the valve stem. On the other hand, the rotary design must use some type of
linear- to rotary-motion linkage. This can create some hysteresis and dead band because of the
lost motion caused by the use of linkages or slotted levers.
.
192
Pinion
Rack
Pneumatic Rack-and-Pinion Actuator:
the rack-and-pinion actuator, which is used to

effectively transfer the linear motion of piston
cylinder actuators to rotary action. Rack-and-
pinion actuators are used extensively for
actuating quarter-turn valves (ball, plug, and
butterfly valves). As shown in Fig. 5.22, two
pistons are placed on each end of a one-piece
housing, typically extruded aluminum or
stainless steel. Each piston is connected to a Piston
rack, a series linear teeth, that move in a linear
motion with the piston. In most cases, the rack
is an integral part of the piston itself.
Sandwiched between the two racks is the
pinion, which is a shaft equipped with linear
teeth. The shaft is connected directly to the
valve stem.
With direct-acting rack-and-pinion actuators, as air is applied to the two outer pressure chambers,
the pistons move toward the inner chamber, exhausted to atmosphere. When the two pistons
move toward each other, the attached racks move in opposite directions, allowing the rack teeth
to drive the teeth of the pinion in a counterclockwise rotational manner. When increasing air
pressure is directed to the inner chamber and the outer chambers are exhausted, the pistons
move away from each other and the pinion is driven in a clockwise direction.
193
Pneumatic Vane Actuator:
Another common, inexpensive double-acting

actuator is the vane actuator, which uses a pie-
shaped pressure-retaining housing and a
rectangular piston, called the vane, to seal
between the two pressure chambers (Fig.
5.25). As with rack-and-pinion actuators, vane
actuators are commonly used with quarter-turn
valve applications.
The housing is divided into two halves and is

pie-shaped to allow the vane to move the 90°
required for quarter-turn operation. The vane is
pinned to the actuator shaft, avoiding excessive
hysteresis and dead band. The vane seals the
two pressure chambers with an O-ring.
The double-acting design requires the use of a positioner for throttling applications; each pressure
chamber has an air connection for increasing or exhausting air pressure.

194
Electric Actuator:
Electric motors installed on process valves were one of the first types of actuators used in the
process industry. In basic terms, the electric actuator consists of a reversible electric motor,
control box, gearbox, limit switches, and other controls (such as a potentiometer to show valve
position)
The main advantages of electric actuators are the high degree of stability and constant thrust
available to the user. In general, the thrust capability of the electric actuator is dependent on the
size of the electric motor and the gearing involved. The largest electric actuators are capable of
producing torque values as high as 500,000 lb (225,000 kgf) of linear thrust. The only other
comparable actuator with such thrust capabilities is the electrohydraulic actuator, although the
electric actuator is much less costly
Based on the thrust requirements, electric actuators are available in compact, self-contained
packages (Fig. 5.26), as well as larger units with direct-drive handwheels (Fig. 5.27)
The disadvantage of electric actuators is their relative expensive cost when compared to the more
commonly applied pneumatic actuators. Also, they are much more complex—involving an electric
motor, electrical controls, and a gearbox—therefore much more can go wrong. When high
amounts of torque or thrust are required for a particular valve application, an electric actuator can
be quite large and heavy, making it more difficult to remove from the valve. Depending upon the
gear ratios involved and the pressures involved with the process, an electric actuator can be quite
slow, when compared to electrohydraulic actuators or even pneumatic actuators. It can also
generate heat, which may be an issue in enclosed spaces. If the torque or limit switches are not
set correctly, the force of the actuator can easily destroy the regulating element of the valve
195
Electric Actuator:
By design, electric motors are more efficient at their

maximum speed; therefore, most electric actuators use
some type of mechanical device, such as a hammer
blow yoke nut, to engage the load after the motor has
achieved its full speed.
For the actuator to operate in both directions, the motor

must be reversible to open and close the valve. For
efficiency reasons, electric motors operate best at high
revolutions per minute (1000 to 3600 r/min). Therefore,
gearing is used to reduce the stroking speed for use with
valves. The gearbox uses worm gearing to make the
reduction and is totally encased in an oil bath for
maximum life of the gears.
Because of the exceptional stiffness and torque associated with electric actuators, the valve can
overstroke if the actuator is not adjusted correctly—and possibly damage or destroy the regulating
element or limit the stroke of the valve. To avoid overtravel, limit switches are used to shut off the
motor when the open or closed position is reached. Torque switches can also be used to shut off
the motor when the torque resistance increases as the closed or open positions are reached. The
added benefit of the torque switch is that if an object is caught in the regulating element or if the
valve is binding, the actuator will shut off rather than apply thrust to reach the closed position and
further damage the valve.
196
197
Hydraulic and ElectroHydraulic Actuator:
When exceptional stiffness and high thrust are required—as well as fast stroking speeds—
hydraulic and electrohydraulic actuators are specified. Hydraulic actuators use hydraulic fluid
above and below a piston to position the valve. Hydraulic pressure can be supplied by an external
plant hydraulic system. Its design is similar to a cylinder actuator, with a cylinder and a piston
acting as a divider between the two chambers. Hydraulic actuators do not have a failure spring,
so providing a failure action requires a series of tripping systems, which are very complex and
require special engineering. On the other hand, an electrohydraulic actuator uses a hydraulic
actuator—rather than use an external hydraulic system, it has a self-contained hydraulic source
that is a physical part of the actuator. An electrical signal feeds to an internal pump, which uses
hydraulic fluid from a reservoir to feed hydraulic fluid above or below the piston.
The advantage of using hydraulic and electrohydraulic actuators is that they are exceptionally stiff
because of the incompressibility of liquids. This is important with those throttling applications that
can be unstable when the regulating element is close to the seat. In some cases, these actuators
are used in valves with traditionally poor rangeability, such as butterfly valves. When specially
engineered, they can be designed to have exceptionally fast stroking speeds, sometimes closing
long strokes in under a second—which makes them ideal for safety management systems. The
chief disadvantages of hydraulic and electrohydraulic actuators are that they are expensive, large
and bulky, highly complex, and require special engineering

198
199
200
Actuator Positioner:
By definition, a positioner is a device attached to an actuator that receives an electronic or

pneumatic signal from a controller and compares that signal to the actuator’s position. If the signal
and the actuator position differ, the positioner sends the necessary power—usually through
compressed air—to move the actuator until the correct position is reached. Positioners are found
in one of two designs. Three-way positioners (Fig. 5.31) send and exhaust air to only one side of
a single acting actuator that is opposed by a range spring. Four-way positioners (Fig. 5.32) send
and exhaust air to both sides of the an actuator, which is required for double-acting actuators. A
four-way positioner can be used as a three-way positioner by plugging one of the positioner-
toactuator air-supply lines on the positioner itself.
201
Auxiliary Handwheels:
Occasionally manual operation of an

actuated valve is preferred or required;
therefore, an auxiliary handwheel is
attached to the actuator to allow for manual
operation of the actuated valve in case of
an emergency or when a major power
interruption or failure occurs. Not only do
auxiliary handwheels allow for manual
operations, but some designs can be set in
a position so that the handwheel acts as a
stop to limit the stroke of the valve.
202
Valve Actuator Manufacturer/Vendor:
Rotok (Italy) – quality ok, delivery is issue

Biffi (part of Tyco Flow Control USA) - ok
Bettis (part of Emerson Process Management) – ok

203
CONTROL VALVE:
Process plants consist of hundreds, or even thousands, of control loops all networked together to
produce a product to be offered for sale. Each of these control loops is designed to keep some
important process variable such as pressure, flow, level, temperature, etc. within a required
operating range to ensure the quality of the end product. Each of these loops receives and
internally creates disturbances that detrimentally affect the process variable, and interaction from
other loops in the network provides disturbances that influence the process variable.
To reduce the effect of these load disturbances, sensors and transmitters collect information
about the process variable and its relationship to some desired set point. A controller then
processes this information and decides what must be done to get the process variable back to
where it should be after a load disturbance occurs. When all the measuring, comparing, and
calculating are done, some type of final control element must implement the strategy selected by
the controller.
The most common final control element in the process control industries is the control valve. The
control valve manipulates a flowing fluid, such as gas, steam, water, or chemical compounds, to
compensate for the load disturbance and keep the regulated process variable as close as
possible to the desired set point.
The control valve assembly typically consists of the valve body, the internal trim parts, an actuator
to provide the motive power to operate the valve, and a variety of additional valve accessories,
which can include positioners, transducers, supply pressure regulators, manual operators,
snubbers, or limit switches.
204
CONTROL VALVE:
Generally, control valves are divided into four types: globe, butterfly, ball, and eccentric plug
valves. Variations of these four types have resulted in dozens of different available designs.
Globe Control valve:
205
CONTROL VALVE:
Butterfly Control valve:
206
CONTROL VALVE:
Control Ball valve:
Eccentric Plug Control valve
207
Control Valve Manufacturer/Vendor:
Fisher (Emerson – Austrilia and Malay) – ok

CCI (USA) – quality ok
208
CHOKE VALVE:
The choke valve, a main component of

Christmas tree, is design to control
production rate of the oil well, with working
pressure up to 15000psi. Choke valves can
be classified as follows: adjustable choke
valves and positive choke valves. By
rotating hand wheel to move the stem, the
adjustable choke valve is designed to
adjust the effective area available for the
flow to accomplish control of production
rate. The positive choke valve is design to
accomplish control of production rate by
changing flow beans.
209
CHOKE VALVE:
210
CHOKE VALVE:
Gas from well potentially contains sand particle and it is erosive. Choke valve with harden
trim and large body (induced low velocity) is normally used for throttling the well flow.
A choke is usually employed as the angle design because it has been found to be more
convenient in its installation out in the field in gas and oil well production applications. The
resulting mixed phase, low pressure product of the choke valve is usually headed to a
processing unit or a separator and the choke valve is traditionally located immediately prior to
the target. Therefore, a 90 degree angle is preferred in order to facilitate the inlet and outlet of
the choke valve with easy access to its handle
Choke basically drops the well head flowing pressure from its upstream connection down to
the required operating pressure at downstream of its connection. But it regulates the flow
within minimum and maximum flow rate by keeping the operating pressure same.
For example it can regulate the flow rate within 15 MMSCFD and 35 MMSCFD at its fixed
1000 psig operating pressure at downstream only in that situation when having volume more
than the operating flow rate at the upstream of the choke. And that's how a flow rate is
controlled through a choke. Almost all the vendors recommend the choke with 60% open at
its maximum flow rate.
211
Choke Valve Manufacturer/Vendor:
Materflo (Canada) – ok
CCI (USA) – quality ok
Mokweld – expensive
National Oilwell Varco (NOV) (USA) – quality issue
212
PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE:
Pressure relief valves are designed to protect a pressure system against

excessive normal or subnormal pressure in the event of positive or negative
excursion of the system pressure. They are required to open at a predetermined
system pressure, to discharge or let enter a specified amount of fluid so as to
prevent the system pressure from exceeding a specified normal or subnormal
pressure limit, and to reclose after the normal system pressure has been restored.
Pressure relief valves must also be self actuated for maximum reliability.
The most commonly employed pressure relief valve type is the

direct loaded pressure relief valve in which the fluid pressure
acting on the valve disc in the opening direction is opposed by
a direct mechanical loading device such as a weight or spring.
Direct-loaded pressure relief valves may also be provided with
an auxiliary actuator, which may be designed to introduce a
supplementary seating load on valve closing and/or to assist
valve opening. The power for actuating the auxiliary actuator is
commonly of an extraneous source. Should the external power
source fail, the valves will open and close without hindrance in
the manner of direct-loaded pressure relief valves.
213
The second type of pressure relief valve is the pilot-operated pressure relief valve that consists
of a main valve and a pilot. The main valve is the actual pressure-relieving device while the pilot
positions the disc of the main valve disc in response to the system pressure.
Traditionally in the U.S., direct-loaded pressure relief valves mainly intended for boiler and steam
applications are referred to as safety valves, those mainly for liquid applications as relief valves,
and those intended for both compressible and incompressible fluids as safety relief valves. This
traditional terminology has been replaced in ASME Code and API RP 520 by the more generic
term pressure relief valve.
Direct-loaded pressure relief valves with subheadings safety valves, safety relief valves, liquid
relief valves, vacuum relief valves, and direct-loaded pressure relief valves with auxiliary
actuator.
214
Pilot-operated pressure relief valves differ from direct mechanically loaded pressure relief valves
in that the system fluid is the medium for both opening and closing the valve. Such valves consist
of a main valve, which is the actual pressure relief valve, and a self-actuated pilot that controls
the opening and closing of the main valve in response to developing and receding overpressure.
Over the years, two types of pilot-operated pressure relief valves have evolved:
1. One of these is of U.S. origin in which the pilot controls directly three flow passages of which
one interconnects with the pressure sense line, a second one with the dome of the main
valve, while a third one represents the vent. This type of pilot is described in the following as
direct acting pilot.
2. The other type is of European origin in which the pilot represents a spring-loaded pressure
relief valve that controls the operation of the main valve by the fluid being discharged. This
type of pilot is described in the following as indirect-acting pilot.
direct acting pilot PSV
215
INSPECTIOIN AND TESTING OF VALVE
1) Leak Test
There are two types of leakage from a valve, namely; fugitive emissions from the valve to
atmosphere, and leakage through the valve but contained within the piping system.
Fugitive emissions can both be detrimental to the environment and a potential safety hazard.
Valves are considered to be the major contributors to fugitive emission losses.
Leakage through the valve can also be a safety hazard, and can be detrimental to the process.
Standards for Acceptable Rates of Valve Leakage

There are many standards for classification of valve leakage rates e.g. DIN EN 917 covers
thermoplastics valves, BS 6364 covers cryogenic valves, however the three standards used most
in the oil and gas, and petrochemical industry are API 598, ANSI FCI 70-2 and MSS-SP-61.
American Petroleum Institute (API)
The Americam Petroleum Institute standard API-598 covers the testing and inspection
requirements for gate, globe, check, ball, plug & butterfly valves. It has acceptable leakage rates
for liquids as well as gases. All valves built to the various API standards are required to meet API-
598 leakage criteria prior to shipment from the manufacturer or supplier.
The allowable rate for leakage of test fluid past the seats, for the duration of the tests, is listed in
the following table:
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All Metal-Seated Valves (except Metal-Seated

Check Valves) Check Valves
All Resilient
Valve Size
Seated Valves
Liquid Test Gas Test Liquid Test Gas Test
(drops/min) (bubbles/min) (drops/min) (bubbles/min)
<= 2" 0 0 (b) 0 (b) (c) (d)

2.5" - 6"" 0 12 24 (c) (d)
8" - 12"" 0 20 40 (c) (d)
>= 14"" 0 28 56 (c) (d)
(a) 1 milliliter is considered equivalent to 16 drops

(b) There shall be no leakage for the minimum specified test duration. For liquid test, 0 drop
means no visible leakage per minimum specified test duration. For gas test, 0 bubble
means less then 1 bubble per minimum specified test duration
(c) The maximum permissible leakage rate shall be 0.18 cubic inch (3 cubic centimeters) per
minute per inch of nominal pipe size
(d) The maximum permissible leakage rates shall be 1.5 standard cubic feet (0.042 cubic
meter) of gas per hour per inch of nominal pipe size
(e) For check valves larger than NPS 24, the allowable leakage rate shall be per agreement
between purchaser and manufacturer.
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American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
As previously mentioned on fluid tightness of valve, ANSI (ANSI FCI 70-2 supercedes ANSI
B16.104) specifies six different seat leakage classifications; class I to class VI.
Class I is also know as dust tight and can refer to metal or resilient seated valves.
Class IV is also known as metal to metal. It is the kind of leakage rate you can expect from a
valve with a metal shut-off disc and metal seat.
Class Vl is known as a soft seat classification. Soft Seat Valves are those where the seat or shut-
off disc or both are made from some kind of resilient material such as Teflon.
Leakage Maximum Leakage
Test Medium Test Pressure Test Procedure
Class Allowable
No test required,
I --- --- ---
as long as purchaser and vendor both agree.
Pressure applied to valve inlet with outlet open to
Air or water at 50- 45-60 psig or max. operating atmosphere or connected to a low head loss
II 0.5% of rated capacity
125°F (10-52°) differential whichever is lower measuring device full normal closing thrust provided
by actuator.
III 0.1% of rated capacity As above As above As above
IV 0.01% of rated capacity As above As above As above
Pressure applied to valve inlet after filling entire

0.0005 ml per minute of
Max service pressure drop body cavity and connected piping with water and
water per inch of port Water at 50 to
V across valve plug, not to stroking valve plug closed. Use net specified max
diameter per psi 125°F (10 to 52°C)
exceed ANSI body rating. actuator thrust, but no more, even if available during
differential
test. Allow time for leakage flow to stabilize.
Actuator should be adjusted to operating conditions

Not to exceed amounts Air or nitrogen at 50 psig or max rated
specified with full normal closing thrust applied to
VI shown in following table 50 to 125 F differential pressure across
valve plug seat. Allow time for leakage flow to
based on port diameter. (10to52C) valve plug whichever is lower.
stabilize and use suitable measuring device.
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Fugitive Emissions (FE) Test
In many industrial regions of the world, increasing levels of environmental pollution have led to
enactment of strict antipollution laws, which target emissions from automobiles, home heating
systems, and industry. In particular, process industries have been under legislative mandate to
reduce or eliminated fugitive emissions from their process systems. These antipollution laws
target all devices that penetrate a process line, such as valves, sensors, regulators, flow meters,
etc. A number of clients and specifications have stipulated a strict Fugitive Emission (Cryogenic)
test
2) Fire-safe
Valves maybe exposed to a plant fire when handling a flammable fluid, they therefore must
remain essentially fluid-tight internally and externally and be operable during and after the fire.
This degree of resistance to fire damage is particularly difficult to achieve when valve seat and
stem seal are made from soft materials like polymers….etc. API Spec 6FA, 6FC and 607 provide
requirement for fire-safe test.
3) NDT (Non Destructive Testing)
In addition to leakage testing, during the manufacturing process valve components (body, stem,
seat…..) and welding work normally have to NDT tested.
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VALVE STANDARD
ANSI: American National Standard Institute

API American Petroleum Institute
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
BSI British Standard Institure
DIN Deuztch Institu fur Normug
Standards relate to Ball Valve:
BS 5159 Cast Iron Carbon Steel Ball valve for general purpose
BS 5351 Steel ball valve for petroleum, petrochemical industry
API Spec 6D Pipeline Valve (gate, plug, check and ball)
API Std 598 Valve Inspection and Test
API Std 607 Fire test for soft-seated quarter-turn valves
Standards relate to Globe Valve:
API RP 6FA Fire test for valves

ASME B16.10 Face-to-face and end-to-end dimension of ferrous valves
ASME B16.34 Steel valves, flanged and butt-welding end.
BS 1873 Steel globe valves and stop and check valves for petroleum
BS 5352 Cast and forged steel wedge gate, globe, check and plug valve for petroleum
BS 5152 Cast Iron globe and check valves for general purposes
BS 5154 Copper alloy globe and check, gate valves for general purposes
BS5160 Specification for flanged steel globe, check valves for general purposes
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Standards relate to Gate Valve:
API Std 595 Cast iron gate valves, flanged ends

API Std 597 Steel venturi gate valves, flanged or butt-welding ends
API Std 600 Bolted bonnet steel gate valves for petroleum
API Std 602 Compact Carbon Steel Gate valves
API Std 603 Corrosion-resistant, bolted bonnet gate valves – flanged and butt-welding end
BS 1414 Steel wedge gate valve for petroleum
BS 5163 Double-flanged cast iron wedge gate valves for water works purpose
Standards relate to Plug Valve:
API Spec 6A Wellhead and Christmas tree equipment

API Std 599 Metal plug valve – flanged and welding ends
BS 5158 Cast iron and cast steel plug valves for general purposes
BS 5353 Specification for plug valves
Standards relate to Butterfly Valve:
API Std 609 Butterfly valves
Standards relate to Diaphragm Valve:
BS 5156 Screwdown diaphragm valve for general purposes

DIN 3359 Membran-Absperrarmaturen aus metallischen Werkstoffen
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Standards relate to Check Valve:
API Std 594 Check valves

BS 1868 Steel check valve for petroleum
BS 1873 Steel globe and check valves for petroleum
Standards relate to Pressure Valve:
API RP 520 Recommended practice for the design and installation of pressure relieving
system
API RP 521 Guide for pressure relief and depressurizing systems
ASME/API 526 Flanged-steel safety relief valves
ASME/API 527 Commercial seat tightness of safety relief valves with metal-to-metal seats
BS 6759 Safety Valves
ISO 4126 Safety Valves
Standards relate to Inspection and Testing of Valve:
API Spec. 6FA Fire test for valves

API Spec. 6FC Fire test for valves with automatic backseats
API Std. 607 Fire test for soft-seated quarter turn valves
ASME/API 527 Commercial seat tightness of safety relief valves with metal-to-metal seats
API Std 598 Valve inspection and test
BS 6755-1 Testing of valves: Part 1 – specification for production pressure testing
requirement
BS 6755-2 Testing of valves: Part 2 – specification for fire type testing requirements.
222
HOW VALVE IS MADE
Valve Manufacturing Process normally consists of following main activities/stages

1. Design of valve
2. Casting or Forging of raw materials
3. Machining of raw materials
4. Assembly of components
5. Testing and Painting
223
HOW VALVE IS MADE
Raw materials after casting/forging Machining of raw materials into valve body
Drilling of bolt-hole in valve body
224
COMMERCIAL NOTES:
1. Top entry ˃ Size Entry.

2. Full bore ˃ Reduced Bore
3. Hydraulic ˃ Electric ˃ Pneumatic Actuator
225
Buyer Guide - Section 10 – Pressure Vessel
1. Definition
2. Type of Vessels
3. Fabrication of Pressure Vessels
4. Typical Delivery Time of Pressure Vessel
5. Code, Standard and Classification
6. Commercial Section
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1. Definition
A Vessel used for the containment of pressure (either internal or external) is a pressure vessel. Pressure
vessels can be of any shape. However, the most complicated one, as envisaged in ASME Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII Div (1) and its subsequent addenda, is shown in Figure 1
Figure 1: Typical Pressure Vessel
As mentioned in Section 2 (Design of offshore platform) of this Guide, Pressure vessels are mainly used for
separating well fluids produced from oil and gas wells into the gaseous and liquid components.
The difference between pressure vessel and utility vessel is pressure vessel is used for process system to
separate the well stream into three components, typically called “phases” (oil, gas, and water) while utility
vessel is used to contain or treat utility components (like drain water, fresh water, air...etc). For this reason
pressure vessel is sometimes called process vessel.
Pressure vessels are separated into two groups by the American Society of Metallurgical Engineering
(ASME), the “governing” body of pressure vessel standards and codes. These are low-pressure, less than or
equal to 125 psig or high-pressure, greater than 125 psig.
In addition, vessels in chemical processing service are of two kinds: those substantially without internals and
those with internals. The main functions of the first kinds, called drums or tanks, are intermediate storage or
surge of a process stream for a limited or extended period or to provide a phase separation by settling. The
second category comprises the shells of equipment such as heat exchangers, separators, mixers,
fractionators, and other process equipments.
The distinction between drums and tanks is that of size and is not sharp. Usually they are cylindrical vessels
with flat or curved ends, depending on the pressure, and either horizontal or vertical. Drums are located
between major equipments or supply feed or accumulate product. Surge drums between equipment provide
a measure of stability in that fluctuations are not transmitted freely along a chain, including those fluctuations
that are characteristic of control instruments of normal sensitivity. For example, reflux drums provide surge
between a condenser and its tower and downstream equipment; a drum ahead of a compressor will ensure
freedom from liquid entrainment and one ahead of a fired heater will protect the tubes from running dry; a
drum following a reciprocating compressor will smooth out pressure surges, etc. Tanks are larger vessels, of
several hours holdup usually. For instance, the feed tank to a batch distillation may hold a day's supply, and
rundown tanks between equipment may provide several hours holdup as protection of the main storage from
possible off-specification product and opportunity for local repair and servicing without disrupting the entire
process.
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2. Type of Vessels:
Pressure Vesel can be classified based on its functions or dimensions.
Based on the dimensions process vessels can be either horizontal vessels (fig. 2-3) or vertical vessels (fig.4)
Figure 2: Horizontal Vessel
Figure 3: Horizontal Vessel
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Remark:
N1: Gas Inlet;
N2: Gas Outlet;
N3: Liquid Outlet;
N4: Pressure Relief;
N6: Utility Connection;
N7: Vent;
K1A/B: Liquid Level
Transmittal;
K2A/B: Liquid Level
Transmittal/Gauge;
M1/M2: Manway.
Figure 4: Vertical Vessel
Classified base on its fuctions, some of common types of pressure vessels are:
 Separator or test separator - a vessel used to separate a mixed-phase stream into gas and liquid
phases that are “relatively” free of each other. Other terms used are scrubbers, knockouts, line drips,
and descanters. The design of these vessels may be either low or high pressure
 Scrubber or Gas Knockout - a vessel designed to handle streams of high gas/liquid ratios. The liquid
is generally entrained as mist in the gas or is free, flowing along the pipe wall. These vessels usually
have a small liquid collection section. The terms scrubber and knockout are used interchangeably.
Typically, these are high-pressure vessels.
 Three-Phase Separator - a vessel used to separate gas and two immiscible liquids of different
densities (e.g., gas, oil, and water). Typically, these vessels are low pressure but can just as easily
be designed for high pressures.
 Liquid-Liquid Separator or Free Water Knockout - two immiscible liquid phases can be separated
using the same principles as for gas and liquid separators. These vessels are designed to operate at
much lower velocities and pressures than the gas-liquidseparators; they are designed to take
advantage of the physical properties of the liquids, and inasmuch vertical vessels may be more
effective than horizontal.
 Filter Separator - These separators usually have two compartments. The first contains
filter/coalescing elements.As the gas flows through the elements, the liquid particles coalesce into
larger droplets, and when the droplets reach sufficient size, the gas flow causes them to flow out of
the filter elements into the center core. The particles are then carried into the second compartment of
the vessel (containing a vane-type or knitted wire mesh mist extractor) where the larger droplets are
removed. A lower barrel or boot may be used for surge or storage of the removed liquid.
 Line Drip - Typically used in pipelines with very high gas/liquid ratios to remove only free liquid from
the gas stream and not necessarily all the liquid from a gas stream. Line drips provide a place for
free liquids to separate and accumulate. Typically, these are high-pressure vessels.
 Slug Catcher – A separator, which is designed to absorb sustained inflow of large liquid volumes at
irregular intervals. Usually found on gasgathering systems or other two-phase pipeline systems. A
slug catcher may be a single large vessel or a manifold system of pipes. Typically, these are high-
pressure vessels
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 Flash Tank (Chamber, Trap, or Vessel) - A conventional oil and gas separator operated at low
pressure, with the liquid from a higher-pressure separator being “flashed” into it. This flash chamber
is quite often the second or third stage of separation, with the liquid being discharged from the flash
chamber to storage.
 Expansion Vessel – A first-stage separator on a low-temperature or cold separation unit. This vessel
may be equipped with a heating core to melt hydrates, or a hydrate-preventative liquid (such as
glycol) may be injected into the well fluid just before expansion into this vessel.
 Desanders – A high-pressure vessel that is installed on some gas wells to “catch” any sand that is
produced along with the gas. This sand may be from a frac job, or it may be from the formation. The
pressure drop at the desander allows the majority of this sand to drop out at a controlled location
rather than in the lines, at measurement points, or in production equipment
Figure 5: Separator Skids
Figure 6: Vent & Suction Scrubber Skids
Figure 7: Air Receiver Figure 8: field/instrument gas skid
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3. Fabrication of Pressure Vessels:
Fabrication of a pressure vessel goes through three (03) sequential phase: Engineering – Procurement –
Fabrication and Testing (figure 9 below provide an example of pressure vessel fabrication sequence &
schedule).
Weeks
Figure 9: Typical Key Milestone Plan
a. Design/Engineering Phase:
The basic information for designing pressure vessels should be formulated by the process engineering group
and contain such criteria as shown in Figure 10. This is known as the design data sheet (DDS)
Process design of vessels establishes the pressure and temperature ratings, the length and diameter of the
shell, the sizes and locations of nozzles and other openings, all internals, and possibly the material of
construction and corrosion allowances. This information must be supplemented with many mechanical
details before fabrication can proceed, notably wall thicknesses.
For safety reasons, the design and construction of pressure vessels are subject to legal and insurance
standards. The ASME Codes apply to vessels greater than 6im. dia operating above 15 pig. Section VIII
Division 1 applies to pressures below 3000 psig and is the one most often applicable to process work. Above
3000psig some further restrictions are imposed. Division 2 is not pressure limited but has other severe
restrictions.
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Figure 10.a: Typical Pressure Vessel Datasheet
232
Figure 10.b: Typical Pressure Vessel Datasheet (cont’)
233
Figure 10.c: Typical Pressure Vessel Datasheet (cont’)
234
b. Procurement:
After the design state, the next step is procurement materials (steels, internal components....) for the
fabrication of vessel.
Delivery of completed vessel, to a large extent, depends on the delivery of its components.
Some materials/components can be sourced within relatively short-time (4-6 weeks) like CS Steel or even
stainless steel 316 but clad plates usually have the longer delivery (around 18-24 weeks).
Some specialty, especially the internal components like Heater, Vortex Breaker, Liquid Distributor…etc, can
only be sourced from specialist like EXHEAT (http://www.exheat.com/) or RHINE RUHR
(http://www.rhineruhr.com.au/), CDS, etc. Delivery of these components can takes from 2-6 months
depending on the specs.
c. Fabrication of Vessels:
The different components that are normally encountered in the fabrication of a pressure vessel are:
1. Heads or dished ends (made from steel plates by rolling/bending)

2. Shell (body of the vessel) (made from steel plates by rolling/bending)
3. Cones or reducers (made from steel plates by rolling/bending)
4. Piping materials (gaskets, elbows, other fittings, pipes…etc)
5. Internal components (vortex breakers, filters, heater…etc)
6. Attachments like nozzles, manholes, saddle supports, skirt supports, leg supports, trunnions, lifting lugs
and ladder supports, etc.
Figure 11: Typical Pressure Vessel Components
Some notes in fabrication of vessels:
1. Materials shall be specified by purchaser and their designation indicated on the shop drawings. Material
shall not be substituted for those specified without prior written approval of purchaser.
2. The thickness of plate used for shell and heads shall be ¼” minimum.
3. Manufacturer’s welding procedure and qualification records shall be submitted for approval upon receipt
of purchase order. Welding shall not be performed prior to purchaser’s approval of welding procedure
235
and qualification. All welding shall be done by the metallic shielded arc or the submerged arc welding
process.
4. Longitudinal seams in cylindrical or conical shells, all seams in spherical shells and built-up heads shall
be located to clear openings, their reinforcing pads, and saddle wear plates. Circumferential seams of
shell shall be located to clear opening, their reinforcing pads, tray and insulation support rings, and
saddle wear plates.
5. Skirts: Vertical vessels shall be provided with a skirt which shall have an outside diameter equal to the
outside diameter of the supported vessel. The minimum thickness for a skirt shall be ¼”. Skirts shall be
provided within a minimum of two 2” vent hole located as high as possible 1800 apart. Skirts 4 feet in
diameter and less shall have one access opening; larger than 4 feet diameter skirts shall have two 18”
O.D access openings reinforced with sleeves.
6. Base rings shall be designed for an allowable bearing pressure on concrete of 625psi.
7. Anchor bolt chairs or lug rings shall be used where required and in all cases where vessel height
exceeds 60 feet. The number of anchor bolts shall be in multiples of 4; a minimum of 8 is preferred.
8. Saddle: Horizontal vessels shall be supported by saddles, preferably by only two whenever possible.
Saddles shall be welded to the vessel, except when specifically ordered to be shipped loose. Saddles to
be shipped loose shall be fitted to the vessel and match-marked for field installation. The shop drawing
shall bear detailed instruction concerning this.
9. Opening of 2” and smaller shall be 6000lb forged steel full or half coupling. Opening 2 ½” and larger shall
be flanged. Flanges shall conform to Standard ANSI B16.5-1973. When covers are to be provided for
openings according to the purchaser’s requisition, manufacturer shall furnish the required gaskets and
studs; these shall not be used for testing the vessel. Manway covers shall be provided with davits.
Coupling threads must be clean and free from defects after installation.
10. Internals: Trays shall be furnished by tray fabricator and installed by vessel manufacturer. Tray support
rings and downcomer bolting bars shall be furnished and installed by vessel manufacturer. Removable
internal shall be made in sections which can be removed through the manways.
11. Appurtenances: Vessels provided with manways, liquid level controls or relief valves 12 feet above
grade, shall be equipped with caged ladders and platforms. Ladder and platform lugs shall be shop-
welded to the vessel. Where vertical vessels require insulation, fabricator shall furnish and install support
rings. Reinforcing rings may also be utilized in supporting insulation.
Priority of Fabrication:
The fabrication of heads and cones is considered to be more difficult than that of shells due to the difficulty in
controlling the dimension of these two items (whereas the dimensions of shell sections, for example, can be
controlled precisely.) For this reason, if the vessel has dished ends or cones, they should be made first and
shells are made later to suit these heads and cones.
Cladding requirement/Benzona Coating:

If the fluid that pressure vessels contain is exotic or highly corrosive, it is quite oftent that the inside of
vessels need to be cladded or lining with a thin layer of anti-corrosive materials, normally stainless steel layer
(SS316 internal cladding/lining). SS316L cladding is required in most of PTSC projects (like Bunga Orkid,
STT, BD1….). The cladding technique is relatively special that not many fabricators can do. In addition the
delivery of cladded vessel is also longer than normal pressure vessels since delivery of claded plates are
long-lead (normally 18-24 weeks). An alternative to cladding is Benzona coating inside of vessels.
Material Identification:
For the manufacture of any component, the first step is to identify the material to be used for the job. For this
the material test certificate (Mill Cert) of the intended material is essential.
Fabrication process:
The basic fabrication process adopted for the fabrication of the vessel is forming. Forming is the process by
which the size or shape of the part is changed by application of force that produces stresses in the part
which are greater than the yield strength and less than the fracture strength. Depending on the temperature
during fabrication, it is categorized as hot, warm, or cold forming. The manufacturing processes that fall
under the forming operation specifically used in the pressure vessel manufacturing are pressing, spinning,
and bending (rolling as sometimes we call it), Figure 12.
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Fabrication of Heads
For vessels of small and medium diameters ellipsoidal heads are used most commonly, while large diameter
vessels are usually built with hemispherical or flanged and dished heads. Heads may be of seamless or
welded construction.
Plat End: Plate ends are usually made by forging. In that case it is a bought-out item and is to be subjected
to raw material inspection upon the receipt.
Semi-Ellipsoidal Dished Ends: this is the most commonly used type of dished end in the pressure vessel
industry. Dished ends are manufactured by cold or hot pressing and in a combination process of pressing
and spinning. Dished ends of comparatively smaller size and lower thickness, diameter up to around 700 mm
with thickness over 10mm, are made by either cold pressing or hot pressing, whereas all larger dished ends
are made by combination process of both pressing and subsequent spinning.
Hemispherical Dished Ends and Torispherical Dished Ends: the manufacturing method is same like Semi-
Ellipsoidal dished ends.
Figure 12: Schematic diagram of plate bending
Fabrication of Cones or Reducers:

Cones are produced by two methods. When the bevel angle is comparatively small and the diameter is
comparatively large, it can be made in a plate bending machine by independently adjusting the pressure
rollers at both ends of the bending machine. In some cases, the cone has to be made in one piece. This
depends mainly on the available plate size, machine capacity, etc.
When the thickness of the cone is larger and the diameter is smaller, cones are made by pressing. The
pressing is carried out using matching male and female dies either in full length or in pieces depending on
the machine capacity. In both methods, the manufacture of eccentric cones is much more difficult then
concentric cones and hence they are made in two halves, provided the machine capacity permits.
Fabrication of Subassemblies:
Nozzles: usually a nozzle consists of a self-reinforced forged nozzle neck or a seamless pipe piece welded
to a weld neck flange.
Manholes: All pressure vessel for use with compressed air and those subject to internal corrosion, erosion or
mechanical abrasion, shall be provided with suitable manhole, handhole, or other inspection opening for
examination and cleaning. The required inspection openings shown in the table below are selected from the
237
alternatives allowed by the Code, UG-46, as they are considered to be the most economical. Usually the
pipe section used for manholes shall be a fabricated pipe from plate.
Inside Diameter of Vessel Required Manhole Diameter

Over 12” and less than 18” Two 1 ½” pipe size threaded opening
18” to 36” inclusive Min. 15” in I.D. manhole or two 2” pipe size threaded opening
Over 36” Min. 15” I.D. manhole or two 6” pipe size nozzle
Location of Saddles: The use of only two saddles is preferred both statically and economically over the
multiple support system, this is true even if the use of stiffener rings is necessary. The location of saddles is
sometimes determined by the location of operating, sumps, etc., in the bottom of vessel. If this is not the
case, then the saddles can be placed at the statically optimal point. Thin walled vessels with a large diameter
are best supported near the heads, so as to utilize the stiffening effect of the heads. Long thick walled
vessels are best supported where the maximum longitudinal bending stress at the saddles is nearly equal to
the stress at the midspan. This point varies with the contact angle of the saddles. The distance between the
head tangent line and the saddle shall in no case be more than 0.2 times the length of the vessel.
Assembly of Shells, Heads and Cones:

The next steps is to assemble various sections: Shell to Shell, Shell to Head and Shell to Cone
Fit-up of subassemblies and internal components:
After the assembly of Shells, Heads and Cones is the fit-up of subassemblies (nozzles, manholes, and other
items like saddles, leg, lifting lug, ladders, pipe support….) and internal components.
Test Separator, Cutting Test Separator, Cutting Test Separator, Nozzle fit-up and
welding
Nozzle Nozzle Nozzle fit-up and welding
Test Separator, Nozzle fit-up Test Separator, Nozzle fit-up and Test Separator, Nozzle fit-up and
welding welded
238
Test, Separator, Internal Weir Test Separator, Internal Items fit-up Test Separator, Dish Head fit-up
Plate Welding and welding and welding
Flare Scrubber preparation for

Flare Scrubber, Nozzle fit-up Flare Scrubber, Nozzle fit-up and hydro-test
grinding
Test Separator after painting Test Separator after painting
Dimensional Control:
Dimensional control is of paramount important in manufacturing of pressure vessel. All dimensions of Heads,
Shell, Cones as required under ASME code shall be checked and recorded in the dimension/gauging report
as part of final QC acceptance.
Welding:
For carrying out any welding on a pressure vessel, an approved welding procedure specification (WPS) is an
essential requirement, and all the welders involved vessel have to be qualified as per ASME Section IX.
Destructive and Nondestructive Testing:

Destructive and nondestructive testing (DT and NDT) requirement are based on the ASME code
requirements and also on the basis of specific requirements for the project (usually found in datasheet or
specification).
Destructive Testing: the usual destructive testing envisaged by the code is impact testing. A minimum of 3
tests shall be performed and the average value may be considered for acceptance. These tests are to be
carried out on specimen taken from weld, heat-affected zone (HAZ), and base metal. The test will be done in
the presence of the concerned engineer or the third party inspector as needed, the results will be recorded
as QC documentation.
239
Nondestructive Testing: the most commonly deployed method of NDT in manufacture of pressure vessel is
radiographic testing (RT); there are only three categories of NDT requirement, namely, full NDT, spot NDT or
nil. This decision basically depends on the service, thickness, and joint efficiency used in the design.
Other NDT methods like Ultrasonic Testing (UT), Magnetic Particle Examination/Test (MPT), Liquid
Penetrant Examination (LPT), the basic requirements and acceptance shall be as per ASME code. All NDT
tests need to be witnessed by inspector and proper recorded as final documentation.
Hydrostatic Testing of Pressure Vessel:

After satisfactory completion of fabrication, assembly, welding, NDT….all shop fabricated pressure vessels
shall undergo a final hydrostatic test at the pressure mentioned in the specification. The hydrostatic test
pressure shall be maintained for an adequate time to permit a thorough inspection, in any case not less than
30 minutes.
Certification (U-Stamp and S-Stamp):

Any fabricator wants to be recognized as fabricator of pressure vessel in accordance with ASME code need
to be certified by ASME. After receiving ASME certification, the qualified fabricator is entitled to stamp on his
vessel the ASME U-Stamp (for pressure vessel) or S-Stamp (for power boiler).
PTSC M&C got U-Stamp and S-Stamp in early 2009. Below are list of pressure vessels with certification and
cladding capability:
Vendor Name U-Stamp Certified Cladding Capability Experience with PTSC

Alpha ECC Yes No Test Separator for SDA
VAM No No TGT
Technip Offshore Yes Yes STDNE
Petra Yes Yes Bunga Orkid, TGT
Oakwell Yes Yes Ruby-B
Applied Engineering Yes Yes No
KNM Yes Yes No
S&W Yes Yes No
Jurong Engineering Yes Yes No
Cameron Japan Ltd Yes Yes Bien Dong 1
Sungjin Geotec Co., Ltd Yes Yes Bien Dong 1
Final Reports:
Before the vessel is ready for shipment the manufacturer shall furnish purchaser copies or reproducible
transparency each of the following reports:
1. Manufacturer’s data report;
2. Shop drawings showing the vessel and dimension “as built”;
3. Photos copies of recording charts showing pressure during hydrostatic test;
4. Photos copies of recording charts showing temperature during post-weld heat treatment;
5. Rubbing of name plate
Loading of vessel to truck
240
The below flow chart depicts a typical sequence in production of horizontal type pressure vessel:
241
4. Typical Delivery Time of Pressure Vessel:
Delivery of pressure vessel depends on many factors, such as type of vessel (process or utility vessels),
vessel size, design (thickness, temperature/pressure rating), cladding requirement, certification…etc
Description Clad Steel Carbon Steel
Design for Purchasing of Major Plate 4 weeks 4 weeks
Lead time for Major Plate 24 weeks 12 weeks
Fabrication at work shop (include internal) 12 weeks 12 weeks
Total 40 weeks 28 weeks
5. Code, Standard and Classification:
As above mentioned, the most important and popular standard regulates the fabrication of pressure vessels
is ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII Div (1) and its subsequent addenda. In addition
Ameriance Petroleum Institute (API) also provides standards for certain types of vessels.
a. Atmospheric Tanks/Utility Vessel: Storage tank which has been designed to operate at pressures from
atmospheric through 0.5 psi. Atmospheric Tanks may be built in accordance with:
1) Underwriters’ Laboratories, Inc. Standards;
2) American Petroleum Institute Standards No.12A, No.650, No.12B, No.12D & No.12F.
b. Low Pressure Tanks/Utility Vessel: Storage tank which has been designed to operate at pressures
above 0.5 psi but not more than 15 psi. Low Pressure Tanks may be built in accordance with:
1) American Petroleum Institute Standards No.620;
2) ASME Code for Pressure Vessels, Section VIII.
c. Pressure Vessel: Storage tank or vessel which has been designed to operate at pressures above 15 psi,
in accordance with the ASME Code for Pressure Vessels, Section VIII.
6. Commercial Section:
Price of pressure vessel depends on many factors, such as type of vessel (process or utility vessels), vessel
size, design (thickness, temperature/pressure rating), cladding or benzona coating requirement,
certification…etc
As a rule of thumb, the Costing Allocation for components of pressure vessels is:
 Vessel fabrication/materials accounts for around 70-75% of package value;
 Internal components accounts for around 30-25% of package value.
Popular Pressure Vessel Vendors:
 Applied Engineering Pte Ltd

 Sunjin Geotec Co., Ltd
 KNM Process Systems Sdn Bhd
 Cameron Japan Ltd
 Technics Offshore Engineering Pte Ltd
 Oakwell Engineering Limited
 Profab
 PVD Tech
 Alpha ECC
 PTSC M&C
242
 Petra
 Best Wide
Popular Internal Vendors:
 Peerless Mfg. Co.

 CDS Asia Pacific
 Cameron Japan Ltd
 Frames Process Systems B.V.
Benzona Coating Vendors:
 Worldwide Polymer Services Pte Ltd

 VivaBlast (Vietnam)
 Trim Systems Pte Ltd
Cladding Vendors:
 JWS (Japan) – manufacturer of clad plate

 Weld Tec- Hà nội
 Welding Alloys VietNam
243
Buyer Guide - Section 11 – Pumps

1. Definition of Pump;
2. How Pump Works;
3. Classification of Pumps;
4. Industry Specification;
5. Major Vendors and Suppliers
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1. Definition of Pump:
Pumps are equipment used to transfer liquids from low-pressure zones to high pressure zones. Pumps are
also used to move liquids from a low elevation into a higher elevation, and to move liquids from one place to
another or to accelerate liquids through pipes.
2. How Pump Works?
The fluid arrives at the pump suction nozzle as it flows through the suction piping. The fluid must be available
to the pump with sufficient energy so that the pump can work with the fluid’s energy. The pump cannot suck
on or draw the liquid into the pump.
Inside the pump body the fluid is then added energy by centrifugal or reciprocating force and expelled
outside at discharge nozzle

Suction Nozzle
Discharge Nozzle
Suction Piping
Motor (Driver)
Figure 1: Pumps moving liquid from low elevation to higher elevation
Pumps and Compressors
 Both pumps and compressors move a fluid from one energy level to
another.
 A pump moves an incompressible fluid - a liquid. For our purposes, the

volume of a liquid does not change with pressure and temperature.
 A compressor moves a compressible fluid - a gas or air. The volume of a

gas changes with pressure, temperature and gas composition.
 The principles of dynamic machines apply both to pumps and

compressors. However, since gases are compressible, the volume flow
rate and hence the gas velocity in a passage is affected.
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2.1 Operating Principle based on centrifugal force
As mentioned above, pumps transfer the liquid by adding energy to liquid either by centrifugal or reciprocating
force.
The basic principle of Centrifugal Pump (Bơm Ly Tâm) is the rotating member inside the casing of a
centrifugal pump provides rapid rotary motion to the mass of water contained in the casing. That means the
water is forced out of the housing through the discharge outlet by means of centrifugal force. The vacuum
created thereby enables atmospheric pressure to force more water into the casing through the inlet opening.
This process continues as long as motion is provided to the rotor, and as long as a supply of water is
available. In the centrifugal pump, vanes or impellers rotating inside a close-fitting housing draw the liquid into
the pump through a central inlet opening, and by means of centrifugal force the liquid is thrown outward
through a discharge outlet at the periphery of the housing.

Figure 2: Centrifugal Pump – Basic Principle
Figure 2 show the basic principle of centrifugal pump operation. If a cylindrical can with vanes A and C (for
rotating the liquid when the can is rotated) is mounted on a shaft with a pulley for rotating the can at high
speed, centrifugal force acts on the water (rotating at high speed) to press the water outward to the walls of
the can. This causes the water to press outward sharply.
Since it cannot move beyond the walls of the can, pressure forces the water upward, causing it to overflow as
the water near the center of the can is drawn downward. Atmospheric pressure forces the water downward,
since a vacuum is created near the center as the water moves outward toward the sides of the can. It can be
noted in Figure 2 that the water has been lifted a distance DD
2.2 Operating Principle based on reciprocating force

246

A reciprocating positive displacement pump is one in which a plunger or piston displaces a given volume of
fluid for each stroke (pumps that increase liquid energy by a pulsating action). The basic principle of a
reciprocating pump is that a solid will displace an equal volume of liquid. For example, when an ice cube is
dropped into a glass of water, the volume of water that spills out of the glass is equal to the submerged
volume of the ice cube
In Figure 3, a cylindrical solid, a plunger, has displaced its volume from the large container to the small
container. The volume of the displaced fluid (B) is equal to the plunger volume (A). The volume of the
displaced fluid equals the product of the cross-sectional area of the plunger and the depth of submergence.
Figure 3: Reciprocating Pump – Basic Principle
Figure 4: Reciprocating Pump – Basic Principle
3. Classification of Pumps
There are many ways to classify pump. Pumps may be classified on the basis of the applications they serve,
the materials from which they are constructed, the liquids they handle, the specification (API Pumps or non-
API/ANSI pumps) and even their orientation in space (vertical or in-line pumps)…etc.
All pumps may be divided into two major categories: (1) dynamic, in which energy is continuously added to
increase the fluid velocities within the machine to values greater than those occurring at the discharge such
that subsequent velocity reduction within or beyond the pump produces a pressure increase, and (2)
displacement, in which energy is periodically added by application of force to one or more movable
247

boundaries of any desired number of enclosed, fluid-containing volumes, resulting in a direct increase in
pressure up to the value required to move the fluid through valves or ports into the discharge line.
Figure 5: Types of Pumps
Figure 6: A comparison between Dynamic and Positive Displacement Pumps
3.1 Dynamic Pumps
Dynamic Pumps transfer the liquid by increasing pressure using rotary blades to increase fluid velocity. The
centrifugal pump is the most common kind of dynamic pump, consists basically of a rotating device, called
an impeller, inside a casing. The fluid to be pumped enters the casing near the shaft of the impeller. Vanes
attached to the spinning impeller give the fluid a high velocity so that it can move through an outlet.
248

Figure 7: Centrifugal Pumps – Operating Principle
Bearing
Discharge
Casing
Coupling
Vanes
Shaft
Suction Impeller
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3.1.1 General Components of Centrifugal Pumps:
Regardless of the degree of pump performance optimization, the availability and reliability of any pump
depends on the quality of its mechanical design and manufacture. Understanding the function of each
mechanical component is essential in properly specifying, maintaining and operating any pump.
A centrifugal pump has three main components:
1. A rotating component comprised of an impeller and a shaft

2. A stationary component comprised of a casing, casing cover, bearings and stuffing-box/mechanical
seal.
3. Pump Driver
The general components, both stationary and rotary, are depicted in Figure 8. The main components are
discussed in brief below.
Figure 8: Centrifugal Pump Components
3.1.1.1 Rotating Components includes:
a. Impeller: The impeller is the main rotating part that provides the centrifugal acceleration to the fluid.
The efficiency of a centrifugal pump is determined by the type of impeller. The vanes and other details are
designed to meet a given set of operating conditions. The number of vanes may vary from one to eight, or
more, depending on the type of service, size, and so on.
In the first practical centrifugal pump, the vane was straight (radial) vanes. Curved vanes were first used by
Appold in England in 1849. Figure 9 shows the straight and curved vanes.
Figure 9:
straight
and
curved
vanes
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Impellers are often classified in many ways.
 Based on major direction of flow in

reference to the axis of rotation
 Radial flow
 Axial flow
 Mixed flow
 Based on suction type

 Single-suction: Liquid inlet on one side.
 Double-suction: Liquid inlet to the
impeller symmetrically from both sides.
 Based on mechanical construction (Figure

10)
 Closed: Shrouds or sidewall enclosing
the vanes.
 Open: No shrouds or wall to enclose
Figure 10: Impeller type.
the vanes.
 Semi-open or vortex type.
The axial-flow type of impeller (see Figure 11) is used to obtain a flow of liquid in the direction of the axis of
rotation. These propeller-type impellers are designed to handle a large quantity of water at no lift and at low
head in services such as irrigation, excavation, drainage, sewage, etc. The pumping element must be
submerged at all times. This type of pump is not suitable for pumping that involves a lift.

Figure 11: Propeller-type impeller used to obtain
axial flow.
Figure 12 (B) shows a single-vane semi-open impeller. This type of vane is adapted to special types of
industrial pumping problems that require a rugged pump for handling liquids containing fibrous materials and
some solids, sediment, or other foreign materials in suspension
The open type of vane is suited for liquids that contain no foreign matter or material that may lodge between
the impeller and the stationary side plates. Liquids containing some solids (such as those found in sewage or
drainage, where there is a limited quantity of sand or grit) may be handled by the open type of vane.
In addition to the open and semi-open types of impellers, the enclosed or shrouded type of impeller may be
used (see Figure 12 (C)), depending on the service, desired efficiency, and cost. The enclosed type of
impeller is designed for various types of applications. The shape and the number of vanes are governed by
the conditions of service. It is more efficient, but its initial cost is also higher. Shrouded impellers do not
require wearing plates. The enclosed impeller reduces wear to a minimum, ensures full-capacity operation
251

with initially high efficiency for a prolonged period of time, and does not clog, because it does not depend on
close operating clearances.
Figure 12: Several types of impellers: (a) open, (b) semi-open, and (c) enclosed.
The impeller may be further classified as single suction or double suction type. The term single and double
suction defines the number of inlets to the impeller. A single suction type has one (1) inlet and a double
suction type has two (2) inlets
Number of vanes/blades as well as the shape of curves needs to be calculated and designed by engineers
based on required working conditions
b. Shaft
The basic purpose of a centrifugal pump shaft is to transmit the torques encountered when starting and during
operation while supporting the impeller and other rotating parts. It must do this job with a deflection less than
the minimum clearance between the rotating and stationary parts.
Shaft Sleeve (Figure 13): Pump shafts are

usually protected from erosion, corrosion,
and wear at the seal chambers, leakage
joints, internal bearings, and in the
waterways by renewable sleeves. Unless
otherwise specified, a shaft sleeve of wear,
corrosion, and erosion resistant material
shall be provided to protect the shaft. The
sleeve shall be sealed at one end. The
shaft sleeve assembly shall extend beyond
the outer face of the seal gland plate.
(Leakage between the shaft and the sleeve
should not be confused with leakage
through the mechanical seal). Figure 13: A view of a shaft sleeve
c. Coupling
A coupling is used wherever there is a need to connect a prime mover to a piece of driven machinery. The
principal purpose of a coupling is to transmit rotary motion and torque from one piece of equipment to
another. Couplings may perform other secondary functions, such as accommodating misalignment between
shafts, compensating for axial shaft movement, and helping to isolate vibration, heat, and electrical eddy
currents from one shaft to another.
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Couplings can compensate for axial growth of the shaft and transmit torque to the impeller. Shaft couplings
can be broadly classified into two groups: rigid and flexible.
Rigid couplings are used to connect machines where it is desired to maintain shafts in precise alignment.
They are also used where the rotor of one machine is used to support and position the other rotor in a drive
train. Because a rigid coupling cannot accommodate misalignment between shafts, precise alignment of
machinery is necessary when one is used. Rigid couplings are used in applications where there is absolutely
no possibility or room for any misalignment.
Figure 14 depicts one type of rigid couplings. It consists of two flanged rigid members, each mounted on one
of the connected shafts. The flanges are provided with a number of bolt holes for the purpose of connecting
the two half-couplings. Through proper design and installation of the coupling, it is possible to transmit the
torque load entirely through friction from one flange to the other, which assures that the flange bolts do not
experience a shearing stress. This type of arrangement is especially desirable for driving systems where
torque oscillations occur, as it avoids subjecting the flange bolts to a shearing stress
Figure 14: Flanged Rigid Coupling
Flexible couplings accomplish the primary purpose of transmitting a driving torque between prime mover and
driven machine. In addition, they perform a second important function: they accommodate unavoidable
misalignment between shafts. A proliferation of designs exists for flexible couplings, which may be classified
into two types: mechanically flexible and materially flexible (elastomeric and non-elastomeric).
Figure 15: Gear-type mechanically flexible coupling
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3.1.1.2 Stationary components include casing, casing cover, and bearings:
a. Casing or housing surrounding the rotating member
In the centrifugal pump, water enters through the inlet opening in the center of the impeller, where it is set in
rotation by the revolving blades of the impeller. The rotation of the water, in turn, generates centrifugal force,
resulting in a pressure at the outer diameter of the impeller; when flow takes place, the water passes outward
from the impeller at high velocity and pressure into the gradually expanding passageway of the housing and
through the discharge connection to the point where it is used
Figure 16: Singe Casing Volute Form
For this reason the velocity of water after passing from the impeller is converted to pressure energy by means
of a volute (see Figure 16) or by a set of stationary diffusion vanes surrounding the impeller periphery. Pumps
with volute casings are generally called volute pumps, while those with diffusion vanes are called diffuser
pumps. Diffuser pumps were once quite commonly called turbine pumps, but this term has become more
selectively applied to the vertical deep-well centrifugal diffuser pumps usually referred to as vertical turbine
pumps. Figure 16 shows the path of the liquid passing through an end-suction volute pump operating at rated
capacity (the capacity at which best efficiency is obtained).
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The absolute velocity of the liquid at the impeller discharge is an important parameter in pump casing design.
The casing is usually a two-piece casting split on a horizontal or diagonal plane, with inlet and discharge
openings cast integrally with the lower portion. The diagonally split casing or housing (see Figure 18) permits
easy removal of internal parts. The discharge and suction piping need not be disturbed.
Figure 19 shows the offset-volute design of casing. This type of casing also features top-centerline discharge.
It also has self-venting and back pullout.

Figure 17: Horizontal split casing Figure 18: diagonally split casing
Figure 19: diagonally split, offset volute casing
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In volute casing pumps, by observing Figure 20, we see that the liquid enters into the suction nozzle at Point
1 and flows toward the impeller eye at Point 2. The blades of the impeller trap and accelerate the fluid velocity
at Point 3. As the fluid leaves the impeller, its velocity approaches the tip speed of the impeller blades. The
volute at Point 4 is shaped like an ever increasing spiral. When the liquid moves at high speed from the close
tolerance in the blades to the open spiral volute channel with its ever increasing area, the velocity energy of
the liquid is converted into head or pressure energy. With the fluid accumulating its highest pressures at
Points 4, the cutwater then directs the fluid to the discharge nozzle at Point 5.
Figure 20: Volute Casing
Volute pumps design can be further classified as single volute, double-volute, triple or quad-volute casing
A double-volute casing design is actually two single-volute designs combined in an opposed arrangement.
The total throat area of the two volutes is to that which would be used on a compatible single volute design.
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In case of diffusion casing (turbine pumps), the liquid leaves the impeller at a high velocity and is collected by
a stationary vanes instead of volute. In a diffusion pump, stationary guide vanes called diffusion vanes
surround the impeller. The change of flow direction and conversion of velocity head to pressure head occurs
in the diffusion vanes.
Figure 21: Diffusion Centrifugal Pump
b. Bearing
Bearings provide support for the rotating element. They are required to carry radial and axial loads
Basic types of bearing include:
 Anti-friction
 Hydrodynamic ring oil lubricated
 Hydrodynamic pressure lubricated
c. Stuffing-box/Mechanical Seal
The part of the pump that is exposed to the atmosphere and through which passes the rotating shaft or
reciprocating rod is called the stuffing box. A properly sealed stuffing box prevents the escape of pumped
liquid. Mechanical seals are commonly specified for centrifugal pump applications (Refer to Figure 22).
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Figure 22: Stuffing-box and sealing system
The mechanical seal is comprised of two basic components:
 Stationary member fastened to the casing

 Rotating member fastened to shaft, either direct or with shaft sleeve
The mating faces of each member perform the sealing. The mating surface of each component is highly
polished and they are held in contact with a spring or bellows which results in a net face loading closure force
In order to meet the objective of seal design (prevent fluid escape to the atmosphere), additional seals are
required. These seals are either 'O' rings, gaskets or packing
3.1.1.3 Pump Driver:
Pump shaft must be rotated or in other word pumps must be powered by separate machine call driver. Pumps
driver could be motors (electric), turbine (gas or steam) or engine (diesel or gas).
258

Figure 23: Pump Driver
3.1.2 Types of Dynamic Pumps:
Dynamic pumps can be either single-stage or multi-stage
A pump stage is defined as that portion of a centrifugal pump consisting of one impeller and its associated
components
The first centrifugal pump was a single-stage pump, with a single impeller capable of taking suction from only
one side of the impeller (single-suction/single-inlet). Current single-stage pump technology incorporates a
superior impeller design with suction entry on both sides of a single impeller (double-suction design/double-
inlet) providing axial balance of the impeller.
A more economical approach to developing high pressures with a single centrifugal pump is to include
multiple impellers on a common shaft within the same pump casing. Internal channels in the pump casing
route the discharge of one impeller to the suction of another impeller. The illustration below shows a diagram
of the arrangement of the impellers of a four-stage pump. The water enters the pump from the top left and
passes through each of the four impellers in series, going from left to right. The water goes from the volute
surrounding the discharge of one impeller to the suction of the next impeller.
A two-stage pump has two impellers operating side by side on a common shaft by design, which gives the
operator a choice of selecting a volume or pressure. Incorporated into this design is a transfer valve
(changeover) which the operator selects a volume or pressure position at his discretion. A two-stage pump,
by design, can attain higher pressures than a single-stage pump and in many cases can attain as high as 600
PSI.

Figure 24: Multi-stage pump 259

Popular types of Dynamic Pumps include:
a. Single stage overhung pump
The single stage overhung pump design shown in Figure 25 is probably the most widely used in the industry.
Its construction incorporates an impeller affixed to a shaft: which has its center of gravity located outside the
bearing support system.
Figure 25: Single stage, overhung centrifugal pump
b. Single stage inline
This type of pump is finding increased usage in applications of low head, flow and horsepower. Refer to
Figure 26 below
Figure 26: Single Stage, Inline pump

260

The advantage of this pump design is that it can be mounted vertically (inline) between pipe flanges and does
not require a baseplate. A concrete, grouted support plate however, is strongly recommended. It should be
noted that many inline designs do not incorporate bearings in the pump and rely on a rigid coupling to
maintain pump and motor shaft alignment.
c. Integral gear centrifugal
This type of pump is used for low flow applications requiring high head. Refer to Figure 2.14. The pump case
design is similar to the inline, but incorporates pump bearings and an integral gear to increase impeller
speeds over 30,000.
Figure 27: Integral Gear Centrifugal
d. Single stage double flow between bearings
As the name implies, double suction impellers are mounted on between-bearing rotors as shown in Figure 28.
In this kind of pump, impeller is designed with suction entry on both sides of a single impeller (double-suction
design as explained above) providing axial balance of the impeller.
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Figure 28: Singe-stage, double-suction pump
e. Multistage horizontal split
When the hydraulic limits of a single stage pump are exceeded, it is common practice to use a multistage
pump shown in Figure 29. (Multi-stage pump is explained in section 3.1.2 above)
Figure 29: Multi-stage pump
262

f. Multistage barrel pumps
The so called barrel casing design is shown in Figure 30.
Figure 30: Multi-stage, barrel centrifugal pump
263

g. Submersible pumps
This type of pump consists of an electric motor driver is coupled directly to the impeller/bowl assembly (see
Figure 31). All components are designed to be submerged in the pumped fluid. In the past, this type of pump
did not find widespread use in the refining and petrochemical industry. However, with increasing
environmental restrictions, this type of pump is being used more frequently in the refining and petrochemical
industry.
Figure 31: Submersible pump
264

Table below provides application limits of various types of dynamic pumps
3.2 Positive Displacement Pumps (PD Pumps)
As mentioned in the above section 2.2, Positive Displacement Pumps transfer the liquid by increasing pressure
operating on a fixed volume in a confined space. Reciprocating pump is the common kind of positive
displacement pumps; it moves a fluid by using a piston that travels back and forth in a cylinder with valves to
help control the flow direction.
All reciprocating pumps have a fluid-handling portion, commonly called the liquid end, that has:
1. A displacing solid called a plunger or piston

2. A container to hold the liquid, called the liquid cylinder
3. A suction check valve to admit fluid from the suction pipe into the liquid cylinder
4. A discharge check valve to admit flow from the liquid cylinder into the discharge pipe
5. Packing to seal the joint between the plunger and the liquid cylinder tightly to prevent liquid from leaking
out of the cylinder and air from leaking into the cylinder
Figure 32: Schematic of reciprocating pump during suction stroke

Figure 33: Schematic of reciprocating pump during discharge stroke
265

Figure 34: Slider-crank mechanism

Figure 35: Schematic of a double-acting liquid end
The pumping cycle just described is that of a single-acting reciprocating pump. It is called single-acting
because it makes only one suction stroke and only one discharge stroke in one reciprocating cycle – see
figure 32 & 33 above.
Many reciprocating pumps are double-acting; that is, they make two suctions and two discharge strokes for
one complete reciprocating cycle (Figure 35). Most double-acting pumps use as the displacing solid a piston
that is sealed to a bore in the liquid cylinder or to a liquid cylinder liner by pistons with packing. It has two
suction and two discharge valves, one of each on each side of the piston. The piston is moved by a piston
rod. The piston rod packing prevents liquid from leaking out of the cylinder. When the piston rod and piston
are moved in the direction shown, the right side of the piston is on a discharge stroke and the left side of the
piston is simultaneously on a suction stroke. The piston packing must seal tightly to the cylinder liner to
prevent leakage of liquid from the high pressure right side to the low-pressure left side. The piston must be
stopped before it hits the right side of the cylinder. The motion of the piston is then reversed so the left side of
the piston begins its discharge stroke and the right side begins its suction stroke.
3.2.1 PD Pump Construction
A PD Pump normally consists of not only liquid end; it must also have a driving mechanism to provide motion
and force to the plunger or piston – the driving portion is called the “power end” of the pump. The two most
common driving mechanisms are a reciprocating steam engine and a crank-and-throw device. Those pumps
using the steam engine are called direct-acting steam pumps. Those pumps using the crank-and-throw device
are called power pumps. Power pumps must be connected to an external rotating driving force, such as an
electric motor, steam turbine, or internal combustion engine
The liquid end consists of the cylinder, the plunger or piston, the valves, the stuffing box, the manifolds, and
the access covers.
The power end or drive end of a power pump consists of a crankshaft, connecting rods, crossheads, and
bearings, all housed in a rigid structure referred to as the frame. The slider-crank mechanism that converts
rotational driving energy to the reciprocating motion that actuates the pistons or plungers can be found in
reciprocating gas compressors, automotive engines, and stationary and marine engines. However, the stress
loading pattern of power pump components is unique to this type of mechanism. Basic designs are horizontal
and vertical with sleeve or antifriction bearings. Some have integral drive gears.
266

3.2.2 PD Pump Types
PD pump types are power pumps, direct acting steam pumps, diaphragm pumps and metering pumps. All
reciprocating pumps produce pulsations that can cause damage to the pumps and/or process system if the
system is not properly analyzed and designed. Anti-pulsation devices (volume bottles, orifices or pulsation
bottles) are usually required.
a. Power Pump
A picture of a power pump is shown in Figure 36. Power pumps are used normally for high pressure, low flow
applications, typically carbonate, amine service or high pressure water or oil services. They can either be
horizontal or vertical. The major parts of a power pump as shown in Figure 36 include the liquid cylinder with
pistons and rods, the valves and power end. The power end consists of the crankshaft with bearings,
connecting rod and crosshead assembly. It is termed “power pump” because it is driven by an external power
source, such as an electric motor, or internal combustion engine, instead of steam cylinders as in direct-acting
pumps.
267

Shaft
Discharge manifold
Connecting Rod
Crankshaft
Crosshead
Suction manifold
Plunger
Figure 36: power pump
b. Diaphragm pumps
A schematic of a diaphragm pump is shown in Figure 37. Diaphragm pumps are a class of displacement
pumps featuring flexible membranes in combination with check valves that are used to move fluids into and
out of pumping chamber(s). These pumps are used extensively in transfer and metering applications requiring
flows of up to 300 gallons per minute (1150 liters per minute). They are quite versatile, handling a wide variety
of fluids including chemicals, dry powders, food additives, glues, paints, pharmaceutical products, slurries,
tailings, and wastewater. A distinguishing feature of all diaphragm pumps is the absence of seals or packing,
meaning they can be used in applications requiring zero leakage. There are three main categories of
diaphragm pumps: 1) mechanically driven, 2) hydraulically driven, and 3) air-operated.
c. Metering pumps
Figure 37: Diaphragm pump 268

A diaphragm type metering pump or "proportioning' pump is shown in Figure 38. This type of pump is most
commonly used for chemical injection service when it is required to precisely control the amount of chemical
or inhibitor being injected into a flowing process stream. Volume control is provided by varying the effective
stroke length. There are two basic types of metering pumps:
1. Packed plunger pump - the process fluid is in direct contact with the plunger and is used for higher
flow applications.
2. Diaphragm pump - process fluid is isolated from the plunger by means of a hydraulically actuated flat
or shaped diaphragm and is used for lower flow applications or where escape of the pumped liquid to
atmosphere is not acceptable.
Figure 38: Diaphragm type of metering pump
Metering pumps can be furnished with either single or multiple pumping elements.
When the pumped liquid is toxic or flammable, diaphragm pumps can be provided with double diaphragms
with a leak detector to alarm on failure of either diaphragm. The American Petroleum Institute has published
standard 675 which covers the minimum requirements for controlled volume pumps for use in refinery service.
An operation simulation of metering pump can be found at Lewa website:

http://www.lewa.com/main/en/4194/
d. Rotary pumps
There are a number of different types of pumps which are classified as “rotaries”. Rotary pumps are positive
displacement pumps that do not cause pulsation. Rotary pump is liked the reciprocating pump in that it
allows a fluid to fill a space that then decreases in volume, forcing the fluid out of the space. However, unlike
a reciprocating pump, it has no valves and uses one or more rotating components in place of a piston.
Two major kind of rotary pumps are screw pump and gear pump:
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Gear Pumps
Gear pumps belong to a positive displacement rotary group, and are made by enclosing two or more gears in
a close-fitting housing. A driver turns a shaft connected to one of the gears, causing it to rotate. This gear
drives the other gear through the meshing of the teeth of the two gears, just as with power transmission
gears. As the gears rotate, on one side, the teeth are coming out of mesh with each other (see Figure 28). As
a tooth is pulled out of the space between two teeth of the other gear, it creates a vacuum. Since the housing
forms a seal all around the set of gears, the liquid that rushes into this space to fill this void has to come in
through the pump’s suction port. Once the spaces between gear teeth are filled with liquid, the liquid rides in
these pockets, trapped in place by the housing, until it reaches the discharge side of the pump. The liquid
stays in place between the teeth until it reaches the other side of the gear mesh, where the teeth are coming
together. Then, when a tooth from the other gear comes into the space between the teeth, the liquid there is
forced out. Since the housing still forms a seal around the gears, the only place for the displaced liquid to go
is out the pump’s discharge port. The pump thus operates like a conveyor belt, with the pockets of liquid
between the gear teeth being picked up at the gear mesh, carried to the other side, and dropped off at the
other side of the mesh.
There are two basic types of gear pumps: external and internal. External gear pumps usually have two gears
with an equal number of teeth on the outside of each gear. Internal gear pumps have one larger gear with the
teeth turned inward, meshing with a smaller gear with external teeth. If the larger gear has one tooth more
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than the inner gear, the two gears form a seal by themselves. If the larger gear has at least two teeth more
than the smaller gear, then a crescent-shaped projection of the housing goes between the two gears to help
form a seal. The operating principle is the same for all of these types of pumps, and they operate in similar
fashion
Screw Pump
Figure 39 illustrates the screw pump design. Fluid flow is carried axially between the threads of two or more
close clearance rotors so that a fixed volume of fluid is displaced with each revolution. This design is
frequently used for lube and seal service.
Figure 39: Screw Pump
e. Progressing Cavity Pump
The progressing cavity pump is a helical pump belonging to the rotary, positive displacement pump family.
The pump consists of two key components: the rotor and stator. The rotor is a single external helix with a
round cross-section, precision machined from high-strength steel. The stator is a double internal helix molded
of tough, abrasion-resistant, elastomer, permanently bonded within an alloy steel tube. As the rotor turns
within the stator, cavities are formed which progress from the suction to the discharge end of the pump,
conveying the pumped material. The continuous seal between the rotor and the stator helices keeps the fluid
moving steadily at a fixed flow rate proportional to the pump's rotational speed
The meshing of the two forms a series of cavities 180° apart, which progress along the axis of the assembly
as the rotor is rotated. As one cavity decreases in volume, the opposing cavity increases at exactly the same
rate. Therefore, the sum of the two discharges is a constant volume. This results in pulsationless flow from
the pump.
Due to the multiphase and high suction capability of the pump and its ability to convey large quantities of air,
vapor, or gas in a fluid (which may also contain solids), this pump is not usually used in the same way or
considered to be the same as other rotary positive displacement pumps. The progressing cavity pump was
designed as a combination of a rotary pump and a piston pump. It represents an integration of the specific
advantages of both types of pump constructions, such as high pumping flow rates, high pressure capabilities,
minimal pulsation, valveless operation, and excellent pressure stability.
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Rotor Stator
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In addition to the classification in figure 5 and above details, pumps can sometimes be classified as below
Figure 40: alternative pump classification
4. Industry Specification:
In many cases, the pumping application is governed by, or conveniently referenced to some type of industry
specification. The design, construction, rating, and testing of most pumps used in refining and chemical industries are
governed by standards such as API (American Petroleum Institute), ASME (American Society of Mechanical
Engineers), ANSI (American National Standard Institute), NFPA (National Fire Protection Association), PIP (Process
Industry Practices), ISO (International Organization for Standardization), and various other international standards.
The severity of the service in which the pump will be applied, as well as the location of the plant, will determine which
industry standard (or standards) will be used, if any.
Compared with ANSI pump, API pumps are designed to handle more corrosive, high pressure and high temperature
application, for these reasons API is almost exclusive specified for offshore Oil and Gas.
Current API standards cover for the above mentioned types of pumps are:
a) API 610, 10th Edition: Centrifugal pump for Petroleum

b) API 674: Reciprocating pump for Petroleum
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c) API 675 for Controlled Volume Pumps
d) API 676 for Rotary Positive Displacement Pumps/Progress Cavity pumps
ASME/ANSI specification includes:
a) ASME B73.1M: specification for horizontal end suction centrifugal pumps for chemical process
b) ASME B73.2M: specification for vertical inline centrifugal pumps for chemical process
ISO 5199: specification for centrifugal pumps – class 2
5. Major Vendors and Suppliers:
Manufacturers:
Flowserve (http://www.flowserve.com/Products/Pumps/) – API pumps (Centrifugal – overhung, between bearing and

vertical type; DP – Gear, Screw, Reciprocating and multiphase type)
ITT Goulds Pumps (http://www.gouldspumps.com/) – API Pumps (Centrifugal only – overhung, between bearing,
vertical and submersible types)
Clydeunion Pumps (http://www.clydeunion.com/) – API pumps (Reciprocating – power, gear types; Centrifugal –
overhung, between bearing and vertical types)
Sulzer pump (http://www.sulzerpumps.com/desktopdefault.aspx) – API centrifugal pump only
Frank Mohn AS (http://oilandgas.framo.no/) – API centrifugal pumps (Firewater & Submersible pumps)
Packager/Integrator
a. Turbo-Mech
b. Flowserve
c. Western Energy (specialized in firewater pumps)
d. Alpha ECC
e. Oakwell International
f. Petra
g. Bestwide
h. Clydeunion
274
Buyer Guide - Section 12 – Compressors

1. Definition of Compressor
2. Operating Principles and Classification
3. Supporting Equipment in a Compressor System
4. Basic Terminology
5. Industry Specification
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1. Definition of Compressors:
The purpose of compressors is to move air and other gases from place to place. Gases, unlike liquids, are
compressible and require compression devices, which although similar to pumps, operate on somewhat
different principles. Compressors, blowers, and fans are such compression devices.
2. Operating Principles and Classification
Compressor move air and gases by adding mechanical energy to the gases (compress it). There are two
main methods used to compress gas: intermittent and continuous. The intermittent mode of compression is
cyclic in nature, in that a specific quantity of gas is ingested by the compressor, acted upon, and discharged,
before the cycle is repeated. The continuous compression mode is one in which the gas is moved into the
compressor, acted upon, moved through compressors, and discharged without any interruption of the flow at
any point in the process.
Compressors using the intermittent compression mode are referred to as positive displacement compressors,
of which there are two distinct types: reciprocating and rotary. Continuous-type compressors are also
characterized by two major types: dynamic and ejector.
Pumps and Compressors
 Both pumps and compressors move a fluid from one energy level to
another.
 A pump moves an incompressible fluid - a liquid. For our purposes, the

volume of a liquid does not change with pressure and temperature.
 A compressor moves a compressible fluid - a gas or air. The volume of a

gas changes with pressure, temperature and gas composition.
 The principles of dynamic machines apply both to pumps and

compressors. However, since gases are compressible, the volume flow
rate and hence the gas velocity in a passage is affected.
There are three basic designs for compressors:
a. Dynamic
b. Positive displacement
c. Thermal.
Dynamic compressors include centrifugal (radial flow) and axial (straight-line) flow compressors. Dynamic
compressors accelerate airflow by drawing air in axially and spinning it outward (centrifugal compressors) or
in a straight line (axial flow compressors).
Positive displacement compressors include rotary and reciprocating compressors. Positive displacement
compressors compress gas into a smaller volume and discharge it at higher pressures.
Thermal compressors use ejectors to direct high-velocity gas or steam into the process stream, entraining the
gas, then converting the velocity into pressure in a diffuser assembly
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Figure 1: Pumps moving liquid from low elevation to higher elevation
Figure 1: Chart of Compressor Types
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2.1 Dynamic Compressors
In dynamic compressors, energy is transferred from a moving set of blades to the gas. The energy takes the
form of velocity and pressure in the rotating element, with further pressure conversion taking place in the
stationary elements. Because of the dynamic nature of these compressors, the density and molecular weight
have an influence on the amount of pressure the compressor can generate. The dynamic compressors are
further subdivided into three categories, based primarily on the direction of flow through the machine. These
are radial, axial, and mixed flow. The radial-flow, or centrifugal compressor is a widely used compressor and
is probably second only to the reciprocating compressor in usage in the process industry
2.1.1 Centrifugal (radial-flow) Compressors
The operating principles, design and components of centrifugal compressors are similar to those in centrifugal
pumps. Briefly summarized as below:
 Gas enters a centrifugal compressor at the suction inlet and is accelerated radially by moving
impellers.
 Centrifugal compressors have moving elements: drive shaft and impeller.
 The impeller discharges into a circular, narrow chamber called the diffuser
 More sensitive to density and fluid characteristics
 Designed to operate at speeds in excess of 3000 rpm
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 Can be single stage or multistage (refer to pump section for concept of “stage”)
 Single stage – designed for high gas flow rates and low discharge pressure
 Multi stage – designed for high gas flow rates and high discharge pressure
 Can transferring wet product gas (rather than positive displacement)
Figure 2: Centrifugal compressor

Figure 3: Multi-stage centrifugal compressor
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Based on design of casing, centrifugal compressors can be further classified as horizontal or vertical split or
barrel casing design (refer to pumps section for reference),
Based on impeller design, compressors can be classified as overhung or between-bearing. Impellers designs
of these are similar to those in corresponding pump types.
Another common type of compressor is manufactured in an integrally geared configuration. It is basically an

overhung style machine mounted on a gear box and uses the gear pinion shaft extension to mount an
impeller (see Figure 4). The casing is also attached to the gear box. This style is built in both the single and
multistage configuration. The most common form of multistage is the plant air compressor, which also has
intercoolers included as part of machine package.
Figure 4 shows an exploded view of an integrally-geared compressor. It consists of three impellers, the first
located on one pinion, which would have a lower speed than the other pinion that has mounted the remaining
two impellers. This arrangement is common to the plant air compressor. Configurations such as this are used
in process air and gas services
Bull Gear
Vanes & Impeller
Gearbox
Figure 4: Integrally-geared compressor
Figures 5 and 6 depict the two most common forms of in-out arrangements. This arrangement is also referred
to as a compound compressor. In these applications, the flow out of the compressor is taken through an
intercooler and back to the compressor. The arrangement is not limited to cooling because some services use
this arrangement to remove and scrub the gas stream at a particular pressure level. Provision for liquid
removal must be made of one of the gas components reach saturation temperature in the process of cooling.
Figure 6 shows a double-cooled or double compound compressor. This arrangement is used mostly when the
gas being compressed has a temperature limit. The limit may be imposed by the materials of construction or
where the gas becomes more reactive with an increase in temperature and thus sets the limit in a given
application.
280
Figure 5: Diaphragm of an in-out arrangement with intercooling
Figure 5: Diaphragm of an in-out arrangement with intercooling

Figure 6a: Diaphragm of double-flow compressor with 2 inlets
Figure 6: Diaphragm of a double-cooled centrifugal compressor
The arrangement shown in Figure 6a is referred to as a double-flow compressor As indicated in the figure, the
flow enters the case at two points, is compressed by one or more stages at each end, and then enters the
double-flow impeller. The flow passes through each individual section of the double-flow impeller and joins at
the diffuser.
2.1.2 Axial-flow Compressors
Axial compressors are large-volume compressors that are characterized by the axial direction of the flow
passing through the machine. The energy from the rotor is transferred to the gas by blading (see Figure 7).
Typically, the rotor consists of multiple rows of unshrouded blades. Before and after each rotor row is a
stationary (stator) row. For example, a gas particle passing through the machine alternately moves through a
stationary row, then a rotor row, then another stationary row, until it completes the total gas path. A pair of
rotating and stationary blade rows define a stage. One common arrangement has the energy transfer
arranged to provide 50% of the pressure rise in the rotating row and the other 50% in the stationary row. This
design is referred to as 50% reaction.
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Axial compressors are smaller and are significantly more efficient than centrifugal compressors when a
comparison is made at an equivalent flow rating. The exacting blade design, while maintaining structural
integrity, renders this an expensive piece of equipment when compared to centrifugals.
Figure 7: Axial compressor
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Axial Flow Compressors are:
 Normally used for jobs where highest flow and pressure required
 Request twice as many stages as centrifugal perform (8% to 10%)
 Primary application of axial compressors involves transfer of clean gas such as air
 Internal component are sensitive to corrosion, pitting and deposits
 More lighter, more efficient and smaller than centrifugal pumps
 Main purpose is in gas turbine applications
The advantages of axial compressors:
 They have higher efficiency

 They have higher capacity (flow rate)
 They are in smaller size
The disadvantages of axial compressors:
 They limited operating range

 They are more subjected to corrosion
 They are subjected to deposits
 They have higher capital costs
 They have lower heads
2.1.3 Mixed-flow Compressors
The mixed-flow compressor is a relatively uncommon form. At first glance, the mixed-flow compressor very
much resembles the radial-flow compressor. A bladed impeller is used, but the flow path is angular in
direction to the rotor; that is, it has both radial and axial components. Because the stage spacing is wide, the
compressor is used almost exclusively as a single-stage machine. The energy transfer is the same as
described for radial-flow compressors.
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Figure 8: Mixed-flow compressor
2.2 Positive Displacement Compressors
2.2.1 Reciprocating Compressors
The reciprocating compressor is probably the best known and the most widely used of all compressors. It
consists of a mechanical arrangement in which reciprocating motion is transmitted to a piston which is free to
move in a cylinder. The displacing action of the piston, together with the inlet valve or valves, causes a
quantity of gas to enter the cylinder where it is in turn compressed and discharged, Action of the discharge
valve or valves prevents the backflow of gas into the compressor from the discharge line during the next
intake cycle. When the compression takes place on one side of the piston only, the compressor is said to be
single-acting. The compressor is double-acting when compression takes place on each side of the piston.
Configurations consist of a single cylinder or multiple cylinders on a frame. When a single cylinder is used or
when multiple cylinders on a common frame are connected in parallel, the arrangement is referred to as a
single-stage compressor. When multiple cylinders on a common frame are connected in series, usually
through a cooler, the arrangement is referred to as a multistage compressor.
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Figure 9: Reciprocating compressor
The reciprocating compressor is generally in the lower flow end of the compressor spectrum. Inlet flows range
from less than 100 to approximately 10,000 cfm per cylinder. It is particularly well-suited for high pressure
service. One of the highest pressure applications is at a discharge pressure of 40,000 psi. Above
approximately a 1.5-to-l pressure ratio, the reciprocating compressor is one of the most efficient of all
compressors
The reciprocating compressor is a positive displacement, intermittent flow machine and operates at a fixed
volume in its basic configuration. One method of volume variations is by speed modulation. Another, more
common method, is the use of clearance pockets, with or without valve unloading. With clearance pockets,
the cylinder performance is modified. With valve unloading, one or more inlet valves are physically open.
Capacity may be regulated in a single- or double-acting cylinder with single or multiple cylinder configuration.
A unique feature of the reciprocating compressor is the possibility of multiple services on one compressor
frame. On a multistage frame, each cylinder can be used for a separate gas service. For example, one
cylinder may be dedicated to propane refrigeration, while the balance of the cylinders may be devoted to
product gas.
Lubrication of compressor cylinders can be tailored to the application, The cylinders may be designed for
normal hydrocarbon lubricants or can be modified for synthetic lubricants. The cylinder may also be designed
for self lubrication, generally referred to as nonlubed, A compromise lubrication method that uses the
nonlubed design but requires a small amount of lubricant is referred to as the mini-lube system.
An unusual nonlubed compressor is a labyrinth piston compressor, shown in Figure 10. The piston does not
touch the sides of the cylinder that is equipped with a series of circumferential labyrinths operating with close
clearance to the cylinder wall. Efficiency is sacrificed (due to gas bypass) in order to obtain a low
maintenance cylinder. This design is mentioned primarily because it is unique and not widely manufactured.
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Figure 10: labyrinth piston compressor
Another feature necessary to the reciprocating compressor is cylinder cooling. Most process compressors are
furnished with water jackets as an integral part of the cylinder. Alternatively, particularly in the smaller size
compressors, the cylinder can be designed for air cooling
2.2.1.1 Classification
Reciprocating compressors can be classified into several types. One type is the trunk or automotive piston
type (see Figure 11). The piston is connected to a connecting rod, which is in turn connected directly to the
crankshaft. This type of compressor has a single-acting cylinder and is limited to refrigeration service and to
smaller air compressors. Most of the smaller packaged refrigeration system compressors are of this type, The
compressors may be single or multistage. Approximate capacity is 50 tons in water-chilled refrigeration
service and 75 scfm in air service.
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Figure 11: Trunk type reciprocating compressor
The more common type of compressor used in process service is the crosshead type, as shown in Figure 12.
The piston is driven by a fixed piston rod that passes through a stuffing or packing box and is connected to a
crosshead. The crosshead, in turn, is connected to the crankshaft by a connecting rod. In this design, the
cylinder is isolated from the crankcase by a distance piece. A variable length or double distance piece is used
to keep crankcase lubrication from being exposed to the process gas. This design has obvious advantages
for hazardous material. The cylinder can be either single- or double-acting. The double-acting construction
uses both sides of the piston and compresses on both strokes of the piston during one revolution. Except for
very small compressors, most reciprocating compressors furnished to the process industry use the double-
acting configuration.
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Figure 12: Crosshead type reciprocating compressor
2.2.1.2 Arrangement
The trunk type compressor is generally arranged with the cylinder vertical in the basic single-stage
arrangement. In the vertical, "in line," multistage configuration, the number of cylinders is normally limited to
two. Most multi-cylinder arrangements are in pairs in the form of a V, usually at 45° from the vertical. These
compressors usually have up to eight cylinders and are normally used in compressing organic refrigerants.
The few single-acting crosshead compressors are normally single stage machines with vertical cylinders. The
more common double-acting type, when used as a single-stage, commonly has a horizontal cylinder. The
double-acting cylinder compressor is built in both the horizontal and the vertical arrangement. There is
generally a design trade-off to be made in this group of compressors regarding cylinder orientation. From ring
wear consideration, the more logical orientation is vertical; however, taking into account size and the ensuing
physical location as well as maintenance problems, most installations normally favor the horizontal
arrangement.
There is wide variation in multistage configuration. The most common is the horizontally opposed. Probably
the next most common is the vertical arrangement. Other variations include V, Y, angle or L type. These later
arrangements are not too common and are mentioned only to complete possible configurations. Another
modification is the tandem-cylinder arrangement, which is almost always horizontal. In this configuration, the
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cylinders are oriented in line with one another with the innermost cylinder having a piston rod protruding from
both ends. This outboard rod in turn drives the next cylinder. While somewhat compact and more competitive
in price than the side-by-side arrangements, it is not too popular with maintenance people.
2.2.1.3 Drive Methods
Another feature of reciprocating compressors that is somewhat unique when compared to the rest of the
compressor family is the number of available drive arrangements, which is almost as complex as the cylinder
arrangements. In single and multistage arrangement small compressors, particularly the trunk type, are
usually V-belt driven by electric motors. The single-acting crosshead type and the small, double-acting,
single-stage compressor are also driven in a similar manner. Larger, multistage, trunk type compressors can
be sized to operate at common motor speeds and therefore are direct coupled. The larger, crosshead,
double-acting, multistage compressors present the most variations in drive arrangements. If it has an integral
electric motor sharing a common shaft with the compressor, it is called an engine type. These compressors
can also be directly coupled to a separate electric motor in a more conventional manner. Gear units may be
involved in the drive train where speed matching is required. Multiple frames are sometimes used with a
common crankshaft in a compound arrangement to use a common driver. Variable frequency motor drives
are becoming more popular because of the ability to provide capacity control.
Reciprocating compressors are available with a large variety of other drivers, which include the piston engine,
steam turbine, or, in rare cases, gas turbine. Next in popularity to the electric motor is the piston engine. The
arrangement lends itself to skid mounting, particularly with the semi-portable units found in the oilfield. The
unit is also popular as a “lease" unit, which may be lifted onto a flat-bed trailer and moved from one location to
another as needed. The engine is either direct-coupled or, as with smaller compressors, it may be belt-
connected.
A variation of the smaller, skid-mounted, engine-driven compressor is larger, engine-driven version in the
form of the integral engine compressor. The compressor and the engine share a common frame and
crankshaft. When the engine cylinders are vertical or in a V configuration and the compressor cylinders are
horizontal, the machine is called an angle engine compressor
A more rare form of driver is the steam cylinder. Most arrangements combine the steam driver and
compressor on the same frame with the steam cylinder opposite the compressor cylinder. Each cylinder's
connecting rod is connected to a common throw on the crankshaft. A flywheel is used to provide inertia. For
air service, the units are built as single- and two-stage units, with other combinations available for process
service.
2.2.2 Rotary Compressors
Rotary compressors as a group make up the balance of the positive displacement machines. This group of
compressors has several features in common despite differences in construction. Probably the most
important feature is the lack of valves as used on the reciprocating compressor. The rotary is lighter in weight
than the reciprocator and does not exhibit the shaking forces of the reciprocating compressor, making the
foundation requirements less rigorous. Even though rotary compressors are relatively simple in construction,
the physical design can vary widely. Both multiple- and single-rotor construction is found. Rotor design is one
of the main items that distinguishes the different types. Size and operating range is another area unique to
each type of rotary. The following sections cover some of the more common rotary compressors in detail.
2.2.2.1 Rotary Lobe
A rotary lobe compressor consists of identically synchronized rotors. The rotors are synchronized through use
of an external, oil-lubricated, timing gear, which positively prevents rotor contact and which minimizes
meshing rotor clearance to optimize efficiency. This feature also allows the compressor to be oil free in the
gas path. The rotors of the two-lobe compressor each have two lobes. When the rotor rotates, gas is trapped
between the rotor lobes and the compressor casing. The rotating rotor forces the gas from the gas inlet port,
along the casing, to the gas discharge port. Discharge begins as the edge of the leading lobe passes the
edge of the discharge port. The trailing lobe pushes the entrapped gas into the discharge port, which
compresses the gas against the backpressure of the system. Rotary lobe compressors are usually supplied
with noise enclosures or silencers to reduce their characteristic high noise level. A schematic of a two-lobe
rotary compressor is shown in Figure 13.
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Figure 13: Rotary Lobe compressor
The suction to the unit is located where the cavity made by the lobes is largest. As the lobes rotate, the cavity
size is reduced, causing compression of the vapor within. The compression continues until the discharge port
is reached, at which point the vapor exits the compressor at a higher pressure.
2.2.2.2 Rotary Vane
A sliding-vane rotary compressor uses a series of vanes that slide freely in longitudinal slots that are cut into
the rotor. Centrifugal force causes the vanes to move outward against the casing wall. The chamber that is
formed between the rotor, between any two vanes, and the casing is referred to as a cell. As the rotor turns,
an individual vane passes the inlet port to form a cell between itself and the vane that precedes it. As an
individual vane rotates toward the end of the inlet port, the volume of the cell increases. The increase in the
cell volume draws a partial vacuum in the cell. The vacuum draws the gas in through the inlet port. When a
vane passes the inlet port, the cell is closed, and the gas is trapped between the two vanes, the rotor and the
casing. As rotation continues toward the discharge port, the volume of the cell decreases. The vanes ride
against the casing and slide back into the rotor. The decrease in volume increases the gas pressure. The high
pressure gas is discharged out of the compressor through the gas discharge port. Sliding-vane rotary
compressors are characterized by a high noise level that results from the vane motion. A schematic of a
sliding vane rotary compressor is shown in Figure 14.
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Figure 14: Rotary Vane compressor
2.2.2.2 Rotary Liquid Ring
Liquid ring rotary compressors consist of a round, multi-blade rotor that revolves in an elliptical casing. The
elliptical casing is partially filled with a liquid, which is usually water. As the rotor turns, the blades form a
series of buckets. As the rotor turns, the buckets carry the liquid around with the rotor. Because the liquid
follows the contour of the casing, the liquid alternately leaves and returns to the space between the blades.
The space between the blades serves as a rotor chamber. The gas inlet and discharge ports are located at
the inner diameter of the rotor chamber. As the liquid leaves the rotor chamber, gas is drawn into the rotor
chamber through the inlet ports. As the rotor continues to rotate, the liquid returns to the rotor chamber and
decreases the volume in the chamber. As the volume decreases, the gas pressure increases. As the rotor
chamber passes the discharge port, the compressed gas is discharged into a gas/liquid separator and then to
the process. A typical liquid ring rotary compressor is shown in Figure 15-16.
Figure 15: Rotary Liquid Ring compressor
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Figure 16: Diaphragm of Rotary Liquid Ring compressor
2.2.2.3 Rotary Screw Compressor
Another name for the screw compressor is helical-lobe compressor. “Screw” is the most common name, even
though all the names are interchangeable.
The single-stage design consists of a pair of rotors that mesh in a onepiece, dual-bore cylinder. The male
rotor usually consists of four helical threads that are spaced 90 degrees apart. The female rotor usually
consists of six helical grooves that are spaced 60 degrees apart. The rotor speed ratio is inversely
proportional to the thread-groove ratio. In the four-thread, six-groove, screw compressor, when the male rotor
rotates at 1800 rpm, the female rotor rotates at 1200 rpm. The male rotor is usually the driven rotor, and the
female rotor is usually driven by the male rotor. A film of foil is normally injected between the rotors to provide
a seal between the rotor and to prevent metal-to-metal contact. An oil-mist eliminator, installed immediately
downstream of the compressor, is required for plant and instrument air service. However, designs are
available that do not require lubrication.
Figure 17: Crew compressor
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Screw compressors that do not require lubrication are commonly referred to as "dry screw-type compressors".
The inlet port is located at the drive-shaft end of the cylinder. The discharge port is located at the opposite
end of the cylinder. Compression begins as the rotors enmesh at the inlet port. Gas is drawn into the cavity
between the male rotor threads and female rotor grooves. As rotation continues, the rotor threads pass the
edges of the inlet ports and trap the gas in a cell that is formed by the rotor cavities and the cylinder wall.
Further rotation causes the male rotor thread to roll into the female rotor groove and to decrease the volume
of the cell. The decrease in the volume increases the cell pressure. Oil is normally injected after the cell is
closed to the inlet port. The oil seals the clearances between the threads and the grooves, and it absorbs the
heat of compression. Compression continues until the rotor threads pass the edge of the discharge port and
release the compressed gas and oil mixture. A typical single stage screw compressor is shown in Figure 19.

293

3. Supporting Equipment in a Compressor System
In addition to driver (turbine, electric motor…etc) there are numerous miscellaneous and smaller components
in compressor system. Some of which are briefly mentioned below:
Intercooler and after cooler heat exchanger

 - compression of gases create heat in compressor
 - control high temperature
 - intercooler lower the temperature as gas is discharge
 out of first stage of compressor
 - as the gas is compressed (create more heat), discharge
 into after cooler before go to receiver
Anti-surge
Surge (or stall) is an operating instability that can occur in dynamic (axial and centrifugal) compressors (but
not in other positive displacement compressors). Dynamic compressor therefore is normally equipped with
anti-surge device.
Safety valve
 - used to relieve excess pressure that could damage operating

 equipment
 - sized to handle specific flow rates
Silencers
 - most compressor exceed OSHA standards noise pollution
 - muffle some of the damaging noise produced by compressor
 - should be mounted on the inlet and outlet of a compressor
Demister
 - designed to remove liquid droplets from gas
 - function as a cyclone
 - heavier component fall to the bottom of the demister and removed
 - clean gas escapes out the discharge line on the top of the demister
Dryer
 - for dry air service, discharge of a compressor is run through
 a dryer
 - filled with moisture adsorbing chemicals called desiccant dryer
 (alumina, mol sieves and silica gel)
 - operation uses parallel or series dryer
294

Figure 20: Compressor in the system

Figure 21: An integrally-geared Compressor Skid
295

4. Basic Terminology
 Flow rate: m3/hr (1cfm = 0.5886 m3/hr)

 Pressure ratio: ratio of absolute discharge press. /absolute inlet pressure
 Absolute press: = gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
 Atmospheric pressure: = pressure exerted by atmosphere
 At sea level atms press: = 1.033 kg/cm2 A = 1.013 barA = 14.696 pisA = 760 mmHg= 1atms
 1 kg/cm 2 =14.22 psi, 1 Mpa (mega pascal) = 10.1 bar
 0 deg.cel. = 273 deg. K
Like pumps, standards for oil and gas application compressors are mostly regulated by API, below are most
popular standards/specifications:
o API 617 7th Axial and Centrifugal Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry
o API 618 Reciprocating Type Positive Displacement Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas
Industry
o API 619 Rotary Type Positive Displacement Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical and Gas Industry
Manufacturers:
a. Man Diesel and Turbo (http://mandieselturbo.com/0000002/Home.html) –
b. Dresser-Rand (http://www.dresser‐rand.com/literature/gfc/) –
c. Cooper Cameron (http://www2.c‐a‐m.com/content/cs/index.cfm) –
d. Kawasaki (http://www.khi.co.jp/english/machinery/product/gas/module.html) – Centrifugal

Compressor
e. Compair (http://www.compair.com/)
f. Siemens (http://www.energy.siemens.com/hq/en/compression-expansion/compressor-packages/)
g. Kobelco (http://www.kobelco-comp.co.jp/e/index.html) – Screw Compressor
h. Atlas Copco (http://www.atlascopco.co.uk/ukus/products/Industries/)
i. Ingersoll Rand (http://www.ingersollrandproducts.com/IS/Category.aspx-am_en-12769)
j. GE (http://www.geoilandgas.com/businesses/ge_oilandgas/en/our_brands/ac_compressor.htm)
Packager/Integrator
a. Alpha ECC
b. Oakwell International
c. Petra
d. Bestwide
e. McPec
f. Applied Engineering
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Buyer Guide - Section 13 – Heat Exchanger

A. Introduction and definition
B. Classification of Heat Exchangers
1. Tubular Heat Exchanger
2. Plate Heat Exchanger
3. Extended Heat Exchanger
4. Regenerative
C. Major Vendors and Suppliers
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A. Introduction and definition:
Many of the processes used in an oil or gas-handling production facility (platforms) require the transfer of
heat. This will be necessary for heating and cooling the gas or oil, as well as for regenerating the various
substances used in gas or oil treating and processing.
Heat Exchanger
High Pressure Test Separator

(Process Vessel)
Figure 1: Gas field facilities
Figure 1 is a block diagram of a platform designed to handle gas wells. Some gas reservoirs may be very
deep and very hot. If a substantial amount of gas and liquid is being produced from the well, the flowing
temperature of the well could be very hot even after the choke. In this case, the gas may have to be cooled
prior to compression, treating, or dehydration. Heat exchangers are used to cool the gas and also to cool or
heat fluids for treating water from oil, regenerating glycol and other gas treating fluids, etc
By definition, a heat exchanger is a heat transfer device that exchanges heat between two or more process
fluids available at different temperatures. In most heat exchangers, the fluids are separated by a heat-transfer
surface, and ideally they do not mix
B. Classification of Heat Exchangers
In general, industrial heat exchangers have been classified according to (1) construction, (2) transfer
processes, (3) degrees of surface compactness, (4) flow arrangements, (5) pass arrangements, (6) phase of
the process fluids, and (7) heat-transfer mechanisms. Classifications base on construction (shown in Fig. 2)
are briefly discussed here
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Figure 2: HE classification based on construction
I. Classification According to Construction
According to constructional details, heat exchangers are classified as:
 Tubular heat exchangers: double pipe, shell and tube, coiled tube
 Plate heat exchangers: gasketed, spiral, plate coil, lamella
 Extended surface heat exchangers: tube-fin, plate-fin
 Regenerators: fixed matrix, rotary
1. Tubular Heat Exchanger
1.1 Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
A double pipe heat exchanger has two concentric pipes, usually in the form of a U-bend design as shown in
Fig. 3. The flow arrangement is pure countercurrent. A number of double pipe heat exchangers can be
connected in series or parallel as necessary. Their usual application is for small duties requiring, typically,
less than 300 ft’ and they are suitable for high pressures and temperatures, and thermally long duties
A double pipe heat exchanger (sometimes called “hairpin heat exchanger”), in its simplest form is just one
pipe inside another larger pipe. One fluid flows through the inside pipe and the other flows through the
annulus between the two pipes. The wall of the inner pipe is the heat transfer surface. The pipes are usually
doubled back multiple times as shown in the Fig.3, in order to make the overall unit more compact.
Figure 3: double pipe HE structure

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In double pipe heat exchanger design, an important factor is the type of flow pattern in the heat exchanger. A
double pipe heat exchanger will typically be either counterflow or parallel flow (Fig.4). Crossflow just doesn't
work for a double pipe heat exchanger. The flow pattem and the required heat exchange duty allows
calculation of the log mean temperature difference. That together with an estimated overall heat transfer
coefficient allows calculation of the required heat transfer surface area. Then pipe sizes, pipe lengths and
number of bends can be determined.

Figure 4: Counterflow vs. Parallel Flow
1.2 Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger.
In process industries, shell and tube exchangers are used in great numbers, far more than any other type of
exchanger. More than 90% of heat exchangers used in industry are of the shell and tube type. They are the
first choice because of well-established procedures for design and manufacture from a wide variety of
materials, many years of satisfactory service, and availability of codes and standards for design and
fabrication. They are produced in the widest variety of sizes and styles. There is virtually no limit on the
operating temperature and pressure.
S/T principle of operation is illustrated in Fig. 5: Two fluids, of different starting temperatures, flow through the
heat exchanger. One flows through the tubes (the tube side) and the other flows outside the tubes but inside
the shell (the shell side). Heat is transferred from one fluid to the other through the tube walls, either from tube
side to shell side or vice versa. The fluids can be either liquids or gases on either the shell or the tube side. In
order to transfer heat efficiently, a large heat transfer area should be used, so there are many tubes
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Figure 5: Shell and Tube HE
1.2.1 Design of S/T Heat Exchanger:
The major components of a shell and tube exchanger are tubes, baffles, shell, front head, rear head, tube
sheet(s), and nozzles

Figure 6: Main Component of S/T HE
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1.2.2 Tubes:
Tubes of circular cross section are exclusively used in exchangers. Since the desired heat transfer in the
exchanger takes place across the tube surface, the selection of tube geometrical variables (tube outside
diameter, tube wall thickness, tube pitch, and tube layout patterns) is important from the performance point of
view
There are two types of tubes: straight tubes and U-tubes (Fig.7). The tubes are further classified as
 Plain tubes
 Finned tubes
 Duplex or bimetallic tubes
 Enhanced surface tubes

Figure 7: Straight vs. U-tube HE
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1.2.3 Baffles:
Baffles must generally be employed on the shell-side to support the tubes, to maintain the tube spacing, and
to direct the shell-side fluid across or along the tube bundle in a specified manner. There are a number of
different types of baffles and these may be installed in different ways to provide the flow pattern required for a
given application.
Baffles are either normal or parallel to the tubes. Accordingly, baffles may be classified as transverse or
longitudinal. The transverse baffles direct the shell-side fluid into the tube bundle at approximately right
angles to the tubes, and increase the turbulence of the shell fluid. Every shell and tube exchanger has
transverse baffles except the X and K shells, which have only support plates (see TEMA classification of S/T
HE below). The longitudinal baffles are used to control the direction of the shell side flow. For example, F, G ,
and H shells have longitudinal baffles.
Transverse baffles are of two types: (1) plate baffles and (2) rod baffles. Three types of plate baffles are
further divided to (1) segmental, (2) disk and doughnut, and (3) orifice baffles.
Besides transverse and longitudinal, there are other kind of baffle design like Phillips ROD baffle, NEST
Baffles and Egg-crate Tube Support and Grimmas Baffle.
1.2.4 Tubesheet
A tube sheet is an important component of a heat exchanger. It is the principal barrier between the shell-side
and tube-side fluids. Proper design of a tube sheet is important for safety and reliability of the heat exchanger.
Tube sheets are mostly circular with uniform pattern of drilled holes. Tube sheets of surface condensers are
rectangular shape. Tube sheets are connected to the shell and the channels either by welds (integral) or with
bolts (gasketed joints) or with a combination thereof. Tube-sheet connection with the shell and channel for
fixed tube-sheet exchanger can be categorized into two types:
 Both sides integral construction,

 Shell-side integral and tube-side gasketed construction
Tube-sheet connection with the shell and channel for floating heat exchanger and U-tube heat exchangers
can be categorized into three types:
 Both sides integral construction

 One side integral and the other side gasketed construction
 Both sides gasketed construction
Fig.8: Tube-sheet as barrier between shall-side and tube-side fluids
Tubes

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Tube to Tube-Sheet Attachment: Tubes are attached to the tube sheet by (1) rolling, (2) welding, (3) rolling
and welding, (4) explosive welding, and (5) brazing. Expansion of the tubes into the tube sheet is most widely
used and is satisfactory for many services. However, when stresses are higher, or where pressures are such
that significant leakage could occur, or where contamination between fluids is not permitted, the tubes are
welded to the tube sheet. Explosion welding can be used instead of conventional welding where there is
incompatibility between tube and tube-sheet materials and for tube plugging under hazardous conditions
Double Tube Sheets: No known method of making tube to tube-sheet joints can completely eliminate the
possibility of mixing of shell-side and tube-side fluids due to leakage. When the possibility of intermixing of the
shell-side and tube-side fluids cannot be tolerated, double tube-sheet construction will offer positive
assurance against one fluid leaking into the other at a tube to tube-sheet joint.
Types of Double Tube-Sheets Designs
Two designs of double tube sheets are available: (1) the conventional double tube sheet design, which
consists of two individual tube sheets at each end of the tubes, and (2) the integral double tube-sheet design.
a. Conventional Double Tube Sheet Design
In a conventional double tube-sheet design, the tube sheets are installed with a small space between them.
The space is usually open to the atmosphere. Sometimes a thin strip is welded to avoid ingress of dusts and
dirt, or an expansion joint is welded with vent at the top and a drain at the bottom. The double tube sheet can
be installed only in the U-tube, fixed tube sheet, and floating head, outside packed stuffing box exchangers. It
is not feasible to use the double tube sheet in heat exchanger types such as (1) floating head, pull-through
bundle, (2) floating head with split backing ring, and (3) floating head, outside packed lantern ring exchangers.
st nd
1 Tube-sheet 2 Tube-sheet
In the event of leaks occurring where the extremities of the tubes

are expanded into the tubesheet, the tube-side fluid would leak
between the two tubesheets instead of leaking into the shell.
b. Integral Double Tube Sheets
The patented integral double tube-sheet design consists of a single tube sheet made from a single plate or
forging, drilled to the desired tube layout pattern. Then the annular grooves are machined into the tube holes
about midway between the faces to interconnect the adjacent tubes (Fig. 9). This construction in effect
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minimizes differential expansion problems, but it is expensive and not effective like conventional double tube
sheets to avoid fluid mixing.

Fig.9: Integral Double Tube-sheets
1.2.5 Tube Bundle
A tube bundle is an assembly of tubes, baffles, tube sheets, spacers and tie rods, and longitudinal baffles, if
any. Spacers and tie rods are required for maintaining the space between baffles.
1.2.6 Spacers, Tie Rods, and Sealing Devices
The tube bundle is held together and the baffles located in their correct positions by a number of tie rods and
spacers. The tie rods are screwed into the stationary tube sheet and extend the length of the bundle up to the
last baffle, where they are secured by lock nuts. Between baffles, tie rods have spacers fitted over them. Tie
rods and spacers may also be used as a sealing device to block bypass paths due to pass partition lanes or
the clearance between the shell and the tube bundle.
1.2.7 Shells
Heat exchanger shells are manufactured in a large range of standard sizes, materials, and thickness. Smaller
sizes are usually fabricated from standard size pipes. Larger sizes are fabricated from plate by rolling. The
cost of the shell is usually much more than the cost of the tubes.
1.2.8 Concept of Pass
One method used to improve the heat exchange efficiency and hence the performance of a heat exchanger is
to have the two fluids pass each other several times within a single heat exchanger (same like combines the
characteristics of two or more heat exchangers). When a heat exchanger's fluids pass each other more than
once, a heat exchanger is called a multi-pass heat exchanger. If the fluids pass each other only once, the
heat exchanger is called a single-pass heat exchanger.
Multi-pass can be done in either shell-side or tube-side of the heat exchanger.
a. Tube-side pass:
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Commonly, the multi-pass heat exchanger reverses the flow in the tubes by use of one or more sets of "U"
bends in the tubes. The "U" bends allow the fluid to flow back and forth across the length of the heat
exchanger. A U-tube heat exchanger is automatically a two pass heat exchanger

Partitions built into heads known as partition plates control tube-side passes.
Single pass

Fig.10: Single vs. Multi pass
st
1 pass
nd
2 pass
b. Shell-side pass:
A second method to achieve multiple passes is to insert baffles on the shell side of the heat exchanger.
These direct the shell side fluid back and forth across the tubes to achieve the multi-pass effect.
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As illustrated in Fig.11, a two-pass shell-side flow can be done by longitudinal baffle which extend along the
length of the shell. The baffle is fitted directly to, and thus become a physical part of, the tube bundle. The
function of the baffle is to force the shell-side fluid to flow down the entire length of the shell and back again to
shell-side outlet nozzle.
Fig.11: 2-pass shell-side HE
1.2.9 Classification of S/T Heat Exchanger:
Three principal types of heat exchangers: (1) fixed tube-sheet exchangers, (2) U-tube exchangers, and (3)
floating head exchangers.
Fixed tube-sheet exchangers: This is the most popular type of shell and tube heat exchanger (Fig. 21). The
fixed tube-sheet heat exchanger uses straight tubes secured at both ends into tube sheets, which are firmly
welded to the shell. Hence, gasketed joints are minimized in this type, and thereby least maintenance is
required. Fixed tube-sheet heat exchangers are used where:
 It is desired to minimize the number of joints.

 Temperature conditions do not represent a problem for thermal stress.
 The shell-side fluid is clean and tube bundle removal is not required.
U-Tube Exchangers: In this type of construction, tube bundle as well as individual tubes are free to expand
and the tube bundle is removable. A U-tube exchanger is shown in Fig. 7 above. U-tube exchangers can be
used for the following services:
 Clean fluid on the tube side
 Extreme high pressure on one side
 Temperature conditions requiring thermal relief by expansion
 For H2 service in extreme pressures, utilizing an all welded construction with a nonremovable bundle
 To allow the shell inlet nozzle to be located beyond the bundle
Shortcomings of U-Tube Exchangers: Some of the demerits associated with U-tube exchangers are:
 Mechanical cleaning from inside tubes is difficult, the chemical cleaning is possible.
 Flow-induced vibration can also be a problem in the U-bend region for the tubes in the outermost row
because of long unsupported span.
 Individual tubes cannot be replaced.
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Floating Head Exchangers: The floating head exchanger consists of a stationary tube sheet and one floating
tube sheet that is free to accommodate the thermal expansion of the tube bundle. There are four basic types
of floating head exchangers. They are discussed next.
Floating Head, Outside Packed Floating Head
The floating head (P head), outside packed stuffing box heat exchanger uses the outer skirt of the floating
tube sheet as part of the floating head. The packed stuffing box seals the shell-side fluid while allowing the
floating head to move. The tube bundle is removable. Maintenance is also very easy since all bolting is from
outside only. With this floating head, any leak (from either the shell side or the tube side) at the gaskets is to
the outside and there is no possibility of contamination of fluids. Since the bundle-to-shell clearance is large
(about 1.5 in or 38 mm), sealing strips are usually required.
Packed Floating Head: The tubes are expanded on two opposite

plates, a fixed plate, and a packed floating plate with a lantern
ring.
Fig.12: Packed Floating S/T HE
Floating Head, Externally Sealed Floating Tube Sheet
The floating head (W head), externally sealed floating tube sheet or outside packed lantern ring heat
exchanger uses a lantern ring around the floating tube sheet to seal the two fluids as the floating tube sheet
moves back and forth. The lantern ring is packed on both sides, and is provided with vent or weep holes so
that leakage through either should be to the outside. Number of tube passes is limited to one or two. The tube
bundle is removable.
Floating Head, Pull Through Floating Head
In the floating head (T head), pull through heat exchanger, a separate head or cover is bolted to the floating
tube sheet within the shell. In this design, the tube bundle can be removed without dismantling the joints at
the floating end. Due to the floating head bonnet flange and bolt circle, many tubes are omitted from the tube
bundle at the tube bundle periphery and hence it accommodates the smallest number of tubes for a given
shell diameter. This results in the largest bundle-to-shell clearance or a significant bundle-to-shell bypass
stream C. To overcome the reduction in thermal performance, sealing devices are normally required and the
shell diameter is somewhat increased to accommodate a required amount of surface area. An ideal
application for the T head design is as the kettle reboiler, in which there is ample space on the shell side and
the flow bypass stream C is of no concern.
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Fig.13: Pull-through floating head
Floating Head with Backing Device
In the floating head (S head) with backing device, the floating head cover (instead of being bolted directly to
the floating tube sheet as in the pull through type) is bolted to a split backing ring. The shell cover over the
floating head has a diameter larger than the shell. As a result, the bundle to shell clearance is reasonable and
sealing strips are generally not required. The tube bundle is not removable. Both ends of the heat exchanger
must be disassembled for cleaning and maintenance.
TEMA CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT EXCHANGERS
Tubular Exchanger Manufacturer Association (TEMA) has set up mechanical standards for three classes of
shell and tube heat exchangers: R, C, and B. Class R heat exchangers specify design and fabrication of
unfired shell and tube heat exchangers for the generally severe requirements of petroleum and related
processing applications, class C for the generally moderate requirements of commercial and general process
applications, and class B for chemical process service.
TEMA SYSTEM FOR DESCRIBING HEAT EXCHANGER TYPES
Major components of a shell and tube heat exchanger are the front head, shell section, and rear head. Each
of these components is available in a number of standard designs. In TEMA standards, they are identified by
an alphabetic character. A heat exchanger unit is designated using the designations of front head, shell, and
rear head. It consists of three alphabetic characters, such as AES, AKT, AJW, BEM, AEP, and CFU. Seven
major types of shells, five types of front heads, and eight types of rear heads are shown in Fig. 14. In addition
to these types, special types of shells and heads are also available depending upon the applications and
customer needs
As provided in figure 14 below, under TEMA designation system. An AES heat exchanger type means shell
and tube heat exchanger with channel and removable cover, one pass shell type with floating head (backing
device).
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Fig.14: TEMA heat exchanger designation system
310

Fig.15: cross sections of S/T HE
311

312

1.3 Coiled Tube Heat Exchanger.
Coiled Tube Heat Exchanger Used for Liquefaction Systems. One of the three classical heat exchangers
used today for large-scale liquefaction systems is the coiled tube heat exchanger (CTHE). Construction of
these heat exchangers involves winding a large number of small-bore ductile tubes in helix fashion around a
central core tube, with each exchanger containing many layers of tubes along both the principal and radial
axes. Tubes in individual layers or groups of layers may be brought together into one or more tube plates
through which different fluids may be passed in counterflow to the single shell-side fluid.
The high-pressure stream flows through the small-diameter tubes, while the low-pressure return stream flows
across the outside of the small-diameter tubes in the annular space between the inner central core tube and
the outer shell.
Because of small-bore tubes on both sides, CTHEs do not permit mechanical cleaning and therefore are used
to handle clean, solid-free fluids or fluids whose fouling deposits can be cleaned by chemicals. Materials are
usually aluminum alloys for cryogenics, and stainless steels for high-temperature applications.
2. Plate Heat Exchanger
2.1 Construction of Plate HE
Plate-and-frame exchangers are an arrangement of gasketed, pressed metal plates aligned on carrying bars
and secured between two covers by compression bolts. The pressed metal plates are corrugated in patterns
to provide increased surface area, to direct the flow in specific directions, and to promote turbulence. The
plates are gasketed such that each of the two fluid streams flow in parallel between alternate pairs of plates.
In addition to directing the flow patterns, the plate gasket keeps the fluids retained within the plate pack.
Fig.16: Plate HE
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The distinctive components of plate heat exchanger are plates and sealing gaskets.
Plates are corrugated or embossed metal plates in mutual contact, pressed to form troughs at right angles to
the direction of flow of the liquid which runs through the channels in the heat exchanger. These troughs are
arranged so that they interlink with the other plates which forms the channel with gaps of 1.3–1.5 mm
between the plates.
Corrugated plate
Each plate having four apertures serving as inlet and outlet ports, and seals designed so as to direct the fluids
in alternate flow passages. The plates are often spaced by rubber sealing gaskets which are cemented into a
section around the edge of the plates. The gaskets are arranged in such a way so as to allow two fluids to
pass in opposite directions up and down alternate channels.
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Cold and Hot fluid flows in

counter current in opposite sides
of the plates and exchange heat
to each other
The flow passages are formed by adjacent corrugated plates so that the two streams exchange heat while
passing through alternate channels. When assembled, the spacing between adjacent plates ranges from 1.3
to 6.4 mm. The number and size of the plates are determined by the flow rate, physical properties of the
fluids, pressure drop, and temperature program. The plate corrugations promote fluid turbulence and support
the plates against differential pressure. The stack of plates is held together in a frame by a pressure
315

arrangement. The periphery of each plate is grooved to house a molded gasket, each open to the
atmosphere. Gaskets are generally cemented in, but snap-on gaskets are available that do not require
cement. Gasket failure cannot result in fluid intermixing but merely in leakage to the atmosphere. Proper
selection of gasket material and operating conditions will eliminate the leakage risk.
Plate Materials
Materials that are suitable for cold pressing and corrosion resistant are the standard materials of construction.
Carbon steel is rarely used due to its poor corrosion resistance.
Gasket Selection
When selecting the gasket material, the important requirements to be met are chemical and temperature
resistance coupled with good sealing properties and shape over an acceptable period of life. Much work has
been done to develop elastomer formulations that increase the temperature range and chemical resistance of
gaskets. Typical gasket materials and their maximum operating temperature are given in below table.
2.2 Types of Plate HE
In addition to gasketed plate heat exchanger as discussed above, there are several other types of PHE (see
detailed at Alfa Laval website: http://www.alfalaval.com/solution-finder/products/pages/default.aspx)
a. Brazed Plate Heat Exchanger
The brazed plate heat exchanger evolved from the conventional plate heat exchanger in answer to the need
for a compact plate heat exchanger for high-pressure and high-temperature duties. Like the gasketed plate
heat exchanger, the brazed plate heat exchanger is constructed of a series of corrugated metal plates but
316

without the gaskets, tightening bolts, frame, or carrying and guide bars. It consists simply of stainless steel
plates and two end plates. The plates are brazed together in a vacuum oven to form a complete pressure-
resistant unit. The two fluids flow in separate channels. This compact design can easily be mounted directly
on piping without brackets and foundations. Brazed plate heat exchangers accommodate a wide range of
temperatures, from cryogenic to more than 200°C. Because of the brazed construction, the units are not
expandable, but get their reputation from their relatively tiny size.
b. Wide-Gap Plate Heat Exchanger
The wide-gap-about 16 mm (5/8 in)-plate heat exchanger provides a free-flow channel for liquids and
products containing fibers or coarse particles or high-viscosity liquids that normally clog or cannot be
satisfactorily treated in shell and tube heat exchangers.
c. Flow-Flex Tubular Plate Heat Exchanger,
In Flow-Flex, the tubular plate heat exchanger, the plate pattern builds the tube channels with a free cross
section on one side and conventional plate channels on the other. This allows Flow-Flex to handle
asymmetrical duties, that is, dissimilar flow rates at a ratio of at least two to one (for the same fluid properties
and pressure drop). This vibration-free construction is also suitable for low-pressure condensing and
vaporizing duties and for fibrous and particle-laden fluids.
d. Twin-Plate Heat Exchanger
The twin-plate heat exchanger is a welded plate heat exchanger designed especially for handling aggressive
media. The twin-plate pack consists of welded channels that alternate with traditional gasketed channels. The
aggressive medium flows in the welded channels, and the only gaskets in contact with the aggressive
medium are two circular porthole gaskets between the welded plate pair. The porthole gaskets are available
in highly resistant elastomers and nonelastomer materials. The channels for the nonaggressive medium are
sealed by traditional elastomer gaskets. Use of semiwelded units is increasing in the chemical, petroleum
refining, and refrigeration industries.
e. Double-Wall Plate Heat Exchanger
The double-wall plate heat exchanger is designed for use with media between which contamination or a
hostile reaction can occur if the two media should mix. Double plates replace the single plates normally
between the two media. The channels formed by assembling the double plates are sealed by conventional
gaskets. In the unlikely event of leakage, the media will be easily visible on the outside of heat exchanger. A
hole in one of the double plates results in leakage between them. A gasket defect causes an external leak,
either directly from the peripheral gasket or from between the plates at the site of the failure.
f. Diabon F Graphite Plate Heat Exchanger,
The Diabon F graphite plate heat exchanger is a heat exchanger with graphite plates developed for use with
media normally too corrosive for exotic metals and alloys. The Diabon F 100 graphite plates are made of a
composite material composed of graphite and fluoroplastics. The material is compressed into corrugated
plates fitted with thin, flat, corrosion-resistant gaskets. The graphite plates offer excellent corrosion resistance
and good heat-transfer properties in combination with low thermal expansion and high pressure.
g. Glue-Free Gaskets (Clip-On Snap-On Gaskets), Based on
The clip-on snap-on gaskets are glue-free gaskets designed to perform in heavy industrial applications in the
same manner as traditional glued gaskets. The glue-free gaskets are attached to the plate by fasteners
situated at regular intervals around the plate periphery. The gaskets simply slip into place during fitting and
slip out for regasketing procedures, eliminating gluing procedures. Both operations can be performed on site
without removing the plate from the frame. All these contribute to reduced service costs and downtime.
h. All Welded Plate Exchangers
This design entirely eliminates the gaskets and by developing a fully welded plate exchanger further
enhances the reliability as well as the temperature and pressure limits of the gasketed plate exchanger.
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Welded plate exchangers, unlike gasketed and semiwelded models, can neither be expanded in surface area
nor be cleaned readily by mechanical methods. Only chemical cleaning is possible.
2.3 Spiral Plate Heat Exchanger
In the same category with above mentioned plate heat exchanger are Spiral Plate Heat Exchanger,
Plate/Panel Coil and Lamella Heat Exchanger.
a. Spiral Plate Heat Exchanger
A spiral plate heat exchanger (SPHE) is fabricated by rolling a pair of relatively long strips of plate around a
split mandrel to form a pair of spiral passages (Fig. 17). Channel spacing is maintained uniformly along the
length of the spiral passages by means of spacer studs welded to the plate strips prior to rolling. It can be
made with channels 5-25 mm wide, with or without studs. The spiral channels are welded shut on their ends
in order to contain respective fluids. An overall gasket is applied to the cover. The covers are attached to the
spiral element by means of forged hook bolts and adapters. The hook bolt engages the bevel at the back of
the flange ring and the adapter engages the rim at the edge of the cover. A header is welded on the outer end
of each passage to accommodate the respective peripheral nozzle. For most services, both fluid flow
channels are closed by alternate channels welded at both sides of the spiral plate. In some applications, one
of the channels is left completely open, and the other closed at both sides of the plate. These two types of
construction prevent the fluids from mixing.
Fig.17: Construction of SPHE

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b. Plate/Panel Coil Heat Exchanger
These exchangers are called panel coils, plate coils, or embossed-panel or jacketing. The panel coil serves
as a heat sink or a heat source, depending upon whether the fluid within the coil is being cooled or heated.
Panel coil heat exchangers are relatively inexpensive and can be made into any desired shapes and
thickness for heat sinks and heat sources under varied operating conditions. Hence, they have been used in
many industrial applications such as cryogenics, chemicals, fibers, food, paints, pharmaceuticals, and solar
absorbers.
Fig.18: Panel coil (from

http://www.muel.com/ProductDivisions/Heat_Transfer_Products/TempPlateHeat
Transfer.cfm)
c. Lamella Heat Exchanger
The lamella is a form of welded heat exchanger that combines the construction of a plate heat exchanger with
that of a shell and tube exchanger. In this design, tubes are replaced by pairs of thin flat parallel metal plates,
which are edge welded to provide long narrow channels, and banks of these elements of varying width are
packed together to form a circular bundle and fitted within a shell. The cross section of a lamella heat
exchanger is shown schematically in Fig. 19.

Fig.19: Lamella HE.
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Lamella heat exchangers can be fabricated from carbon steel, stainless steel, titanium, Incolly, and Hastelloy.
They can handle most fluids, with large volume ratios between fluids. The floating nature of the bundle usually
limits the working pressure to 300 psi. Lamella heat exchangers are generally less versatile than either PHEs
or shell and tube exchangers but are cheaper than the latter for a given duty.
3. Extended Surface Heat Exchanger
In a heat exchanger with gases or some liquids, if the heat-transfer coefficient is quite low, a large heat-
transfer surface area is required to increase the heat-transfer rate. This requirement is served by fins attached
to the primary surface. Tube-fin and plate-fin geometries (Fig. 20) are the most common examples for
extended surface heat exchanger.
Tube-fin, plate-fine and Regenerators constitue a category of heat exchanger called “Compact heat
exchanger” (the name “compact” comes from its light-weight, space-saving characteristics).
The unique characteristics of compact extended-surface plate-fin and tube-fin exchangers that favor them as
compared with the conventional shell and tube exchangers include the following:
 Many surfaces are available having different orders of magnitude of surface area density.
 Flexibility in distributing surface area on the hot and cold sides as warranted by design
considerations.
 Generally substantial cost, weight, or volume savings.
3.1 Tube-fin Heat Exchanger
In a tube-fin exchanger, round and rectangular tubes are most commonly used (although elliptical tubes are
also used), and fins are employed either on the outside or on the inside, or on both sides of the tubes,
depending upon the application.
Construction Materials: The materials to be used for

the tubes, headers, and water tanks depend on the
specific requirements of the application. The most
common materials for tubes and fins are copper,
aluminum, and steel. For open-circuit installations,
the tubes are made from copper, phosphorus-
deoxidized copper, aluminum, brass, and copper-
nickel-iron alloys, that is, cupronickels, and carbon
steel for heat recovery applications. Fins are mostly
from aluminum and copper; for heat recovery
applications they are made from carbon steel.
Headers and tube plates are made of carbon steel.
Fig.20: Tube-fin HE.
3.2 Plate-fin Heat Exchanger
Plate-fin heat exchangers (PFHE) are a form of compact heat exchanger consisting of a stack of alternate flat
plates called “parting sheets” and fin corrugations, brazed together as a block. The basic elements of PFHE
and the brazed unit are shown in Fig. 21. Fluid streams flow along the passages made by the corrugations
between the parting sheets. The corrugations serve as both secondary heat-transfer surfaces and mechanical
supports for the internal pressures between layers. In liquid or phase-change (to gas) applications, the parting
sheets may be replaced by flat tubes on the liquid or phase-change side. Plate-fin heat exchangers are widely
used in various industrial applications because of their compactness.
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Fig.21: Plate-fin heat exchanger: (a) basic elements; and (b) Two designs of PFHE.
3.3 Air Coolers
Air-cooled heat exchangers (ACHE), or “fin-fans,” (Fig. 22) are an alternate heat rejection method that is used
frequently in place of the conventional water-cooled shell and tube heat exchanger to cool a process fluid.
They can be used in all climates. Generally they are not compact heat exchangers. ACHE are increasingly
found in a wide spectrum of applications including chemical, process, petroleum refining, and other industries.
Recently very large aircooled condensers and dry-cooling towers have been constructed at power plants
located in areas where cooling water is unavailable or costly. A fan located below the tube bundle forces air
up through the bundle, or a fan above draws the air through the bundle. The fans are axial-flow fans varying
from 4 to 12 ft diameter and having four to six blades. The fan blades may be of aluminum, plastic, or, in the
case of corrosive atmospheres, stainless steel. The drive can be an electric motor with gears or V-belts.
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Fig.22: Air-cooled HE
Air vs. Water Cooling
Two primary methods of process cooling are (1) water cooling and (2) air cooling. The choice between air or
water as coolant depends on many factors, like (1) cooler location, (2) space for cooling system, (3) effect of
weather, (4) design pressure and temperature, (5) danger of contamination, (6) fouling, cleaning, and
maintenance, and (7) capital costs. Environmental concerns such as shortage of makeup water, blowdown
disposal, and thermal pollution have become an additional factor in cooling system selection.
Air Cooling
Air cooling is increasing in use, particularly where water is in short supply. Factors that favour air cooling
include the following:
 Air is available free in abundant quantity with no preparation costs.

 Air cooler design is well established, and can perform well with a reasonable degree of reliability.
 Water is corrosive and requires treatment to control both scaling and deposition of dirt, whereas air is
mostly noncorrosive. Therefore, material selection is governed by process fluids routed through the
tube side.
 Mechanical design problems are eased with air coolers since the process fluid is always on the tube
side.
 Danger of process fluid contamination is much greater with water cooled system.
 Air-side fouling can be periodically cleaned by air blowing, and chemical cleaning can be carried out
either during half-yearly or yearly attention. Water-cooled systems may require frequent cleaning.
 Maintenance costs for air coolers are about 20-30% of those for water cooled system. Operating
costs for water coolers are higher, because of higher cooling water circulation pump horsepower and
water treatment costs.
 Air cooling eliminates the environmental problems like heating up of lakes, rivers, etc., blowdown, and
washout.
Air cooling has the following disadvantages:
Air coolers require large surfaces because of their low heat-transfer coefficient on the air side and the low
specific heat of air. Water coolers require much less heat-transfer surface.
 Air coolers cannot be located next to large obstructions if air recirculation is to be avoided.
 Because of air’s low specific heat, and dependence on the dry-bulb temperature, air cannot usually
cool a process fluid to low temperatures. Water can usually cool a process fluid from 10°F to 5°F
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lower than air, and recycled water can be cooled to near the wet-bulb temperature of the site in a
cooling tower
 The seasonal variation in air temperatures can affect performance and make temperature control
more difficult. Low winter temperatures may cause process fluids to freeze.
 Air coolers are affected by hailstorms and may be affected by cyclonic winds.
 Noise is a factor with air coolers.
Air Cooling Specification: American Petroleum Institute Standard 661 is meant for air-cooled heat exchangers
for general refinery service. The scope of the standard includes minimum requirements for design, materials
selection, fabrication, inspection, testing, and preparation for shipment of refinery process air-cooled heat
exchangers.
4. Regenerators
Regeneration is an old technology dating back to the first open hearths and blast furnace stoves.
Manufacturing and process industries such as glass, cement, and primary and secondary metals account for
a significant fraction of all energy consumed. Much of this energy is discarded in the form of high-temperature
exhaust gas. Recovery of waste heat from the exhaust gas by means of heat exchangers known as
regenerators can improve the overall plant efficiency.
Types of Regenerators: Regenerators are generally classified as fixed-matrix and rotary regenerators. Further
classifications of fixed and rotary regenerators are shown in Fig. 23. In the former the regeneration is
achieved with periodic and alternate blowing of hot and the cold stream through a fixed matrix. During the hot
flow period, the matrix receives thermal energy from the hot gas and transfers it to the cold stream during the
cold stream flow. In the latter, the matrix revolves slowly with respect to two fluid streams. The rotary
regenerator is commonly employed in gas turbine power plants where the waste heat in the hot exhaust
gases is utilized for raising the temperature of compressed air before it is supplied to the combustion
chamber.
Fig.23: Fixed and rotary regenerator
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C. Major Vendors and Suppliers:
Plate Heat Exchanger Manufacturers:
a. Alfa Laval (http://www.alfalaval.com/)
b. Sondex (www.sondex.dk/)
c. Tranter (http://www.tranter.com/)
d. APV (http://www.apv.com/us/products/heatexchangers/Heat+exchangers.asp)
e. Hisaka (http://www.hisaka.co.jp/english/phe/)
Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger:
f. S&W
g. Applied Engineering
h. Sunjin
i. KNM
j. Petra
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Buyer Guide – Section 14 – Instrumentation and Control System

1. Introduction
2. Measurement Devices
2.1 Level Measurement

2.2 Pressure Measurement
2.3 Temperature Measurement
2.4 Transmitter
2.5 Fire and Gas Detector
2.6 Calibration of Instrument Device
3. Transmission Protocol
4. Control Theory and Distributed Control System (DCS)
5. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) System
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1. Introduction:
To understand the role and basis functioning of instrument as well as control system, let us consider a very
familiar air conditioning unit which we see in every office and home apartment. The purpose of an air
conditioner is to cool the room air temperature at a certain desired temperature. Certainly there are many
variables that can disturb and change the room temperature (let say the doors are left opened that draw in hot
air from outside), causing the room temperature to deviate from its desired value. If this happens, then some
action must be taken to correct the deviation. The objective is to maintain the room temperature at its desired
value as set by user through a remote control device.
One way to accomplish this objective is by measuring the current room temperature T(t) by sensing element,
and transmit the outcome to a controller whose function is to comparing it to the desired value as set by
user, and on the basis of this comparison controller will decide and “instruct” a final control element what to do
to correct any deviation. A control valve (final control element) can be manipulated to correct the deviation.
That is, if the temperature is above its desired value, then the valve will turn on the cooling systems to
bring the building to the set temperature
The first thing to do therefore is measure the room temperature. This is done by a sensor (thermocouple/
Thermostats, resistance temperature device, filled system thermometer, thermistor, or the like). Usually this
sensor is physically connected to a transmitter, which takes the output from the sensor and converts it to a
signal strong enough to be transmitted to a controller. The controller then receives the signal, which is
related to the temperature, and compares it with the desired value. Depending on the result of this
comparison, the controller decides what to do to maintain the temperature at the desired value. On the basis
of this decision, the controller sends a signal to the final control element (control valve), which in turn
activate the cooling system. This type of control strategy is known as feedback control.
Thus the three basic components of all control systems are:
1. Sensor/transmitter: Also often called the primary and secondary elements.

2. Controller: The “brain” of the control system.
3. Final control element: Often a control valve but not always. Other common final control elements are
variable-speed pumps, conveyors, and electric motors.
These components perform the three basic operations that must be present in every control system. These
operations are
1. Measurement (M): Measuring the variable to be controlled is usually done by the combination of sensor
and transmitter. In some systems, the signal from the sensor can be fed directly to the controller, so
there is no need for the transmitter.
2. Decision (D): On the basis of the measurement, the controller decides what to do to maintain the
variable at its desired value.
3. Action (A): As a result of the controller’s decision, the system must then take an action. This is usually
accomplished by the final control element.
These three operations, M, D, and A, are always present in every type of control system, and it is imperative
that they be in a loop. That is, on the basis of the measurement a decision is made, and on the basis of this
decision an action is taken. The action taken must come back and affect the measurement; otherwise, it
is a major flaw in the design, and control will not be achieved. When the action taken does not affect the
measurement, an open-loop condition exists and control will not be achieved.
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The controlled variable is the variable

that must be maintained, or controlled,
at some desired value.

The set point (SP) is the desired value of the controlled

variable.
The manipulated variable is the variable used to
maintain the controlled variable at its set point. In the
example, the control valve position is the manipulated
variable.
Any variable that causes the controlled variable to
deviate from the set point is known as a disturbance or
upset.
2. Measurement Devices
As noted above, measurement is first and basis activities in any control system. Temperature, level, flow or
pressure must firstly be measured in order to determine if they are deviated from pre-set value and activate
proper actions. This section will dealt with various measurement devices
2.1 Level Measurement
Level is defined as the filling height of a liquid or bulk material, for example, in a tank or reservoir. Generally,
the position of the surface is measured relative to a reference plane, usually the tank bottom. If the product’s
surface is not flat (e.g., with foam, waves, turbulences, or with coarse-grained bulk material) level usually is
defined as the average height of a bounded area.
In the Oil and Gas industry level is an important process parameter that needs proper measurement and
control. Level measurement may be expressed in units of length or percentage level. In some cases the level
measurement is converted to a volume to give a more meaningful indication.
Level can be measured visually or by the use of a magnetic level gauge/indicator or transducer
Glass Gauge
The most popular type of visual gauge is sight glasses. There are several kinds of sight glasses, such as:
Tubular Glass Gauge

Fig.1: Tubular Sight Glass
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A simple tubular glass gauge (Figure 1) comprises a transparent glass tube, seals, end blocks, and guard
rods to protect the glass. It is positioned parallel to the vessel along the elevation over which the level is to be
indicated and mounted with suitable fittings to retain the pressure as well as to seal the ends of the sight tube.
This construction, however, is not well suited for use with dangerous process fluids.
An important consideration in gauge selection is that of maintaining the safety of personnel and associated
equipment. The difficulty is evident when the process vessel, storage tank, pipeline, and so on are used with
high-temperature, high-pressure, corrosive, or other dangerous fluids or steam. If a sight glass tube sustains
a fracture of the glass or a leak at the seals, the dangerous fluid can escape and create the potential for a
hazardous condition. The single tube design is not recommended for use with toxic materials, pressures
above 1 bar (0.1 MPa or 14.5 PSIG), or temperatures above 100°C. Some tubular glass gauge designs have
extra protection against breakage, an improvement on the simple guard rods of standard designs.
The protection elements may include an outer tube that contains the fluid if the inner tube is fractured, sheet
metal protectors, and a wire glass protector surrounding the gauge glass. Even considering these
improvements, it is recommended that flat glass, reflex, armored, and magnetic gauges be specified when the
process includes hazardous materials, high temperatures, or high pressures.
Circular Glass Gauge
Circular level gauges (some small versions are also called bull’s-
eye gauges) are mounted next to the monitored vessel at the
elevation of interest for level indication, as shown in Figure 4. The
circular gauge has a limited range and is used when the level
variation that must be indicated is small.
This type of gauge is typically constructed as shown in Figure 2.

The body, glass, and gasket are wetted by the process. A shield
can be added to protect the glass from the process fluid if
required. Since circular gauges are used to indicate liquid level
over a relatively short range, two or more can be used to show
high and low levels, and other gauges can be used at selected
locations in between. They can also be used to show fluid in
motion and fluid color or contamination.
Fig.2: Circular sight glass
Transparent Gauge (Long Form)
When monitoring levels over a wider range than is practical with a circular
gauge, a long-form flat glass transparent gauge can be used. Typically, if a flat
glass gauge is not specified as being circular, it is assumed to be long-form,
and the term long-form is not added. The construction of a transparent gauge
is shown in Figure 3. The measuring chamber retains the fluid and accepts the
glass and covers, which are secured with bolts. One or more vision slots are
machined into the chamber to allow viewing of the level. Tie bars are areas that
may be left (i.e., not machined out) in the vision slot so as to provide higher
strength. Gasket material is compressed between the chamber and the glass
to prevent direct contact and to provide a seal. Cushions are placed between
the glass and the covers to prevent direct glass-to-metal contact. The chamber,
glass, and gaskets are wetted by the process. Shields can be optionally
installed to protect the glass from the process fluid.

Fig.3: long form glass gauge
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Top-mounted glass level gauge
Side-mounted glass level gauge

Fig.4: Various types of glass gauges mounted into the vessel
Reflex Gauge
The gauge glass is smooth on the outside (the side toward the observer). The grooved surface is called the
prismatic area. The face of each groove is at a right angle to the faces of adjacent grooves. When the
prismatic area is not in contact with a liquid, the groove faces reflect the incoming light. The light is reflected
due to the large difference in the index of refraction between the glass and the gas or vapor above the liquid.
The incoming light strikes one groove face, is reflected across to the adjacent groove face, and then is
reflected back to the observer in front of the gauge (see Figure 5).
When the prismatic area is in contact with a liquid, there is little difference in the index of refraction between
the glass and the liquid, so the light passes through the prismatic area at a slight angle (it is refracted) without
being reflected back toward the observer. The combination of these two effects provides an improved visibility
of the liquid and an increase in the distance over which the level indication can be viewed. When viewing a
transparent or semi-transparent liquid in a reflex gauge, the liquid will appear black or dark because the light
is not reflected back to the viewer from the prism area. The column above the liquid will appear silvery,
because the light is reflected back from the glass-to-gas interface at the prism area (e.g., there will be a dark
column below the indicated level and a silvery column above the indicated level)
Fig.5: reflex glass gauge

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Armored Gauges
Since a gauge of standard construction provides for clamping of the glass between the cover and the
measuring chamber, the edges of the glass may be exposed. In an armored gauge, a lip is formed into the
cover, and it wraps around and covers the sides of the gauge glass. So, between the chamber and the cover,
the edge of the gauge glass is completely covered. The purpose is to protect the glass from possible damage
resulting from, for example, accidental impact from a wrench. The front of the cover is also made thick
enough to prevent contact with the glass if the same wrench were to hit the front of the cover.
Glasses Materials
Borosilicate glass is the most common type of gauge glass. It has good chemical resistance up to about
300°C. In addition, transparent shields can be mounted between the glass and the process fluid to protect the
glass from corrosive media in transparent level gauges (e.g., the shields can be made of mica or PCTFE).
Borosilicate glass is usually tempered to improve its resistance to thermal shock. The tempering process
comprises the heating of the glass to the glassy transition point, followed by rapid cooling. This is done during
manufacture of the glass to induce mechanical compressive stress in the outer layer, resulting in an increase
in the ultimate tensile strength (UTS).
Aluminosilicate glass has a lower coefficient of linear thermal expansion (also called t/c) than borosilicate
glass, but it can be used at higher process temperatures of up to 425°C.
Quartz glass has the highest temperature rating (up to 530°C). It can be used in transparent gauges but is not
available in reflex gauges, because it would be difficult to form the grooves
Magnetic Level Gauge/Indicator
The magnetic level gauge does not require direct viewing of the level (i.e., there is no need for glass), the
measuring chamber can be opaque, and welded metal construction is normally used. This substantially
widens the operating temperature range and increases the ruggedness as compared to chambers using
gauge glass.
The appeal of magnetic level indicators is total isolation of the

process within a sealed piping column. Elimination of leaking
seals, clouded glasses, broken glass tubing, plus easy access
cleaning and adaptation to a variety of mounting styles and
process connections. Availability of switches and transmitters
adds to their desirability by providing a much less expensive
system than a build-up of sight glasses, alarm switches and
transmitters, all separately piped to the vessel.
Principle of Operation
Within the piping column is a float containing an internal group of

magnets. A rise or fall of the fluid in the process tank corresponds
to a similar change within the piping column. In response to the
level movement the float moves up or down accordingly.
Clamped to the piping column in total isolation from the process

liquid is a visual indictor housing. It contains the choice of
indicator, either a series of flags or a follower.
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The individual flags or the follower contain an alignment magnet which couples with the float magnets as the
float moves up or down within the piping column. Float movement rotates the flags and changes their color, or
in the case of the follower moves the follower to the point of level.
The position of the follower, or point at which the flags change color, represents true level. Level is indicated
or "read" by the corresponding point on the measuring scale.

2.2 Pressure Measurement
Oil and gas production operations require that system operating pressures be regulated to specific pressures
in order for the system(s) to work properly. In addition, safety considerations dictate that system operating
pressures be monitored and controlled to ensure that the pressure limitations of equipment and piping are not
exceeded. In order to meet these objectives, the industry relies on a variety of devices to generate an output
signal which may be used to adjust or change the observed pressure. The devices used by the oil and gas
industry for sensing operating pressures and generating the needed output signals are described in this
guide. The purpose of this section is to provide the reader with an understanding of how the different
types of device functions and how they should be applied, in order to satisfy the requirements of system
monitoring and control.
Pressure is defined as the force exerted per unit area of surface.
P = F/A
P = pressure
F = force
A = surface area exposed to the force
In processing plants the hydrocarbon gases and liquids handled in pipes and vessels exert pressure on the
surface area.
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Types of Pressure
In order to understand various types of pressure the following will be considered:
Pressure Scale reference points: there are two reference points, the zero point of pressure which is assumed
to a perfect vacuum, another point is atmospheric pressure which varies with altitude above sea level and
with weather conditions.
Absolute pressure scale starts from a zero reference point representing the full vacuum and extends through
atmospheric pressure to the highest limit of measurable pressure.
Gauge pressure scale starts zero reference point representing the local atmospheric pressure and extends to
a chosen limit applicable to the specific process system. Vacuum scale starts from the absolute zero
reference point and extends to a maximum represented by atmospheric pressure.
Pressure Units:
Two main systems are the Imperial (British and American) units and the S.I. (System International).
As pressure can be expressed as FORCE divided AREA then the units of pressure can by expressed as the
units of force divided by the units of area.
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a) Imperial units
In the Imperial system the unit of force is pound force (lbf) and the unit of area is the inch square (in2). It
follows that the unit of pressure in the Imperial system is the pound force divided by the inch square (lbf/Sq.
in) (pounds per square inch). This is often abbreviated to PSI.
b) S.I. Unit
In the S.I. system the unit of force is the Newton (N) and the unit of area is the meter square (m2). Therefore
the unit of force in the S.I. system is the Newton per square meter (N/m2). This is a very small unit of
pressure and the S.I. unit that is more commonly used on the plant is bar. One bar is equal to 100000 N/m2.
c) Liquid Column
Pressure can also be expressed in terms of liquid column height. The Imperial units are inches water column
(in Wc) and the S.I. units are millimeters water column (mm Wc). Imperial units are inches Wc (or Hg) S.I,
units are mm Wc (or Hg).
Examples:
1 psi = 0.06895 bar

1 bar = 14.504 psi
Types of Pressure Measurement Device
1. Bellows-Type Pressure Sensors/Gauges
The metallic bellows is most accurate when measuring pressures from 0.5 to 75 psig. However, when used in
conjunction with a heavy range spring, some bellows can be used to measure pressures of over 1000 psig.
Figure 6 shows a basic metallic bellows pressure sensing element.
The bellows is a one-piece, collapsible, seamless metallic unit that has deep folds formed from very thin-
walled tubing. The diameter of the bellows ranges from 0.5 to 12 in. and may have as many as 24 folds.
System pressure is applied to the internal volume of the bellows. As the inlet pressure to the instrument
varies, the bellows will expand or contract. The moving end of the bellows is connected to a mechanical
linkage assembly. As the bellows and linkage assembly moves, either an electrical signal is generated or a
direct pressure indication is provided. The flexibility of a metallic bellows is similar in character to that of a
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helical, coiled compression spring. Up to the elastic limit of the bellows, the relation between increments of
load and deflection is linear. However, this relationship exists only when the bellows is under compression. It
is necessary to construct the bellows such that all of the travel occurs on the compression side of the point of
equilibrium. Therefore, in practice, the bellows must always be opposed by a spring, and the deflection
characteristics will be the resulting force of the spring and bellows.
Fig.6: Bellows type pressure gauge
2. Bourdon Pressure Sensors/Gauges
Bourdon tubes are the most common type of pressure sensors. A bourdon tube is a metal tube with a
flattened circular cross section bent into a C-shape, Spiral, or Helix. When pressure is applied through the
open end, the increased pressure causes the flattened cross section to become more circulars and the shape
to straighten. This moves the closed end. The device is illustrated in figure 7.
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Fig.7: Bourdon Type Pressure Gauge
C-Bourdon Pressure Gauge

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Helical-Bourdon Pressure Gauge

Spiral-Bourdon Pressure Gauge
Table below lists Bourdon tube materials, noting some of the important characteristics by the letters P (poor),
F (fair), G (good) and also indicating the maximum pressure range that the Bourdon tube can detect.
3. Differential pressure (DP) indicator/switch
DP Device is used to measure difference in pressure between two points.
Filter indicator can be used to identify the dirty filters that are in need of cleaning, one of these units is
shown in Figure 8. Here the pressure difference across the filter is applied to a springloaded piston. The
spring setting represents the maximum allowable pressure drop across the filter. When this setting is
reached, the piston lifts and rotates an indication ball to show its red (instead of green) half behind the
indicator lens. In this mode the operator is expected to periodically inspect these status indicators and
visually note the filters that need cleaning.
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Fig.8: Filter Indicator
DP Switch: The d/p across filters can be also be monitored by piston-operated switches (Figure 5.6b). In this
design the high pressure is applied to the top of a piston and the low pressure to the underside of the piston
against which a spring presses. A given differential pressure produces a corresponding spring movement. A
magnet is attached to the piston which, through a nonmagnetic body, positions a pivot magnet, thereby
driving the pointer or tripping as many as four switches, or both.
Switches are point-sensing device,

serving to actuate or initiate safety
interlocks.

D/P Indicators
The devices developed for the measurement and indication or transmission of pressure differentials can be
divided into dry and wet. Dry units can be further subdivided into force balance and motion detection types.
Similarly, wet units have two major categories: liquid seal (inverted bell) and liquid manometer. Liquid
manometers are divided into the visual and the float designs.
The operation of bellows type dry, motion balance, d/p detectors depends on liquid-filled, double-opposed
bellows. They are most useful when local indication or record is required and where compressed air or
electric power is not available as the energy source.
Figure 9 illustrates the basic components of the unit: the high- and low-pressure chambers, the range
spring, and the drive assembly to transfer bellows motion to the readout pointer. The bellows in both
chambers and the passage between them are liquid-filled. When the unit is installed, the pressure in the high-
pressure chamber compresses the bellows, so that liquid flows from it into the low-side bellows. When the
low-pressure (or range) bellows expand, they exert a force against the range spring, which determines the
span of the instrument.
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Fig.9: DP Indicator
2.3 Temperature Measurement
Temperature is as fundamental a physical concept as the three basic quantities of mechanics: mass, length,
and time. Temperature is an expression that denotes a physical condition of matter. Yet, the idea of
temperature is a relative one, arrived at by a number of conflicting theories. To standardize on the
temperature of objects under varying conditions, several scales have been devised. The Fahrenheit scale
arbitrarily assigns the number 32 to the freezing point of water and the number 212 to the boiling point of
water. The interval is divided into 180 equal parts. The Centigrade or Celsius scale defines the freezing point
of the water to be 0, and its boiling point to be 100.
Bimetallic Types (Bimetallic Springs)
Bimetallic thermometers make use of two fundamental principles: (1) metals change volume with
temperature, and (2) this coefficient of change is not the same for all metals. If two different straight
metal strips are bonded together and heated, the resultant strip will bend toward the side of the metal with
the lower expansion rate. Deflection is proportional to the square of the length and the temperature
change and inversely proportional to the thickness. A bimetallic spring can be calibrated to produce a
predictable deflection at a preset temperature. This is the basis of operation of the many bimetallic
temperature switches in household appliances.
The motion produced by a bimetallic spring is small; to amplify it in a reasonably sized space the bimetal strip
may be wound in the form of a spiral or a helix. A classic example of an ambient air temperature thermometer
is shown in Figure 10. The outside edge of the spiral is pinned to the frame and a pointer is connected to the
center. As the temperature increases, the spiral winds up deflecting the pointer clockwise.
Knowing the coefficients of expansion of the two metals, their thickness, and the desired scale length and
range, the total length of the spiral can be computed. A favorite combination of metals is low-expanding Invar
(64% Fe, 36% Ni) against high-expanding nickel-iron alloy with chromium or manganese added.
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Fig.10: Simple and classic thermometer
The bimetallic thermometers can be back- or bottom-connected, or they can be

fully adjustable.
Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
Resistance thermometry is based upon the increasing electrical resistance of conductors with increasing
temperature. Resistance is measured by applying a constant current and measuring the voltage drop across
the resistor. Ohm’s Law defines the proportionality between the resistance and the voltage. Therefore the
voltage is a direct measure for the resistance and thereby the temperature. That means, when using resistors
(RTD's) for temperature measurements, the electrical resistance of a sensor subjected to the temperature is
the variable utilized.
Resistance temperature detector (RTDs) are constructed of a resistive material with leads attached and
usually placed into a protective sheath. The resistive material may be platinum, nickel, or copper, with the
most common by far being platinum. Platinum resistance thermometers are now the international standard for
temperature measurements.
RTD Types: There are basically three styles of platinum sensing elements.
Wire wound Element: The wire wound sensor is the simplest sensor design. The sensing wire is wrapped
around an insulating mandrel or core. The winding core can be round or flat, but must be an electrical
insulator. The winding core must also be selected to match the intended service temperature and
environment. The sensing wire is connected to a larger wire, usually referred to as the element lead or wire.
This wire is selected to be compatible with sensing wire so that the combination does not generate an emf
(voltage) that would distort the measurement. The wire also has to be able to with stand any annealing during
the process.
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Coiled Element: The coiled sensor is a method to produce a "strain free" design. A strain free design allows
the sensing wire to expand and contract free of influences from other materials in the assembly. There are
variations to this style sensor depending on the manufacturer. The basis of the sensing element is a small coil
of platinum sensing wire. This coil resembles a filament in an incandescent light bulb. The housing or mandrel
is a hard fired aluminum oxide tube with four equally spaced bores that run transverse to the axes. The coil is
inserted in the bores of the mandrel and the bores are packed with a very fine grit ceramic powder. This
permits the sensing wire to move while still remaining in good thermal contact with the process being
measured.
Thin Film Element: The thin film sensing element is manufactured by depositing a very thin layer of platinum
on a ceramic substrate. This layer is usually just a 10 to 100 angstroms (10-8 centimeters) thick. The
platinum film is coated with epoxy or glass. This coating helps protect deposited platinum film and acts as a
strain relief for the external leadwires.

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Circuit Configurations (Leadwire Configurations)
Leadwire Configurations: RTDs are available with four different leadwire configurations. The selection of
leadwire configuration is based on desired accuracy and instrumentation to be used for the measurement.
Three different circuit configurations are distinguished and described in the following:
In a two-wire circuit (The two wire RTD is the simplest wire configuration. One wire is attached to each side of
the element) a current is applied to the temperature dependent resistor RT from a constant current source.
The voltage drop across RT is measured by the temperature transmitter and converted. The resultant value,
however, is incorrect because of the series resistances of the measurement leads (RL1 + RL2) and the
contact resistances at the terminals (RK1 + RK2). Accordingly the two-wirde circuit is not suitable for exact
temperature measurements.
In a three-wire circuit two constant current sources are used, in order to compensate for the disadvantages
described above for the two-wire circuits. Similar to the two-wire circuit the current source IK2 is used to
measure the temperature dependent resistance RT including the lead and terminal contact resistances. The
additional current source IK1 together with a third lead is used to separately compensate the lead and
terminal contact resistances. Assuming the exact same lead and terminal contact resistances for all three
leads, the effect on the accuracy of the temperature measurements can be eliminated. But practice has
shown that it is not always possible to assure that the terminal contact resistances are always identical.
Applied the same principle, a four wire RTD is the most accurate method to measure an RTD. It is primarily
used in laboratories and is seldom seen in an industrial application. A four wire RTD circuit removes the
effect of mismatched resistances on the lead wires
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Further details on principle of operation, construction of RTD sensor can be found at

http://www.rdfcorp.com/anotes/pa-r/pa-r_01.shtml
Thermocouple (TC)
The measurement principle of a thermocouple (TC) is based on the contact of two different metals. If two
dissimilar metals are connected together, a signal in millivolt (mV) will be generated. This thermoelectrical
voltage (electromotive force - EMF) is a result of the combined metals under change of temperature.
Imparting heat to the junction of two dissimilar metals causes a small continuous electromotive force (EMF) to
be generated. One of the simplest of all temperature sensors, the thermocouple (TC) depends upon the
principle known as the Seebeck Effect. T.J. Seebeck discovered this phenomenon in 1821, and in the
ensuing years the thermocouple has become the most widely used electrical temperature sensor. The word is
a combination of thermo for the heat requirement and couple denoting two junctions.
A TC is an assembly of two wires of unlike metals joined at one end, designated as the hot end. At the other
end, referred to as the cold junction, the open circuit voltage or Seebeck voltage is measured. This voltage
(EMF) depends on the temperature difference between the hot and the cold junctions and on the Seebeck
coefficients of the two metal wires.
Measuring the temperature by thermoelectric voltage is a comparison measurement between the hot end of
the thermocouple and the cold junction. Thermocouples are standardized from -274 °C to +1800 °C.
An ordinary TC consists of two different kinds of wires, each of which must be made of a homogeneous metal
or alloy. The wires are fastened together at one end to form a measuring junction, normally referred to as the
hot junction, since a majority of the measurements are made above ambient temperatures. The free ends of
the two wires are connected to the measuring instrument to form a closed path in which current can flow.
After the TC wires connect to the measuring instrument, the junction inside is designated as reference
junction, or the cold junction (see Figure 11)

Fig.11: Operation Principle of thermocouple
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Normally letters such as J, K, and T are used to indicate the metals used.
Thermowell
Thermowell is like an enclosure of the thermometer. The purpose of thermowells is therefore to protect the
thermal elements from mechanical damage and corrosion.
Thermowells permit the removal of thermal elements for calibration, replacement, or repairs and also allow
the use of portable sensors. The well or protection tube is permanently inserted into the pipe or vessel and is
secured by threads, flanges, or welds, allowing the thermal element to be inserted into the well.
Thermowells are usually metallic and may be coated with other materials to provide additional corrosion
protection. Integral flanges or threaded sections enable the wells to be secured to the pipe or vessel.
2.4 Transmitter
As explained in Section 1 (Introduction), the measuring devices mentioned above are first instruments in the
control loop (primary elements). They are usually in physical contact with the process and sense changes in
the process variable (level, temperature, flow or pressure). In order for the controllers (the “brain” of control
system) to determine which action to take to correct the deviations, the results of sensing/measuring process
must be transmitted to controllers in some kind of signal (analog signal) that is understandable to controllers.
This is the purpose and function of the transmitters.
The transmitter takes the signal from the primary element and gives a standard proportional output. There are
pneumatic and electronic transmitters. Some common output signals are 4 to 20mA; 10 to 50mA; 1 to 5V; 3 to
15 psi and 0.2 to 1 bar.
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Electronic Transmitters can have any of several electrical connection schemes. The most common and
easiest to use is the two-wire, loop-powered configuration. This is generally the basic configuration assumed
by engineers for industrial process control systems when digital communication is not required. As shown in
Figure 12, only two wires are used to accommodate both power to the transmitter and output
Fig.12: Two-wire configuration of a transmitter
The loop current is usually 4 to 20 mA, but 1 to 5 and 10 to 50 mA have been used. Important calibration
parameters with a current loop are zero, full scale, and span. With the 4- to 20-mA range, the loop current is
normally 4 mA when the measurand is at zero, and 20 mA when the measurand is at full scale. The difference
between zero and full scale, 16 mA, is called the span. Thus, the span corresponds to the indicated range of
the measurand.
The typical power supply for industrial transmitters is 24 VDC. If 6 volts, for example, are needed to power the
transmitter and its output circuit, then 18 volts of compliance remain to allow for wire resistance, load
resistance, voltage drops across intrinsic safety (IS) barriers and remote displays, etc. Where the current loop
signal is connected to the main receiving equipment or data acquisition system, a precision load resistor of
250 ohms is normally connected. This converts the 4- to 20-mA current signal into a 1- to 5-volt signal, since it
is standard practice to configure the analog-to-digital converter of the receiving equipment as a voltage-
sensing input.
Intrinsic Safety
When the transmitter will be used in a hazardous location, where flammable or explosive gases, vapors,
fibers, or powders may be present, a protection method must be employed. Popular methods include
mounting the transmitter within an explosion-proof housing, in a purge cabinet, or as part of an intrinsically
safe system.
In an explosion-proof housing, it is possible that the enclosed atmosphere may burn or explode, but the
resulting pressure is withstood by the strength of the housing. A flame path allows the high-pressure gas to
escape while being cooled. This prevents ignition of the external atmosphere and bleeds away the pressure
so the worker is not injured when the housing cover is subsequently removed.
When the transmitter is mounted in a purge cabinet, fresh air flows through the cabinet at a sufficient rate to
prevent the buildup of a flammable mixture. Both explosion-proof and purged equipment relies on the
installation method to provide the safety features. Intrinsically safe installations, however, require the
transmitter itself to be designed within specific safety criteria. A transmitter can be installed into an intrinsically
safe system through the use of an approved safety barrier device. In the U.S., the approval agency is usually
Factory Mutual (FM) or Underwriters Laboratories (UL) but can be one of the other smaller agencies if
acceptable under local regulations where the equipment will be installed. The safety barrier is installed in the
safe area (typically, the control room), in series with the wiring between the safe area and the hazardous area
(the process).
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The safety barrier limits the electrical current and voltage to levels that are too low to provide energy sufficient
to ignite the type of hazardous materials expected to be present. In addition, the transmitter must be designed
so that there is no energy storage, arcing, or hotspot sufficient to cause ignition. The specific requirements
are listed in the National Electrical Code, and the publications of FM, UL, and NFPA (National Fire Protection
Agency).
Intelligent Transmitter
Microprocessor-based temperature transmitters have continued to evolve in sophistication and capability to

ensure accuracy and reliability of measured and transmitted signals. A transmitter includes an input circuit
referred to as an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter that converts the sensor input signal from its analog form
into a digital representation for presentation to the microprocessor. The microprocessor performs all of the
mathematical manipulations of ranging, linearization, error checking, and conversion. The output stage
accepts the resultant digital representation of the current value of the measurement and converts the signal
back to an analog signal (D/A) that is typically a 4- to 20-mA DC current. For some special applications, 0 to 1
Vdc or 0 to 10 Vdc signals may be used and in others the signal is transmitted digitally using either an open or
proprietary protocol. Some countries have adopted 0 to 20 mA (HART protocol) as the standard transmitted
signal.
Digital Communication
The function of transmitter is to convert the outcomes of sensing elements (temperature, level variables...etc)
into the standardized signal to controller. As described earlier, the 4- to 20 mA two-wire current loop is the
assumed standard for analog communication for industrial process control. In addition, there are several
popular methods for digital communication (output from transmitter) from process transmitters. Some of these
are HART, CAN, FIELDBUS and PROFIBUS.
2.5 Fire and Gas Detector
A fire occurs in four distinct phases. In the first, or incipient, phase, warming causes the emission of invisible
but detectable gases. In the second phase, smoldering, smoke is formed, so smoke detectors can be used. In
the third phase, when the ignition temperature has been reached, flames are present and therefore their
emitted radiation (infrared [IR] and ultraviolet [UV]) can be detected. In the fourth and last stage of the fire,
heat is released; the temperature of the space starts to rise, and the use of thermal sensors becomes
feasible. Obviously, the sooner the evolution of a fire is detected, the less damage it is likely to cause.
Therefore, fire and smoke detectors are discussed here in the order of their applicability to the four stages of
fires.
Smoke Detectors
Ionization Chamber Sensors: In the early warming and incipient stage of fire, combustion products are
emitted without visible smoke, flame, or heat release. Ionization chamber type sensors are used to detect the
presence of these gases by analyzing the composition of the atmosphere through the measurement of
conductance. The ionization chamber contains two electrodes held at different potentials and a radioactive
alpha particle source that ionizes the air in the chamber. The ionization current that results reflects the
composition of the air and rises as the invisible combustion gas concentration rises.
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Photoelectric Sensors: Once the fire starts to smolder and smoke is present, photoelectric sensors can be
used to activate alarms. Most smoke detectors use a light beam and a photoelectric cell or transistor. As the
smoke density rises, less light passes from the source to the receiver and an alarm is activated. Smoke
detectors must be maintained so that dust and dirt accumulation will not cause false alarms. In most fires the
casualties are not caused by the heat of the fire, but by the toxicity of the combustion gases and by
asphyxiation from smoke. Therefore, early warning systems, such as photoelectric smoke detectors, are very
important.
Thermal Sensors
There are two types of thermal sensors that are used in fire protection application. One is the rate-of-rise
sensor, and the other is the absolute temperature sensor. Rate-of-rise alarms are usually set at 15 to 20°F
(8.3 to 11.1°C) per minute. This rate of rise can be detected by either bimetallic pneumatic tube sensors or
thermoelectric sensors. The fixed temperature sensors actuate an alarm when the space temperature
reaches a present limit. They are usually either bimetallic or fusible link devices. In the fusible link devices, the
melting of a low melting-point solder activates the operation of sprinklers or other extinguishing devices.
Flame Sensors
Once there is a flame, it emits a flickering radiation, which is mostly in the IR wavelength. Therefore, IR
sensors can be used to detect the presence of flames. The flickering frequency of open flames (5 to 25 cps)
allows the discrimination of flames from infrared radiation generated by light bulbs (at 120 cps) or from
unmodulated ambient light sources. False alarms can still be caused by sunlight reflections from windows or
rippling water surfaces, or by flickering neon signs. Therefore, the mounting location of the sensor should be
carefully selected. Flame detectors should be used when combustible gases or flammable liquids are present,
where the ignition is almost instantaneous and has practically no incipient or smoldering stage.
Types of Optical Flame Sensors
There are basically five types of optical detectors in addition to closed-circuit television (CCTV):
1. UV (Ultraviolet Detectors)
2. IR (Infrared Detectors)
3. UV/IR
4. Dual IR
5. Multi-IR
2.6 Calibration of Instrument Device
The performance of a process instrument such as a temperature or pressure sensor normally depends on its
accuracy and response time. Accuracy is a qualitative term that describes how well the instrument may
measure the process parameter, and response time specifies the speed by which the instrument can detect
any significant change in the value of a process parameter. Accuracy and response time are largely
independent and are therefore identified through separate procedures.
The accuracy of a process instrument is established through its calibration, and the response time is
determined by exposing the instrument to a dynamic input and measuring its response time from the transient
output. Calibration is done by providing the instrument with a number of known and stable inputs to ensure
that the output accurately represents the input.
3. Transmission Protocol
As noted in section 1 (Introduction), the process variables or signal from primary & secondary control
elements (sensors and transmitters) need to be transmitted to controllers for analysing and decide proper
action to final control elements (normally control valves). The transmission of signal from field devices
(sensors/transmitters) to controllers have been standardized in the past few decades, the discussion below
focuses on the most popular protocols.
In the 1980s Rosemount developed the Highway Addressable Remote Transducer (HART) protocol to enable
detailed information about the setup and operation of the device to be superimposed onto the 4- to 20-mA
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signal. This protocol was soon released to the public domain. The HART Communication Foundation
promotes its use in industry and supports its maintenance and growth. The benefits of remote configuration
and access to diagnostics have encouraged the dramatic increase in use of HART-enabled instruments.
During this same time period, a variety of proprietary protocols emerged supported by many of the larger
manufacturers that provided comparable benefits of remote setup and diagnostics. Unlike the HART protocol,
these products were limited to use within the manufacturer’s system. In the 1990s, a trend emerged for more
open protocols to enable plug-and-play of instruments from varying manufacturers to work as part of a
fieldbus structure.
Two that have emerged as leaders are Foundation Fieldbus and Profibus. Each has their proponents and
support groups that have been promoting their acceptance. Temperature transmitters, as well as other field
and control room devices, must incorporate the specific fieldbus technology to be used in these systems. The
support tends to favor using fieldbus technology for new plant construction and major upgrades where all new
instrumentation and cabling would be required. Existing plants with properly functioning legacy instruments
are more likely to stay with existing technology.
In 1979, Modicon introduced the MODBUS protocol as a means of exchanging data between field devices
and controllers. This protocol serves as a means to share data among multiple vendor devices. It is now
owned by Schneider Automation and is freely available for use. There are several temperature multiplexers
on the market that can communicate with a host system using MODBUS, MODBUS Plus, or MODBUS
TCP/IP protocols.
Ethernet communication has been used for interconnection of digital equipment in offices and control rooms
for many years. Its use is now migrating out onto the factory floor. There are a variety of products introduced
beginning in 2002 that will interface process measurements, including temperature, over high speed Ethernet
links to host systems using OPC (object linking and embedding for process control) servers.
4. Control Theory and Distributed Control System (DCS)
The basic objectives of any process control system are:
a. Closely monitor the condition of the process

b. Maintain the process in a safe and stable condition
c. Compensate for changes in the process conditions and maintain production to a given specification
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It is worth repeating here the elements of a control loop as describe in section 1 (introduction):
Primary Element
This is the first instrument in the control loop. It is usually in physical contact with the process and sense
changes in the process variable. Examples of Primary Elements are thermocouples; flowmeters; level gauge;
pressure transmitters.
Transmitter
If the signal from the primary element has not been converted then it needs to be standardised before it can
be used by standard controllers. The transmitter takes the signal from the primary element and gives a
standard proportional output. There are pneumatic and electronic transmitters. Some common output signals
are 4 to 20mA; 10 to 50mA; 1 to 5V; 3 to 15 psi and 0.2 to 1 bar.
Controller
Controllers are the 'brains' of the control loop. The controller receives a signal from the transmitter and then
compares this value with the set point and computes the amount of output signal needed to remove the
difference between the measurement and the set point (the offset).
Final Control Element
This is the correction device in the control loop. It is usually a valve but can be a heater or motor. It gets the
signal from the controller and alters its output accordingly. The final control element manipulates the
manipulated medium.
a. Historical Background of Automation Control System
The history of man's attempts to control industrial processes through automatic means is a long, starting with
such early developments as Cornelis Drebbel's furnace thermostat (1620) and James Watt's centrifugal
governor for steam engines (1788). However, the major advances in integrated control system
architectures, as compared to individual controllers, have taken place over the last fifty years. This section
reviews several key developments during these years to provide the rationale for the recent emergence of
the distributed control system architecture.
Control systems have developed from the 1930s to the present day in response to two intertwined influences:
user needs and technological advances. One factor that has influenced the control needs of the user is the
continual growth in the size and complexity of industrial processes over the past fifty years. Also, the costs of
raw materials and energy required to process these materials have increased substantially in this time.
Finally, the labor costs involved in plant startup, operation, and maintenance have grown substantially. These
influences have motivated the owners and operators of industrial processes to place a greater amount of
emphasis on automation and on efforts to optimize their operations. In response to these user needs, the
suppliers of industrial controls have been motivated to develop totally integrated plant management systems
that are more than the combination of individual control, monitoring, and data logging systems.
Fortunately, the explosive advances in technology that have taken place over the past fifty years have
provided the capabilities needed for the evolution of such plant management systems. For example, the
development of transistors, integrated analog circuits, and solid-state relays resulted in a growth in capability
and an increase in reliability of electronic control systems that enabled them to largely replace pneumatic
control systems. Similarly, the development of digital technology in the form of improved large-scale
integrated logic circuits, microprocessors, semiconductor memories, and cathode-ray tube (CRT) displays has
led to even more impressive improvements in digital control system capabilities. These improvements have
allowed control systems based on digital technology to replace electronic analog systems in many
applications.
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The lines of technological development can be divided into two separate streams, as illustrated in Figure 13.
The upper stream with its two branches is the more traditional one, and includes the evolution of analog
controllers and other discrete devices such as relay logic and motor controllers. The second stream is a more
recent one that includes the use of large-scale digital computers and their mini and micro descendants in
industrial process control. These streams have merged into the current mainstream of distributed digital
control systems. The dates of several key milestones in this evolutionary process are shown in Figure 13 to
illustrate the pace of these advances.

Fig.13: Historical development of control technology
1934 Direct-connected pneumatic controls dominate market.
1938 Transmitter-type pneumatic control systems emerge, making centralized control rooms possible.
1958 First computer monitoring in electric utility.
1959 First supervisory computer in refinery.
1960 First solid-state electronic controllers on market. 1963 First direct digital control (DDC) system
installed. 1970 First programmable logic controllers (PLCs) on market. 1970 Sales of electronic
controllers surpass pneumatic.
1975 First distributed digital control system on market.
Traditional Control System Developments
The concept of distributed control systems is not a new one. In fact, the early discrete device control systems
listed in Figure 13 were distributed around the plant. Individual control devices such as governors and
mechanical controllers were located at the process equipment to be controlled. Local readouts of set points
and control outputs were available, and a means for changing the control mode from manual to automatic (or
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vice versa) usually was provided. It was up to the operator (actually, several operators) to coordinate the
control of the many devices that made up the total process.
They did this by roaming around the plant and making corrections to the control devices as needed and using
the "Hey, Joe!" method of communications to integrate plant operations. This was a feasible approach to the
control of early industrial processes because the plants were small geographically and the processes were
not too large or complex. The same architecture was copied when direct-connected pneumatic controllers
were developed in the late 1920s. These controllers provided more flexibility in selection and adjustment of
the control algorithms, but all of the elements of the control loop (sensor, controller, operator interface, and
output actuator) were still located in the field. There was no mechanism for communication between
controllers other than that provided by each operator to other operators in the plant using visual and vocal
means.
This situation changed of necessity in the late 1930s due to the growth in size and complexity of the
processes to be controlled. It became more and more difficult to run a plant using the isolated-loop control
architecture described above. The emphasis on improving overall plant operations led to a movement towards
centralized control and equipment rooms. This was made possible by the development of transmitter-type
pneumatic systems. In this architecture, measurements made at the process were converted to pneumatic
signals at standard levels, which were then transmitted to the central location. The required control signals
were computed at this location, and then transmitted back to the actuating devices at the process. The great
advantage of this architecture was that all of the process information was available to the operator at the
central location. Thus, the operator was able to make better control decisions and operate the plant with a
greater degree of safety and economic return.
The centralized control structure described above is still the dominant one in plants operating today. In the
late 1950s and early 1960s, the technology used to implement this architecture started to shift from
pneumatics to electronics. One of the key objectives of this shift was replacing the long runs of tubing used in
pneumatic systems with the wires used in electronic ones. This change reduced the cost of installing the
control systems and also eliminated the time lag inherent in pneumatic systems. Both of these advantages
became more significant as plant sizes increased. Another consequence of the centralized control
architecture was the development of the split controller structure. In this type of controller, the operator display
section of the controller is panel mounted in the control room and the computing section is located in a
separate rack in an adjoining equipment room. The split controller structure is especially appropriate for
complex, interactive control systems (e.g., for boiler controls) in which the number of computing elements
greatly exceeds the number of operator display elements.
Both pneumatic and electronic versions of the centralized control architecture still exist and are being sold,
delivered, and operated today. In fact, it was not until 1970 that the sales of electronic controllers exceeded
the sales of pneumatic controllers in the industrial process control marketplace.
The discussion to this point has focused on continuous, or analog, control devices, in which both the inputs
and outputs to the controllers vary continuously over a selected range (e.g., 1-5 volts or 3-15 psi). Similar
developments have taken place in the realm of sequential logic control devices, in which the inputs and
outputs to the controllers take on only one of two discrete states (e.g., On/Off, 0/24 volts). These devices
generally are used in controlling certain types of pumps, motors, or valves in a process. They also are used in
safety override systems that operate in parallel to and back up the continuous systems described above. The
original versions of these logic systems were implemented using simple electronic devices such as relays and
stepping switches. Later, the development of solid-state electronic modules allowed logic systems to be
implemented using the same level of technology as the corresponding electronic analog controllers.
In the early 1970s, a sophisticated device known as the programmable logic controller (PLC) was developed
to implement sequential logic systems. This device is significant because it was one of the first special-
purpose, computer-based devices that could be used by someone who was not a computer specialist. It was
designed to be programmed by a user who was familiar with relay logic diagrams but was not necessarily a
computer programmer. This approach to control system configuration was inspired by early efforts of process
computer specialists to develop a process oriented control language. However, it was more successful than
most of these efforts in eliminating the user's dependence on a priesthood of computer specialists in running
a process control system.
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All of the versions of sequential logic systems described above have been implemented in direct-connected
distributed architectures as well as in centralized ones. In each case, the logic controller has been associated
directly with the corresponding unit of process equipment, with little or no communication between it and other
logic controllers. It was not until the late 1970s that PLCs and computers started to be connected together in
integrated systems for factory automation. For the purposes of this discussion, the PLC and networks of PLCs
are considered to be special cases of the general distributed control system architecture.
Computer-based Control System Developments
In addition to the evolution of the traditional types of-control systems described above, a more recent (and
equally important) evolution of computer-based process control systems has been taking place, as shown in
the lower part of Figure 13. The first application of computers to industrial processes was in the areas of plant
monitoring and supervisory control.
In September 1958, the first industrial computer system for plant monitoring was installed at an electric utility
power generating station. This innovation provided an automatic data acquisition capability not available
before, and freed the operator from much drudgery by automatically logging plant operating conditions on a
periodic basis. Shortly thereafter (in 1959 and 1960), supervisory computer control systems were installed in
a refinery and in a chemical plant. In these applications, analog controllers were still the primary means of
control. The computer used the available input data to calculate control set points that corresponded to the
most efficient plant operating conditions. These set points then were sent to the analog controllers, which
performed the actual closed-loop control. The ability of supervisory control computers to perform economic
optimization as well as to acquire, display, and log plant data provided the operator with a powerful tool for
significantly improving plant operations.
The next step in the evolution of computer process control was the use of the computer in the primary control
loop itself, in a mode usually known as direct digital control, or DDC. In this approach, process measurements
are read by the computer directly, the computer calculates the proper control outputs, then sends the outputs
directly to the actuation devices. The first DDC system was installed in 1963 in a petrochemical plant. For
security, a backup analog control system was provided to ensure that the process could be run automatically
in the event of a computer failure. This proved to be a wise precaution, because this early DDC installation
(as well as many others) was plagued with computer hardware reliability problems. Despite these problems, it
demonstrated many of the advantages digital control has over analog control: tuning parameters and set
points do not drift, complex control algorithms can be implemented to improve plant operation, and control
loop tuning parameters can be set adaptively to track changing operating conditions.
Resulting System Architectures
As a result of the developments described above, two industrial control system architectures came to
dominate the scene by the end of the 1970s. While there are many variations, typical examples of these
architectures are shown in Figures 14 and 15. The first architecture is a hybrid one, making use of a
combination of discrete control hardware and computer hardware in a central location to implement the
required control functions. In this approach, first level or local control of the plant unit operations is
implemented by using discrete analog and sequential logic controllers (or PLCs). Panel board instrumentation
connected to these controllers is used for operator interfacing and is located in the central control room area.
A supervisory computer and associated data acquisition system are used to implement the plant management
functions, including operating point optimization, alarming, data logging, and historical data storage and
retrieval. The computer also is used to drive its own operator interface, usually consisting of one or more
video display units (VDUs). A substantial amount of interfacing hardware is required to tie the analog and
sequential control equipment to each other as well as to the supervisory computer. The other dominant
architecture, shown in Figure 15, is one in which all system functions are implemented in high-performance
computer hardware in a central location. In general, redundant computers are required so that the failure of a
single computer does not shut the whole process down. Operator interfacing for plant management functions
is provided using computer-driven VDUs, just as in the hybrid control system architecture described above.
Operator interfacing for first level continuous and sequential closed-loop control also may be implemented
using VDUs. Optionally, the computers can be interfaced to standard panel board instrumentation so that the
operator in charge of first-level control can use a more familiar set of control and display hardware.
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Fig.14: Hybrid System Architecture

Fig.15: Central Computer System Architecture
Note that both of the above systems use computers. The main difference between the two systems is the
location of the implementation of the first-level continuous and sequential logic control functions. By the late
1970s, the hybrid system became by far the more prevalent approach in industrial control practice. The
chemical and petroleum process industries heavily favored this approach, perhaps as a result of their
disappointing experiences using early versions of direct digital control systems. In contrast, the use of large
centralized computer systems to implement almost all plant control functions was limited primarily to the
electric utility industry.
b. Emergence of the Distributed Control System Architecture
While the central computer and hybrid system architectures provide significant advantages over earlier ones,
they also suffer from a number of disadvantages. The biggest disadvantage of the centralized computer
control architecture is that the central processing unit (CPU) represents a single point of failure that can shut
down the entire process if it is lost. Since early industrial computer hardware was notoriously unreliable, two
approaches were developed and have been used to attack the reliability problem: either a complete analog
control system is used to back up the computer system, or another computer is used as a "hot standby" to
take over if the primary control computer fails. Either approach results in a system significantly more
expensive than an analog control system that performs a comparable set of functions.
Another problem with these computer-based systems has been that the software required to implement all of
the functions is extremely complex, and requires a priesthood of computer experts to develop the system,
start it up, and keep it running. This is the natural result of an architecture in which a single CPU is required to
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perform a variety of functions in real time: input scanning; database updating; control algorithm computation;
logging, long-term storage and retrieval of data; and man-machine interfacing (among others). Finally, the
centralized system is limited in its capability to accommodate change and expansion. Once the loading on the
computer approaches its limit, it becomes very difficult to add on to the system without a significant decrease
in performance or increase in cost.
The hybrid system architecture of Figure 14 also has its deficiencies. One of the worst is simply that it is
composed of many different subsystems, often manufactured by different vendors. Just interfacing the
subsystems to one another is a significant challenge, given the variety of different signal levels and
conventions that exists in each. Starting them up and making them work as an integrated whole is no less
difficult a task. The hybrid approach also is functionally limited compared to the central computer-based
system. The benefits of digital control are lost, since the closed-loop control is done by discrete analog and
sequential devices. Also, the speed and accuracy of plant performance computations suffer due to the
limitations of the analog input equipment and the problems in accessing the database, which is no longer
centralized as in the computer implementation approach.
Because of these problems, it became clear to both users and system designers that a new architectural
approach was needed. Control system engineers had been sketching out concepts of distributed systems
composed of digital control and communication elements since the middle 1960s. Unfortunately, the
technology to implement these concepts in a cost-effective manner was not available at that time. It was not
until the microprocessor was introduced in 1971 that the distributed system architecture became practical.
Supporting technology also became available during the early 1970s: inexpensive solid-state memories were
developed to replace magnetic core memories; integrated circuit chips to implement standard communication
protocols were introduced; display system technology flourished with the emergence of light-emitting diode
(LED) and color CRT displays; in the software area, structured design techniques, modular software
packages, and new on-line diagnostic concepts were developed.
The result of this fortunate confluence of user needs and technological developments was the introduction of
a large number of distributed digital control system product lines by vendors in the late 1970s and early
1980s. While each system has a unique structure and specialized features, the architectures of most of these
systems can be described in the context of the generalized one shown in Figure 16. The devices in this
architecture are grouped into three categories: those that interface directly to the process to be controlled or
monitored, those that perform high-level human interfacing and computing functions, and those that provide
the means of communication between the other devices. A brief definition of each device is given below:
Local Control Unit (LCU)—The smallest collection of hardware in the system that can do closed-loop
control. The LCU interfaces directly to the process.
Low-level Human Interface (LLHI)—A device that allows the operator or instrument engineer to interact with
the local control unit (e.g., to change set points, control modes, control configurations, or tuning parameters)
using a direct connection. LLHIs can also interface directly to the process. Operator oriented hardware at this
level is called a low-level operator interface; instrument engineer-oriented hardware is called a low-level
engineering interface.
Data Input/output Unit (I/O)—A device that interfaces to the process solely for the purpose of acquiring or
outputting data. It performs no control functions.
High-level Human Interface (HLHI)—A collection of hardware that performs functions similar to the LLHI but
with increased capability and user friendliness. It interfaces to other devices only over the shared
communication facilities. Operator-oriented hardware at this level is called a high-level operator interface;
instrument engineer-oriented hardware is called a high-level engineering interface.
High-level Computing Device (HLCD)—A collection of microprocessor-based hardware that performs plant
management functions traditionally performed by a plant computer. It interfaces to other devices only over the
shared communication facilities.
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Computer Interface Device (CID)—A collection of hardware that allows an external general-purpose
computer to interact with other devices in the distributed control system using the shared communication
facilities.
Shared Communication Facilities—One or more levels of communication hardware and associated

software that allow the sharing of data among all devices in the distributed system. Shared
communication facilities do not include dedicated communication channels between specific devices or
between hardware elements within a device.
Fig.16: Generalized Distributed Control System Architecture

c. Communication Facilities
In conventional nondistributed control systems, the connections that allow communication between the
various system elements are configured on a per-job basis. This system consists of a combination of
continuous controllers, sequential controllers, data acquisition hardware, panelboard instrumentation, and a
computer system. The controllers communicate with each other by means of point-to-point wiring, usually
within the control cabinets. This custom wiring reflects the particular control system configuration selected.
The controllers are connected to the corresponding panelboard instrumentation and to the computer system
by means of prefabricated cables. The computer obtains information from the data acquisition modules using
similar hard wiring or cabling that is specific to the particular module configuration implemented.
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Fig.17: Conventional Point-to-Point Wiring

This approach to interconnecting system elements has proven to be expensive to design and check out,
difficult to change, burdensome to document, and subject to errors. It becomes even more cumbersome if the
system elements are distributed geographically around the plant. The first step taken to improve this situation
was to introduce the concept of distributed multiplexing in the early 1970s. This concept was first used in the
process control industry to implement large-scale data acquisition systems, which at that time had grown to
several thousand inputs in size. To reduce the cost of wiring, remote multiplexers located near the sensors in
the field were used to convert the inputs to digital form and transmit them back to the data acquisition
computer over a shared communication system.
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Fig.18: Communication Facility as a “Black Box”

Replacing dedicated point-to-point wiring and cabling with this communications facility provides a
considerable number of benefits to the user:
o The cost of plant wiring is reduced significantly, since thousands of wires are replaced by the few cables
or buses used to implement the shared communication system.
o The flexibility of making changes increases, since it is the software or firmware configurations in the
system elements that define the data interconnection paths and not hard wiring.
o It takes less time to implement a large system, since the wiring labor is nearly eliminated, configuration
errors are reduced, and less time is required to check out the interconnections.
o The control system is more reliable due to the significant reduction in physical connections in the system
(a major source of failures).
However, replacing hard wiring with the shared communications network of a distributed control system also
raises a number of questions for the user. In a conventional system, communications between system
elements travel at the speed of light, essentially with zero delay. Also, since the hard-wired communication
channels between elements are dedicated, there is no danger of overloading a channel. In the case of a
shared communication system, the user must be able to judge whether the response time and capacity of the
shared system (in addition to many other performance factors) are adequate for the application. This can be a
difficult problem for the user, since there are significant differences and few standards among the various
communication systems available on the market today.
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In general, the shared communications facility in a distributed control system must carry out the following
functions:
a. Transmission of control variables between local control units in the system. This is a requirement for
all applications in which the control strategy requires multiple interacting controllers. To minimize
delays and maximize security of transmission, the LCUs should be able to communicate directly with
one another and not through an intermediary.
b. Transmission of process variables, control variables, and alarm status information from the LCUs to
the high-level human interfaces and to the lowlevel human interfaces in the system (i.e., operator and
engineer consoles and panelboard instrumentation).
c. Communication of set-point commands, operating modes, and control variables from the high-level
computing devices and human interface devices to the LCUs for the purpose of supervisory control.
In addition to these wire-replacement functions, the shared communications facility also may implement
functions more closely related to the distributed control architecture:
a. Downloading of control system configurations, tuning parameters, and user programs from the high-
level human interfaces to the LCUs.
b. Transmission of information from the data input/output units to the high-level computing devices for
purposes of data acquisition or transfer.
c. Transfer of large blocks of data (e.g., console displays, historical trends and logs, or large data
bases), programs, or control configurations from one high level computing device or human interface
to another.
d. Synchronization of real time among all of the elements in the distributed control system.
The shared facility can also implement other communication functions, such as transferring voice and video
images.
5. Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) System
SCADA is the technology that enables a user to collect data from one or more distant facilities and/or send
control instructions to those facilities. SCADA makes it unnecessary for an operator to be assigned to stay at,
or to visit, remote locations in the normal operation of that remote facility.
A SCADA system allows an operator, in a location central to a widely distributed process such as an oil or gas
field, pipeline system, or hydroelectric generating complex, to make set point changes on distant process
controllers, to open or close valves or switches, to monitor alarms, and to gather measurement information.
When the dimensions of the process become very large hundreds or even thousands of kilometers from one
end to the other the benefits in terms of reduced cost of routine visits can be appreciated. The value of these
benefits will grow if the facilities are very remote and require extreme effort (e.g. helicopter access) to visit.
Figure XXX provide a layout of a SCADA system. Basically SCADA system consists of an operator I/O
(computer) and a master terminal unit (MTU). MTU will interface with various remote terminate units (RTU);
each RTU is a small control system in itself and located far away from MTU.
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Fig.19: SCADA System Layout

Take an example in an offshore oilfield consisting of a CPP and several WHPs, each platform normally has a
dedicated control system (RTU). A central control facility is normally located in CPP to control whole field,
possible configuration may be:
o Each WHPs will interface with central DCS system which will do the control of both CPP and each
WHPs, or
o CPP will have two separate control facilities: SCADA for interfacing and control of WHPs and
dedicated DCS for control of just CPP.
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Buyer Guide - Section 15 – Pressure Relief Devices

1. Introduction and definition
2. SRV in the process system
3. Classification of Safety Relief Devices
4. Reclosing-Type Pressure Relief Devices
5. Non-reclosing Type Pressure Relief Devices
7. Major Manufacturers and Suppliers

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1. Introduction and definition:
The primary purpose of a safety relief valve (SRV) is the last protection of life, environment and property in
this process industry by safely venting process fluid from an over-pressurized vessel. It is not the purpose of a
safety valve to control or regulate the pressure in the vessel or system that the valve protects, and it does not
take the place of a control or regulating valve.
It is believed that the French scientist Denis Papin was the inventor of the Safety Valve. In its original design,
the Safety Valve was kept closed by means of a lever and a movable weight; sliding the weight along the
lever enabled Papin to keep the valve in place and regulate the steam pressure.
Fig.1: Early 20th century-type weight - loaded Safety Relief

Valve
A pressure relief device is any device that can purge a system from an overpressure condition. More
particularly, an SRV is a pressure relief device that is self-actuated, and whose primary purpose is the
protection of life and equipment. Through a controlled discharge of a required (rated) amount of fluid at a
predetermined pressure, an SRV must prevent overpressure in pressurized vessels and systems. An SRV is
often the final control device in the prevention of accidents or explosions caused by overpressure
The SRV must close at a predetermined pressure when the system pressure has returned to a safe level at
values determined by the codes. SRVs must also be designed with materials compatible with many process
fluids, from simple air and water to the most corrosive and toxic media.
2. SRV in the process system:
Every industrial process system is designed to work against a certain maximum pressure and temperature
called its rating or design pressure. Nowadays, pressures and flow in the process industry are controlled by
electronic process systems and highly sophisticated instrumentation devices. Almost all control systems are
powered by an outside power source (electric, pneumatic, hydraulic). The law requires that when everything
fails regardless of the built-in redundancies, there is still an independent working device powered only by the
medium it protects. This is the function of the SRV, which, when everything else works correctly in the
system, should never have to work.
Let’s consider a typical basic process control loop (Figure 2). A pressure indicating transmitter (PIT) will
record or sense the pressure level in the piping and sends the pressure signal to a proportional integral
derivative controller (PID), which sends a signal to the control valve to regulate the flow or pressure in the
system.
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Controller
Pressure Indicating Transmitter

Pressure Sensor
Control Valve
Pump
Safety Relief Valves
Fig.2: Traditional Control Loop
In addition to the control of pressure by control valve mechanism, a pressure sensor/switch is usually built in
as a redundancy to switch off (turn off) the pump in case of excessive pressure, for instance.
If for whatever reasons the control valves and even the switch are failed, then SRV will help to protect the
system from over-pressure and blow-out. This is reason why SRV is called the “last protection device” in the
process system, one that only works when everything else fails.
3. Classification of Safety Relief Devices:
In process industry, we use different types of relief devices as primary protection, which can be divided as
Figure 3 below:
Fig.3: Types and market of safety relief 361

devices


The industry basically uses the following main groups of pressure relief devices to ensure overpressure
protection:
 Reclosing devices
 Non-reclosing devices
 Combinations of reclosing and non-reclosing devices
4. Reclosing-Type Pressure Relief Devices:
A reclosing-type pressure relief device is a pressure relief device designed to close after operation. There are
many types of reclosing-type pressure relief devices. Figure 4 shows types of reclosing-type pressure relief
devices.

Fig.4: Types of reclosing pressure relief devices
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4.1 Conventional (spring loaded) Safety Relief Valves
The conventional pressure relief valve is characterized by a rapid-opening pop action or by opening in a
manner generally proportional to the increase in pressure over the opening pressure (Fig. 5).
The basic elements of a conventional pressure relief valve consist of:

 An inlet nozzle connected to the vessel or system to be protected
 A movable disk which controls flow through the nozzle
 A spring which controls the position of the disk
Under normal operating conditions, the pressure at the inlet is below the set pressure and the disk is seated
on the nozzle, preventing flow through the nozzle.
Fig.5: Conventional (spring loaded) PSV
Working principle: The working principle of a conventional spring-loaded pressure relief valve is based on
the balance of force. That means the spring load is preset to equal the force exerted on the closed disk by the
inlet fluid when the system pressure is at the set pressure of the valve. The disk remains seated on the nozzle
in the closed position when the inlet pressure is below the set pressure. The valve opens when the inlet
pressure exceeds set pressure, overcoming the spring force. The valve recloses when the inlet pressure is
reduced to a level below the set pressure.
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Fig.6: Section View of conventional (spring loaded) PSV
Design of main components:
a) Cap:
Lever
The primary function of the
cap is to protect the set screw
and the end of the spindle.
Since an SRV is subject to
regular maintenance and
eventually needs resetting,
this cap can be easily
removed. Its secondary
function is to house the
mechanism of the lift levers in
case they are required. PED
code requires lift levers for
steam, and ASME code
requires them on steam, air
and hot water

Fig.7: Valve cap
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The screwed cap is economic and simple design. It usually has a soft iron or other gasket for sealing the cap
in case the valve opens, as vapours might be present in the cap during the opening of a conventional SRV.
The disadvantage is that it can come loose due to vibrations on the system. It could also become difficult to
remove due to corrosion of the threads, especially in corrosive environments.
Fig.8: Bolted Cap
The bolted cap (Fig.8) is a little more expensive design used for higher pressures and corrosive
environments. Some designs have a metal-to-metal L-shaped seal, while others have a gasket seal.
b) Lever:
The function of the lift lever is to allow manual opening of the valve. Usually, when no extra-lever mechanism
is provided, at least 75% of the system’s set pressure is required to overcome the spring force by opening the
valve manually with a lift lever. While it is required by code, it is judged unsafe to manually open a valve under
pressure, especially at higher pressures and higher temperatures, as the person operating the lever would be
too close to the valve.
The plain or open lever (Fig.9) is a simple construction

which does not provide any seal to the atmosphere, so it
can only be used when the system is allowed to vent to
atmosphere. It should not be used on corrosive,
inflammable or toxic products. It is also not recommended
when the valve is used on a system with backpressure.
It requires a minimum 75% set pressure before it can be

operated, as manual force must overcome the spring force.
It is usually combined with a screwed cap design.
Fig.9: Plain/Open Lever
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The packed lift lever design (Fig.10) usually
requires a little less lever force to operate. It is
packed and provides a tight seal to the
atmosphere; therefore it can be used for
corrosive or toxic products. It can also be used if
there is backpressure because the fluids are
contained in the cap. Usually, it has a bolted
design with a graphoil, soft iron, TFE or other
type of gasket, depending on the product it
needs to contain.
Fig.10: Packed Lift Lever
c) Bonnet:
The bonnet is closed for a conventional valve and is vented for a balanced bellows valve, and it is usually
bolted onto the body.
Its main function is to contain the spring, which is always supported by spring washers, which are usually
unique for each spring.
It protects the surroundings of the valve if a spring should break.
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d) Spring:
Spring comes in different spring

ranges which can be found in the
manufacturer’s specific spring
tables. Its compression is applied by
the set screw which determines the
exact set point at which the valve
starts to open.
e) Stem:
Stem transmits the spring force onto the disc in a

uniform manner.
The way the stem is connected to the disc holder is

different in each SRV design, depending on the
manufacturer. It is of course very important that the
force be transmitted equally; therefore, a lot of
designs have a swivelling joint connection so that the
disc is correctly aligned on the nozzle
f) Guide:
Guides the stem in order to have a

perfect and uniform alignment to transmit
the spring force on the disc. It is a very
critical component for the correct
operation of the SRV and also a
vulnerable one because it is easily
subject to galling, corrosion and so forth.

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g) Disk Holder:
Disc holder has a dual function: first, it

holds the disc, and second, its ‘skirt’ or
‘hood’ shape determines the opening
characteristics of the valve as it forms the
huddling chamber. It also determines the
flow path and hence can have an
influence on the flow coefficient. The
design of disc holders is very different
from manufacturer to manufacturer
h) Disk:
A disc with a smoothly lapped surface ensures tightness in

contact with the nozzle. The disc is the main part which
ensures a leak-free operation, and the part most subject to
wear. It can be re-lapped or overhauled only a few times
during maintenance. Removing too much material
adversely affects tolerances in the valve and hence its
operation.
The way the disc is fitted in the disc holder also depends
on the manufacturer’s design. Since the disc is a critical
part of the valve, it is important that it can be easily
removed for rework, lapping or replacement during
maintenance. For instance, the disc holder can be
provided with a hole so the disc can be easily snapped
out. Otherwise, it could become difficult to remove the
disc.

Based on the mating of disk and seating material, conventional pressure relief valves are classified as: metal
seated valves and soft seated valves.
Conventional metal seated valves: Metal-to-metal seats, commonly made from stainless steel, are normally
used for high temperature such as steam. The advantage of metal-to-metal seat is its wide compatibility with
fluid chemical contents and withstands high temperature. The disadvantage is seat leakage.
Conventional soft seated valves. As alternative to metal, resilient disks can be fixed to either or both the
seating surfaces where tighter shut-off is required, especially for gas or liquid applications. These inserts may
be made from a number of different materials, but Viton, nitrile or EPDM are the most common. Soft seal
inserts are not recommended for steam use. The advantage of soft-seated valves is its sealing capability, the
disadvantage is temperature and chemical limitation.
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i) Nozzle:
The second part of the seat ensuring the

tightness of the valve. For full nozzle-type
valves, it is usually integral, is screwed into the
body and protects the body from the medium. It
also forms the mating face of the flange.

j) Control Ring:
Control Ring is essential for the correct

operation of the valve as it determines the
overpressure and blowdown values. It is usually
screwed on the nozzle and blocked by a pin.
.
4.1.1 Types of spring-loaded SRV
Based on different design of its components, spring-loaded SRV can have several types as bellows:
a) Open-bonnet type
An open bonnet is used if discharge of fluid to the atmosphere is permitted. This has advantage when the
safety valve is used in high-temperature fluid or boiler applications, because high temperature can cool the
spring. However, an open bonnet exposes the spring and internals to environmental conditions that can lead
to corrosion of the spring. An open bonnet is shown in Fig. 11
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b) Closed-bonnet type.
It is necessary to use a closed

bonnet if fluid is not permitted to
discharge to the atmosphere. The
closed-bonnet safety valve is used
for small screwed safety valves. It
is becoming increasingly common
to use closed-bonnet safety valves,
particularly for steam, discharge of
which can be hazardous to
personnel. A closed bonnet is
shown in Fig. 12
Fig.11: Open-bonnet PSV

Fig.12: Closed-bonnet PSV
c) Balanced bellows spring-operated SRV
A balanced pressure relief valve is a spring-loaded safety valve which incorporates a bellows or other means
of balancing the valve disk to minimize the effects of back pressure on the performance characteristics of the
valve (Fig. 13 & 14). The term balanced means the set pressure of the valve is not affected by back pressure.
Balanced pressure relief valves should be selected where the built-up back pressure is too high for a
conventional relief valve.
Back pressure which occurs in the downstream system while the valve is closed is called superimposed back
pressure. This back pressure is the result of the valve outlet being connected to a pressurized system or may
be caused by other pressure relief valves venting to a common header. Compensation for superimposed back
pressure is provided by reducing the spring force. The force of the spring plus back pressure acting on the
disk should be equal to the force of the inlet pressure acting to open the disk.
Fig.13: sectioned view of bellows PSV
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Fig.15: balanced bellows with auxiliary balancing piston PRV
Fig.14: balance bellows PRV
Another kind of bellows spring-loaded PRV is “balanced bellows with auxiliary balancing piston”. The
balanced bellows seals the body and fluid stream from the bonnet and working parts. The auxiliary balancing
piston assures proper valve performance by compensating for back pressure in case of bellows failure (Fig.
15).
d) Actuated spring-operated SRV
A actuated SRV is, in fact, a spring-operated SRV which can operate as stand alone but in normal operations
is controlled by an actuator (usually pneumatic, electric or hydraulic) and which opens or closes upon the
signal of an instrumentation loop. This inevitably results in a high degree of safety as it is a redundant system
in itself. If the control system fails, the stand-alone valve will normally still function as a normal SRV. It should
in no way be confused with a pilot-operated safety relief valve (POSRV) which is solely powered by fluid.
With these types of valve, an electric and a pneumatic board are usually supplied, complete with all the
accessories necessary for operation, signalling and manual testing, in order to guarantee the safety and
reliability of the service.
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4.2 Pilot-Operated Safety Relief Valves
In order to overcome the various problems encountered when using spring operated SRVs, the industry
started looking for ideal SRV characteristics and tried to design a valve that came as close as possible to
these characteristics. Thus, the POSRV was born.
Self-actuated auxiliary pressure relief valve (Pilot)
Main PRV valve
Fig.16: Pilot operated PRV
A pilot-operated pressure relief valve is a pressure relief valve in which the major relieving device is combined
with and is controlled by a self actuated auxiliary pressure relief valve (Fig. 2.5).
The primary difference between a pilot-operated pressure relief valve and a spring-loaded pressure relief
valve is that the pilot-operated valve uses process pressure to keep the valve closed instead of a spring. A
pilot is used to sense process pressure and to pressurize or vent the dome pressure chamber which controls
the valve opening or closing.
A pilot-operated pressure relief valve consists of the main valve, a floating unbalanced piston assembly, and
an external pilot. The pilot controls the pressure on the top side of the main-valve unbalanced moving
chamber.
Working principle
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Pilot
Area on top of valve

disc (Dome)
Piston

Pilot tube
The working principle can be described for three positions: Closed valve position, relieving cycle, and
reclosing cycle.
Closed valve position: system pressure from the main valve inlet is fed to the dome area by the pilot through
interconnecting tubing. This equalizes the pressure on the top of the disc with inlet pressure on the seating
surface (bottom) of the disc. Since the area of the top of the disc is larger than the area of the seating surface,
the differential area results in a net downward force keeping the main valve tightly closed.
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Relieving Position:
As inlet pressure increases, the pilot piston

strokes and seals off the main valve inlet
pressure from the dome pressure. The pilot
simultaneously opens the vent seal to relieve
the dome pressure to atmospheric pressure
Discharge through main valve:
The main valve disc is allowed to lift off the seat

as the fluid force overcomes the now removed
pressure load above the main valve disc. The
valve discharges to relieve system pressure
Return to normal position:
When the discharging main valve reduces the

inlet pressure to the preset blowdown pressure
of the pilot, the pilot piston closes the vent seal.
Simultaneously, the inlet seal is reopened in the
pilot. The main valve inlet pressure is again
allowed to enter the dome above the main
valve disc. As the dome pressure equalizes
with the inlet pressure, the downward force
created by the differential areas of the disc
closes the main valve.
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Types of valves:
There are two general types of pilot-operated pressure relief valves: piston and diaphragm.
a) Piston-type pilot-operated pressure relief valve: This type of valve (as above) uses a piston for the
unbalanced moving member. A sliding O-ring or spring-loaded plastic seal is used to obtain a pressure
seal for the dome activity. The piston-type valve is used for pressures from 5 to 10,000 psig, and
occasionally for even higher pressures.
b) Diaphragm-type pilot-operated pressure relief valve: This type of valve (Fig. 17) is similar to the piston
type except that a flexible diaphragm is used to obtain a pressure seal for the dome volume instead of a
piston and sliding piston seal. This is done to eliminate sliding friction and permit valve operation at much
lower pressures than would be possible with a sliding seal. The diaphragm-type valve can be used for
pressures from 3-in water column (0.108 psig) to 50 psig.
Fig.16: Diaphragm-type pilot-operated PRV
Types of pilots:
The pilot that operates the main valve can be classified based on (1) action and (2) flow.
c) Based on action: based on action the pilot may be classified as a pop action or a modulating-action pilot.
 Pop-action pilot: the pop-action pilot causes the main valve to lift fully at set pressure without
overpressure.
 Modulating-action pilot valve: the modulating pilot opens the main valve only enough to satisfy the
required relieving capacity.
d) Based on flow: based on flow the pilot may be classified as flowing or nonflowing type.
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 Flowing-type pilot: The flowing type allows process fluid to flow continuously through the pilot when
the main valve is open.
 Nonflowing-type pilot: The nonflowing-type pilot does not allow process fluid to flow continuously
when the main valve is open. This type of pilot is generally recommended for services to reduce the
possibility of hydrate formation (icing) or solids in the landing fluid affecting the pilot’s performance.
Options and accessories:
The following options and accessories are available for pilot-operated pressure relief valves
Filter: A filter is used for dirty applications and installed in the pilot sensing line. Astandard filter for steam
service has a 316 stainless steel body, Teflon seals, and a 40-to 50-micron stainless steel filter element.
Backflow preventer: If a pilot-operated safety relief valve is not vented directly to atmosphere, a back
pressure may build up in the discharge line. This is especially true if several valves manifold into a common
discharge header. If the discharge line pressure exceeds the valve inlet pressure, it can cause the piston to lift
and allow reverse flow through the main valve. A backflow preventer is used to eliminate this situation.
Pilot valve tester: A pilot valve tester is available as an option for the modulating and pop-action pilot valves.
The valve test indicator measures the set pressure of the pilot, while maintaining pressure on the main valve
dome area. This allows only the pilot to actuate.
Pressure differential switch: An electrical pressure differential switch is available which may be wired to a
control room or some other location. The switch provides a signal that indicates when the main valve is
opening. An option is also available to provide a pneumatic signal instead of an electrical differential switch to
indicate when the main valve opens.
Remote sensing: The pilot inlet may be piped to a location remote from the main valve. The customer may
want to pipe the inlet sensing line to some location other than where the main valve is located and where the
pressure will be relieved.

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5. Non-reclosing Type Pressure Relief Devices:
A non-reclosing pressure relief device is a pressure relief device which remains open after operation. A
manual means of resetting is usually provided. There are many types of non-reclosing pressure relief devices.
Types of non-reclosing pressure relief devices are shown in Fig. 17.
Fig.17: Non-reclosing pressure relief devices
5.1 Rupture disks
A rupture disk device is a non-reclosing pressure relief device actuated by the static differential pressure
between the inlet and outlet of the device and designed to function by the bursting of a rupture disk (Fig. 18).
The combination of a rupture disk and a rupture disk holder is known as a rupture disk device. A rupture disk
is a pressure-containing, pressure- and temperature-sensitive element of a rupture disk device.
A rupture disk holder is the structure which encloses and clamps the rupture disk in position. A rupture disk
generally requires a rupture disk holder, although disks may be designed to be installed between standard
flanges without holders.
Types of rupture disks include conventional, scored tension, composite, reverse acting, graphite, and
explosion.
377

Fig.18: Rupture Disks
In other word, a rupture disk is a non-reclosing precision relief device designed to rupture at a predetermined
pressure and temperature. Rupture disks are used where instantaneous and full opening of a pressure relief
device is required. These devices are used to protect vessels, piping, and other pressurized systems from
excessive pressure and/or vacuum.
Rupture disks may be used where “zero” leakage is required of a pressure relief device. These devices
provide overprotection to a system which may be subject to excessive pressure by malfunction of mechanical
equipment, runway chemical reaction, and external or internal fires.
A rupture disk has no moving parts, and is a simple, reliable, and faster-acting device than other pressure
relief devices. Rupture disks react quickly to relieve some types of pressure spikes.
Brief History:
Prior to the 1930s, rupture disks consisted of flat metal membranes. Their use was very limited, as the
devices did not have predictable bursting pressure. Rupture disks were not used widely because of their
limited service life.
In the 1930s, rupture disks consisted of a flat sheet of metal, generally copper, clamped between a pair of
piping flanges. However, operating pressure caused bulging and stretching of the metal, resulting in
premature failure between 30% and 50% of the disk rating. Later on, prebulged disks made of Monel, Inconel,
and stainless steel were developed that could be operated at 70% of their rated pressure.
The use of prebulged disks with relief valves created the problem of fragmentation resulting in occasional
blockage of the valve. The introduction of composite-type rupture disks in the 1950s helped reduce this
problem. Composite-type disks can be operated at up to 80% of their rated pressure. Scored rupture disks
were introduced in the 1960s. These designs are nonfragmenting and permit operation up to 90% of their
rated pressure.
The first reverse-acting rupture disk with knife blades was introduced in the mid-1960. Its advantages were a
predictable opening pattern and generally nonfragmenting characteristics. In the mid- to late 1970s, a
modified, reverse knife blade was introduced. This blade configuration has a “swooped” edge which provides
enhanced performance characteristics. There have been considerable improvement in design over the years.
Nowadays, rupture disks of many varieties are available.
378

Working Principle
A standard rupture disk is a solid metal, differential pressure relief device with an instantaneous, full-opening,
and nonreclosing design (Fig. 19). A rupture disk assembly comprises mainly two parts:
1. A rupture disk, which is a thin metal diaphragm bulged to a spherical shape, providing both a consistent
burst pressure within a predictable tolerance and an extended service life; and
2. A rupture disk holder, which is a flanged structure designed to hold the rupture disk in position.
Fig.19: Standard Rupture Disks
The rupture disk is oriented in a system with the process fluid against the concave side of the disk (Fig. 20).
The disk may have a flat seat (Fig. 20.a) or a 30° angle seat (Fig. 20.b). As the pressure of process fluid
increases beyond the allowable operating pressure, the rupture disk starts to grow. This growth will continue
as the pressure increases, until the tensile strength of the material is reached and rupture occurs
379
Fig.20: Rupture Disk and Holder

Types of Rupture Disks
There are two basic designs of rupture disks: forward acting rupture disk which fails in tension, and reverse
acting rupture disk which fails in compression. All rupture disks are classified based one either of the designs.
a) Conventional rupture disks
A conventional domed rupture disk (Fig. 21) is a prebulged solid metal disk designed to burst when it is over-
pressured on the concave side. The domed rupture disk fragments upon burst.
Fig.21: Forward acting Rupture Disk
b) Scored tension-loaded rupture disks (Fig.22)
380
Fig.22: Scored tension-loaded rupture disk

c) Composite rupture disks
A composite rupture disk is a flat or domed metallic or nonmetallic multipiece construction disk. The domed
construction disk is designed to burst when it is overpressured on the concave side. The flat composite disk is
designed to burst when it is over pressured on the side designed by the manufacturer.
d) Reverse-acting rupture disks
A reverse-acting rupture disk (Fig. 23) is a domed solid metal disk designed to burst when it is overpressured
on the convex side. As the burst pressure rating is reached, the compression loading on the rupture disk
causes it to reverse, snapping through the neutral position and causing it to open by a predetermined scoring
pattern or knife-blade penetration. Reverse-acting rupture disks are designed to open by various methods,
such as shears, knife blades, knife rings, or scored lines.
Fig.24: Graphite rupture disk
Fig.23: reserve-acting rupture disk
e) Graphite rupture disks
A graphite rupture disk (Fig. 24) is manufactured from graphite impregnated with a binder material and is
designed to burst by bending or shearing. Graphite rupture disks are resistant to most acids, alkalis, and
organic solvents.
381

5.2 Rupture Pin Relief Valves
The Rupture Pin valves (Fig.25) relieve pressure at set point with
predetermined accuracy and dependability. The valves consist of a piston
on seat, restrained from movement by a slender round pin known as the
buckling pin. The piston and seat have a bubble-tight seal while under
pressure. The pin will buckle at set point from an axial force applied by the
system pressure acting on the piston.
Each valve is self-contained and self-actuating. When the pin is buckled,

the valve is full open in a matter of milliseconds. The pin is external to the
system being protected and is tightly held in place at both pin ends.
Operating principle of Rupture Pin Valve is illustrated in Fig.26.

Fig.25: Rupture Pin Valve

Fig.26: Rupture Pin Valve Operating Principle
382

5.3 Buckling Pin Relief Valves
A buckling pin relief valve is an inline relief device which provides quick and simple reset without removing the
valve from the piping system. This nonreclosing pressure relief device offers practical technology for the
protection of many applications in refinery, petrochemical, and other processing industries. A buckling pin
relief valve is shown in Fig. 27.
The buckling pin relief valve for BS&B (Fig.27) has three primary components: a rotating disk, a flanged body,
and an external enclosure and mechanism.
 Rotating disk: A rotating disk normally closes the flow path and turns 90° in response to an
overpressure/underpressure condition. The rotating disk is constructed from metal and has a hollow
design.
 Flanged body: A flanged body contains the rotating disk, holding it in place using shaft connections
which are sealed within the body and pass through bearings to permit free rotation of the disk within the
body.
 External enclosure and mechanism: The external enclosure and mechanism provides set-pressure
control for the valve. The mechanism is designed to resist the turning moment of the disk shaft during
normal service pressure conditions
Fig.27: BS&B Buckling Pin Valve
Another design from Buckling Pin System is shown in Fig.28. The pin is external to the system being
protected and is held firmly on both ends. The pin is engineered to buckle at an exact set point from an axial
force applied by the system pressure acting on an unbalanced piston stem area. When the pin is buckled, the
valve is instantly closed. The pin is made of corrosion resistant alloys whose modulus of elasticity is constant
over the ambient temperature range experienced by the valve. Each Buckling Pin valve is self-contained and
self-actuating
383

Fig.28: Buckling Pin System’s Buckling Pin Valve
384

5.4 Fusible plug devices
A fusible plug device is a nonreclosing pressure relief device designed to function by the yielding or melting of
a plug, which has a lower melting point than the maximum operating temperature of the system to be
protected. A fusible plug is shown in Fig. 29.
Fig.29: Fusible Plug
U.S. codes
 ASME Section I, Power Boilers (which covers safety valves)

 ASME Section III, Nuclear Components (which covers safety relief valves)
 ASME Section IV, Heating Boilers (which covers safety relief valves)
 ASME Section VIII, Pressure Vessels (which covers safety relief valves)
 ANSI/ASME PTC 25, Performance Test Code for Safety and Relief Valves
 API RP520 Part I, Sizing and Selection of Pressure Relieving Devices in Refineries
 API RP520 Part II, Installation of Pressure Relieving Devices in Refineries
 API RP521, Guide for Pressure Relief and De-pressurizing Systems
 API RP526, Flanged Steel Safety/Relief Valves for use in the Petroleum Industry
 API RP527, Commercial Seat Tightness of Safety/Relief Valves with Metal to Metal and Soft Seals
United Kingdom
 BS 6759 Part 1, Specification for Safety Valves for Steam and Hot Water
 BS 6759 Part 2, Specification for Safety Valves for Compressed Air and inert gas
 BS 6759 Part 3, Specification for Safety Valves for Process Fluids
Europe
 EN ISO 4126, Safety Devices for Protection against Excessive Pressure

 PrEN ISO 4126-1, Safety Devices for Protection against Excessive Pressure—Part 1: Safety Valves
 PrEN ISO 4126-2, Safety Devices for Protection against Excessive Pressure—Part 2: Bursting Disk
Safety Devices
 PrEN ISO 4126-3, Safety Devices for Protection against Excessive Pressure—Part 3: Safety Valves
and Bursting Disk Safety Devices in Combination
 PrEN ISO 4126-4, Safety Devices for Protection against Excessive Pressure—Part 4: Pilot-Operated
Safety Valves
385

 PrEN ISO 4126-5, Safety Devices for Protection against Excessive Pressure—Part 5: Controlled
Safety Pressure Relief Systems (CSPRS)
 PrEN ISO 4126-6, Safety Devices for Protection against Excessive Pressure—Part 6: Application,
Selection, and Installation of Bursting Disk Safety Devices
 PrEN ISO 4126-7, Safety Devices for Protection against Excessive Pressure—Part 7: Common Data
7. Major Manufacturers and Suppliers:
Manufacturers:
a. Tyco Valves & Controls (http://www.tycoflowcontrol-eu.com/products.asp) – relief and safety valve
b. BS&B (http://www.bsbsystems.com/index.html) – Rupture Disk and Buckling Pin Valves
c. Rupture Pin Technology (http://www.rupturepin.com/index.html)
d. Buckling Pin Technology (http://www.bucklingpin.com/)
e. Dresser Consolidated (http://www.dresserconsolidated.com/index.cfm/go/products/) – PRV, SV, Pilot

operated PRV
Vendors:
f. Exion
g. Access
h. Phong Viet
i. Valser
j. Transwater
k. Weir Valve
l. Wehaya
386
Buyer Guide - Section 16 – Choke Valve
1. General
2. Types of Chokes
3. Design of Chokes
4. Main Components
5. Design of Trim
6. Standard for Choke Valve
7. Choke Valve – Major & New Market Players
387
1. General
As mentioned in Section 2 of this Guide, Choke valves are normally installed as part of or right after
Christmas tree to control the “cutting effect” or reduce the pressure of oil well fluid to acceptable level
(the cutting effect due to high pressure and velocity of well fluid (which contains fine sand
particles...etc) can cause erosion and severe damage to even strongest materials).
For this reason, the design and materials of choke valves need to satisfy its main purposes, namely:
1. To reduce pressure
2. Control the velocity of fluid
In most of the case Choke valve is designed as “angle valve” (more specifically 90 degree angle valve)
2. Types of Chokes:
Depending on the control mechanism (to open and close) that choke
valves can be classified as manually operated (by hand) or actuator
operated.
Choke Actuator in turn can be powered by air (pneumatic actuator),

fluid (hydraulic actuator) or by electricity (electric actuator)
388
Fig.1: Manual Operated Choke Valve
Fig.2: Pneumatic Operated Choke Valve Fig.3: Electric&Manual Operated Choke Fig.4: Hydraulic Operated Choke Valve
Valve
3. Design of Chokes:
As above mentioned, Choke valves are normally used in “severe service” which is defined as
application with high pressure drop and high velocity.
Figure 5 lists down typical problems caused by “severe service”
Fig.5: Typical problems caused by “severe service”
389
Installed in the “severe service”, Choke valve design must satisfy the following criteria:
a) Choke components must withstand the wearing of “cutting effect” (body, trim…etc made from
harder materials)
b) Noise must be controlled at acceptable level
c) Fluid velocity must be controlled as specification required
d) Captivation Control
a) Hard Materials:
To offer super corrosion resistant, the critical components of choke valve are made from some of the
hardest materials available. In most of choke valve, entire trim (Plug, Disk Stack and Seat) is made
from solid Tungsten Carbide
Fig. 6 shows the superior corrosion resistance of Tungsten Carbide over Stainless Steel
Fig.6: Erosion Resistance of Tungsten Carbide (WC) compared to Stainless Steel
Fig.7: Choke Disk made from Tungsten Carbide
390
b) Noise Control (Noise Attenuation)
One of the most noticeable and uncomfortable problems associated with choke valves is noise. To the
human, not only can noise be annoying, but it can also cause permanent hearing loss and unsafe
working conditions.
It is now well established that the noise level from equipments, valves...etc is not permitted to exceed
85 dBA (pronounce “deci bench”), especially on manned platforms.
The solution to control choke valve noise is using “silencers”, apply thicker wall thickness, housing
around valve or apply acoustical insulation over the valve.
c) Fluid Velocity, Pressure Drop
Velocity and high pressure drop through a valve creates a number of problems, such as cavitation,
flashing, choked flow, high noise levels, and vibration. Such problems present a number of immediate
consequences: erosion or cavitation damage to the body and trim, malfunction or poor performance of
the valve itself, wandering calibration of attached instrumentation, piping fatigue, or hearing damage to
nearby workers. In these instances, valves in high-pressure-drop applications require expensive trims,
more frequent maintenance, large spare-part inventories, and piping supports.
The controlling of Velocity and Pressure Drop is main drive behind most of choke valve designs and
innovation. And nearly all of the methods are focused on the designed of valve Trim (which consists of
plug, disk and seat)
“Multi-stage” approach:
As illustrated in fig. 8 below, the principle behind this method to control velocity/pressure is by gradual,
incremental reduction of pressure (called “multi-stage” pressure drop) instead of “shock”, sudden
reduction approach (called “single stage” pressure drop).
Fig.8: Multi-stage vs. Single-stage pressure drop
By taking a series of pressure drops, rather than one large drop, the captivation problem is also
significantly reduced.
391
In practice this multi-stage concept is done in choke valve by design the valve trim (disk) as stack of
tortuous-path layers with series of holes and/or channels to increase the flow resistance through the
trim (Fig. 9 to 12). This decreases the overall velocity through the valve, thereby reducing the pressure
recovery.
Fig.9: Choke Valve internals Fig.10: a channel tortuous path layer
Fig.12: Cutaway of Choke Disks showing flow path
Fig.11: Disk stack made from layers of

Tungsten Carbide tortuous channels
392
As illustrated in fig. 13, choke valve disk often designed as multi layers (multi-stage) with each layer
using multi paths (or multi orifice) (for example 2 – 8 and 18 turns).
Fig.13: Choke Trim
4. Main Components: Fig 14 and 15 describe the main components of a typical choke valve
Valve stem
Fig.14: Choke main components
Fig.14: Choke Valve Components

Fig.15: Choke valve internal components
393
5. Design of Trim
As above explained, being the components that expose to wear and tear of high pressure fluid (cutting
effect), Trim (plug, disk, seat) design is important consideration in choke valve selection.
Trim design was developed from “Needle and Seat” and “Multiple Orifice Valve or Disk-Style” to
current modern design of “Internal Plug & Cage” and “External Sleeve”
Fig.16: Needle and Seat (Early 1900’s design) Fig.17: Multiple Orifice Valve or Disk-Style
Fig.18: Evolution of Choke Trim design
394
Internal Plug & Cage Design
With this design the plug moving inside disk stack (ported cage) to control flow as shown in fig 19
below.
In the closed position, the plug moves down, closing the ports in the flow cage and makes contact with
the seat ring to provide a positive shut-off.
Fig.19: Internal Plug and Cage
Fluid is flowed and directed to cage first and the plug is guided internally in the flow cage controlling
the opening of the ports and the flow rate.
Plug and flow cage are generally supplied in Tungsten Carbide to enhance erosion resistance of this
trim.
External Sleeve Design
The external sleeve type trim uses a flow sleeve moving over the outside of a ported cage to control
flow. The controlling element (flow sleeve) moves in a lower velocity regime and leads to the high
erosion resistance.
Fig.20: External Sleeve Design
395
Fig.21: Plug and Cage vs. External Sleeve Design
Moving part (plug)

inside the cage
Moving part (flow sleeve)
outside the cage
6. Standard for Choke Valve:
- Quality Control : API 6A (PSL 2 / PSL 3)
- Certified and tested to API 6A PR-2 Appendix F
- Shutoff Class : ANSI / FCI 70-02
7. Choke Valve – Major & New Market Players:
Fig.22: major choke brands
396
Manufacturer Trim Type API 6A Special Tools Experienced Remark

Licensed required for Trim with PTSC
Replacement
Masterflo External Sleeve Yes No Yes
Mokveld Plug & Cage Yes Yes No Long delivery
Expensive
Cor-Val External Sleeve Yes Yes No
N-Line External Sleeve No Yes No

and Plug & Cage
Varco Plug & Cage Yes No Yes Significant player for

subsea choke
Cameron External Sleeve Yes No Yes Normally purchase as

and Plug & Cage part of wellhead Xmas
Tree (Cameron is major
Xmas Tree suppliers)
CCI Plug & Cage Yes Yes
Fig.23: Schematic Diaphram of choke valve as part of process system
397
Buyer Guide - Section 17 - Cabling System
I. Definition
II. Application of Marine Cable
III. Demand and Requirements for Offshore and Marine Cable
IV. Basis design of Offshore and Marine Cable
V. Cable Comparison Chart
VI. Industry Standards
VII. Performance of Cable in the Event of Fire
VIII. Type of Cable
IX. Cable Manufacturer and Vendor
X. Cable Gland
XI. Cable Tray and Ladder
398
I - Definition:
A cable is an assembly of 2 or more insulated electrical conductors, laid-up into multi-

cores, protected by armoring and a layer of outer sheath.
The cable is used for transmission and distribution of electrical power or signal to
appliances and devices.
II – Application of Marine Cable
III – Demand and Requirements for Offshore and Marine Cable
399
Below are some of characteristics and requirements that make offshore cable different
from normal cable.
1. High mechanical stress during installation of cables. Capable of withstanding

external severe mechanical forces
2. Withstand high temperature. Its survivability under fire conditions – smoke & toxic
gases, flame retardance and fire resistant properties
3. Exposure to salt water, ozone, UV radiation
4. Resistance to aggressive & corrosive chemicals
IV – Basis design of Offshore and Marine Cable
1. Conductor: to carry current or signal. Paths (circuits) which current flows.
Conductor
Conductor Material:
1. Copper
2. Copper covered
3. steel
4. Copper alloys
5. Aluminum
6. Plating: Tin, silver
Copper Conductors is the best solution in

terms of conductivity & cost
Conductor Composition
400
Cable conductor can be arranged as:
1. Solid
2. Stranded
Stranded conductor can be either:
a. Concentric
b. Unilay
c. Bunch
d. Unistrand
Solid Conductor
Stranded Conductor
Bunch Stranding
401
Concentric Stranding
Unilay Stranding
2. Insulation and Jacket:
Insulation and
Jacket
402
Temperature Rating: The range of

temperature at which the material can
be used without degradation.
Flexibility: ability of a cable to bend

Flammability: ability of a cable to burn (or to withstand
fire).
Weatherability: material’s ability to withstand abrasion,
chemicals, water and weather.
Specific Gravity: the weight of materials compared to
water.
Tensile Strength: description of how much force it takes
to break the insulation or jacket material.
Elongation: description of how far a cable can be
stretched before breaking.
Capacitance: A measure of the insulation’s ability to
store electrical energy
Attenuation: a measure of the cable’s loss of electrical
energy.
Velocity of Propogation: the transmission speed of an
electrical signal through a length of cable compared to
the speed of light in the vacuum
Dielectric Constant: Electrical property used to
determine Capacitance, Velocity of Propagation,
Impedance and relative performance of the insulating
material
Dielectric Strength: the materials strength to withstand
voltage breakdown.
Working Voltage: Maximum voltage allowable to be
applied to the cable.
The layers of insulation and jacket could be some or all of the following:
Insulation: Insulation is the first layer separates conductors, electrically and physically,
within a cable. Insulation forms around conductor to contain the current or signal within
the conductor, to ensure current cannot deviate from its intended route.
Insulation material can be Solid, Foam (cellular) or Semi-solid (air gap)
Solid Insulation Foam Insulation
403
Semi-Solid Insulation
Cable Insulation Materials IEC 60092-351
404
The next layer after insulation is Screens (Shields). The purposes of the Shields are:
 Contains electrical energy so that the signal on the cable does not radiate and
interfere with signals in other nearby cables and circuitry.
 Protects the signal from external interference.
Shielding materials and design:
1. Metallic foil
2. Braid
3. Spiral (serve)
4. Semi-conductive
5. Combination of foil, braid shield
Foil Shield
Braid Shield
405
Spiral (serve) Shield
Combination of Foil
and Braid Shield
406
Amour: the different between shield layer and amour is shield provides electrical
protection while amour provides mechanical protection.
ARMOUR Mechanical Protection IEC 60092-350 edition 3.0, 2008-3, section 4.8
 SWA Single wire Armour

 DSTA Double steel Tape Armour
 GSWB Galvanized Steel Wire Braided (zinc coated)
 TCWB Tinned Copper Wire Braided, Basket-Weaved (copper-alloy,
Phosphor-Bronzed)
 AWA/ASA Aluminum Wire/ Strip Armour
The outer layer of the cable is Sheathing (or Jacket), providing Mechanical +
Environment protection for the cable.
Sheath materials: cable jacket is normally made from thermoplastic material such as:
1. PVC
2. Polyethylene
407
3. Polypropylene Thermoplastic
4. Polyurethane
5. PVDF
6. Halar
7. Tefzel Thermo = heat
8. FEP Plastic: formable
Thermoplastic materials will melt when hot enough
9. TFE
PVC Jacket
Polyethylene
V – Typical Cable Designation

Sheathing Properties
408
The designation system is varied according to each class of standards, below is one
example of NEK 606 designation system:
V – Cable Comparison Chart
409
VI – Industry Standards
410
VII – Performance of Cable in the Event of Fire
The ability of the cable to withstand fire is one of critical requirement for marine and
offshore oil and gas.
IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) has set out various testing and
requirement for Ex-proof cable.
Fire-resistant test – IEC 60331
Flame-propagation test – IEC 60332
Cables form a complex matrix in every building, traversing walls and ceilings to create a
web of electrical power. Unfortunately, these cables also act as conduits for fire and
411
heat, so cables must be fashioned of inflammable and self-extinguishing components.

This can be achieved by utilising a protective material containing aluminium hydroxide.
In the event of fire, the material releases water crystals, and at the same time produces
water vapour, which stops the entrance of oxygen and snuffs out the flame.
The IEC 60332-3 specification creates a realistic fire situation, and specifies methods for
assessing the flame retardance of bunched cables with varying densities of combustible
material. This technical report gives details of a test where a number of cables are
bunched together to form various test sample installations.
Acid Gas Emission Tests – IEC 60754-2
A fire can produce corrosive halogen gases, generated by burning PVC or chlorine
containing material. HCI gas combines with the water in the eyes, mouth, throat, nose
and lungs to form hydrochloric acid, which contributes to loss of co-ordination and
orientation. This in turn can lead to a feeling of panic and inability to exit the building,
thus increasing potential fatalities by inhalation of carbon monoxide and oxygen
depletion.
Additional dangers exist in a fire situation. Chlorine, bromine or fluorine, found in building
materials, can combine with the condensation on all metallic materials in the proximity of
a fire thus resulting in high levels of corrosion which will damage computers and office
machines. Structural ferrous metals can be so corroded that the building has to be
demolished.
IEC 60754-2 specifies a method in determining the degree of acidity of gases evolved
during the combustion of materials taken from electric cables by measuring pH and
conductivity. This standard requires the weighted pH value of not less than 4.3 when
related to 1 litre of water, and the weighted value of conductivity should not exceed 10
S/mm.
Smoke Emission Tests – IEC 61034
Smoke hinders fire-fighting efforts and prevents safe evacuation from the building.
Smoke extraction equipment helps, but low smoke products can stop the problem before
it starts. Conventional insulation and sheathing materials such as polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) can produce large volumes of smoke when burned, thus contributing to
disorientation and smoke inhalation damage.
Measuring the density of smoke produced by burning cables is important as it is related

to the evacuation of people and accessibility for fire-fighting.
The “3 meter cube test” (also known as IEC 61034) measures the amount of smoke
created by cables in the event of a fire. A one-meter length of cable is placed in a 3m2
enclosure, and exposed to a beam of light through a clear window. This light travels
across the enclosure to a photocell connected to recording equipment in the window on
the other end. A fire is then generated within the container and the minimum light
transmission recorded. A minimum light transmission value greater than 60% is
acceptable.
412
VIII – Type of Cable
1. Low Voltage (LV) Cable
Cable with rated voltages 1kV & 3kV
2. Medium Voltage (MV) Cable
Cable with rated voltages 6kV up to 36kV (Voltage Systems: 3.6 / 6kV, 6/10kV
8.7/15kV 12/20kV (Uo/U))
3. Co-Axial Cable
This type of cable is used for Very High Frequency (V.H.F.) applications, mostly
in data communication such as radio, TV signal, satellite, communication and
broadcasting system.
4. Control and Instrument Cable
Instrument Cable (sometimes called signal cable) is generally termed in

instrumentation to carry low voltage or current signals like 24VDC or 4 to 20mA.
413
Usually the signal cables will be twisted pair with individual and/or overall sheath
which helps to avoid any EMI in the cable carrying 4-20mA to a distance.
Control cable is generally termed in Electrical to carry out controlling of

MCC/Feeders i.e. to control motor like start/stop command, start/stop indication
etc. Instrument cable carries no significant voltage but control cable carries even
up to 220V.
Control cable is normally solid wire while an instrumentation cable is normally

stranded.
The other difference between the 2 types is that the instrumentation cable is
typically a shielded (screened), twisted pair. This construction serves to minimize
"crosstalk" (inductive coupling) that causes erroneous readings for the
instrumentation. The control cables, whose circuits operated at 125 VDC, 110
VAC or 220 VAC levels were generally immune to this, and so did not require the
shielding.
5. Power and Control Cable
Power cable mainly intends to use transfer of power, specifically current, over a
definite length. In term of construction power cable is normally 1Cx2.5sq.mm to
4CxMax. Sq mm (maximum 4 cores).
Number of cores in control cable could be up to 63 cores.
6. Fiber Optic Cable
An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made of very pure glass (silica)
not much bigger than a human hair that acts as a waveguide, or "light pipe", to
transmit light between the two ends of the fiber. The field of applied science and
engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known
as fiber optics. Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications,
which permits transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data
rates) than other forms of communication. Fibers are used instead of metal wires
because signals travel along them with less loss and are also immune to
electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are
wrapped in bundles so they can be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing
in tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other
applications, including sensors and fiber lasers.
Optical fiber typically consists of a transparent core surrounded by a transparent

cladding material.
An optical fiber cable is a cable containing one or more optical fibers. The optical
fiber elements are typically individually coated with plastic layers and contained
in a protective tube suitable for the environment where the cable will be
deployed.
414
Fiber Optic Cable
IX – Cable Manufacturer and Vendor
Cable Manufacturers:
 Nixans Cable
 Universal Cable
 LS Cable
 Draka
 Okonite
 Kukdong
 JDR
Cable Trading Vendors:
 Gexpro
 MT
 Activia
 Cable Internationals
X – Cable Gland
The purpose of cable gland is to attach and secure the end of a cable to the equipment /
enclosure providing for:
415
 Mechanical support
 Earth Continuity
 Ingress of dust
 Ingress of moisture
Plus in Hazardous area
 Prevent migration of gases

 Controls / contains explosions
Cable Gland
It is crucial in offshore oil&gas that the connection between cables and

equipment/closures be gas tight to prevent the cause of fire and explosion (enter of gas
into closure).
Most Glands consist of several loose components such as cones, cone rings, and seals.
All of which must be correctly fitted to achieve a safe Ex installation (Ex stands for
explosion proof).
LOOSE SEAL
LOOSE CONE
LOOSE CONE RING
416
Captive rotating cone
Seal captive within body Captive rotating cone ring
Cable Gland to make it safe in explosive environment
Major Cable Gland Manufacturers are:
 CMP
 HAWKE
 CCG
417
XI – Cable Tray and Ladder
A cable trays/cables ladder system are used to support insulated electric cables used for
power distribution and communication. Cable trays/cable ladders are used as an
alternative to open wiring or electrical conduit systems, and are commonly used for
cable management in commercial and industrial construction. They are especially useful
in situations where changes to a wiring system are anticipated, since new cables can be
installed by laying them in the tray, instead of pulling them through a pipe.
Common cable trays are made of: galvanized steel, stainless steel, aluminum, or glass-
fiber reinforced plastic. The material for a given application is chosen based on the
corrosion resistance required for the location.
 Galvanized steel, stainless steel or Aluminum
 Fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP)
Classification of Cable Tray & Cable Ladder

Several types of tray are used in different applications. A solid-bottom tray provides the
maximum protection to cables, but requires cutting the tray or using fittings to enter or
exit cables. A deep, solid enclosure for cables is called a cable channel or cable trough.
418
Solid trough Ventilated tray
A ventilated tray has openings in the bottom of the tray, allowing some air circulation
around the cables, water drainage, and allowing some dust to fall through the tray. Small
cables may exit the tray through the ventilation openings, which may be either slots or
holes punched in the bottom. A ladder tray has the cables supported by a traverse bar,
similarly to the rungs of a ladder, at regular intervals on the order of 4 to 12 inches (100
to 300 mm).
Major Cable Tray/Ladder Manufacturers are:
 Oglaend
 Tristar
 Intralink
419
Buyer Guide - Section 18 – Pigging System

1. Introduction and definition
2. Pigging System
420

1. Introduction and definition:
The term pig was originally referred to scrapers driven through the pipeline by the flowing fluid trailing spring-
loaded rakes to scrape wax off the internal walls. One of the tales about the origin of the name pig is that the
rakes made a characteristic loud squealing noise. Pipeline operators now describe any device made to pass
through a pipeline for cleaning and other purposes with the word “pig”. The process of driving the pig through
a pipeline by fluid is called a pigging operation.
The flow of fluid (oil or gas) inside the pipeline sometimes is obstructed or retarded by debris or deposit, the
original purpose of pigging operation is to remove such deposits. Today pigs are used during all phases in the
life of a pipeline for many different reasons:
1. During pipeline construction, pigging is used for debris removing, gauging, cleaning, flooding, and
dewatering.
2. During fluid production operations, pigging is utilized for removing wax in oil pipelines, removing
liquids in gas pipelines, and meter proving.
3. Pigging is widely employed for pipeline inspection purposes such as wall thickness measurement and
detection of spanning and burial (intelligent pig).
4. Pigging is also run for coating the inside surface of pipeline with inhibitor and providing pressure
resistance during other pipeline maintenance operations.

Pigging of pipeline system
421

Figure 1: Pig run through pipeline
Figure 2: Pipeline deposit/debris being scrapped out by pig
2. Pigging system
A pigging system includes pigs, a launcher, and a receiver. It may also include pumps and compressors.
2.1 Pig
The pigs used to accomplish these above tasks fall into three categories:
 Utility Pigs, which are used to perform functions such as cleaning, separating, or dewatering.
 In-Line Inspection Tools, which provide information on the condition of the line, as well as the extent
and location of any problems.
 Gel Pigs, which are used in conjunction with conventional pigs to optimize pipeline dewatering,
cleaning, and drying tasks.
a. Utility Pig
Utility pigs can be divided into two groups based upon their fundamental purpose: 1) cleaning pigs used to
remove solid or semi-solid deposits or debris from the pipeline, and 2) sealing pigs used to provide a good
seal in order to either sweep liquids from the line, or provide an interface between two dissimilar products
422

within the pipeline. Within these two groups, a further subdivision can be made to differentiate among the
various types or forms of pigs: Spherical Pigs, Foam Pigs, Mandrel Pigs, and Solid Cast Pigs.
Figure 4: Foam Pigs or Polly Pig

Figure 3: Spherical Pigs (Sphere)

Figure 5: Mandrel
Figure 6: Solid Cast Pig
423

b. In-line inspection tools (intelligent pigs)
In-line inspection tools are used to carry out various types of tasks including:
 Measuring pipe diameter/geometry

 Monitoring pipeline curvature
 Determining pipeline profile
 Recording temperature/pressure
 Measuring bend
 Detecting metal loss/corrosion
 Performing photographic inspection
 Detecting crack
 Measuring wax deposition
 Detecting leak
 Taking product samples, and mapping

Figure 7: in-line inspection tools
A typical in-line inspection tool is an ultrasonic tool shown in Figure 7. Ultrasonic in-line inspection tools are
used for measuring metal loss and detecting cracks in pipelines. Ultrasonic tools are especially suitable if
there are high requirements regarding sensitivity and accuracy, which is especially relevant in offshore
pipelines. Ultrasound tools are also well suited with regard to the range of wall thicknesses usually
experienced in offshore lines.
c. Gel Pigs
Gel pigs have been developed for use in pipeline operations, either during initial commissioning, or as a part
of a continuing maintenance program. Figure 8 shows how gel pigs work. The principal pipeline applications
for gel pigs are as follows:
 Product separation
 Debris removal
 Line filling/hydrotesting
 Dewatering and drying
 Condensate removal from gas lines
 Inhibitor and biocide laydown
 Special chemical treatment, and
 Removal of stuck pigs
424

Figure 8: Application of gel pigs in pipeline pigging operations
2.2 Pig Launcher/Receiver
Pigs generally need specially designed launching and receiving vessels (launcher and receiver) to introduce
them into the pipeline. The launcher and receiver are installed at the upstream and downstream of the
pipeline section being pigged, respectively. The distance between the launcher and receiver depends on the
service, location of pump (liquid product) or compressor (gas product) stations, operating procedures, and the
materials used in the pig.
The launcher and receiver consist of a quick opening closure for access, an oversized barrel, a reducer,
and a neck pipe for connection to the pipeline. Pigs can be located using fixed signalers along the pipe or
electronic tracking systems mounted inside the pig. A typical configuration of a pig launcher for liquid service
is illustrated in Figure 9. The horizontal barrel holds the pig for loading. Figure 10 shows a typical
configuration of a pig receiver for liquid service. The horizontal barrel holds the pig for unloading. A barrel
diameter 2 inches larger than the diameter of pipeline has been recommended for both launchers and
receivers. The barrel length should be 1.5 times the pig length and long enough to hold 10 or more spheres.

Figure 9: A typical configuration of a pig launcher for liquid services
425

Figure 10: A typical configuration of a pig receiver for liquid services
Typical configurations of pig launchers and receivers for gas service are depicted in Figures 11 and 12,
respectively. The inclined barrels should be long enough to hold 10 or more spheres. In large-diameter gas
pipelines, the barrel diameter can be 1 inch larger than the pipeline

Figure 11: A typical configuration of a pig launcher for gas services
426

Figure 12: A typical configuration of a pig receiver for gas services
427

Barrel

Figure 13: A typical pig launcher/receiver skid
Quick opening enclosure/closure
428

Figure 14: main components of quick opening enclosure (GD Bandlock™2 Closure)
Crank Handle and Crank Pressure Warning Screw
Hub

Figure 15: main components of quick opening enclosure (Sypris Tool-less Closure)
Locking Segment
Door
429

Pig Launcher and Receiver are pressure vessels, the fabrication of it therefore need to comply with pressure
vessel code (ASME Section VIII – refer to section on pressure vessel of this guide).
Pig Manufacturers:
a. Pfeiffer (http://www.pfeiffer-armaturen.com/english/en-pro00.htm)
b. Girard (http://www.girardind.com/products.cfm?cat=10)
c. Montauk (http://www.montaukservices.net/products.htm)
d. Apache (http://www.apachepipe.com/f_prod.htm)
e. Kiesel (http://www.kiesel-online.de/eng/products.html). At good animation of pigging operation can be

found at Kiesel website at http://www.kiesel-online.de/eng/downloads.html
f. I.S.T (http://www.piggingsystems.com/pigs.html)
g. Pipeline Engineering (http://www.pipelineengineering.com/)
Quick Opening Closure Manufacturers:
h. GD Engineering (www.gdengineering.com)
i. Sypris (http://www.sypris.com/sypris-tube-turns)
j. Pipeline Engineering (http://www.pipelineengineering.com/)
Pig Launcher/Receiver Fabricator/Packager
a. Alpha ECC
b. Oakwell International
c. Petra
d. Bestwide
e. McPec
f. Applied Engineering

Additional information on pigging products can also be found at website of Pigging Products & Services
Association (http://www.ppsa-online.com/)
430
Buyer Guide – Section 19 – Telecommunication System
I. Definition
II. Sub-System & Major Equipment
III. Commercial related issues/notes
431
I. Definition
1.1. Signal, Telecommunication/Communication Signal:
Signal, signals, signaling, or signalling may refer to a concept of information — a signal is a discrete
part of a communication.
Communications signals can be either by analog signals or digital signals.
So, what is the difference between these two types? Here is a basic explanation:
Analog signals are continuous where digital signals are discrete (or separate). Anolog signals are
continuously varying where digital signals are based on 0's and 1's (or as often said - on's and off's).
As an analogy, consider a light switch that is either on or off (digital) and a dimmer switch (analog)
that allows you to vary the light in different degrees of brightness. As another analogy, consider a
clock in which the second hand smoothly circles the clock face (analog) versus another clock in which
the second hand jumps as each second passes (digital). Digital computers work with a series of 0's
and 1's to represent letters, symbols, and numbers. In addition, numbers are represented by using
the binary code (where only 0's and 1's are used).
Number Binary equivalent

1----------------------------------------------1
2---------------------------------------------10
3---------------------------------------------11
4--------------------------------------------100
5--------------------------------------------101
6--------------------------------------------110
7--------------------------------------------111
8-------------------------------------------1000
and so on. So each number (that we are accustomed to, such as 5) is represented by 0's and 1's.
Morse code uses dits (or dots) and dashes. Digital signals are similar to Morse code. The signal is
either a dit or a dash for Morse code and it is either a 0 or 1 for digital. A series of these dits and
dashes might represent SOS to a navy radio man, and a series of 0's and 1's might represent the
question mark to a computer.
When an e-mail is sent that says "Hello Joe", Hello Joe doesn't mysteriously appear on Joe's
computer. What is sent through the phone line is a series of 0's and 1's and Joe's computer
"interprets" these into the words Hello Joe. If you type the letter A into your computer, it converts this
A into 01000001. This 01000001 goes to Joe's computer and his computer interprets it as A. Each 0
or 1 is "bit" and the series of eight 0's and 1's is a byte. Well, it is all that simple.
1.2. Telecommunication/Communication System:
A basic telecommunication system consists of three primary units that are always present in some
form:
 A transmitter that takes information and converts it to a signal.

 A transmission medium, also called the "physical channel" that carries the signal. An
example of this is the "free space channel".
 A receiver that takes the signal from the channel and converts it back into usable information.
Sometimes, telecommunication systems are "duplex" (two-way systems) with a single box of
electronics working as both a transmitter and a receiver, or a transceiver. For example, a cellular
telephone is a transceiver.
432
1.3. Telecommunication Networks:
A communications network is a collection of transmitters, receivers, and communications channels

that send messages to one another.
1.4. Telecommunication Channel:
In one meaning, a channel is the physical medium that carries a signal between the transmitter and
the receiver.
The other meaning of the term "channel" in telecommunications is seen in the phrase
communications channel, which is a subdivision of a transmission medium so that it can be used to
send multiple streams of information simultaneously.
1.5. What is a transmission media?

An electromagnetic wave can be sent through:
 Copper
 Radio (Digital or Microwave)
 Fiber optic
They are called transmission media.
1.6. What are the usable frequency bands of different transmission medias?
 Copper - from Hz to Mhz
 Radio - from kHz to GHz
 Fibre optic - THz range
1.7. What is frequency spectrum?

The usable electromagnetic frequency range (Band) is called frequency spectrum.
1.8. Oil & Gas Telecommunication System:
433
This Basis of design of Telecommunication System is intended to cover the communication required
for the safe and efficient operations of Oil & Gas existing Platform, FPSO, FSO or the new ones.
The Telecommunication System is composed of the following sub-systems below:

1. Digital Radio System (or Microwave Radio System)
2. UHF radio System (Ultra High Frequency)
434
3. VHF Marine Radio System (Very High Frequency)

4. Telephone System & Company Business support LAN (Local Area Network)
5. Crane Radios System
6. Closed Circuit Tele-Vision (CCTV)
7. VHF AM/FM Radio (Very High Frequency)
8. HF SSB Radio System (High Frequency/Single Side Band )
9. Non Directional Beacon (NDB)
10. Meteorological System
11. Satellite Telephone System
12. Public Address and General Alarm System ( PAGA, Normally be purchased under
separate package)
13. Marine Aids To Navigation System ( or simply Navigation Aids, normally be purchased
under separate package)
II. SUB-SYSTEM & MAJOR EQUIPMENT:
2.1. MICROWAVE RADIO SYSTEM ( OR DIGITAL RADIO SYSTEM):

2.1.1. System Overview:
The Microwave Radio communication system shall be considered for the communication interface
between an existing platform (for example CPP) and a new platform. The system shall be configured
to work in dual redundant mode.
TA-02
ZTAA-1
NEW PLATFORM ZTAA-5
LA LA
EXISTING PLATFORM
MAIN DECK
TA-04
TA-01 ZTAA-2
ZTAA-6
LA LA
TA-03
TELECOM CABINET -1
TA-06
ZTAP-1
ZTAA-3
ZTAA-7
MUX IDU ODU
LA
TA-05
TA-08
TA-03
ZTAA-4 ODU IDU MUX
ZTAA-8
LA
ZTAP-2
MUX IDU ODU
TELECOM CABINET-2
ODU IDU MUX
UPS
120 VAC TA-05
RADIO ROOM
ZTAP-3
TA-07
MUX IDU ODU UPS
120 VAC
ZTAP-4
MUX IDU ODU
The system shall have sufficient bandwidth capacity to provide the following services:
435
a. Control System Data (Control LAN)

b. Safety system interface (Safety Ethernet)
c. Voice (telephones, fax)
d. Company’s Business LAN (e.g. e-mail, intranet, internet, file transfer, etc)
e. CCTV monitoring and control
The service shall be designed for point-to-point communication. System performance and availability
shall meet or exceed 99.98% annually. The antenna systems shall be directional antennas.
2.1.2. Major Equipment:
a. RADIO including In door Unit (IDU) & Out Door Unit (ODU)
b. Remote System Monitoring.

c. Antennas
Antennas
IDU, ODU
Remote System
Monitoring
d. Multiplexers (MUX)
e. Feeder Cables:
436
f. Installation Material (Coupler, Connector Kit N type M&F 300 type cable)
Coupler
Connection kit
Feeder cable connection
protector
All Major equipment hardware shall be located in a safe location inside Local Control Room (or
Central Control Room and Living Quarter radio room).
In case of frequency in THz (Tera Hertz) range, Fiber Optic cable shall be used for transmission and
receipt of data and information between two platforms with same configuration.
2.2. UHF RADIO SYSTEM (ULTRA HIGH FREQUENCY)

The UHF Radio System shall allow two-way communications between field personnel within the
existing platform to new platform Facility via a base station located in Local Control Room. The base
station with reliable power source will provide a higher transmitting power and receiving signal that
could reach to other facilities in the field.
437
UHF MAIN ANTENNA

LCR ROOM/SWITCHGEAR
TELECOM CABINET
TU-07
ZTUA-4
TU-06
LA
HOLD-1
UHF 4 CHANNEL TANK ZTUA-5
TU-13
THRU REPEATER SPLITTER
ZTUA-9
TU-12
LA
ZTUA-7
TU-14
LA
TU-10
ZTUP-2A TU-15
MAIN DECK
120 VAC / 12 VDC
UHF REPEATER
POWER SUPPLY
LEAKY FEEDER
TU-11 ZTUA-8
LEAKY FEEDER
POWER ZTUA-6
DISTRIBUTION
BOARD
UHF ANTENNA
RADIO OPERATOR CONSOLE
MICRO PHONE
TU-01
ZTUP-1
ZTUA-2
UHF-AM LA
TRANSCEIVER
TU-04
ZTUP-1A
120 VAC / 12 VDC

UHF TRANSCEIVER
POWER SUPPLY
TU-05
POWER
DISTRIBUTION
BOARD

a. Base Station Transceivers (Transmitters, Receivers…)
Base Station
Transceivers
b. Antennas (High quality UHF antennas, designed for use in a marine petrochemical
environment) & RF Transmission Lines
438
c. UHF-FM Hand-portable Radios (Each Hand-portable radio shall include a rechargeable,

rapid-charge battery with sufficient capacity. Each Hand-portable including a flexible
antenna, of suitable length. Each Hand-portable be supplied with a remote speaker
microphone, a leather carrying case with belt loop and a shoulder strap and a spare
battery)
Flexible antenna
Charger
remote speaker
microphone
Shoulder strap
Belt loop
2.3. Marine VHF Radio System:

Marine VHF Radio will be used mainly for communications with platform support vessels (i.e.
supply and crew boats), nearby platforms/rigs, shipping vessels, summoning rescue services in
emergency situations and communicating to harbors and marinas. It shall also be used to support
deck operations during loading and offloading of materials, equipment and personnel transfer to/from
the platform.
439
MAIN DECK
VHF DSC ANTENNA
VHF TX/RX ANTENNA
LCR BUILDING
RADIO OPERATOR CONSOLE TCOM-003 ZTRA-1 ZTRA-2
MIC
TR-03 TR-06
TR-02
TR-01
ZTRA-3
ZTRC-1
LA
VHF MARINE
CELLAR DECK
TRANSCEIVER ZTRA-4
LA
TR-07
ZTRC-1A TR-04
120 VAC / 12 VDC TR-05
VHF MARINE
POWER SUPPLY
TR-08
BATTERY POWER
DISTRIBUTION
CHARGER BOARD
120 VAC 120 VAC

POWER SUPPLY
POWER SUPPLY ( NOTE 1 )

a. Base Station Transceivers (Transmitters, Receivers…)
b. Antennas (High quality VHF antennas, designed for use in a marine petrochemical
environment) & RF Transmission Lines.
c. VHF-FM Hand-portable Radios (The Hand-portables shall be FM (FACTORY MUTUAL)

certified as intrinsically safe for use. Each Hand-portable radio shall include a
rechargeable, rapid-charge battery with sufficient capacity. Each Hand-portable shall
include a flexible antenna, of suitable length. A full programming kit shall be supplied.
Each Hand-portable also be supplied with a remote speaker microphone, a leather
carrying case with belt loop and a shoulder strap and a spare intrinsically safe battery.
Note: The leather case for the VHF portables shall be of a different colour than that of the
UHF portables)
2.4. TELEPHONE SYSTEM & BUSINESS LAN (B-LAN):

440
 The Telephone System: shall be an extension lines from existing platform PABX system over
dual redundant Digital Radio communications link.
LOCAL CONTROL ROOM
ZTTT-3
ZTTO-1 TT-05
T
TL-001
D
TT-06
ELECTRICAL ROOM
FROM 120 VAC POWER SUPPLY
ZTTT-4
ZTTO-2 TT-07 TELECOM CABINET
T
TL-002
ZTMT-1
D
TT-08
TEMPORARY SHELTER
VOICE
ZTTT-5 MDF INTERFACE
TL-003
T
TT-09
MODULE
TL-004 TT-11
TT-10 T
TL-005 TT-12
T
MAIN DECK
TO MW OUTDOOR UNIT
MicroWave RADIO MUX
JB of
ZTTT-1
EP-ZTT1-01 TT-02 TT-01
JB
INDOOR UNIT
ZED 7423B
UPS ZTTT-1
DISTRIBUTION
BOARD B
CELLAR DECK
JB of
ZTTT-1
EP-ZTTT2-01 TT-04 TT-03
JB
ZED 7423A
UPS ZTTT-2
DISTRIBUTION
BOARD A
ELECTRICAL ROOM
DT-001 D
LAN SWITCH
TEMPORARY SHELTER
DATA
DT-002 D INTERFACE
MODULE
DT-003 D
DT-004 D
DT-005 D
The Telephone System shall have the following capabilities:

• Local communications between hard-wired telephones sets.
• Communications between the new platform, existing platform and all its telephone
extensions at other offshore Facilities (WHPs, FPSO, FSO…) and onshore offices.
 The Company Business LAN (B-LAN): B-LAN servers and Routers are located at existing
platform. One (1) Ethernet port shall be extended from existing platform to new ones over safety
Digital (or Microwave) Radio communications link.
B-LAN computer shall be connected to the existing Company - wide Business LAN system which the
Company has installed in existing platform via Network Switch/Hub.
The Business LAN main function is to provide file, print, and application sharing used by personnel at
the different sites to perform their respective functions through the file, print, and application servers.
The B-LAN System shall have the capabilities to provide for access to Internet, Company Intranet,
emails, file servers, etc.
The process control system has its own LAN. Any interface between the 2 LANs will be only via a
firewall supplied and configured by others. A firewall shall be required to interface B-LAN to the FCS
Historian Server and it will be located in the telecommunication cabinet in LCR.
LAN cable category 5e UTP (Cat 5e) usually be used for LAN system.
 Telephones:
a. Main Distribution Frame (MDF): The MDF shall be housed in a rack equipped with doors.
441
b. Standard Telephones: shall be installed in Temporary Shelter or Switchgear Room and equipped
with a cord and jack-in plug for easy removal or connection to a pre-
wired telephone socket.
c. Explosion proof Telephones: be installed outdoor near Wellbay area

(Cellar Deck). All explosion proof telephones as well as their associated
audible and visual warning devices shall be fully Eex certified for use in
Explosive Atmospheres (Hazardous Area).
d. Acoustic Hoods: The Acoustic Hoods shall be suitable for outdoor installation in the same
environment as the explosion proof telephones. The hoods shall be fully
compatible with the explosion proof telephones and shall be designed to
accommodate external sounder, switching relays and flashing beacons.
e. Sounders and Flashing Beacons: The sounder and flashing beacon shall be automatically
operated by switching relay when ringing power is applied to the
telephone.
Sounder
Flashing Beacons
f. Telephone sockets: As a general rule, in order to obtain a flexible system, a number of fully-wired
wall telephone socket outlets (line jack units) shall be installed in the Switchgear / LCR and
Temporary Shelter.
442
g. Telephone Cables: Twisted pairs shall be used for both internal and external cables.
 The Company Business LAN (B-LAN):

a. Network Switch/Hub, Routers, Printer, Computer, Wireless routers, File Server (if required)
b. LAN Cable: Cat 5e (or Cat 6) usually be used for B-LAN
2.5. CRANES RADIO SYSTEM:

443
CRANE CABIN
CRANE CONSOLE
UHF ANTENNA
JUNCTION BOX
HEADSET
SOCKET
FLUSH MOUNT
ZTBM-1
CONTROL
INTERFACE
BOARD
VHF ANTENNA
TB-07
TB-05
TB-01
ZTBK-2 ZTBP-1A
ZTBA-5
UHF FM
LA
TRANSCEIVER
FOOT SWITCH CHANGE
OVER
SWITCH TB-03
ZTBK-1 ZTBP-1B
ZTBA-6
VHF FM LA
TRANSCEIVER
TB-09
ZTBP-1C
120 VAC / 12 VDC

CRANE RADIO
POWER SUPPLY
TB-10
TB-07 ZTBP-1D
120 VAC / 12 VDC

CRANE RADIO
NOTE-1
POWER SUPPLY
LOUDHAILER SYSTEM
POWER
JUNCTION BOX
R 120 VAC UPS

SPEAKER DISTRIBUTION
BOARD
L
SPEAKER
Crane system that comes with a cabin installed on new platform. The crane system shall be equipped
with a dual VHF and UHF radio transceiver set, destined to provide 2-way communications between:
 The crane operator and supply boats, near the platform, via VHF channels,
 The crane operator and platform personnel (Operations/Maintenance/Drilling) via 2 simplex
channels.
The Crane Radio and associated equipment shall be free-issued to the Crane VENDOR.
The crane radio equipment to be installed in crane cabin shall include, but shall not necessarily be
limited to, the following equipment:
 A dual UHF and VHF FM radio set shall be installed in crane.
 The dual transceiver set.
444
 Two (2) flexible short length antennas installed on the roof of the crane cabin and linked to
the radio via short flexible coaxial cables. Cable entry into the crane cabin shall be through
watertight cable glands.
 One (1) 120 VAC/24 VDC combined power supply which shall be wall mounted near the VHF
& UHF transceivers.
A loud hailer system comprising of a 25 watt amplifier for communicating over the deck area is to be
provided by the Crane VENDOR along with 2 explosion proof loudspeakers mounted below the crane
boom.
2.6. CLOSED CIRCUIT TELE-VISION (CCTV System):

TELECOM CABINET
MEZZ. DECK
ZTQN-1 TQ-01
CCTV 1 POWER
SURGE ARRESTER ZTDK-1
TQ-01C
ZTQN-1B
LAN SWITCH MICROWAVE RADIO SYSTEM
WASHER
ZTQN-1A TQ-01B
TQ-01A
JUNCTION
BOX
CELLAR DECK TQ-5
TQ-02
ZTQN-2
POWER
CCTV 2
SURGE ARRESTER
TQ-02C
ZTQN-2B RADIO OPERATOR CONSOLE
WASHER
ZTQC-1
ZTQN-2A TQ-02B
TQ-02A
VIDEO TQ-6
JUNCTION RECORDING KEYBOARD
BOX AND MOUSE
SYSTEM
SUB CELLAR DECK

TQ-03
ZTQN-3
POWER
CCTV 3 SURGE ARRESTER LCD
TQ-03C MONITOR FROM 120 VAC POWER SUPPLY
ZTQN-3B (NOTE 2)
WASHER
AC POWER
TQ-03B OUTLET
TQ-03A ZTQN-3A
JUNCTION
BOX FROM 120 VAC POWER SUPPLY
(NOTE 1)
Close Circuit Television (CCTV) system will be utilized to provide continuous monitoring of topside
facilities and its associated utilities. Likewise, the system will also be used as intruder detection
(motion detection) with alarm function, video recording, viewing live and playback video functions.
The system will also be accessible/ operable from a remote location in CPP (if required).
445
VENDOR shall calculate a network bandwidth requirement. Analog cameras use a composite cable
to transmit a video signal to Main System. The main system shall have a function of video switching,
video recording, video encoding and video server. The cameras shall be able to be controlled by
keyboard controller located in E-house and by remote PC via Ethernet LAN according to an access
user profile programmed on main system.
The CCTV shall consist of sufficient quantity of cameras located such as to provide view of all areas
of the facility. The cameras will be located as a minimum but not limited to the following:
 CCTV PTZ cameras with built-in motion detection, which shall be installed throughout on
Boat landing area. The quantity and location of cameras will be finalized during Detail Design.
 CCTV PTZ cameras, which shall be installed on other Decks area. The quantity and location
of cameras will be finalized during Detail Design.
CCTV system also includes but shall not necessary be limited to the following equipment:
 Video encoder and video management software
 Video Storage Server

 Composite Cable
446
The monitoring and control unit shall be located in Local Control Room and also at CPP (if required)
for remote operation and monitoring of the new platform.
2.7. VHF AM/FM RADIO SYSTEM:
The Aeronautical VHF AM Radio System shall provide reliable 2-way air/ground radio communication
between the offshore facilities and helicopters and other aircraft. Additionally, air/ground
communications shall also be possible using VHF-FM Hand-portable radios and a translator.
LCR BUILDING
VHF-AM ANTENNA
MIC
ZTNP-1A
VHF-AM
RADIO
POWER SUPPLY
TU-05 TN-01 TN-02

ZTNP-1
ZTNA-3
POWER VHF-AM
DISTRIBUTION AERONAUTICAL LA
BOARD BASE STATION MAIN DECK
120 VAC VHF-FM TRANSLATOR

POWER SUPPLY
( NOTE 2 )
TELCOMMUNICATION CABINET
MIC
TN-03 TN-04
ZTNP-2
VHF-AM ZTNA-4
VHF-FM LA
TRANSLAT0R
TU-06
ZTNP-2A
VHF-AM/FM
TRANSLATOR
POWER SUPPLY
POWER
DISTRIBUTION
BOARD
120 VAC
POWER SUPPLY
( NOTE 1 )

The aeronautical VHF/AM radio system shall include, but not limited to, the following equipment:
 One (1) Aeronautical VHF/AM Base Stations.
 One (1) high-gain Omni directional VHF-AM

antenna and connected to the aeronautical
VHF/AM base station via a low loss coaxial
feeder consisting of a heliax cable outdoor and
a super-flexible antenna cable indoor with a
weatherproof surge arrestor mounted at the
building entry.
447
Due to the non-availability of FACTORY MUTUAL certified VHF-AM Hand-portable radios; the
aeronautical VHF radio system shall also include the following equipment:
 One (1) VHF-AM/VHF-FM translator, consisting of a standard simplex VHF-FM base station.
 Two (2) non-display type of Factory Mutual approved VHF-FM Hand-portable radios.
 One (1) medium gain omni directional VHF FM antenna connected to the VHF-AM / VHF-FM
translator via a low loss coaxial feeder.
2.8. HF SSB RADIO SYSTEM:
The HF Radio system radio shall provide voice communications between the new platform and
onshore marine radio stations as well as Helicopter Base.
LCR BUILDING
MF / HF-SSB HF DSC SSB
ANTENNA ANTENNA
ZTBA-3 ZTBA-4

MIC
ZTBP-3B
HF CONSOLE
AND
HANDSET
ZTBA-3A TB-13
TB-10 ZTBA-7 TB-12 ZTBA-1A ANTENNA

ZTBP-3
TB-11 LA ATU TUNING TB-15
HF-SSB UNIT
RADIO
TRANSCEIVER ZTBA-8 ZTBP-1A
LA ATU
TB-14 TB-15
ZTBP-3A
PSU /
CHARGER
TB-16
POWER
DISTRIBUTION
BOARD
120 VAC
POWER SUPPLY
( NOTE 1 )

The HF radio shall include but shall not necessarily be limited to the following equipment:
 One (1) non-duplicated HF Radio
Transceiver which shall be mounted in
the free standing Operator Console
located in the Local Control room.
448
 One (1) Omni directional Antenna which shall

be side-mounted at the Main Deck. The
antenna tuning unit with junction box shall be
installed outdoor near the antenna.
 One (1) low-loss coaxial feeder consisting of a heliax cable outdoor and a superflexible
antenna cable indoor with a weatherproof surge arrester mounted at the building entry.
2.9. NON DIRECTIONAL BEACON (NDB)

The Non-Directional Beacon (NDB) will be used as a homing radio beacon by approaching
helicopters at new platform.
NDB HELIDECK ANTENNA
HELIPAD AREA
LCR ROOM TELECOM CABINET

TRANSMITTER
(PRIMARY)
NOTE-1
TRANSMITTER
(SECONDARY) TN-07
ZTNA-5
TN-09
AUTO AUTO TUNING

UNIT 1
TRANSFER UNIT ATU
TN-10
TN-08
NDB REMOTE
INTERMEDIATE PLATFORM
CONTROL UNIT
POWER SUPPLY
120 VAC
TN-12 TN-11
POWER
DISTRIBUTION
BOARD
120 VAC
POWER SUPPLY
( NOTE 2 )
449

a. NDB Transmitter:
The NDB equipment shall be solid state. RFI/EMI emissions in the LCR shall be kept to a minimum
compatible with the optimum operation of other systems.
The NDB transmitter assembly shall include 2 transmitters, operating in a hot-standby configuration,
and equipped with a built-in automatic transfer unit.
b. NDB Antenna:
Antenna to be supplied shall be complete with transmission
line, connectors, insulators and stainless steel SS316
retractable installation hardware.
c. NDB Antenna Tuning Unit:

Warning signs to be affixed to the Antenna / Antenna Tuning Unit to
inform platform personnel of the presence of high voltage.
The tuning unit shall be designed for weather proof mounting and be
450
located as close as possible to the end of the wire antenna. Lightning protection shall be provided at
antenna terminal via a passive circuit.
2.10. METEOROLOGICAL SYSTEM:
The meteorological equipment shall provide real time information on local environmental conditions.
WIND SPEED
AND DIRECTION SENSOR
TELECOM CABINET
TW-01
ZTDK-1
LAN SWITCH
TELECOMM. CAB. 1 EXPLOSION
PROFF JB ZTWS-IA
TW-05 JUNCTION BOX
TW-06
ZTWS-IB
POWER TW-02
KVM
DISTRIBUTION
SWITCH JB
BOARD
LCR BUILDING
TW-04 TW-03
MAIN DECK
120 VAC
POWER SUPPLY
( NOTE 1 ) ZTWC-1
LCD MONITOR
AND
IPC MONITOR
120 VAC UPS

DISTRIBUTION
BOARD
( NOTE 2 )
The new platform shall have sensor for wind measurement only and other data shall be gathered at
new platform from CPP through the Company Business LAN (B-LAN) and vice versa. The following
information shall be made available at platform:
 Real time wind speed and direction,
 Mean wind speed,
 Gust speed,
 Air temperature,
 Corrected barometric pressure for sea surface (QNH),
 Corrected Barometric pressure for helideck level (QFE),
 Uncorrected barometric pressure,
 Humidity,
 Wave & Current.
451
The meteorological system shall include but shall not necessarily be limited to the following
equipment:
 One (1) ultrasonic wind sensors to be installed on instrument
stand located on the Helideck / Main Deck including junction box
and cable tail.
 One (1) Processing station, housing the central processor unit, shall be rack-mounted in LCR
telecoms cabinet. The station shall have software/hardware capabilities to be integrated to
the Company B-LAN system.
 One (1) remote display unit shall be integrated on the LCR
operator console.
 Cable glands for the sensors and junction boxes.

2.11. SATELLITE TELEPHONE SYSTEM:
ZTSA-1
SATELITE
TELEPHONE ANTENNA

HANDSET
TS-02 ZTSA-2 TS-03

SATELLITE
LA
TRANSCEIVER
BELLOW
TS-01
POWER
SUPPLY
BATTERY
CHARGER
SIS-02 SHUNT TRIP
POWER
DISTRIBUTION
BOARD
120 VAC
POWER SUPPLY
Satellite Telephone System is the Inmarsat Mini-M Satellite Telephone System which shall be
installed in new platform for “emergency only” voice communication between new platform and
Vietnam Landlines via PSTN.
452
(Note: Inmarsat is an international organization founded in 1978 that provides telecommunication

services, as well as distress and safety communication services, to the world's shipping, aviation, and
offshore industries)
a. Telephone:
The phone (including handset and cradle) and power
supply unit shall be located in the LCR Operator console.
Battery capacity shall be sufficient for 4 hours low quality
voice.
b. Antenna:
The antenna shall be a sensor stabilized platform with
directional RHCP marine antenna having a maximum
pointing error of ± 10 degrees. The antenna will normally be aligned to the
Inmarsat IOR satellite, however should also be capable of aligning to
Inmarsat POR satellite remotely from the indoor unit.
c. Antenna Feeder:
Antenna feeder shall be with 50 ohms connectors and flame retardant.
d. Power supply:
 The power will be supplied from the platform UPS 120 VAC,
60 Hz. Satellite Telephone Battery charger / rectifier shall be
fed from 120 VAC, 1 Phase, 60 Hz UPS System, capable of
back-up time of 4 hours.
 In the event of ESD_1 (Emergency Shutdown), UPS supply to
battery charger / rectifier shall be disconnected and Satellite
Telephone system shall be fed from a dedicated 24 VDC
battery banks with 4 hours duration backup.
 Battery charger/rectifier shall feed the Satellite Telephone
Handset and charge the battery banks with 24 VDC power
supply.
III. Commercial related issues/notes:

1. Type Approval Certificate (Giấy chứng nhận hợp chuẩn) is a significant paper that requires the
involvement and coordination of vendor, PTSC, Client and local government to ensure the
purchased equipment carry the same frequency with the existing operable frequency range within
the operational territory. Any discrepancy shall result in re-design and re-purchase of such
equipment with huge cost and schedule impact.
2. Major equipment that play key roles in Telecom system:
453
- Microwave Radio (most significant system for effective communication between two
platforms, more superior than digital radio)
- UHF/VHF
- LAN
3. BOM of this package is subject to much change after PO due to updates during vendor data
review progress. Buyer hence need to continuously monitor to capture all changes into the PO on
a timely basis
4. Reference list:
Project Name Supplier Delivery time Price Remark

(USD)
Su Tu Trang LTPTP - Radio Holland

22 weeks 634,619.00
CLJOC Singapore Pte Ltd
Transtel Engineering
Su Tu Den NE - CLJOC 24 weeks 538,936.38
Pte Ltd
Bidder List
1. Vendor Name: Radio Holland Singapore Pte Ltd
Address: 8A Tuas Avenue 12, Singapore 639030
Attn: Edward Ricafort/ Gerald Cabanalan
Tel: +65 6862 2218
Fax: +65 6862 2430
Email: edwardr@radioholland.com.sg / Gerald.Cabanalan@radioholland.com.sg
2. Vendor Name: Omega Integration Pte Ltd

Address: 10, Toh Guan Road, #04-18 TT International Tradepark, S(608838)
Attn: GERALD I. PANTALEON
Tel: +65 6303 6288
Fax: +65 6303 6266
Email: gerald.p@omegain.com
3. Vendor Name: Transtel Engineering Pte Ltd

Address: No. 1 Jalan Kilang #03-01, Dynasty Building, Singapore 159402
Attn: Nicki Ooi / Zheng Qing
Tel: + 65 6276 7600 / 6375 6033 (DID)
Fax: + 65 6276 7800
Email: nicki.ooi@transtel.com.sg / zheng.qing@sg.transtelengineering.com
454
Buyer Guide – Appendix I – Conversion Unit
APPENIX I – MEASUREMENT AND CONVERSION UNIT
The modern metric system, called the ‘‘Système International d’Unités’’ (or the International
System of Units in English), was finalized in its current form by international agreement in
1960 and is the standard international language of measurement.
The United States is industrialized country that does not completely use the Metric system,
but rather a system called inch-pound units. This appendix will provide the most currently
accepted means of expressing the various metric measurement units and their abbreviations
and conversion table between IP and metric systems. For a complete list of conversion
factors, refer to standard engineering references. The abbreviations used will refer to either
IP for the inch-pound units currently in use in the United States or SI for the International
System of Units.

ABBREVIATIONS
The following are abbreviations for the most often used units:
second s liter L milli m
minute min meter m centi c
hour h gram g kilo k
day d Pascal Pa pound lb
week wk Newton N Watt W
month mo inch in Joule J
year Yr foot ft mile mi
Celsius °C yard yd ounces oz
Pounds per psi Gallons Per gpm Gallons gph

Square Inch Minute Per Hour
Cubic foot cfm

per minute
TABLE 1: CONVERSION BETWEEN INCH-POUND UNITS
Length
1 foot (ft) = 12 inches (in)

1 yard (yd) = 3 feet = 36 inches
1 mile (mi) = 1,760 yards = 5,280 feet
Area
1 square foot (ft2) = 144 square inches (in2)

1 square yard (yd2) = 9 square feet
455
1 square mile (mi2) = 640 acres = 3,097,600 square yards

1 acre (A) = 4,840 square yards = 43,560 square feet
Volume
1 cubic foot (ft3) = 1,728 cubic inches (in3) = 7.48 gallons

1 cubic yard (yd3) = 27 cubic feet
1 tablespoon = 0.5 fluid ounce

1 tablespoon = 3 teaspoons
1 cup (c) = 8 fluid ounces (fl oz)
1 pint (pt) = 2 cups = 16 fluid ounces
1 quart (qt) = 2 pints = 32 fluid ounces
1 gallon (gal) = 4 quarts = 128 fluid ounces
1 gallon ≈ 231 cubic inches ≈ 0.1337 cubic foot
Weight
1 pound (lb) = 16 ounces (oz)

1 ton (t) = 2,000 pounds
TABLE 2: CONVERSION BETWEEN METRIC UNITS
Length
1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters (mm)

1 meter (m) = 100 centimeters = 1,000 millimeters
1 kilometer (km) = 1,000 meters
Area
1 square centimeter (cm2) = 100 square millimeters (mm2)

1 square meter (m2) = 10,000 square centimeters = 1,000,000 square millimeters
1 square kilometer (km2) = 1,000,000 square meters
Volume
1 cubic centimeter (cm3) = 1,000 cubic millimeters (mm3)

1 cubic meter (m3) = 1,000,000 cubic centimetres
1 liter (L) = 1,000 milliliters (mL) = 100 centiliters (cL)

1 kiloliter (kL) = 1,000 liters = 1,000,000 milliliters
Weight
1 centigram (cg) = 10 milligrams (mg)

1 gram (g) = 100 centigrams = 1,000 milligrams
1 kilogram (kg) = 1,000 grams
456
TABLE 3: CONVERSION BETWEEN METRIC AND IP UNIT
Pressure
To convert from to Multiply by
psi kPa 6.894 (7)
psi bar 0.069 (0.07)
ft lb Nm 1.36
in Hg kPa 3.4
ft head kPa 3.03 (3)
in water Pa 250
psi kg/ cm2 0.07
psf kg/m2 4.9
psf Pa 47.9
Length
in mm 25.4
yd m 0.91
km yd 1093
km ft 3333.3
ft m 0.3048 (0.3)
mi km 1.609 (1.6)
in ft 0.0833
Area and Spatial Volume
cu ft m3 0.028 (0.03)
cu ft L 28.32
cu yd m3 0.764
cu in mm3 16.39
sq ft m2 0.093 (0.1)
sq yd m2 0.836
sq mi km2 2.59 (2.6)
acre m2 4047
sq in mm2 6.5
cu in cm3 16.4
Liquid Volume
gal L 3.79
quart L 0.95
Fluid Flow Rate
gpm L/min 3.785 (3.8)
gpm L/ s 0.063
gpm L/h 227
gpm m3 /h 0.227
gph L/ s 0.0013
gph L/min 0.08
cfm m3 /s 0.0005
cfm m3 /h 0.03
cfm L/ s 0.47
cfm L/min 28.316 (28.3)
cfm m3 / s 2119
cfm m3 /h 1.7
cfs L/min 1697.0 (1700)
cfs m3 / s 0.03
cfh L/ s 0.008
cfh m3 /h 0.03
Velocity
fps m/ s 0.305
mph m/ s 0.45
mph km/h 1.6
fpm km/h 0.018
fps km/h 1.1
457
Weight (Mass)
lb kg 0.45
lb oz 16
lb/cu ft kg/m3 16
psf kg/m2 4.9 (5.0)
Heat and Temperature
°F (measured temperature) °C °F – 32 x 0.56
°F (temperature difference) °C °F x 0.56
Btu/h mJ/h 0.0010
Btu/cu ft mJ/m3 0.037
Btu/h W/h 0.3
Btu/sq ft / h W/m2 /h 3.15

458
APPENDIX II – CLASSIFICATION OF HAZADOUS AREA
MAIN HEADINGS
1. Definition
1
2. Area Classification
3. Area Classification based on IEC and CENELEC Standards
4. Area
ea C
Classification
ass ca o based o on NECCSStandards
a da ds
5. Temperature Code (T-code) For Class I (Gases)
6. Equipment Design and Construction
7. Types
yp of Protection
8. Enclosure and IP
9. ATEX Directive
10. Marking and Symbol
459
Explosive Atmosphere:
Explosive atmospheres can be ignited by sparks or hot surfaces arising from the
use of electrical power.
The hot surfaces can be those of enclosures, components and light sources. Under
fault conditions electrical connections may become over-heated and cause arcs or
spa s
sparks.
In addition, sparks may be the result of the inadvertent discharge of stored energy
or from switching g contacts. Other p
possible sources of ignition
g are electrostatic
discharges and frictional sparking.
460
461
Area Classification:
The purpose of area classification is to provide a basis for the correct selection,
installation and location of electrical and non-electrical equipment in those areas.
Areas must be classified depending on the properties of the flammable vapours,
vapours
liquids, gases, mists, combustible dusts or fibres that may be present and the
likelihood that a flammable or combustible concentration or quantity is present.
462
Area Classification based on IEC and CENELEC Standards:
IEC classify hazardous areas into “Zone System”
IEC: International Electrotechnical Commission

CENELEC: the European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
463
Area Classification based on IEC and
CENELEC Standards (flammable gases
and vapors)
464
Area Classification based on IEC and CENELEC Standards
465
466
(Gas Group)
The grouping of gases and vapours are classified into Group I and Group II
categories.
t i
Group I is relevant to atmospheres containing firedamp (a mixture of gases,

composed mostly of methane,
methane found underground in mines)
Group II is intended for use in all other places with potentially explosive
atmospheres. Group II are further sub
sub-divided
divided into apparatus group IIA, IIB or IIC:
467
(Gas Group)
468
(Combustible Dusts)
469
Area Classification based on NEC Standards
In North America, a “Class, Division” System has been used for decades as the
basis for area classification of hazardous (classified) locations. Because the
hazards and methods of p protecting
g electrical equipment
q p against
g these hazards
differ for different materials, hazardous locations are divided into three Classes,
and two Divisions. The Classes are based on the type of hazard and the explosive
characteristics of the material with the Divisions being g based on the occurrence or
risk of fire or explosion that the material presents.
Hazardous (Classified) Locations in NEC standard are divided into three Classes
b
basedd on the
h explosive
l i characteristics
h i i off the
h material.
i l The
Th Classes
Cl off material
i l are
further divided into “Divisions” or “Zones” based on the risk of fire or explosion that
the material presents.
NEC: National Electric Code – Code developed and used by United States
470
CLASS I LOCATION:
Class I locations are those in which flammable g gases or vapors

p are or mayy be
present in the air in quantities sufficient to produce explosive or ignitible mixtures.
CLASS II, DIVISIONS 1 AND 2
The subdivision of Class I into two divisions identifies the likelihood or risk that an
ignitible concentration of gases or vapors will be in the location.
location Division 1 identifies
locations where the risk is high or medium. Division 2 identifies locations where
there is a small but still finite risk. If the risk is extremely low the location is not
considered a hazardous location.
Compared between “Class, Division System” with “Zone System”

471
CLASS I, GROUPS A, B, C, AND D
Class I locations are divided into groups because different materials have different
explosion and ignition characteristics. The grouping permits equipment to be tested
based on the type of flammable material in which it is intended to be used. It also
permits area classification to be based on the type
p yp of material anticipated
p in that
location.
The grouping is based on two major factors: the explosion pressure generated
during an explosion; and the maximum gap between ground flat mating metal
surfaces that will prevent propagation of an explosion through the gap to a
flammable atmosphere of the same flammable material and concentration.
Compared between “Class, Division System” with “Zone System”

472
Group A
The highest explosion pressures of the materials grouped are generated by
acetylene, the only material in Group A. Thus, explosion-proof equipment designed
for Groupp A must be veryy strong g to withstand the explosion
p anticipated,
p , and must
have a very small gap between joint surfaces. Explosion-proof equipment for Group
A is the most difficult to design and there is less explosion-proof equipment listed for
this group than for any other group.
Group B
Groupp B materials p
produce explosion
p pressures somewhat less than acetylene,
p y , and
the design of explosion-proof enclosures for this group is somewhat less rigorous
than for Group A enclosures. However, because of the very high explosion
pressures in both Groups
p p A and B, and, in p particular, the veryy small g
gap
p between
mating surfaces needed to prevent propagation of an explosion, there are no
explosion-proof motors listed for use in either Group A or B locations
473
Group C
The chemical materials in Group C fall within the range between Groups B and D in
both the explosion pressures generated and the gap between mating surfaces of
explosion
p proof equipment
p q p that will p
prevent an explosion.
p
Group D
Group D is the most common group encountered in the field, and there is more
equipment available for this group than for any other group.
474
CLASS II LOCATION:
Class II locations are those that are hazardous because of the p presence of
combustible dust. Note that the dust must be present in sufficient quantities for a
fire or explosion hazard to exist. The fact that there is some combustible dust
present does not mean a Class II hazardous location exists. To be considered a
p
“dust” the combustible material must exist as a finely divided solid of 420 microns
(0.420 mm) or less.
CLASS II, DIVISIONS 1 AND 2 GROUPS E, F, AND G LOCATIONS
Just as in Class I, Divisions 1 and 2, the subdivision of Class II into Divisions 1 and
2 identifies the likelihood that there will be an explosion hazard.
Division 1:
A Class II, Division 1 location is one where combustible dust is normally in
suspension in the air in sufficient quantities to produce ignitible mixtures, or where
mechanical failure or abnormal operation of equipment or machinery might cause
an explosive or ignitible dust-air mixture to be produced, and might also provide a
source of ignition through simultaneous failure of electrical equipment
475
Division 2:
A Class ll, Division 2 location is one where combustible dust is not normally in the
air in quantities sufficient to produce explosive or ignitible mixtures, and dust
accumulations are not normally sufficient to interfere with the normal operation of
electrical equipment, such as clogging ventilating openings or causing bearing
failure.
Class II, Groups E, F, and G
The division into three groups in Class II locations is for the same reasons Class I
locations are divided into Groups A, B, C, and D: equipment design and area
classification. However, the three Class II groups are based on different
characteristics than the four Class I groups because the design of dust-ignition
proof equipment for Class II locations is based on different principles than the
design of explosion proof equipment for Class I locations. In Class II locations the
i iti
ignition t
temperature
t off the
th dust,
d t the
th electrical
l t i l conductivity
d ti it off the
th dust,
d t and d the
th
thermal blanketing effect the dust can have on heat-producing equipment, such as
lighting fixtures and motors are the deciding factors in determining the Class II
gro p
group
476
In Class II areas all products must operate at temperatures as shown below based on
whether they are heat producing or subject to overloading or not, and based on the Group
which they fall under. Class III products in all cases must operate below 165° C
477
CLASS III LOCATION:
Class III locations are those that are hazardous because of the p presence of easilyy
ignitable fibers or flyings, but in which the fibers or flyings are not likely to be in
suspension in the air in quantities sufficient to produce ignitible mixtures. Easily
ignitible
g fibers and flyings
y g p present a fire but not an explosion
p hazard. A typical
yp
example of this type of material is the cotton lint that accumulates in the lint trap of
clothes dryers. Listed clothes dryers are designed so that even if the lint ignites, the
fire will be contained within the dryer enclosure.
CLASS III, DIVISIONS 1 AND 2
Division 1:
This is a location where the equipment producing the ignitible fibers or flyings is
located (near textile mill machinery, for example) or where the material is handled
(f example,
(for l where
h th
the material
t i l iis stuffed
t ff d iinto
t bbags))
Division 2:
This is a location where the easily ignitible fibers are stored or handled,
handled except in
manufacturing processes (which is Division 1).
478
TEMPERATURE CODE (T-CODE) FOR CLASS I (GASES)
The ignition temperature or auto-ignition temperature (AIT) is the minimum

temperature required to initiate or cause self-sustained combustion in a substance
without any apparent source of ignition.
ignition The lowest published ignition temperature
should be the one used to determine the acceptability of equipment. This is of
particular concern when selecting heat producing equipment such as lighting
fixtures or motors which may generate sufficient heat to ignite the surrounding
atmosphere
479
480
481
EQUIPMENT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
There are a number of ways of protecting electrical equipment so that it cannot cause an
explosion when used in a surrounding flammable atmosphere, or ignite a layer of dust or fibers
on the equipment. The two most common ways are explosion-proof equipment in Class I,
Division 1 and some Division 2 locations and dust-ignition proof equipment in Class II, Division 1
locations. Flameproof and increased safety equipment is most common in Class I, Zone 1
locations. Intrinsically safe equipment is becoming increasingly more popular in Division 1 and
Zone 1 locations
In order for a fire or explosion to occur three conditions must exist. There must be a fuel (the
flammable gas or vapor, or combustible dust) in ignitible quantities; there must also be an ignition
source (energy in the form of heat or a spark) of sufficient energy to cause ignition; and there
must be oxygen, usually the oxygen in the air.
These three conditions are called the fire triangle as shown. Remove any one or more of these
three and a fire or explosion cannot occur.
occur This is the basis of the various protection systems for
electrical equipment permitted in the electrical codes for use in hazardous locations. These
protection methods either contain the internal explosion or eliminate one or more of the fire
triangle components necessary for an explosion to occur.
The most common methods of protection used in North America are explosion proof equipment
for Class I locations, and dust-ignition proof equipment for Class II locations. The fuel and
oxygen must be in the correct mixture, too little fuel, or a lean mixture, or too much fuel, a rich
mixture cannot ignite. These explosive limits are defined as “Lower Explosive Limit” (LEL) and
“Upper Explosive Limit” (UEL)
482
EQUIPMENT DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION
483
TYPE OF PROTECTION - EXPLOSION PROOF OR FLAMEPROOF TYPE “D”
PROTECTION
Ex d “Flameproof Enclosure” Protection - IEC 60079-1
These
ese pprotection
o ec o types
ypes a
are
e based oon co
containment.
a e The e po
potentially
e a y incendive
ce d e pa partss a
are
e
contained within an enclosure into which the explosive atmosphere can enter but
which will contain any resultant explosion and prevent its transmission outside of the
enclosure. Flameproof
p equipment
q p is not p
permitted in Class I, Division 1 locations, and
explosion proof equipment is not permitted in Class I, Zone 0 locations
484
TYPE OF PROTECTION - POWDER FILLING TYPE “q” PROTECTION
Ex q “Powder Filling” Protection - IEC 60079-5
Thiss pprotection
o ec o sys
system
e iss pe
permitted
ed in Zone
o e1a
andd 2 locations.
oca o s There
e e iss no
o equ
equivalent
ae
system recognized in the US NEC 500 electrical code. In this type of protection
system the enclosure or the electrical apparatus is filled with a material in a finely
divided g granulated state so that, in the intended conditions of service, the arc
occurring within the enclosure of an electrical apparatus will not ignite the
surrounding atmosphere. Further, no ignition can be caused either by flame or
excessive temperature of the surfaces of the enclosure. This protection system is
used for protection of the components in junction boxes. It is sometimes called “sand
filling”
485
TYPE OF PROTECTION - POWDER FILLING TYPE “q” PROTECTION
Ex q “Powder Filling” Protection - IEC 60079-5
Thiss pprotection
o ec o sys
system
e iss pe
permitted
ed in Zone
o e1a
andd 2 locations.
oca o s There
e e iss no
o equ
equivalent
ae
system recognized in the US NEC 500 electrical code. In this type of protection
system the enclosure or the electrical apparatus is filled with a material in a finely
divided g granulated state so that, in the intended conditions of service, the arc
occurring within the enclosure of an electrical apparatus will not ignite the
surrounding atmosphere. Further, no ignition can be caused either by flame or
excessive temperature of the surfaces of the enclosure. This protection system is
used for protection of the components in junction boxes. It is sometimes called “sand
filling”
486
TYPE OF PROTECTION - NON-INCENDIVE EQUIPMENT TYPE “nC”
PROTECTION
Ex n “Non Sparking” Protection - IEC 60079-15
For this method, precautions are taken with connections and wiring to increase
reliability, though not to as high a degree as for Ex e. Where internal surfaces are
hotter than the desired T rating, they can be tightly enclosed to prevent the ready
ingress of an explosive atmosphere. This is the “restricted breathing enclosure”
technique.
The 'Non
Non Sparking
Sparking' concept also requires that high ingress protection ratings of IP65
and above are built into the design. The coding Ex nR denotes that the protection
method employs a restricted breathing enclosure. The restricted enclosure may be
confined to the p
part of the equipment
q p containing
g the hot components
p such as lamps.p
Where the normal non-sparking construction is used the coding is nA.
There are other sub codes, nL - energy limitation and nC - non incendive, which refer
to simplified forms of other protection methods listed above.
above The codes are used
individually.
The Ex n methods have been developed specifically for the design of equipment
used in the remotely hazardous area, Zone 2. Ex n meets the basic requirements for
f
ATEX category 3
487
TYPE OF PROTECTION - MOULDED/ENCAPSULATED TYPE “m”
PROTECTION
Ex m “Encapsulation” Protection - IEC 60079-18
This type of protection is one in which the parts than can ignite an explosive
atmosphere are enclosed in a resin (plastic) sufficiently resistant to environmental
influences in such a way that this explosive atmosphere cannot be ignited by either
sparking or heating, which may occur within the encapsulation
488
TYPE OF PROTECTION - PURGED AND PRESSURIZED TYPE “p”
PROTECTION
Ex p “Pressurised Equipment” Protection - IEC 60079-2
This is a type of protection which prevents the entry of the surrounding atmosphere
into the enclosure of the electrical apparatus by maintaining a positive pressure within
the enclosure of a protective gas (air, inert, or other suitable gas) at a higher pressure
than the surrounding atmosphere
489
TYPE OF PROTECTION - OIL IMMERSION TYPE “o” PROTECTION
Ex o “Oil immersion” Protection - IEC 60079-6
This protection technique is limited to equipment in Division 2 and Zone 1 and 2

locations. It eliminates the ignition source leg of the fire triangle. It works because the
ignition source is maintained under oil.
490
TYPE OF PROTECTION - INTRINSIC SAFETY OR INTRINSICALLY SAFE TYPE
“ia”
ia , AND “ib”
ib PROTECTION
Ex i “Intrinsic Safety” Protection - IEC 60079-11
The circuit parameters are reliably controlled to reduce potential spark energy to
below that which will ignite the specific gas mixture. This includes the occurrence of
one (coded ib) or two (coded ia) component faults and consequent failures in the
circuit..
491
TYPE OF PROTECTION - “Optical radiation” op PROTECTION
Ex op “Optical radiation” - IEC 60079-28
This is primarily concerned with the control of pulsed and continuous wave optical
radiation through fibre optic cable with restrictions on the ratio of emitted optical
power to the irradiated area.
The protection concepts include Inherently Safe which is analogous to Ex i and

provides over-power/energy fault protection. Other methods include mechanical
protection of the fibre and optical interlocks.
492
TYPE OF PROTECTION - INCREASED SAFETY TYPE “e” PROTECTION
Ex e “Increased Safety” Protection - IEC 60079-7

This protection system is for equipment that,
that under normal operating conditions,
conditions does not
produce ignition-capable arcs or sparks or high temperatures. It provides special increased
spacing between live parts and live parts of opposite polarity or grounded metal parts, special
insulating materials to reduce the likelihood of arc tracking, special terminals to reduce the
likelihood of high temperatures or loose connections, and temperature control on heat producing
equipment. It is widely used for protection of squirrel cage motors, terminal boxes, and the
terminals of flame proof components.
493
TYPE OF PROTECTION – Special “s” PROTECTION
Ex s “Special” Protection
This method,
method being by definition special,
special has no specific rules.
rules In effect it is any method which
can be shown to have the required degree of safety in use..
494
NEMA ENCLOSURE
The term NEMA enclosure is common in the US. The following are environmental
protection designations, which are specified in addition to electrical or hazardous
location requirements:
Type 1 Enclosures: Type 1 Enclosures are intended for indoor use primarily to
provide
id a degree
d off protection
t ti against
i t limited
li it d amounts
t off falling
f lli dirt.
di t
provide a degree of protection against limited amounts of falling water and dirt.
dirt
Type 3 Enclosures: Type 3 Enclosures are intended for outdoor use primarily to
provide a degree of protection against rain,
rain sleet,
sleet windblown dust; and damage from
external ice formation
Type 3R Enclosures: Type 3R Enclosures are intended for outdoor use primarily to
provide a degree of protection against rain, sleet; and damage from external ice
formation
NEMA: National Electrical Manufacturers Association

495
NEMA ENCLOSURE
Type 3S Enclosures: Type 3S Enclosures are intended for outdoor use primarily to
provide a degree
p g of p
protection against
g rain,, sleet,, windblown dust;; and to p
provide for
operation of external mechanisms when ice laden.
Type 4 Enclosures: Type 4 Enclosures are intended for indoor or outdoor use
primarily to provide a degree of protection against windblown dust and rain, rain
splashing water, hose directed water; and damage from external ice formation.
Type 4X Enclosures: Type 4X Enclosures are intended for indoor or outdoor use
primarily
i il to
t provide
id a degree
d off protection
t ti against
i t corrosion,
i windblown
i dbl d t and
dust d
rain, splashing water, hose directed water; and damage from external ice formation
Type
yp 5 Enclosures: Type yp 5 Enclosures are intended for indoor use p primary
y to
provide a degree of protection against settling airborne dust, falling dirt, and dripping
noncorrosive liquids.
Type 6 Enclosures: Type 6 Enclosures are intended for indoor or outdoor use
primarily to provide a degree of protection against hose directed water, the entry of
water during occasional temporary submersion at a limited depth; and damage from
external ice formation
496
NEMA ENCLOSURE
Type 6P Enclosures: Type 6P Enclosures are intended for indoor or outdoor use
primarily
i il to
t provide
id a degree
d off protection
t ti against
i t hose-directed
h di t d water,
t the
th entry
t off
water during prolonged submersion at a limited depth; and damage from external ice
formation.
provide a degree of protection against circulating dust, falling dirt, and dripping
noncorrosive liquids.
Type 12K Enclosures: Type 12K Enclosures with knockouts are intended for indoor
use primarily to provide a degree of protection against circulating dust, falling dirt,
and dripping
pp g noncorrosive liquids
q
provide a degree of protection against dust, spraying of water, oil, and noncorrosive
coolant.
coolant
497
PROTECTION CLASSES OF ENCLOSURE (IP CLASS)
Structure and use of the IP Code:
1. If a code digit does not have to be given it should be replaced with the letter “X”.
2. Additional and/or supplementary letters may be omitted without substitute letters.
pp
3. If more than one supplementary y letter is required,
q alphabetical
p order should be followed.
The numbering system and degree of protection follows:
The additional (optional) letter concerns protection of persons and refers to information about protection
against access to dangerous parts by:
1. Back of the hand letter A
2. Finger letter B
3. Tool letter C
4. Wire letter O
The supplemental (optional) letter concerns protection of the equipment and provides supplementary
information specially for:
1. High voltage equipment letter H
2. Water-proofing during operation letter M
3. Water-proofing during standstill letter S
4. Weather conditions letter W
498
PROTECTION CLASSES OF ENCLOSURE (IP CLASS)
499
NEMA ENCLOSURE TYPES VS. IEC DESIGNATION
500
ATEX DIRECTIVES
This directive applies to electrical and non-electrical components and protective systems
intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres. Compliance with the requirements of
this new directive became mandatory on July 1, 1 2003 when the old approach directives was
repealed. Certificates of Conformity issued under the old approach directives was valid until
June 30, 2003, after this date all products had to comply with the requirements outlined under
the “New Approach” or ATEX Directive (94/9/EC).
The ATEX Directive relates to electrical and mechanical equipment and includes items such
as:
1. All equipment and protective systems intended for use in potentially explosive
atmospheres within the European Union are covered and must have the CE marking
along with specific type of explosion protection markings.
markings
2. Explosive atmospheres caused by the presence of gas, vapors and mists.
3. Existing, previously certified products must be re-examined to determine compliance with
the new directives.
4. Equipment categories defining the required levels of protection are introduced. Category
1 covers equipment having a very high level of protection. Category 2 covers equipment
having a high level of protection, and Category 3 covers equipment having a normal level
of protection.
protection
501
ATEX DIRECTIVES
502
MARKING AND SYMBOL - US
503
MARKING AND SYMBOL – INTERNATIONAL & EU
504
MARKING AND SYMBOL - ATEX
505
MARKING AND SYMBOL - EU
506
MARKING AND SYMBOL - CANADA
507
MARKING AND SYMBOL - USA
508
Buyer Guide – Appendix III - Design Legends and Symbols
DESIGN LEGEND AND SYMBOLS
I – Pipe Drawing:
Pipe can be represented on drawings as either single line or double line. Pipe 12 and
smaller is typically drawn single line and pipe 14 and larger is drawn double line.
Single-line drawings are used to identify the centerline of the pipe. Double lines are used
to represent the pipe’s nominal size diameter.
Drawing symbol for Pipe
II – Drawing symbol for fitting:
Drawing symbol for 90° Elbow
Drawing symbol for 45° Elbow
509
Drawing symbol for welded tee
Drawing symbol for latrolet and elbolet
Drawing symbol for o-lets
510
Drawing symbol for coupling
Drawing symbol for reinforcing pad and saddle
Drawing symbol for reducer
Drawing symbol for Union
511
Drawing symbol for Swage
Drawing symbol for Blind Flange
Drawing symbol for Weld-neck Flange
512
Drawing symbol for Orifice Flange
Drawing symbol for Flange and Gasket
513
II – Drawing symbol for Valves:
Drawing symbol for Gate Valve
Drawing symbol for Globe Valve
514
Drawing symbol for Check Valve
Drawing symbol for Ball Valve
Drawing symbol for Butterfly Valve
515
Drawing symbol for Angle Valve
Drawing symbol for Plug Valve
Drawing symbol for Relief Valve and Pressure Safety Valve
516
Drawing symbol of control valve
517
III – Drawing symbol for Mechanical Equipment:
Each project has its own legends and symbols to describe mechanical equipment. The
difference among projects is minor and below is sample of symbols adopted for Bien
Dong 1 project.
518
IV – Drawing symbol for Instrument:
Each project has its own legends and symbols to describe mechanical equipment. The
difference among projects is minor and below is sample of symbols adopted.
FLOW TRANSMITTER
FT
LEVEL TRANSMITTER
LT
PRESSURE
PT
TRANSMITTER
TEMPERATURE
TT
TRANSMITTER
519
V- Flow Diagrams and Instrumentation
Called by various names such as Process & Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID), Piping &
Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID), UFD (Utility Flow Diagram), PFD (Process Flow
Diagram)...etc., these diagrams describe in a schematic drawing format the flow of fluids
and gases through a unit or an entire platform. By using symbols to represent various
pieces of equipment, the flow diagram provides the piping designer with an overall view
of the operation of a facility.
These diagrams are foundation and fundamental basis for development of design works.
The detailed P&ID normally contains information on:
1. operating pressure and temperature

2. pipe line numbers and direction of flow
3. pipe specifications and line sizes
4. all equipment
5. all valves
6. all instrumentation with controlling devices
520

Buyer Guide To Offshore Oil and Gas Materials and Equipment - 1st Ed

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BUYER GUIDE TO

OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS

Section 1 - Introduction to Oil and Gas 1

Section 2 - Overview of Offshore Platform Design and Materials 39

Section 3 - Steels and Structural Steels for Offshore Application 70

Section 5 - Grating 100

Section 6 – General Introduction to Process Piping 108

Section 7 - Introduction to Process Piping (Pipe) 123

Section 8 - Introduction to Process Piping (Fittings & Flanges) 137

Section 9 - Valves 154

Section 10 – Pressure Vessel 226

Section 11 – Pumps 244

Section 12 – Compressors 275

Section 13 – Heat Exchanger 297

Section 14 – Instrumentation and Control System 325

Section 15 – Pressure Relief Devices 359

Section 16 – Choke Valve 387

Section 17 - Cabling System 398

Section 18 – Pigging System 420

Section 19 – Telecommunication System 431

Appendix I – Measurement And Conversion Unit 455

Appendix II – Classification Of Hazardous Area 459

Appendix III - Design Legends and Symbols 509

- Tran Minh Tam

Vungtau, 18th December 2011

SECTION 1 - CONTENT IN BRIEF

1. Origin and Accumulation of Oil and Gas

2. The Well and Drilling Process

3. The Nature of Oil and Gas

4. Vietnam Oil and Gas Potentials

5. Oil and Gas Price

7. Offshore Oil and Gas

1. ORIGIN AND ACCUMULATION OF OIL AND GAS

1.1 Sedimentary rocks

1.2 Reservoir rock to hold the gas or oil

Figure 1-5: TGT

Figure 1-6: TGT

2 THE WELL AND DRILLING PROCESS

Figure 2-1 Figure 2-2

2.1 Drilling Process

3 THE NATURE OF OIL AND GAS

3.1 Chemical Composition

Table 3-2 shows the hydrocarbon content of crude oil.

°API = 141.5/Specific Gravity – 131.5

Benchmark Crude Oils

Property of Bach Ho Oil

4. VIETNAM OIL AND GAS POTENTIAL

Block Operator Remark

PetroVietnam Annual Production and Revenue in past 5 years

2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Gas Production 6.93 B M3 8.49 B M3 6.86 B M3 7.5 B M3 8 B M3

5. OIL AND GAS PRICE

Upstream consists mostly of exploration and field development such as:

1. Geographic survey (2D, 3D..etc)

The downstream sector includes:

1. Refineries and petrochemical plants

Geographic survey & appraisal drilling/windcat Investor

Drilling (development phase)

Upstream Facilities development (Platforms, FPSO...)

Operation and Maintainance

Oil & Gas Operator

Refineries and petrochemical plants

Downstream Derivatives product manufacturers