ASSIGNMENT

Engineering geology 20CE132

Q NO.1 Differentiate between the following:

(a) Anticline and syncline folds

Anticline fold
In structural geology, an anticline is a type of fold that is an arch-like shape and
has its oldest beds at its core. A typical anticline is convex up in which the hinge or
crest is the location where the curvature is greatest, and the limbs are the sides of
the fold that dip away from the hinge. Anticlines can be recognized and
differentiated from antiforms by a sequence of rock layers that become
progressively older toward the center of the fold. Therefore, if age relationships
between various rock strata are unknown, the term antiform should be used.

Syncline fold
In structural geology, a syncline is a fold with younger layers closer to the center
of the structure. A synclinorium (plural synclinoriums or synclinoria) is a large
syncline with superimposed smaller folds. Synclines are typically a downward fold,
termed a synformal syncline (i.e. a trough); but synclines that point upwards, or
perched, can be found when strata have been overturned and folded (an
antiformal syncline).
 (b) Plunging and non-plunging folds.

Plunging fold
A plunging fold is a fold that is tilted downwards in space, parallel to the fold
hinge plane.

Non-plunging fold
Non-Plunging Fold: has a horizontal/near horizontal hinge line. Anticline: older
beds are in the core (center) of the fold and the beds dip away from the core.
Syncline: younger beds are in the core of the fold and the beds dip into the core.

(c)Domes and basins

Domes
is an up-arched series of strata with beds on all sides dipping away from the
center throughout 360 degrees--an eroded surface indicates the rocks become
progressively younger away from the center of the structure.

Basin
is a down-arched series of strata with beds on all sides dipping in towards the
center throughout 360 degrees--an eroded surface indicates the rocks become
progressively older away from the center of the structure.
(d)Brittle and ductile rock deformation

Brittle
When an external force is applied to buried rocks under low confining pressure,
such as near the surface of the earth, the rock typically deform by simple
fracturing. This is known as brittle deformation.

Ductile
When rocks deform in a ductile manner, instead of fracturing to form faults or
joints, they may bend or fold, and the resulting structures are called folds. ...
Because the strain rate is low and/or the temperature is high, rocks that we
normally consider brittle can behave in a ductile manner resulting in such folds

Q NO2: (a)Enumerate the conditions for the development of joints.

Formation. Joints arise from brittle fracture of a rock or layer due to tensile stress.
This stress may be imposed from outside; for example, by the stretching of layers,
the rise of pore fluid pressure, or shrinkage caused by the cooling or desiccation
of a rock body or layer whose outside boundaries remained fixed.

(b)Enumerate the different types of forces for the genesis of faults.

A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. Faults allow
the blocks to move relative to each other. This movement may occur rapidly, in
the form of an earthquake - or may occur slowly, in the form of creep. Faults may
range in length from a few millimeters to thousands of kilometers. Most faults
produce repeated displacements over geologic time. During an earthquake, the
rock on one side of the fault suddenly slips with respect to the other. The fault
surface
Faults can form in response to any one of the three types of forces: compression,
tension and shear: The type of fault produced, however, depends on.
e can be horizontal or vertical or some arbitrary angle in between