_

McGR A W
- HILL

ELECTRICAL A ND

EL ECTR O NIC

EN GI NEERI NG

SERIES
McG
raw
-Hi
ll E
lec
trica
l a
nd E
lec
tron
ic E
nginee
ring S
er
ies
FR
EDER
ICK EMMONS TE
RMAN
, C
onsu
lting E
ditor

ELE C T RO M A G N E TI CS
 McG
raw
-Hi
ll E
lec
trica
l a
nd E
lec
tron
ic E
nginee
ring S
er
ies
F
REDER
ICK EMMONS T
ERMAN
, C
onsu
lting E
dito
r

BAILEY A ND GAULT •A lterna t

ing -cur ren t Mach ine ry
BERANEK •A cous t
ics
BRUNS A ND S AUNDERS •A na lysis o fF eedback C on trol S ystems
CAGE •Theo ry a nd App lica tion o fI ndus tria l E lec tron ics
CUCC IA •Ha rmon ic s, S idebands , a nd T ran s
ient s o n C ommun ica
tion
Eng
ineer ing
EASTMAN •F undamen tals o fV acuum Tube s
EvANs •C on tro l- sys tem Dynam ic s
F
IT ZGERALD A ND K INGSLEY •E lec tric Mach inery
GEPPERT •B asic E lec tron T ube s
GLASFORD •F undamenta ls o fT elev ision E ng inee r ing
HA '
F'PELL AND HESSELBERTH •E ng inee r
ing E lec tron ics
HARMAN •F undamenta ls o fE lec t ronic Mo tion
HESSLER A ND C AREY •F undamenta ls o fE lec t r
ica l E ngineering
H ILL •Electron ics i nE nginee ring
JOHNSON •T ran sm ission L ine s a nd N e two rk s
KRAUS •A ntennas
KRAUS •E lec tromagne tics
LEPAGE •A na ly sis o fA lterna t
ing -cur ren t C ir cuit s
LEPAGE A ND S EELY •G ene ral N etwo rk A na lys is
MILLMAN A ND S EELY •E lec tron ics
MILLMAN A ND T AUB •P u
lse a nd D igita l Cir cu its
ROGERS •I ntroduc tion t o E lectric F ie lds
RUDENBERG •T rans ient P erformance o fE lec tric P owe rS ystems
SEELY •E lec tron ic E ng inee ring
SEELY •E lec tron -tube C ircu its
SEELY •R adio E lec tron ics
S
IsK iNn •Di rect -cur rent Mach ine ry
SKILL ING •E lec tric T ransm ission L ines
SKILL ING •T rans ient E lectric C ur ren ts
SPANGENBURG •V acuum T ube s
STEVENSON •E lemen ts o fP ower S ystem A nalys is
TERMAN •E lec tron ic a nd R adio E ngineering
TERMAN A ND P ETT IT •E lec tron ic Mea suremen ts
THALER •E lemen ts o fS ervomechan ism T heo ry
THALER A ND BROWN 'S ervomechan ism A na lysis
THOMPSON •A lterna t
ing -cur ren t a nd T ran sient C ircuit A nalys
is
TRUXAL •A utoma t
ic F eedback C ont rol S ys tem S ynthe sis
E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS

J
ohn D
. K
rau
s, P
h.D
.
P
rof
emorofEl
ect
rica
l Eng
in e
erin
g
Th
e O
hio S
ta
te Uni
ver
sity

N
ew Y
ork T
oron
to L
ondon

McGRA W
-HILL BOOK CO MPANY
, INC
.

1
9
53
 ELECTRO MAGNETICS

Copyr
ight, 1
953
,b ythe McGraw-Hil
lB ook Company, I
nc
. Pr
inted inthe
Uni
ted Sta
tesof America
. A
l
lrights r
ese
rved. Th
is b
ook,orpart
st hereo
f,
may not b
e r
eproduced i
nany f
orm without p
ermis
sion o
fthe pub
lishers
.

L
ibrary o
fCong
ress C
ata
log C
ard Numb
er: 5
2-7440

Iv

THE MAPLE PRESS CO MPA NY

, YORK
, PA
.
 PREFACE

I
ti st he p urpo se o ft his b ook t op re sen t the b a sic p r
inc ip le s o fe lec tro-
magne tic -field t heo ry w ith a pp rox ima tely e qua l e mpha s
is o n t he v arious
b
ranche s t ha t find a ppl ication i ns uch d iver sa rea s a s e lectron ics , p owe r
,
r
adia t
ion , a nd p ropaga tion . A l though t he f i
eld p oin t o fv i ew i ss tres sed,
t
he c l
ose i nte r
re la tion o ff i
eld a nd c ircu itt heo ry i sa lso p oin ted o ut,a s,f o
r
e
xamp le, i n the d evelopmen t o f f i
eld e qua t
ions f rom c ircu it t heo ry a nd
by the v ery u sefu l c oncep t o ft he c urv ilinea rs qua re v olume o r f ie
ld c ell
.
The f i
r st s even c hap te rs a re w r
itten f or a n i nt roduc tory f i
eld - theory
c
our se i np hysics o r e lec tr
ica l e ngineer ing a t a bou t t he t h
ird - o r f our th-
y
ea r c ollege l eve l. T he s ubjec ts c ove red i nclude s ta t
ic e lec tric a nd
magne tic f i
elds, s teady c ur ren ts, a nd c hang ing e lec tric a nd magne t
ic
f
i
eld s
. T he lasts even c hap ter sf orm ac on tinua tion a nd a re w r
i tten f o
ra
s
omewha t mo re a dvanced f i
e
ld -theo ry c our se a t a bou t s en io r o r f irs
t-
y
ea r-gradua te l e vel. T hese c hap ter s t rea t plane w ave si nd ielec tric a nd
c
onduc ting m ed ia, t r ansm ission l i
ne s, w ave g uide s
, a n tenna s, a nd
b
ounda ry -va lue p roblem s. E ach s et o fs even c hap ter si n clude se nough
material f or ac our se o fa bout o ne s eme ster.
The ma terial i n the b ook h as b een u sed i n c our se s i n e lec trica l e ngi-
n
eering a t t he O hio S ta te U n
iver sity f or s eve raly ea rs. T he f i
r sts even
c
hap ter sa re c ove red i n ac our se g iven i nt he l astp art o ft he j unio ry ea r
,
whi
le t he l asts even c hap ter sa r et r
ea ted i n ac our se g iven i nt he f i
rstp art
o
ft he f i
r st y ea r o ft he g radua te p rog ram .
A
s ap re requ i site f or t he i ntroduc to ry f ie
ld c ou r se t he s t uden t s hou ld
h
ave c omp le ted af i
rstc our se i ng enera lp hy s
ics a nd ma thema ticst hrough
t
he d ife ren tial a nd i nteg ra l c alcu lus . A c our se i n v ecto r a na ly sis i s
d
esirab le e i
the r b eforehand o r c oncur ren tly, b ut i sn ot an eces si ty s ince
most o f t he v ec to r c oncep ts a re d eve loped a s t hey a re n eeded .
The r ationa lized mk sc s ys tem o fu n
i ts i su sed . T hiss ys tem i sr ap idly
c
om ing i nto a lmo st u niver sa l u se a nd h as many p rac tica l a dvan tage s
.
Throughou t t he b ook t he d imen siona l e quali ty o f e qua t
ion s i ss tre ssed
a
s an ece s sa ry c ond i
t ion f or c or rectne ss. I n t his c onnec tion t he d imen -
s
iona l rela tion s a re f requen tly e xpre ssed i n t he a pp ropr ia te mk sc u nits
.
Ac omp le te t able o fu ni ts isg iven i nt he A ppend ix .
Af eature o ft he b ook i st he l arge n umbe r o fw orked e xamp le s. T hese
e
xamp le sa res tated i np rob lem f orm , a nd many o ft hem s erve n oto n
ly t o
a
pp ly t he t heo ry b ut a lso t od evelop i tf ur
the r. C omp le te p rob lem s e
ts
a
re t ob ef ound a tt he e nd o fe ach c hap te r
. Many i mpo r
tan t r esu lts n ot
v
i PREFACE

g
iven i n the t ext are st ated a s e xercise si nt he se p rob lem s e t
s. A nswe rs
a
re a l
so in cluded f or many o ft he o dd -numbe red p rob lem s
.
The p res en tation o f magne tic f i
elds i sb ased o n t he a ctual p hysica l
s
i
tua tion r athe r t han o n f i
ctitious magne tic c ha rge s
. F urthermo re,
p
articula ra t tention i sg iven t o the f act t ha t i ti st he f l
ux d ensity B t ha t
o
ccu rsi nt he f orce relations i nvo lv ing t he magne tic f i
eld .
Space v ec tors are a lway s i ndica ted b y b old face s ymbo ls
. C omp lex
q
uan tities
, o r p haso rs
, a re s ome time s i ndica ted b y ad ot ( '
) over t he
s
ymbo l w he re iti sd es
i red t o i ndica te e xp licitly t hat aq uan t
ity isc om -
p
lex
. However , fo r simpl ic
i ty o f n otation t he d ot i su sua l
ly om i
tted
where i tiso bviou s that t he q uan ti
ty i sc omp lex .
An a im t hroughou t t he b ook h as b een t o a pproach a n ew s ubject
g
radua lly. F or examp le, w he reve r p os sible, s imp le s pecial cases a re
c
onside red f i
rst
, a nd t hen w ith t hese a s b ackg round t he g eneral case i s
d
eveloped .
A
l though g rea t care h a s b een e xe rcised , s ome e rro rs in t he text o r
f
i
gure s wil
l i nevitably o ccu r
. A nyone f i
nd ing t hem w ould d ot he author
agreats erv ice t ow rite h im a bou t t hem s ot hat t hey c an b e corrected i n
s
ubsequen t p r
inting s
.
I
n c onclu sion t he a u
tho r w ishe st oe xp re ssh isa pprec iation t o many o f
h
isa ssociate sa nd studen ts fo rn ume rou sh e
lp ful s ugge stions a nd also f or
c
onf
i rm ing t he answe rs t o many o ft he p rob lem s.

JO
HN D.KR
AUS
CO
LUMBUS, OH
IO
Oc
tob
er, 1
952
 CONTENTS

P
reface

CHAPTER 1 T
he S
tat
ic E
lec
tric F
ie
ld. P
art 1
1
-
1. Dimensions and Units 1
1
-2
. Fundamenta l and S
econda
ry U n
its 1
1
-3
. Dimensional Analys
is 2
1
-4
. E
lectr
ic C harge 3
1
-5
. The Force between Po
int Cha
rges and C
oulomb
's L
aw 3
1
-6
. E
lectric Field I
ntens
ity 5
1
-7
. The Electric F
ie
ld of Severa
l P
oint C
harge
s a
nd t
he P
rinc
iple o
f
Superposit
ion of F
ields 7
1
-8
. The E lectr ic S cala r Potent ial 8
1
-9
. The E le ctric S ca la r Po tential as aL ine Integra
l o f t
he Electr
ic F
ield 1
0
1
-
10. S
ca lar, o r Do t, P roduct 1
3
1
-
11. Relation o f Ele ctr ic Fie ld Lines and Equ ipotential Contours . 1
3
1
-
12. Cha rge Dens ity a nd C ontinuous D istr
ibu t
ions of C harge 1
4
1
-
13. E
le ctric P otent ia l o f C harge D istr
ibu t
ions a nd the Pr
inciple o
f
Superpo sit
ion o f P otent ia
l 1
6
1
-14
. Grad ient 1
8
1
-15
. Grad ient i n R e ctangu la r C oordinates 2
0
1
-16
. E
le ctric F lux 2
3
1
-17
. F
lux L ine s 2
5
1
-18
. F
lux Tube s 2
6
1
-19
. E
le ctric F lux o ve r aC losed S urface. Gauss's Law 2
7
1
-20
. S
ing le S hell of C harge 3
0
1
-21
. Two C oncen tric S pherical S hel
ls of Charge 3
2
1
-22
. nS he l
ls a nd V olume D istributions of Charge 3
3
1
-23
. Conductor s and I nduced C harges 3
6
1
-24
. Conduct ing S hell 3
6
1
-25
. Conduct ing B ox a nd P lates 3
9
1
-26
. Boundary R ela tions a t aC onducting S ur
face 4
2

P
rob
lem
s 4
3

CHAPTER 2 T
he S
tat
ic E
lec
tric F
ie
ld. P
art 2
2
-1
. The Electric Dipo le and E lectr
ic D
ipo
le Moment 4
6
2
-2
. Diele
ctrics and P erm ittiv
ity 4
8
2
-3
. Polar
ization 4
8
2
-4
. Bounda ry R elat
ions 5
2
2
-5
. Table of B oundary R elat
ions 5
6
2
-6
. Artif
ic
ial D ie
lectrics 5
6
2
-7
. Capacitors and C apacitance 5
9
2
-8
. Capacitance o f I
s olated Sphere 5
9
v
i
i
v
ii
i CONTENTS

2
-9. Capac itor o
f Two C oncentric Spherical She
lls 6
0
2
-10. Parallel-p
late C apa citor 6
1
2
-11. Action o f D
ielectric i n aCapa c
i tor 6
2
2
-12. Dielectric S
treng th 6
4
2
-13. Ene rgy in aC apac itor 6
5
2
-14. Ene rgy D ens
ity i n aS tatic Electric F
ield 6
6
2
-15. F
ields o f S
imp le C ha rge Configura t
ions 6
7
2
-16
. F
ields o f P o
int C ha rge s and C onduct ing Sphe res 6
8
2
-17
. F
ield o f Two E qual P oint C harges of Oppos ite Sign (Electric Dipo
le) 6
8
2
-18
. F
ield o f Two Equa l P o
int C harge s o
f Same S ign 6
9
2
-19
. F
ield o f a Number o f P oint C harges and C onduct ing S pheres 7
1
2
-20
. F
ield o f aF in ite L ine o f C harge 7
2
2
-21
. F
ield o f an I nfinite L ine o f C harge 7
3
2
-22
. I
nfinite C ylinder o f C harge 7
4
2
-23
. I
nfinite C oax ial T ransm ission L ine 7
4
2
-24
. Two I nf
inite L ine s o f C harge 7
5
2
-25
. I
nfinite Two -w ire T ransm is s
ion L ine 7
7
2
-26
. I
nfinite Sing le-w ire T ransm ission L ine
. Me thod o f Image s 7
9
2
-27
. Graph ical Mapp ing o fS tatic E lectric F
ields. F
ield Cells 8
0
2
-28
. 9
0 ° and 2 70° C orne rs 8
7
2
-29
. Divergence o ft he Flux D ens ity D 8
8
2
-30
. Maxwe ll
's D ivergence E qua tion 9
2
2
-31
. Examp le of D ivergence 9
2
2
-32
. Divergence Theorem 9
3
2
-33
. Divergence o f Da nd P i n aC apacitor 9
3
2
-34
. The L aplacian Opera tor a nd P o
isson's a
nd L aplace's Equa tions 9
7
2
-35
. I
solated C onduct ing S phere 9
7
2
-36
. Dependence o f Gaus s
's L aw o n the Inve
r se
-squa re L aw 9
9

P
rob
lem
s 1
01

CHAPTER 3 T
he S
teady E
lec
tric C
urren
t
3
-1. I
ntroduct ion 1
08
3
-2. Conductor s a nd I nsulators 1
08
3
-3. The Electric C urrent 1
09
3
-4. Resis
tance a nd O hm 's L aw 10
3
-5. Power R elations a nd Joule's Law 10
3
-6. The Electric C ircu it 11
3
-7. Resis
tivity a nd C onduct iv ity 12
3
-8. Table of C onduct ivities 15
3
-9. Current Dens ity a nd O hm 's Law at aP oint 16
3
-10.Kirchhoff
's V oltage L aw a nd the Dif
ference between Potentia
l and EMF 17
3
-11.Tubes of C urren t 1
24
3
-12.Kirchhoff
's C urrent L aw 1
25
3
-13.Divergence o f Ja nd C ontinuity Relations f
or Current 1
26
3
-14.Current a nd Fie ld a t aC onductor-Insulator Boundary 1
28
3
-15.Current a nd Fie ld a t aC onductor-Conductor B oundary 1
31
3
-16.Current Mapp ing a nd the R es
istance of Simple Geometrie
s. Conducto
r
Cel
ls 1
32
3
-17
. Laplace
's E qua tion f or Conduct ing Med ia 1
37

P
rob
lems 1
39
 CONTENTS i
x

f
he Stat
ic Magne
tic F
ie
ld o
fSteady E
lec
tric
C
urrents
e ct ion 1
43
C
c
.o rce b etween C urrent-car rying C onducto rs 1
44
on a Cur rent E lement 1
45
.
eF orce p er C urrent E lement , or Magne tic Flux D ens
ity B. 1
46
h
e Flux Dens ity P roduced b y aC ur rent D istr
ibu t
ion 1
47
Magne tic F lux # „, 1
48
Magne tic F lux o ver a Clo sed S urface 1
50
4
-8. The Flux Dens ity P roduced b y a n I nfinite Linear C onductor . 1
50
4
-9. The F orce b etween Two L inear P a
ra llel C onductor s 1
51
4
-10. The Flux D ensity P roduced b y aC urrent L oop 1
52
4
-11. The V ector, o r C ro ss Product 1
54
4
-12. Magne tic F ield R elations i n Ve ctor No tation 1
58
4
-13. Torque o n aL oop . Magne t
ic Moment 1
59
4
-14. The Soleno id 1
61
4
-15. I
nductor s and I nductance 1
64
4
-16. I
nductance o f Simp le G eome trie s 1
65
4
-17. Ampe re's L aw a nd H 1
68
4
-18. Ampe re's L aw App lied to aC onduct ing Med ium a nd Maxwe l
l's E
qua
tion 1
71
4
-19. Magnetos tatic P o ten t
ial Ua nd M MF F 1
71
4
-20. F
ield C ells a nd P ermeab i
lity 1
76
4
-21. Energy i na n Inductor 1
78
4
-22. Energy D ens ity i n aS ta t
ic Magne tic F ield 1
79
4
-23. Curl 1
80
4
-24. V XH 1
85
4
-25. Examp les o f C url 1
85
4
-26. Maxwe ll's F irst Cu rl Equa tion 1
91
4
-27. Summary o f Ope rations I nvolv ing V 1
91
4
-28. AC ompar i
son o f D ivergence a nd C url 1
92
4
-29. The V ector P oten tial 1
95
4
-30. AC ompar ison o f Sta t
ic E lectric a nd Magne t ic F
ields 2
00

P
rob
lems 2
01

CHAPTER 5 T
he S
tat
ic Magne
tic F
ie
ld o
fFe
rromagne
tic Ma
ter
ial
s
5
-1. I
ntroduct ion 2
06
5
-2. Bar Magne ts and Magne tic Poles 2
06
5
-3. Magne t
ic Ma terials 2
07
5
-4. Relative Permeab ili
ty 2
07
5
-5. The F orce between B ar Magne ts and C
ou lomb's L
aw 2
08
5
-6. Magne t
ic D ipoles a nd Magnetiza t
ion 2
10
5
-7. Uniform ly Magne t
ized Rod a nd E qu
iva
len t S
oleno
id 2
12
5
-8. The Magne tic V ectors B
, H , and M 2
14
5
-9. Boundary R e
lations 2
26
5
-10. Table of Boundary R ela
tions f o
r Magnetic F
ie
lds 2
30
5
-11. Ferromagne ti
sm 2
30
5
-12. Magne t
ization C urves 2
32
5
-13. Hyste res
is 2
36
5
-14
. E
nergy i
n a Magne
t 2
40
 CONTENTS

5
-15
. Permanen t Magnet s
5
-16
. Table of Permanent Magne t
ic Materials
5
-17
. Demagne tiza tion
5
-18
. The Magne t ic C ircuit
. R
eluctance and Permeance
5
-19
. Magne t
ic F ie ld Mapp ing. Magnet
ic Fie
ld C e
lls 2,1
5
-20
. Comparison o f F ield Map s inE le
ctr
ic, Magne t
ic, a
nd Cur
rent Ca
ses. 2
54
5
-21
. F
ields of C urrent s near a
n A i
r -
Iron Bounda ry 2
57
5
-22
. Gapless C
ircu it 2
6 1
5
-23
. Magne t
ic C ir cuit w ith A
ir Gap 2
63
5
-24
. Magne t
ic Gap F orce 2
64
5
-25
. Permanent Magnet w ith Gap 2
65
5
-26
. Comparison o f E lectr
ic and Magne t
ic R e
lations I
nvo
lving Po
lariza
tion
a
nd Magne t iza tion 2
67

P
rob
lem
s 2
67

CHAPTER 6 C
harg
ed P
art
icle
s i
nElec
tric a
nd Magne
tic F
ie
lds
6
-1
. I
ntroduction 2
72
6
-2
. Charged Particle i
n aSta
tic E
lectr
ic Fie
ld 2
72
6
-3
. Charged Particle i
n aSta
tic Magnetic F
ield 2
74
6
-4
. The Cathode-ray Tube 2
76
6
-5
. The Cyclotron 2
80
6
-6
. Table o
f Cha rge and Mass f
o
r C ommon P art
icle
s 2
83

P
rob
lem
s 2
83

CHAPTER 7 T
ime
-chang
ing E
lec
tric a
nd Magne
tic F
ie
lds
7
-1. I
ntroduct ion 2
85
7
-2. Faraday 's L aw 2
85
7
-3. Maxwel 's Equa tion from F araday's L aw
. I
nteg ra
l Form 2
89
7
-4. Mov ing C onducto r in a Magne tic Fie
ld 2
89
7
-5. Gene ral C ase o f Induction 2
91
7
-6. Examp le s of Induct ion 2
92
7
-7. The B eta tron 2
96
7
-8. S
tokes ' T heorem 3
00
7
-9. Maxwe ll's E qua tion from F araday's L aw
. D
ifferentia
lF orm . 3
02
7
-10. The S eries C ircuit. Inductance O nly 3
02
7
-11. The S eries C ircuit. Resistance On ly 3
03
7
-12. The S eries C ircuit. Resistance a nd Inductance 3
04
7
-13. The S eries C ircu it
. Re
s is
tance, I nductance
, a nd C apacitance 3
06
7
-14. Energy i na n Inductor 3
06
7
-15. Mutua l- a nd Self-inductance 3
08
7
-16. The T rans former 3
11
7
-17. A
lterna ting -current B ehav ior of Ferromagnetic Ma ter
ials 3
12
7
-18. Eddy C urrents 3
15
7
-19. Measurement o f Magne tic Fields. T he F
luxme ter 3
15
7
-20. Displacement C urrent 3
18
7
-21. Maxwe ll's Equa tion from Ampere 's L aw. Comp lete Express
ion. 3
20
7
-22. Dielectric Hys teresis 3
21
7
-23. Bounda ry R elations. 3
24
 CONTENTS x
i

7
-24
. G
enera
l Fie
ld Re
lations 3
26
7
-25
. C
omparison o
f E
lectr
ic and Magnet
ic F
ie
ld R
ela
tions 3
28

P
rob
lem
s 3
28

CHAPTER 8 The R
elat
ion b
etween F
ie
ld a
nd C
ircu
it T
heo
ry.
Maxwel
l's E
qua
tions
8
-1
. I
ntroduction 3
31
8
-2
. Appl
ications o
f Circu
it and F
ield Theory 3
32
8
-3
. The S
eries C
ircui
t . C
omparison o
f Fie
ld a
nd C
ircu
itT
heory • 3
34
8
-4
. Maxwel
l's Equat
ions as Generalizat
ions o
f C
ircu
it Equa
tions • 3
37
8
-5
. Maxwel
l's Equat
ions in Free Space 3
40
8
-6
. Maxwel
l's Equa
tions for Harmon ical
ly Va
rying F
ie
lds 3
40
8
-7
. T
ables o
f Maxwel 's Equations 3
42

P
rob
lems 3
43

CHAPTER 9 P
lane Wave
sin D
ielec
tric Med
ia
9
-1. I
ntroduction 3
44
9
-2. P
lane Wave s and the Wave E quat
ion 3
44
9
-3. S
olutions of Wave E quation 3
47
9
-4. Table o
f S olutions of Wave E quation 3
51
9
-5. Phase Velocity 3
52
9
-6. I
ndex of R e
fraction 3
54
9
-7. Group V elocity 3
55
9
-8. Impedance o f Die
lectr
ic Med ia 3
58
9
-9. Impedance o f Transmiss
ion-l
ine C el
l 3
60
9
-10. Two Plane Wave s Travel
ing i n Oppos
ite D
ire
ctions
. S
tand
ing Wave
s 3
62
9
-11. Energy R e
la t
ions in aT raveling Wave 3
69
9
-12. The Poynt ing V ector 3
70
9
-13. Energy R elations in aStanding Wave 3
77
9
-14. Wave P olarization 3
79
9
-15. Cross
-fi
eld 3
83

P
rob
lems 3
86

CHAPTER 1
0 P
lane Wave
sin C
onduc
ting Med
ia
1
0-1
. Conductors a
nd D ielectr
ics 3
91
1
0-2
. Wave E quat
ion f o
r C onducting Media 3
94
1
0-3
. Depth of P
enetra t
ion 3
96
1
0-4
. Relaxa
tion Time 3
98
1
0-5
. Impedance of Conduct ing Media 4
00
1
0-6
. Refl
ect
ion and T ransm iss
ion of Waves a
t aB
oundary 4
03
1
0-7
. The Terminated Wave 4
07
1
0-8
. The P oynting Vector i
n Conducting Med ia 4
10
1
0-9. Circuit Appl
icat
ion of the Poynt
ing V ector 4
12
1
0-10. Genera
l D eve
lopmen t o
ft he Wave E qua t
ion 4
14

P
rob
lems 4
15
x
i
i CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1
1 T
ran
smis
sion L
ine
s
1-1
. I
ntroduct ion 4
17
1-2
. Coaxial, Two -wire
, and Inf
inite-plane Transmis
sion L
ine
s 4
18
1-3
. The Infinite Uniform Transm iss
ion Line 4
19
1-4
. Compar ison o f C
ircu
it and Field Quan t
ities 4
25
1-5
. Characteristic-
impedance D eterm inat
ions 4
26
1-6
. The T erm inated Uni
form T ransm iss
ion Line 4
30
1-7
. Transm ission-
line Char
ts 4
35
1-8
. One-fourth -waveleng
th T ransformer 4
41

P
rob
lems 4
42

CHAPTER 1
2 Wave Gu
ide
s
1
2-1
. I
nt roduction 4
45
1
2-2
. TE Wave i nt he Inf
inite-paral
lel-plane T ransmis
sion L
ine 4
45
1
2-3
. The Ho l
low R ectangular Wave Gu ide 4
52
1
2-4
. Hollow Wave Gu ides of Other Shape 4
68
1
2-5
. Attenuation at F requencies Less than C utof 4
69
1
2-6
. Attenuation at F requencies Grea ter t
han C utof 4
71
1
2
-7. Waves T raveling P ara
llel to aPlane B oundary 4
75
1
2
-8. The Single-wire Open Wave Gu ide 4
79

P
rob
lems 4
80

CHAPTER 1
3 A
ntenna
s
1
3-1. I
ntroduct ion 4
84
1
3-2. Propagation T ime a nd Wave length 4
84
1
3-3. Retarded P o tentia
ls 4
85
1
3-4. The Sma ll L oop A ntenna 4
86
1
3-5. The Sho rt Dipo le A ntenna 4
90
1
3-6. Radiation R es is
tance o f aS hort Dipole 5
00
1
3-7. Direct
ivity a nd Gain 5
02
1
3-8. Receiving A n tennas a nd Aper ture 5
04
1
3-9. The A ntenna a s aT erm inated T ransmiss
ion L
ine 5
07
1
3-10. Shape-Impedance C onsiderations 5
10
1
3-11. Receiv
ing -T ransm itting C onsiderations 5
12
1
3-12. Network R epresenta tion 5
15

P
rob
lem
s 5
17

CHAPTER 1
4 B
ounda
ry-va
lue P
rob
lems
1
4
-1. I
ntroduct
ion 5
19
1
4
-2. S
olut
ion of Wave E
quation i
n Rectangular Coordinates 5
20
1
4
-3. S
olut
ion of Wave Equa
tion i
n Cyl
indrical Coordinates 5
2
1
4-4
. S
olu
tion of Wave E quation in Spherica
l C oord
ina tes 5
23
1
4-5
. E
xamp le 1
. C onducting S hee
t b e
tween Two C onduct ing Planes 5
25
1
4-6
. E
xamp le 2
. C oaxia
l Line 5
32
1
4-7
. E
xamp le 3
. Uncharged C onducting CylinderinO r
iginally Uni
form F
ie
ld 5
35
1
4-8
. E
xamp le 4
. D ielectr
ic S phere i
n O r
iginally Uni
form F ield . . . . 5
38
1
4-9
. C
onformal Transforma t
ions. I
ntroduction 5
41
 CONTENTS X
i
ii

1
4-10
. E
xample 5
. Slot i
n Inf
in
ite F
latSheet 5
47
1
4-11
. O
ther C
onforma
l Transfo
rmations 5
49

P
rob
lems 5
53

Append
ix .. 5
47
A
-1. T
able o
f Un
its 5
57
A
-2. G
raphica
l F
ield
-mapp
ing T
echn
iques 5
67
P
rob
lems 5
72
A
-3. Trigonome t
ric R e
lations 5
73
A
-4. Hyp erbolic R e
lations 5
73
A
-5. Logar i
thm ic R e
lations 5
74
A
-6. App roxima t
ion F ormu las fo
r Smal
l Quanti
tie
s 5
74
A
-7. S
e ries 5
74
A
-8. S
olu tion of Quadra t
ic E quation 5
75
A
-9. Vector Iden t
ities 5
75
A
-W . Grad ient
, D ivergence, C ur
l, and Lap
lac
ian in R
ectangu
lar
, C
ylindr
ica
l,
a
nd S pherical C oord
ina tes 5
75
A
-11
. H
eme l F unctions 5
76
A
-12
. Recurrence R elations f
o r Besse
l F
unc
tions 5
82
A
-13
. S
pherical B essel Funct
ions 5
82
A
-14
. L
egendre F unctions 5
83
A
-15
. Table of Dielectric Materials 5
85

B
ibl
iog
raphy 5
87

I
ndex 5
95
L
 CHAPTER 1

THE S
TAT
IC ELECTR
IC F
IELD
. P
ART 1

X 1
-1. D imens ions a nd U nits . L ord K elvin i sr epor ted t o h ave s a
id :
"When y ou c an m ea su re w ha t y ou a r e speak ing a bou t a nd e xpre ss i tin
numbe rs y ou k now s ome thing a bou t i t
; b ut when y ou c anno t m ea sure
i
t
, w hen y ou c anno te xp ressi tinn umbe r sy our k now ledge i so f am eag re
a
nd u nsa tisfa cto ry k ind ; i t may b e t he b eg inn ing o fk now ledge b ut y ou
h
ave s carce ly prog res sed i ny our t hough t st ot he st age o fs cience w hatever
t
he ma tte r may b e
." T ot his i tm igh tb ea dded t ha tb efore w ec an m ea s-
u
re s ome th ing w e mus t d efine i ts d imen sion s a nd p rov ide s ome s tand -
a
rd, o r r eference , u nit i n t erm s o f w hich t he q uan ti ty c an b e e xpre ssed
nume r
ica lly.
Ad im en sion d efine ss ome p hy sica lc ha rac teristic
. F o re xamp le,l eng th,
mass, t ime, v eloci ty, a nd f orce a r e d imen s
ion s
. ' T he d imen sion s o f
l
ength , m as s
, t ime , a nd e lec tric c harge w i l
l b e con side red a s t he funda -
menta ld im en sion ss i
nce o the rd imen sions c an b ed efined i nt erms o ft he se
f
our. Th is c hoice i sa rbitra ry b ut c onven ien t. L e t t he l e
tt ersL , M , T ,
a
nd Q r ep re sentt he d imen sion so fl eng th, ma ss
, time a nd e l
ec tric c harge ,
r
espec tive ly. O the r d imen sion s a re t hen s econda ry d imen sion s
. F or
e
Tramp le, —ai- e
ai s as econda ry d imen sion w hich may b ee xpre ssed i nt erm s
o
ft he f undamen tald imen s
ion o fl ength s qua red ( L 2). A so the re xamp le s
,
t
he f undamen tal d imens ions o fv eloci ty a re L IT a nd o ff orce a re ML/T 2.
Au niti sas tanda rd,o rr e
fe rence ,b y wh ich ad imen sion c an b ee xpre ssed
n
umer ica lly. T hus, t he me t er i s au nit int erms o fw hich t he d imen sion
o
fl eng th c an b ee xp re ssed, a nd t he k ilog ram i s au ni t i nt erms o fw hich
t
he d imen sion o f ma ss c an b e e xp re ssed . F or e xamp le, t he l ength
d
imens ion o fs teel r od m igh t h e 2m eter s a nd i t
s mas s dimen s
ion 5k g.
y 1
-2. F undamen ta l a nd S econdary U nits. The u n
its f or t he f unda -
men tal d imen sion s a r e c al
led t he f undam en tal u ni
t s. I n t he m eter-k ilo-
g
ram -second , o r G iorg i, s ys tem o f u ni
t s ( abbrev ia t ed mk s) t he m ete r
,
k
ilog ram , a nd s econd a re t he f undamen ta l u nits
. T ak ing t he c oulomb
a
s t he f our th f undamen tal u n
i t, t he c omp lete s ys tem o f f undamen tal
uni
t s i s t he m ete r-kilog ram -se cond -cou lomb s ystem ( mksc s yst em ).
The d efin it
ions o ft he se f our f undamen ta l u nits are :
The t
e
rm q
uan
tity i
sof
ten u
sed s
ynonymous
ly w
ith d
imen
sion
.
1
2 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1

Me ter
:L eng th b e tween t wo ma rk so nt he interna tiona lp roto type m e te
r,
aplatinum -iridium b ar. ( 39.37 in. = 1m eter .
)
Kilogram : Ma ss o f i nte rnationa l p ro totype k ilogram , ap la tinum -
i
r
idium ma s s
. ( 2
.2 l b 1k g
.)
Second : 1 /86 ,400 p art o f am ean s olar d ay.
Coulomb : 1i nte rna t
iona l ampe re- second , w here 1i nterna t
iona l ampe re
i
sthe c u rren t t ha t, flowing s t
ead i
ly t hrough a s o
lu tion o fs i
lve r n itrate,
w
il
l d epo sit s i
lve r at the r ate of 1.11800 X 1 0-6 k g p er sec.
The u nitsf ord imen sion so thert han ma ss, l e
ng th, time , and c ha rge a re
c
al
led s econda ry, o r derived, u n
its a nd a re b a
sed o n the a bove f unda -
mental u n
it s.
I
n t h
is b ook t he r at
iona l
ized mk sc s ys
tem o f u ni
ts i s u sed . T he
r
at
iona lized s ystem h ast he a dvantage t ha tt he fac tor4 ir doesn ota ppea r
i
n Maxwe ll
's e qua tion sa lthough i td oesa ppea rinc ertain othe rr e
la tions.
Ac omp le te t ab le o f u ni
t s in t h
is s ystem i sg iven i n the A ppend ix. I n
t
he t able t he re i s a n a lphabe t
ical l i
s
ting o f dimen sion s o r q uan t
i t
ies
u
nde r e ach o f t he f ol
low ing h eading s: F undamen tal, Mechan ica l, E lec-
t
r
ical, a nd Magne tic. F or each q uan t
i ty t he symbo l
, d escrip t
ion , mk sc
u
nit
, e qu iva len t u n i
t s
, a nd f undamen tal d imens ion s are li
sted .
I
t i ss ugge sted t hat a s e ach n ew q uan t
ity a nd u nit isd iscus sed t he
s
tuden t r efer t o the t able a nd, in p articu lar, b ecome f amilia r w ith t he
f
undamen ta l d imens ions f or the q uan tity.
1
-3. D imens iona lA nalys is. I ti s an ecessary c ond i
tion f orc o
r rec tnes s
t
hat e very e qua t
ion b e b alanced d imen siona lly. F or examp le, c on sider
t
he h ypo the t
ica l fo rmu la
M — DA (
1
-1)
-
where M = ma ss
L=l ength
D =d ensity (ma
s s p
er u
nit vo
lume )
A =a rea
The d
imensional symbol
s for t
he l
ef
t side o
f (1
-1) ar
e M/L, the s
ame a
s
t
hose u
sed
. T he d
imensiona
l symbols fo
r the r
igh
t side a
re

1
48 L
Therefore
, b oth s i
des o f th
is equa t
ion h ave the dimen s
ion s o
f ma ss per
l
ength, and t he equation i sbalanced dimens ionally. T his isno
t ag uar-
a
ntee t ha
t t he equa t
ion i scorrect, tha
t i s
, i
ti sn o
t as ufic
ient c
ond it
ion
f
or correctne ss
. I t is
, h oweve r
, an ec
e s
sary c ondit
ion f or c
orrectness,
a
nd iti sfrequen tly helpfult oanalyze equa t
ion si nthi
sw ay t
od etermine
whether or n ot they are dimen s
iona l
ly b a
lanced.
Such d imens ional a nalysi
s i s al
so u sefu
l f o
r d etermining w hat t he
d
imen sions o f aq uan ti
ty a re
. F or examp le, to fi
nd the dimen sions of
 SE
C
. 1
-
5] THE S
TAT
IC ELECTR
IC F
IELD. PART 1 3

f
o
rce
, w
e make u
se o
fNew
ton
's s
e
cond l
aw t
hat
F
orce = ma
ss Xa
cce
lera
tion
Now a
cce
lerat
ion h
as the d
imens
ions o
fl eng
th p
er t
ime s
qua
red s
o t
hat
t
he d
imens
ions off
orce a
re
Mass Xlength
T
ime
'
o
rindimensiona
l s
ymbo l
s
ML
F
orce = y 2

X 1 -4. E lec tric C ha rge . T he f our th f undamen ta l d imen sion , o r q uan -

t
i
ty , int he mk sc s ystem i se lectric c ha rg e
. Whe rea s ma ss i so nly o fo ne
t
ype ( po s
i tive m as s), e l
ectric c ha rge i so ft wo kind s, positi v
e a nd n egati ve.
T he n a tura l elemen tal u nit o fn ega tive e l
ect r
ic c harge i st ha t p osses sed
b
y a n e l
ec tron a nd i se qual t o — 1.6 X 1 0 -" cou lomb . T he d esigna tion
o
ft he e lec tron c ha rge a s n ega tive i se ntirely a rbi trary a nd i st he r esu lt
o
fd efin ition .
An eu tral, o r n orma l
, a tom c on sist s o f o ne o r mo re o rb ita l electrons
(
nega tive ly c ha rged ) a nd amuch h eav ie rn ucleus o fe qua lp ositive c ha rge .
T he t ota l, o r n et
, c harge o f t he n orma l atom i sz ero. I fo ne o r mo re
orbitale lectron si sr emoved , t he a tom i sionized. As ingly i onized a tom
(
one e lec t ron r emoved ) h as an e t c ha rge o f +1 .6 X 1 0- " c oulomb . A
doub ly i o n
ized a tom ( two e l
ec trons r emoved ) h as an etc harge o f +3 .2 X
1
0- J°c oulomb , e tc. Wh i
le n ega t
ive c ha rge i sas socia ted w ith e lectron s,
p
ositive c ha rge may b e a ssoc ia ted w ith a toms h aving a d efic
iency o f
e
lec trons . T hu s
, a n o b
jec t w ith a n e xce ss ofe lec trons p osses ses an ega -
tive c ha rge a nd a no bjectw ith ad eficiency o fe l
ec tron s ap ositive c ha rge .
x 1 -5. T he F orce b etween P oint C harges a nd C oulomb 's L aw . A
g
roup o fc harged p ar t
icles, t ha t i s
, a toms o r elec trons , o ccup ie s af ini te'
volume . E ven a s i
ng le elec tron h as af in
ite s i
ze . Howeve r, i ti so ften
c
onven ien t t o r ega rd a s mall, c oncen t rated r egion o f c harged p artic les
a
s ap o in tc ha rge. Th isa ssump tion l eads t on oa pprec iab le e rro rp rov ided
t
he s i
ze o ft he v o
lume o ccup ied b yt he c harged p a rticlesi ss ma llc ompa red
w
ith t he o the r dis tances i nvo lved .
The b asic e xpe rimen to fe lect ro statics w a sf i
rst p erfo rmed b yC oulomb
a
bou t 1 785 , u sing s mall cha rged b od ie s w hich may b e r ega rded a s p oin t.
c
ha rge s. T he r esult s of t his e xpe riment a re g iven b y C ou lomb 's l aw,
which s ta tes t hat t he f orce F b etween t wo p oint c ha rges Qi a nd Q2 i s
p
ropo rtiona l t o t he p roduc t o f the c ha rges a nd i nver sely p ropo r
tiona l
t
ot he s qua re o ft he d istance rb etween t hem . T ha ti s
,
12
1Q2
F=n
L
,— n
ewton
s (
1-2
)
r2
IB
y "
f
ini
te" i
smean
t "
not i
nf
in
ite
sima
l."
 4 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1

where k = acon stant o

fpropor t
ionali ty
. B ecause oft he i
nve r
se-square
e
fec tofdi
stance t his l
aw i
ss a
id tob e a ninve r
se-square law
. T he fo
rce
i
sin the d
irection o f t
he l
ine connec ting the charges. A s sugge s
ted in
F
ig. 1-
la the force isoutward (repulsive f
orce ) ifthe two charges are o
f
t
he same sign
, b ut as s
uggested in Fig. 1-
lb t he fo
rce isinwa rd (att
rac-
+ +a , F t
ive force) i
ft he two charges are ofoppo-
(
a
) s i
te sign.
Q2
I
n t he mksc s y
stem t he c
onstanto fpro-
p
ortiona l
ity isgiven b y
P — a, 1
(
6
) k
Q2
FI
G
. 1
-
1. T
wo p
o
int c
ha
rge
s o
f where e= permit
tiv
ity' o
fthe medium i
n
s
ame s
i
gn (
a
) a
nd o
f o
ppo
sit
e w
h ich the c
harges a
re s
itua
ted. B y d
i-
s
i
gn (
b
). m
en sional a
nalys
is o
f (1
-1) we f
ind t
hat
eh
asthe d
imen
sions o
fcapaci
tancet pe
rl e
ngth,orindimen s
ionalsymbo
ls
T
2Q2/ mL
e. T he mksc u
nit f
orpermitt
ivity i
sthe f
a
rad per me
ter
. T he
p
ermit
tiv
ity o
fv acuum i
sd es
ignated eoand h
as avalue o
f

8
.85 X 1
0 -
1
2
3
671 1
0-2 f
a
rad
s/me
ter

The pe
rm i
t t
ivity ofa i
ri ss ubstan tially the s
ame asforv acuum .
Fo
rce is avector, t
hati s
,i th as b oth magnitude and d
irect
ion. I nth
is
b
ook b o
ldface l e
tter
s d e
signa te v ecto r
s. T hus, t
he vector fo
rce isind
i-
c
ated by Fa nd its s
calar magn itude b y t
he li
ght
face ital
ic quan t
ity F
,
t
hat is
, F= I F
I. R ew r
iting ( 1-2) a s av ector e
quation a nd also s
ub-
s
t
ituting the value ofk,w e have

F =a
, Qaz
(
1
-3)
4
/
rer 2
whe
re F = f
orce ( newtons)
a
, =unit v ector (
see F
ig
. 1-1
) p oin
ting indi
rec
tion o
fli
ne j
o
ining
t
he c harges (t
hus
, F=a ,F)
Qi = c
ha rge 1( cou
lombs)
Q2 = c
ha rge 2 (cou
lombs)
• e= perm ittivity o
fm edium ( f
arads/mete
r)
r= distance b etween p
oint charges (
meters
)
1A
lso c
aled t h
e die
lect
ric cons
tan. F
t or afur
ther di
scuss
ion ofpe
rm i
ttiv
ity se
e
S
e
c. 2-
2. T het e
rm c apaci
tivty i
i sa
lsoused f
o
rp ermit
tivi
ty.
tF
or adi
scussion ofcapacitanceseeSec
.2 -
7. T hes i
gn
ifi
canceof es
hou
ld become
c
l
eare
ra f
terr e
ading thep or
tion ofSec. 2
-26 o
nt hefi
e
ld celc a
paci
tor
.
Onenewton equa
lst hef o
rcer e
quired t
oacce
lera
te 1k g 1mete
rp e
rs e
cp e
rs e
c.
1n
ewt
on = 1
0
'dyne
s =we
ightof0.102 k
g
.
•we
igh
to f0
.
224 l
bavo
irdupo
is
=we
igh
to f3
.
6ozavoi
rdupois
SE
C
. I-
6
1 THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 1 5

Th
is i
sthe c
omp le
te vectorexpre
ssion f
or Cou
lomb's l
aw a
sexpre
ssed i
n
t
he r
at
ional
ized mk sc system
. T o demons
trate t
he a
ppl
icat
ion of t
h
is
l
aw l
e
t us c
onsider the f
ol
lowing prob
lem.
E
xamp le. An ega t
ive point charge of 10-
6 c
oulomb i
ssitua
ted inaira
tt he or
igin
o
f are
ctangu lar c
oordinate s
ys tem. As econd n
egat
ive p
ointcharge o
f10-
4 i
ssituated
o
n t
he p o
sitive xaxis a
t adistance of50 cm fr
om the o
r
igin. Wha tisthe f
orce o
nt he
s
e
cond c harge?
S
olut
ion. B y Coulomb 's law the f
orce
(—10 -'
)
(—10 -
4 )
F I 4
T X0 .
52 X 1
0-9 /
36T
+
i3.6 n
ewtons

Thati s
,there i
saf
o
rce o
f3.
6newtons (
0
.8 l
b
) i
nthe p
osi
tive xd
i
rect
ion o
nthe s
econd
charge
.

1
-6. E lectr
ic F ie
ld I ntensity
. C on s
ide r a p os
itive e l
ec t
ric p o
int
c
ha rge Qis ituated a tthe or
igin of ap o
larc oord
inate sy
s tem. I fa no
ther
p
o s
itive p o
int c harge Q2 isb rough t in
to t he v
ic
ini
ty o f Q
1
, i tisacted
u
pon b y af orce. Th is force isdirected r adia
lly o
utwa rd and becomes
g
rea ter a s Q2 a pproaches Q1. I ti s
4
s
aid t hat Q1 i ssurrounded b ya f
ie
ld,
t
hat i s
, a r egion i n which f orces
may a ct
. T he n ature of this fi
eld
i
sind icated b yt he vecto
rd iag ram of
F
ig. 1 -
2, t he l ength of the v ector
b
eing p ropor t
iona lt othe fo
rce att he
p
oin t. .1
1m• •

D
ivid
ing (
1
-3)b
y Q2p
utst
he e
qua
-
t
i
on inthe d
imens
iona
lfo
rm o
ffo
rce / I \
p
er c
harge
, t
hat i
s
,
f
o
rce
Q
s c
harge
w
hich h
as t
he d
imen
siona
l s
ymbo
ls
no. 1-2
. Po
int charge Q1 w
ith vector
s
ML i
ndicat
ing magnitude and d
irect
ion o f
T2Q a
ssocia
ted e
lec
tric f
i
eld
.

Now i
f Q2 i
s apos
itive t
es
t cha
rge, t
he r
e
sul
ting f
orc
e per u
nit c
harg
e i
s
d
ef
ined a
s t
he el
ec
tricfi
eld i
nt
ensi
ty' E
. Thus, f
r
om ( 1
-3)

Q
1 (
1
-4)
*
€
2 4
.
/
rer 2
where Qg = p
osit
ive te
stcha
rge
. T he mkscun
it o
felectr
ic fi
eld in
tensity
i
sthe newton percoulomb
. A swil
la ppearaf
terthe d
iscussion ofelect
ric
p
otential (
Sec
. 1-8)
, an e
quiva
len
t u n
it fo
r t
he e
lect
ric fi
eld intensity i
s
t
he volt p
er meter
.
A
lso c
a
lled t
he e
l
edr
ief
i
eld s
t
reng
th.
6 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
Cam
.. 1

Acco rd ing t o (1-4) t he p oin t c ha rge Q1 i ssur rounded b y a n e le

ct r
ic
f
i
eld o fi ntensity E w hich i sp ropo rtiona l to Qi a nd i si nversely p ropo r
-
t
iona l t o r2. The e lec tric field i nten sity E i s av ec tor h av
ing t he s ame
d
irec tion a s t he f orce F b ut d ife rs i n n ume rica l magn itude a nd i n
d
imen sion s
.
I
ti sn o t imp l
ied b y ( 1-4) t ha t t he p os
itive test c harge h as av alue o f
1c ou lomb . I t may h ave a ny c onven ien t value s ince t he r atio o f the
f
orce ( new tons ) to t he t est c harge ( coulomb s
) i si ndependent o ft he s i
ze
o
f t he c harge p rovided t he t est c ha rge d oes n ot d i
sturb t he f i
eld b eing
measured . Now 1 c ou lomb r epre sen ts a much l arger c harge t han i s
o
rdina rily e ncoun te red i n s tatic p rob lems . F or e xamp le, w e n ot e b y
Cou lomb 's l aw t hat t he r epu ls ive f orce o f t wo p os
itive c ha rges o f 1
c
ou lomb s epa rated b y 1m e ter i s 9X 1 09 new tons ( o
r 1m illion t ons).
This i sa n eno rmous f o rce, a nd i tf ol
low s that ifw e attemp ted t o u se a
t
est c harge o f 1c oulomb w e s hou ld t end to d i
s turb t he c ha rges w hose
f
i
eld w e s eek t o m easure . T he refo re, i ti snece ssary t o use s mal l t e
st
c
ha rg es; in f act, the t est c ha rge s hould b e s uf ic
ien t
ly s mall t hat i t
d
oe s n ot a ppreciably d isturb t he c ha rge configura tion w hose f i
eld i sto
b
e m easured .
I
f t he t est c harge i s made s mall e nough, i t may b e rega rded a s of
i
nf
in i tesima l size so t ha t the u ltima te v a
lue o ft he e l
ectric fie
ld i nten sity
a
t ap o
int b ecome s t he f orce A F o n ap osi
tive t est c harge MI d ivided
by t he c harge w ith t he l imitt aken a s t he charge a pproa ches z ero. T hat
i
s
,
E= l
im — Al
' (
1
-5)
a
c
i,-
.
0 AQ
Ac
tually the smalle
s t available test charge i san e
lect ron. S ince this is
afin
ite charge, itf ol
low s t hat Ec annot b e m ea
sured w ith u nl
im ited
a
ccuracy. A lthough t h
is i sof impo rtance i n a
tomic p roblems , itn eed
n
ot concern us in t he large-scale
, o r ma croscop
ic, p rob lem s treated i n
t
his book
. I n practice, Ew ould b e mea sured with a s mal b ut fini
te
t
est c
harge, and ifthis cha rge iss mal
l enough , Ew ou ld d ifer inapp reci
-
a
bly from that m easured w ith a n inf
ini
tesima l or vanishing ly s mall tes
t
c
harge as imp
lied in ( 1
-5).
Asamp le c
alculat
ion o fe l
ectr
ic fie
ld inten s
ity isgiven i nt he fol
low ing
p
roblem.

Example
. An egat
ive p o
int c
ha rge 10 -'cou
lomb i ss
itua
ted inair a
t t
he o
rig
in o
f
are
ctangularcoord
inate sys
tem. Wha tist he e
lectr
ic f
i
e
ld intens
ity a
t apo
int o
nthe
p
osiive xa
t xis 3meter
s from the o
rigin?
S
olut
ion. By ( 1
-4) the f
i
eld i
ntensity i
sg iven by

1
0 -g
E= i4
1 X 32 X 1
0-2 /
3
137
i
• —
110 n
ewton
s/cou
lomb
SE
C. I-
7
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 1 7

T
hat i
s
,the e
lect
ric f
ie
ld i
ntens
ity i
s10n
ewtons p
erc
oulomb (
o
r 1
0vo
lts p
er me
ter
)
a
nd i
sinthe n
egative xd
irect
ion.

1
-7. T he E lect ric Field o fS everal P o
in t Charges a nd the P r
inc iple of
Superpos ition o f F ields. S ince the e lectric fi
eld o f ap o
int c harge i sa
l
i
nea r func t
ion o f t he v alue of the c harge , i
tf o
llow s tha t t
he f ie
ld s of
more than o ne p oin t cha rge arelinearly s uperpo sable b yv ectora ddition.
As ag ene raliza t
ion , this f a
ct may b es tated as the p rinciple o
fs up erposi-
t
i
on a pplied t oe l
ec tric f i
elds asfollows :
The to
ta l o r resu ltant f i
eld at ap oint i s +Q2
t
he vector s um o ft h
e i ndividual compon en t
f
i
elds att h
e p o
int.
Thus, refer ring t o Fig. 1 -
3, the fi
e
ld i n-
t
ensity o ft he p o in t cha rge (21atthe p oint
Pi s El a nd o f t he p o
in t c harge Q2 is EY .
The t otal f i
eld a t P d ue to b o
th p oin t +Q1
c
ha rges i st he v ec tor s um o f El and E2, o r FI G
. 1 -3
. V ec
tor a dd i
tion o f
Ea si ndica ted i nt he f i
gure. f
i
elds d ue t o two e qual p o
int
Afu r
ther i lus t ration i sgiven inthe f ol- c harges of the same sign to g
ive
l
owing e xamp le. r
esultant ortotal f
i
e
ld E .

E
xample
. Ap os
itive p
oint c
harge o
f 1
0-9 c
oulomb i
ssituated i
nai
r at t
he o
rig
in
(
x =0, y= 0)
, and anegat
ive po
int c
harge o
f —2 X 10-
9 coulomb i
ssi
tuated o
nt he
yax
is 1mete
r fr
om t he o
r
igin (x =0, y= 1)as shown i
n Fig. 1
-
4. F ind t
he t
otal

-
2x 1
0 -'c
o
ulomb

1
20
.7 °

+
10 -
9 c
ou
lomb
Fm. 1
-4
. Vector a
ddi
tion o
f f
i
e
lds d
ue t
o t
wo u
nequa
l p
oin
t c
harg
es o
foppos
ite s
i
gn
t
o g
ive r
esu
ltant o
r t
ota
l f
ie
ld E
.

e
l
ectric fi
e
ld i
n
tensity at t
he po
int Pon the x a
xis 2mete
rs f
rom the o
r
igin (
x 2
,
y= 0 )
.
S
olution
. T he vecto
r value o
f t
he e
l
ectric f
i
eld El d
ue to t
he c
harge a
t (
0
, 0) i
s
,
f
r
om ( 1
-4)
,

1
0-9
E
i =i 4
7 X 29 X 10-
9 /
36T
=i
2
.25 n
ewtons/cou
lomb
 8 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1

The magn
itude o
fthe f
i
e
ld E
ldue t
o t
he c
harge a
t (
0
,1) i
s

—2 X 1 0-2
E
2
4
r X2.24 2 X 10-2 /
367
= —3
.58 n
ewton s/coulomb

T
he v
ector v
alue o
f E
2isg
iven b
y
E2 —
i3.58 c
os a j
3
.58 sin a
2 1
13 "
— "
'2
. .24 '
I" a 2
—c
i .24
= —
13.2 j1
.6 newtons/cou
lomb

whe
re iis aun
itv e
ctor i
nthe xd
irec
tion a
nd jaunit v
ectorinthe yd
ire
ction. The
t
ota
l vector f
i
eld E may be o
bta
ined by g
raphica
l vecto
r add
ition o
f E1 and E2 o
r
a
nalyt
ical
ly as f
olows:
E 1
(
2.25 — 3
.2
) +j
1
.6

a
nd i
nboth r
ec
tangu
lara
nd p
ola
rfo
rms

E= —
i0.95 j
1
.6 = 1
.
86/120
.7° n
ewton
s/cou
lomb

X 1 -8
. T he E lectric S calar P otential. I t h as b een s hown t hat a n
e
lectr
ic c ha rge produce s an el
ectric f i
eld and t ha t at est charge b rough t
i
nto this f i
eld isa cted o n b y af o
rce. L e
t u s now c onsider the w o
rk o r
e
nergy r equ ired to move t he t
est cha rge from o ne p ointt oa nothe ri nt he
e
lectr
ic f i
eld.
Ap oint c harge p roduces an onun ifo rm fi
eld s ince its magn itude v aries
i
nversely a s t he d istance squared . Howeve r
, i fw e confine o ur atten -
t
ion to as ma l
lp ortion oft he f
i
eld at ag reatdistance f r
om t he charge , the
f
i
eld i s substan t
ially u n
iform . C on -
s
ider t wo p o
in ts, x1 and xs,s ituated i n
• 4 .
4 • s
uc h a uni
f orm e
lectric f
i
eld E p
ar a
llel
• P
ath 22 t
o t he x direction. L et ap osit
ive t est
c
ha rge atx sb e moved i nt he nega t
ive x
F
lu. 1-5
. L inear p ath i n un
iform d
irec t
ion to x1a sinF ig. 1-5. T he fi
eld
e
l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld.
e
xert
s af orce on t
he c
harge so t
hat i
t
r
equ
ires w
ork to move t
he c
harge a
gainstthe fo
rce. The amountofw ork
p
er un
it c
harge isequa
l to t
he f
or
ce peru ni
tc harge (
orf
i
eld i
ntens
ity E)
t
imes t
he d
istance t
hrough wh
ich the cha
rge is moved
. T hus,

E
(x 2 — x
i
) =w
ork p
er u
nit c
harge (
jo
ule
s/cou
lomb
) (
1
-6)

T
he d
imens
ions o
f(1
-6) a
re

Force work
Xl
e
ngth —
C
ha rge c
harge
o
r
ML L _ M V
T2 Q T
2Q
SE
C. 1
-8
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD PART 1 9

I
n mk
sc u
nit
s t
he r
e
lat
ion i
s

N
ew tons j
oules
Xm
eter
s -
-
. (
1
-7)
C
oulomb c
oulomb

The dimensions o f work per c harge a re those o f potential

. I n our
e
xample ( F
ig. 1-
5 )
, the work ore nergy p eru n
it c harge required tot r
ans-
p
ort t
he test charge fr
om x2 tox 1i sc a
lled the dif erence ine l
ec
tric po
ten-
t
i
al
' oft he po
in t
s x2 and xl. The p oint x1 hast he higherp otential si
nce
i
trequires work to reach itfrom p oint x2. T hus, mov ing from x 2 to x
l
(
opposite t
o E), w e exper
ience a r i
se i n po
ten t
ia l
. The u nit o
fe lectr
ic
p
otent
ia l Vi n the mk sc s
ystem i sthe v o
lt a nd i sequal to 1j oule per
c
oulomb . H ence, electr
ic p o
ten tia
l i se xpressible either in joules per
c
oulomb ori nv olts
. T he re
lation o f (1
-7) can t hen be extended t o

Newtons j
oules
Xm
ete
rs — =v
ol
ts
Cou
lomb c
oulomb

D
ivid
ing b
y m
eter
s, w
e o
bta
in

N
ew tons — —v
olt
s =e
l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld i
n
ten
sity
C
oulomb m
eter

Thus
, the e
lec
tric f
ie
ld intensity E i
sexp
ressible i
n e
i
ther n
ewtons p
er
c
oulomb orinv ol
ts per meter
. W ith E e
xpressed i
nvol
tsperm et
er t
he
d
imensiona
lf o
rm o f (1
-6) becomes

Vo
l ts
Xm
eter
s =v
olt
s (
1
-8)
Meter

Examp le
. L et t
he u
niform e
lectr
ic f
i
eld i
nFig. 1
-5have anintens
ity E o
f10v o
lts/
meter
. I fthe di
stance x2 — xi i
s10 cm what i
sthe poten
tia
l diferen
ce of t
he two
p
oints?
So
lution. F rom (1-8
) the e
lectr
ic p
otent
ial i
sgiven by

V 1
0 X0
.
1 = 1v
olt

T
hat i
s
, t
he p
oten
tia
l o
f xii
s 1v
olt h
ighe
rthan t
he p
oten
tia
l -o
f x2.

C
on s
ider nex
t the c ase of an onunifo
rm f i
eld s uch as e
xists in the
v
i
cinity of t
he po
sit
ive p oint charge Q (F
ig. 1-6
). The e l
ectric fi
e
ld E
i
sradial and i
sinversely p ropor
tional t
o the squa re of t
he d i
stance r
f
r
om t he c
harge Q
. T he energy percoulomb required to move ap os
itive
t
e
st charge f
rom r2to ri along a rad
ial path e
qua ls the p
otential d
ifer-

IPoten
tial,i ngeneral
,i s ameasure ofenergy per some kind o
fu n
itq uantity. F o
r
e
xamp le, the diference i
ng rav
i ta
tional po
ten t
ial at s
ea leve
l and 100 meters a
bove
s
ea le
vel ise qual t
ot he work r
equired toraise a 1
-kg mass fr
om sea le
velt o aheigh
t
o
f 100 m e
ter s aga
inst the ea
rth's g
ravita
tional fi
eld
. P otent
ial i
s ascalar quan
tity
,
t
hat is
, ith as magnitude but n
o direc
tion.
 1
0 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1

e
nce o
r r
i
se V
21 b
etween t
he p
oin
ts. T
his i
sgi
ven b
y

V2
1 = fr
idV -
= — i Ed
r v
olt
s (
1
-9)
r
, r
,
r
2

The nega
tive s
i
gn t
ake
si nto a
ccount t
he fa
ct t
hat the mo
tion f
rom r2 t
o
ri i
sopposi
te t
o t
he d
irect
ion o
f the f
i
eld
. S ubsti
tuting the v
alue o
f E
f
r
om (1-4) y
ie
lds
I
f

f
?
I Q

r
,Ir
er 2d
r

Q 1" d
r Q (1 1
4- .
4- 4- .--
. •
+Q . —
.--
4 —• 4
7€ r, r2 4
7
re ri r
2
r
l P
a
th 7
.
2 (
1
-10)
\ w
here Vi = po
tent
ial atpoin
t ri
\ V2 = po
tent
ial atpoin
t r
2
T
he po
tential d
iference o
r r
ise i
n
I
t
Fm
. 14
. L
inear p
ath i
n n
onun
iform (
1 -
10) isposi
tive si
nce work must be
e
l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld, e
xpended to move the t
es
tc ha
rge f
rom
r2 t
o ri a
gainst the f
i
eld. H owever,
i
fthe mot
ion isf rom rito r2,t
he fi
e
ld d oe
sw ork on the c
harge and t
here
i
s afa
ll i
np otential (
negative po
tential d
iference)
.
I
fthe po
in t r2 (
Fig
. 1-6
) isremoved t oinf
inity
, w ecan c
on s
ider t
hatit
i
sat z
ero potential
. T hus, (
1-
10 ) becomes

i= Q
V v
olt
s (
1
-11
)
4
ir
er i

This p otent ial isc alled t he a b

solut e p o
ten
t ia
l of t he p oint ri d ue t o t he
c
ha rge Q . I t isi nve r se
ly p roportiona l to the d is tance f rom Q t o t he
p
oin t ri a nd i s
, by d efinit
ion , the w ork per coulomb r equired t o b ring a
p
o s
itive t e
stc harge f rom i nfinity tot he po
in t ri. F ort he s ake ofb revi ty
t
he p oten t
ial a t ap oin t w ill herea fter be u nders tood , u nless o therw ise
s
pecified, t o m ean t he a bsolu te p oten tial o
ft he p oin t.
X 1 -9. T he E lectr
ic S cala r P o
ten t
ia l a s aLine I nteg ra l o f the E lec tric
F
ield. I nS ec. 1-8t he t es
tc harge i s moved via the s hor testp a
th b e tween
two p oints. A ctua lly, t he p ath fo
llowed i si mma teria ls i
nce t he p oten tial
d
ife rence i sd e
te rm ined s ole ly b y t he diference i n p oten tial of t he t wo
e
nd p oint s ofthe p ath . T hus , re
fer ring to Fig. 1 -6
, t he p oten t
ia l at t he
p
oin t 7 .1 w
ith r espect t o t he p oten tial at r2i ss aid t o b e s ingle-valu ed,
t
ha t i s
, itc an h ave o nly o ne v alue r egardless oft he p ath t aken f rom r2
t
o 2 .1. In S ec. 1-8 t he t e
s t c harge i s moved p arallel t o t he elec tr
ic f i
eld
E
. When t he p ath o ft he t est cha rge i snotp arallelt o Eb ut ata n a ngle
0
,a si nF ig. 1-7
, the p o tentia ld iference V 21b e
tween t he p oints x2 a nd xi
i
se qua l t o the p ath l ength ( x2 — x i) mu lt
iplied b y t he c omponent o fE
SE
C
. 1
-9
] THE STAT
IC ELECTRIC F
IELD
. PART I 1

p
ara
lle
l t
oit
. T
hus
,
V 21 = (x2 — Xi) E cos 0 (
1
-12
)

I
ti sassumed h ere that Ei su niform.
I
ft he tes
t cha rge is moved p erpendicular to the d
irec
tion o
fthe fi
e
ld
(
0 =9 0°
), no w o rk isp er
fo rmed a nd hence this path issa
id to be an
e
quipotent
ial li
ne
. I t isan i mpo r
tant prop- E
e
rty offi
eldsthate quipotentiala nd f
i
eld li
nes
a
re orthogonal
. • • •

Le
t u s cons
ider n ext the case w here theX2 x
1
p
ath o fthe te
st c harge iscurved. T hen the FI G. 1
-
7. L
inea
r p
ath i
n un
i-
f
o
rm e
l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld a
t a
ngle O
.
p
otentia
l dife
rence be
tween t
he end p oints
o
f the path i
sgi
ven by t
he p
roduct o
ft he infin
ites
ima l e
l
emen t o
fp a
th
l
eng
th dla nd t
he c
omponentof Epara
llelt oi t
,i n
tegrated o
verthe l
eng
th
o
fthe path. R e
ferr
ing t
o t
he path i
nt he uni fo
rm f i
e
ld E i
nFig. 1
-8
, the
i
nfinites
ima l potent
ial ri
se dV be-
tween t he ends o
fthe pa
th el
ement
d
li sgi
ven b y
dV = —E c
os 0d
l (
1
-13
)
whe
re 0 = a ngle between the path
x e
lemen tand the fi
e
ld (0 < 0< 9 0
°).
Ap otent
ial ri
se (posit
ive potent
ial
d
iference dV ) r equires that the
c
omponen to ft he mot
ion paral
lelto
Ebe o pposed t o t
he fi
eld
. H ence
F
lo. 1
-8
. C
urved p
ath i
n au
niform e
l
ec- t
he negat
ive s i
gn in( 1
-13)
. B yi n
-
t
r
ic f
i
e
ld.
t
egra
ting (
1-13
) between t
he l
imi
ts
aand b
,we o
bta
in t
he p
oten
tia
l r
i
se Va,between the p
oints a a
nd b.
T
hus,

= fa b d
V = Vb Va = lab Ec
os 0d
l (
1
-14
)

The i
nteg
ral i
nvolv
ing d
lin (
1
-14) isc
a
lled al
ine i
ntegra
l. H
ence t
he
p
otent
ial ri
se be
tween a and b e
qua
ls t
he li
ne i
nteg
ra l o
f Ea
long t
he
c
urved path b
etween aand b
.

E
xamp le 1
. In F
ig. 1-8 l
et Eb
e e
verywhere i
n t
he +x d
i
rec
tion a
nd e
qua
l t
o
1
0 vo
lts/mete
r (au
niform fi
e
ld). L
et xi .
= 1me
ter
. Find V.
S
olut
ion. From (
1-14)

t
o 0
— Ecos 0d
l = — Ed
x E
xi n
g, +
10 v
olt
s
a J
Xa

A
s ava
riat
ion o
f t
he a
bove examp
le, s
uppose t
hat t
he p
ath i
sfrom
bt
o a
. Then Vb,= —
10 vo
lts
. A s ath
ird var
iat
ion
, le
t t
he d
i
rect
ion
1
2 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1

o
f Eb
ereve
rsed (
nega
tive xd
i
rec
tion
)bu
tthe p
ath b
efr
om at
ob. Then
,

Vab = fab (— E) c
os 0d
l = f
x°E d
x = —1
0vo
lts

F
inal
ly, le
tu s consider t
he si
tuat
ion w he
re t he p
ath ofthe t
es
t c harge
i
scurved and also w here t
he e
lect
ric fi
e
ld isn onunifo
rm . F o
r instance,
l
e
tt he nonuni
form f i
eld beproduced by apointc harge +Q asinF ig. 1-
9.
The f
i
eld in
tensity due to apointc ha
rge isgiven by( 1
-4)
. S ubstitut
ing
t
h
is in (
1-14) and also putt
ing dr =c os 0dl
, w here d
ri san i
nf
inites
ima l
e
l
ement o fradial di
stance,

1
7.
e= —
4
we
f- d_
r'
'br
16
-4_
w
2 -\
Q 1 i
e b a
.
v
olt
s (
1
-15
)

Pu
tting b = r1 a
nd a = r
2 make
s t
h
is r
e
sul
t i
d
ent
ica
l w
ith (
1
-10
) w
here
t
he path i
sal
ong ar ad
ial l
i
ne.

E
xample 2
. L
etthe p
osi
tive c
harge Q
, Fig
. 1-9,beequal t
o2.23 X 1 0-
10 c
oulomb.
A
lso l
e
ta 4 0cm a
nd b 1
0c m. The med ium isai
r. F ind t
he abso
lute p
otentia
l
V. a
t a,the a
b so
lute p
oten
tial 171
,a
tb ,and t
he po
ten-
ti
al r
ise V
.b.
S
o
lut
ion
:

5v
olts
4
re.a
Q 1
V VOILS
4
700 b
Va6 Vb — V 1
5vo
lts

In t he a bove e xamp le t he p oten t

ial ata ny
p
oint 1 0 c m from Q h as an a bsolute p otential
5 o
f 2 0 v olts. T herefore, ac i
rcle o f 10 c m
F
la. 1-9
. C urved p ath in a
n
onuniform e l
ectric f i
e
ld.
r
adiu s a round Q i s a2 0-vo l
te quipotentialc on-
t
our ( s
ee F ig
. 1 -9)
. I n t hree d imen sions a
s
phere o f 10 c m r adius a round Q i s a2 0-volte qu ipotentials u r
fa c
e. L ike-
w
ise, as phere o f4 0 c m radius around Q i s a5 -vo lte quipot en t
ials urface.
I
tf o
llow s that t he e quipot ential s urfaces a round ap oin t charge a re con-
c
entr
ic s phe res.
The w ork t o move a t est c ha rge a long a n e quipo ten t
ial c ontour o r
s
urface i szero ( 0 =9 00). T he max imum amoun t ofw ork p er u n
it dis-
t
ance i spe r
fo rmed b y moving n orma l toa ne quipo ten t
ial s urface. Th is
c
oinc
ide s w ith t he d irection oft he f i
eld.
The w ork to t ran spo r
t at e
st c ha rge a round a ny c l
os ed path in as tatic
f
i
eld isz ero s i
nce t he p a
th s tartsa nd e nds a t the same p oint. T hus, the
u
ppe r a nd l owe r l imits of the i ntegra ls in ( 1
-14 ) b ecome t he same , a nd
t
he result i sz ero . S uppose t he p a
th s t
ar ts and e nd s at a( Fig. 1 -
9).
 SE
C. 1
-
111 THE STATIC ELECTRIC FIELD. PART I 1
3

T
hen
'

ja dV = — f a Ec
os 0d
l = —9
6Ec
os 0d
l = 0v
olt
s (
1
-16
)
a

Ap roperty oft he stat

ic el
ectr
i cfi
eld i
s
, then, tha t t
he l
ine i
ntegral ofth
is
f
ield around ac l
osed path iszero
. I tfol
low s that the potent
ial diference
b
etween a ny t wo pointsi sindependent oft he path, as was mentioned at
t
he beginning o fthis sec
tion.
X 1-10. S ca
la r
, o r D o
t, Produc t
. I n vector a nalys
is the sc
alar, or dot
,
p
roduc t of two v ectors is as ca
lar and ise qua l t
o the produc t of the
v
ector magn itude s times the cos
ine of the angle 0b etween t he vector
s.
Re
ferring to Fig
. 1-
10, the do t p
roduct ofAa nd B is
A •B = AB c
os0 1-
( 1
7)

w
here A = v
ector
A A =IAI =s c
ala
r magn
itude o
fA
Fl
o. 1-
10. V
ector
s
B=v ecto
r
a
ta ng
le 0
. B=I B
I =s ca
lar magnitude ofB
0= ang
le be
tween A a nd B
I
f A •B = 0
, the two vector
s are p
erpendicu
la r
, prov
ided, o
f c
our
se,
t
hat ne
ither i
szero
.
I
ntroduc
ing the vecto
r n ota
tion o
f the dot product in
to (1
-14
), we
o
bta
in
= fab d
V = — fab E c
os 0d
l = — Lb E •d
l (
1
-18
)

w
he re E = e
lectr
ic fi
eld i
ntensi
ty (vec
tor)
E=l El =s calar magnitude ofE
d
l =infin
ites
ima l e
lemen t o
fp a
th leng
th (v
ecto
r)
d
l =Id
ll =s c
alar magnitude ofdl
I
n vecto
r n otat
ion t he li
ne int
egral (
1-16) a
round a c
l
osed p
ath i
s
w
ritten
IE c os 0d
l = fE •( /
1 = (1
-
1)

X 1-11. R elation o f Elect

ric F ield Lines a nd E quipoten t
ial C ontou rs.
Af i
eld l i
ne i ndicate s the direc
tion o ft he fo
rce o n ap o sitive t e
st charge
i
ntroduced i n to t he f i
eld
. I f the t e
st c harge w ere r eleased , it wou ld
move i nthe d irection o fthe fi
eld line.
I
n au n
iform f i
eld the fi
eld lines are paral
le l a
si n Fig. 1 -11. As i
ng le
f
ie
ld l ine gives n o informa t
ion a s to the inten s
ity of t he f i
eld. I ti ndi-
c
ateso nly the d irec t
ion. Howeve r
, b ym easur ing the w ork p e
rc oulomb
r
equ ired to move a p osit
ive t e
s t charge along a f i
eld l ine t he potential
d
iference s a long t he line can be d etermined. T he large r t he potential
d
iference b e tween t wo po
int s au n
it distance apa r
t,t he s t
ronge rt he f
ie
ld .
T
he s
ymbo
l f i
nd
ica
tes al
i
ne i
n
teg
ral a
round a c
l
osed p
ath
.
14 ELE CT ROM M ;
NE"F
ICS [
CHAP
. 1

I
n au ni
form f ie
ld the p
oten
tial dife
rence per un
it length isc onstant so
t
hat the equ
ipo tent
ial l
i
nes (which are o
r
thogona l to the fi
eld li
nes) are
e
qual
ly spaced. I n t
he e
xample ofFig. 1
-
11 , t
he el
ectr
ic f i
e
ld intensity i
s
2vo
lts per c m so t
hat t
he equ
ipo tent
ial c
ontours at 1-volt in
tervals ar
e
p
ara
llel li
nes spaced 4
-cm apart
. O ne o
ft he l
ine
s isa rbit
ra r
ily taken as

I 1 I
i 1
, < I ,
I
1 1 1 1
I I 1 I I I
I I I I . I I I I
I 1 I I I I I I
I I I / A I I /
I I I I
I I I I I I
I I I
I i I I AI I I
I I I I I I I
I i I I I 41 1 I I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I 1
I I I I I 4 I I I I

I I I I I I I I I I

I I I 1 1 I
I
2 3 4 6 7 8 9 1
0vo
lts
0

I I
0 1 2
I
3 l
i
l 5cm
F
lo. 1
-
11. F
ield l
i
nes (
s
olid
) a
nd e
quipo
tent
ial l
i
nes (
dashed) o
f au
niform e
l
ectr
ic
f
i
eld
.

S
ca
le o
fdi
stance
i

0 1 2 3c
m
no
. 1
-12
. F
ield l
i
nes (
s
olid
) a
nd e
quipoten
tia
l l
i
nes (
dashed) o
f an
onun
iform e
l
ectr
ic
f
i
eld
.
 SE
C. 1
-12
] THE STAT
IC ELECTRIC F
IELD . PAR .!
'1 1
5

h
av ing a z e
ro p otent ial so t hat t he p oten tials shown a re re
la tive t o t
his
l
ine.
Conside r n ow t he c ase o f an onuni form f ie
ld s uch a s e xists i n the
v
icinity o f t he p os
itive p oin t cha rge Q i n F ig
. 1 -12. I f ap o s
itive test
c
ha rge w e re relea sed i n this fi
eld, i tw ou ld move r adia l
ly a way f rom Q ,
s
o t hat the f ie
ld l i
nes a re r adial
. T he f i
e
ld i n
tens ity v aries i nversely as
t
he s qua re o f t he dis tance a s given b y ( 1-4). I n F ig. 1 -
12 t h
is i ssug-
g
ested b y the f act tha t t he f i
e
ld l i
nes b ecome mo re w idely s epa rated as
t
he d is
tance f r om Q i ncrea ses
. T he ab solu te poten tial isi nve rsely pro-
p
o rt
iona l t o the d istance f rom Q a s given b y (1-11 )
. I fQ= 1 0 -" cou-
l
omb , t he e quipotent ia l con tour s f o
r 2 0, 1 0
, 5 ,a nd 3 v olts a re t hen as
s
hown b y the c oncen tric c irc
les inF ig. 1 -
12 .
I
ti stob en oted ( Fig s. 1 -
11 a nd 1 -12) t hat ap oten tial ri
sei salway si n
t
he o ppo site direc tion t oE .
)
< 1 -12. C harge D ens ity a nd C on tinuous D istr
ibu tions o fC ha rge . T he
e
lectric c harg e d ensity p i se qual t o the t otal cha rge Q i n av olume v
d
ivided b y the v olume . T hus,

(
1
-20
)

The va
lue o f pin (1
-20 ) isa n average charge density
.
E
lectr
ic c harge density h as the dimen sions ofc harge p
er unit v
olume ,
o
ri ndimens ional symbo ls Q /Ls
. I n the mksc system the uni
t ofc harge
d
ensi
ty i sthe coulomb p erc ubic m e
ter.
By assum ing t hat e l
ectric c harge may b e c ont
inuously d i
str
ibuted
t
hroughou t ar eg
ion w e can a l
so d ef
ine t he value of t
he charge den s
ity
pat ap oint P as t he charge A Q in as mal
l volume e l
emen t Av divided
b
y the volume , with t he limit of th
is r a
tio taken as the vo
lume s hrinks
t
o ze
ro around t he p o
in tP. I n s ymbo ls
,

A
Q
p = am (
1
-21
)
a
v

This gi
ve st he value of pa t apointa nd h ence d ef
ine s pa s apoin tf unction.
I
tw i
ll b e c onvenien t t o use this d ef
ini tion o f p,b ut iti st o b e noted
t
ha titi sb ased o n t
he a ssump t
ion t hatt he e lectric cha rge isc ontinuou sly
d
istributed. A ctually el ectr
ic cha rge i sn ot c on t
inuous ly di
s tributed b ut
i
sa ssociated w ith discrete p art
icle s (elect rons o r atoms ) s epa rated b y
f
i
nite a tom ic d i
stance s. N everthe less, t he a ssump tion o f ac on t
inuous
c
ha rge distribu t
ion leads t on oa pprec iable e rro rp rovided t he r egion con-
t
a
in s many a toms ore le
c trons a nd t he dis tance s involved a re l a
rge c om-
p
ared w ith a tom ic dimens ions. T he a ssump tion o f c ont
inuous c harge
d
istribu t
ion c an be a pplied t o the l a
rge -sca le, or ma croscop ic
, p roblems
t
reated i nt his book b ut w ould n ot b e a ppli cable t o problem s on atom ic
1
6 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1

s
truc ture , w he re t he n oncon t
inuou s n ature o f t he c ha rge d i st r
ibu tion
mus t b e taken i nto a ccoun t
.
The c harge d ensity p , d i
scus sed a bove , i ss ome t
ime s c alled a v o
lume
c
harg e d en s
ity t o d istingu ish i tf r
om s urface c harge d en s
i ty a nd l i
near
c
ha rge d ensity. T he s urface c harge dens i
ty ps g ives t he c ha rge p er u n
it
a
rea ( coulomb s p ers qua re m ete r
) a t ap o
in t i n ac on t
inuous s ur face d is
-
t
r
ibut ion o f c ha rge. The l i
nea r charge d en sity pi,g ive s t he c harge p e
r
u
nit l ength ( cou lombs p er m eter) a t ap oin t o n ac on tinuous l i
ne d is
-
t
r
ibu t
ion o f cha rge. B o th pa a nd p i
, a re p oint f unc t
ion s w hich c an be
d
efined a s i n (1-21 ), w ith a s urface or l ine e lemen t subs tituted f or the
v
olume e lemen t.
1
-13 . E lectric P oten tia l of C harge D istribu t
ions a nd t he P rinciple
o
fS uperpos it
ion o fP o
ten t
ial. S ince t he elec tr
ic s calar p o ten tia l d ue t o
asing le p o
int c harge i s al inea r function o f t he v alue o f i t
s c ha rge, it
f
o
llows t ha t the p oten tials o f mo re t han o ne p oin t c harge a re l i
nea r
ly
s
uperposab le b y s calar ( a
lgebra ic) a ddition. A s ag ene ra liza tion , t hi
s
f
act may b e st ated a s the p rinc iple of sup erpos ition a pplied t o e lectr
ic
p
oten tia l ,asf ollow s:
Thet o
tale l
ectr icp otentia la t ap ointi st hea lgebra ics um o ft hei ndividual
c
omponen t po
ten tials a tt he poin t
.
Thu s
, i fo nly t he t hree p oint c harge s Q 1
, Q z, a nd Q 3 a re p re sent i n
F
ig. 1 -13, the t otale lec t
ric p oten tial (wo rk pe ru n
it c harge ) a tt he p oint P
i
sg iven b y
( Q1 j
_ Q2 Q
3)
-
r (
1
-22
)
1
T
T, = — —
o
we ri r2 r3
where r1 = d
is
tance f
rom (23.t
oP
r2 = d
is
tance f
rom (22 to P
r
3 =d is
tance f
rom Q3 to P
Thi
s may a l
so beexp
ressed with asumma
tion s
i
gn. Thu
s,

Vp = — — (
1
-23
)
+
re r
„

I
fthe c
harge i
snot c
oncen
trated a
t apo
int b
ut i
sdistr
ibuted a
long a
l
i
ne asinFig
. 1-
13, t
he p
otent
ial a
t Pdue t
o t
hi
s l
inea
r charge d
is
tribu
-
t
i
on is

(
1
-24
)
4
re r
whe
re pL = l
inea
r c
harge d
ensi
ty ( c
oulomb s/mete
r)
d
l =element o
fleng
th ofl i
ne (me
te rs
)
The i
n
tegrat
ion isc
arr
ied out ove
r the e
ntire l
i
ne ofc
harge
.
'A
lthough "
elec
tric s
c
ala
rpoten
tia
l" i
simp
lied
,the w
ord "
sca
lar" w
il
l u
sua
lly b
e
om
itted f
orb
revity
.
SE
C. 1
-
13] THE STAT
IC ELECTRIC F
IELD
. PART 1 1
7

When the c
harge i
sdis
tributed ove
r as ur
face a
s i
n Fig
. 1
-
13, t
he
p
otent
ial a
t Pcaused b
y t
his s
urface c
harge d
i
str
ibut
ion i
s

V
. = —1 if (
'ds v
olt
s (
1
-25
)
4
se r

w
here p
a=s urface c
harge d
ens
ity (coulombs/me te
r 2)
d
s =e lement ofsur
face (met
er s
')
T
he i
ntegra
tion i sc
arr
ied out o
ver the en
tire s
ur
face ofc
harge
.

d
l near c
L
i ha e
d
i
str
ibu
tion

P
o
intc
ha
rges

Q3
,

S
urface charge
dis
tribu
tion V
o
lume
c
ha
rge
d
i
str
ibu
tion

Fm. 1-
13. Electr
ic p
otent
ial a
t Pisthe a
lgebra
ic sum o
f t
he p
otent
ials d
ue t
o t
he
p
oint
, li
ne, s
urface
, a
nd volume d
i
str
ibut
ions ofcharge
.

F
or av
olume c
harge d
i
str
ibu
tion a
sinF
ig
. 1
-
13

V
, = 47lr
—
e N .d
2
1
7 v v
olt
s (
1
-26
)

w
he re p = ( volume) charge density ( coulomb s/meter'
)
d
v =e lement ofv o
lume ( meters')
The integration istaken throughou t t he vo
lume c ontaining charge
.
I
ft he p oint charges
, the li
ne c ha rge distribution
, t he surface c
harge
d
i
s t
ribu tion, and t
he volume c harge d ist
ribut ion ofFig. 1-13 are a
l
l p
res-
e
nt simu ltaneously
, the total e
lectr
ic p otential at t
he p o
in t Pd ue t
o al
l
o
ft hese distr
ibutions isby the supe rpo s
ition p r
incip
le t he al
gebraic s
um
o
ft he individual componen t potentia l
s. T hus,
 1
8 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [0
1AP
. 1

or

V = 4
-7l-
e (n
2
.
-I
.
Q.: +
3T 1
P
-
r
d
l + ff e
ld
r
e + N Ed
r
i) (
1
-27
)

I
fal
l of t
he charge d
ist
ributions a
re c
onsidered to o
ccupy f
i
nite vo
l-
umesins
tead ofbe
ing id
ealized topo
ints
, l
ines
, a nd s
ur
faces
, t
hen (1
-27)
r
educe
s to (
1-26
).
E
xamp le
. A ss hown i
nFig. 1-
14 asquare 1meter o
n asi
de inairh a
s ap o
intcharge
Qi = +10 - 'c
oulomb a
t the upper l
e
ft c
orner
, ap o
int charge Q2 = - 10 -
1 c
1 ou
lomb
a
t the l
ower le
ft c
orner
, and aline d
is
tribution o
fcharge
1m
e
ter o
f u
niform d
ens
ity

P
L = +1
0-1
1 c
oulomb/me
ter

a
long the r
igh
t edge. F ind t
he potent
ial a
t the po
int
P
Patthe cen
ter o
fthe square
.
S
olu
tion. T he p
oten
tialat Pdue t
othe p
oint c
harge
sis
P
c 1 (10-11 1
01 1\
VP 4
reo k
0.707 - 0
.707/ = -0
.115 v
olt
Q2.
The po
tent
ial a
t P c
aused b
y t
he l
i
ne d
i
str
ibu
tion o
f
FI
G. 1
-14
. Line a
nd po
int c
harge i
s
c
harge
sf orexample i
lus
- y
••0
.5

t
rat
ing superpo
sit
ion o
f VL =
1 1
0
-
"
e
l
ectric p
oten
tia
l. 4Tto I 0 151 + 1dy
y = + 0
.
158 v
olt
y--0
.
5
The t
ota
l p
oten
tia
l a
t Pi
sthen

V . V,-
I-VL = +0
.043 v
olt

The p r
inc iple ofs uperpo si
tion s tated f or the s pecial cases ofp otential
in th
is s ection a nd f o
r f i
e
lds i n Sec. 1 -7 can b e a pplied, in gene ral
, t o
a
ny q uan t
ity wh ich isl inearly r e
la ted t o it
s c au se. The e lectric f i
elds
o
rp otentials a t apointa re linearf unc tionso ft he cha rge producing t hem
a
nd h ence are s uperposab le (by vec tora dd
ition f orf i
elds and scalara dd i
-
t
ion forp oten tial
).
,
K 1 -14 . Grad ien t
. T he p oten t
ial r ise b etween t wo p oints a long a n
el
ectric fi
eld l ine is am easure o fthe g radient oft he p otentia
li nt he s ame
w ay thatt he e levat
ion r ise between t wo p o
ints o n as lope is am easure o f
t
he gradient o ft he sl
ope . Mo re specifical
ly t he g radien to fthe p otential
a
t ap oint isd efined as the p otential r i
se AV a cro s s an elemen t ofl eng th
l a
A long a f ie
ld l i
ne divided b y Al
, w ith t he l imit oft h
is rat
io t aken a s
A
/ app roache s zero. I n symbo ls
,
. AV
Gradien t of V = nm — (
1
-28 )
e
a.o
B
y def
inition th
is i
salso t
he r
a
tio of t
he i
nf
inite
sima
l p
oten
tia
l r
i
se d
V
t
o t
he i
nfinite
simal l
ength d
l
. T hu
s,
SE
C. I-
14
] T
IIE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 1 1
9

dV AV
G
rad
ien
t o
f V=— = J
im (
1
-29
)
.
11
-0

The gradient o
f Ve xp
re s
sed as dV/d
1 issa
id to be in d
iferent
ial or
i
nf
inites
ima l n
otat
ion
.
I
ft he el
ement ofl
ength dli
sat an a
ngle 0wi
th r
espect t
o the e
lec
tric
f
i
eld E, weh ave f
rom (
1-13) t
hat

dV _
—E c
os0 (
1
-30
)
d
l

I
f 0= 0
,dlisa
long afi
e
ld li
ne a
nd t
he r
a
tio dV/d
li s amax
imum
. T
hus
,
f
r
om (1
-29) a
nd (1
-30
) w e h
ave
, when 0 = 0
,that

dV
G
rad
ien
t o
f V=—
d
l = —E (
1
-31
)

H
ence, t
he gradient o
fthe p
otential (
or maximum r i
se inp o
ten
tial with
d
i
stance
) ise qual i
n magn
itude to the e
lectr
ic fi
e
ld i n
tens
ity and has a
d
i
rect
ion opposite t
othe e
l
ectric f
i
eld
. S ince the g
radienthasbo th mag-
n
i
tude and d
irection
, i
tis avectorequal to —E. T hus,

g
rad V = —E (
1
-32
)

whe
re "grad" s
tand
s fo
r the g
rad
ient o
f V. As wi
ll be s
hown in t
he
n
ext s
e
ction, (
1
-32) c
an al
so b
e wr
itten w
ith t
he o
pera
tor de
l, o
r nab
la
(
V)
, a
s
VV = —E (
1
-33
)

T
he sign
if
i cance of t
he n
egative s
ign in (
1
-32
) and (
1
-33) i
stha
t to
e
xper
ience a r i
se in po
tent
ial ap os
itive t
es
t cha
rge mus
t be moved
o
pposi
te t
ot he el
ectr
ic fi
e
ld d
irect
ion
.

Examp le
. L e
t the potentia
lalong a fi
e
ld l
ine vary with xa sshown i n F
ig. 1
-
15a.
T
he p otential r
ises un
iform ly w
ith dis
tance fr
om a t o b,i sconstant from b t
o c ,
d
ecreasesu ni
form ly f
rom cto d(but a
t amore r
apid ra
te than the i
ncrease f
rom at
ob )
,
a
nd iszero from dt oe. F ind t
he g
radientof Va nd the e
lec
tric f
i
eld intens
ity E f
r
om
ato e
.
S
olution. F rom ( 1
-29)
dV
g
rad V

T
here
fore
,

F
rom at
ob: g
rad V = + V = +
1.25 v
olts/me
ter
F
rom bt
o c
: g
rad V = 0
F
rom ct
o d
: g
rad V = — V = —5v
ol
ts/me
ter
F
rom dt
o e
: g
rad V = 0

T
he v
aria
tion ofgrad V w
ith x
is i
lus
trated i
nFig
. 1-
15b. From (
1-
31)
, E = —g
rad V
.
T
hus
, the var
iat
ion ofthe fi
e
ld isasshown inFig. 1-
15e
.
 2
0 ELECTRO MAGNETI CS [
CHAP
. I

The a nalogy between electr

ic p otentia
l Va nd elevation a nd be
tween
g
rad V a nd the gradient of the slope may a l
so be ilustrated with the
a
id of Fig. 1-15
. Thus , ifthe o rdinate in Fig
. 1 -
15a w ere eleva
tion in
metersinstead of Vi nv o
lts, t
he o rdinate i
nF ig. 1-
15b w ould become the
g
radiento ft he s
lope in meter
se leva t
ion perm eterofh o
rizon taldi
stance.
F
rom at o bthe g
radien tispositive (uphil
l), while f
rom ct o dthe g
radient
i
sn egat
ive ( downhil
l).

(
a
)

x
I I

2 4 6 1
0 1
2 1
4cm

(
b
)

—5
v
/m

+5
v
/m
ld E

C
e
i
ic f

l
E=0
0
i l
b c
ec
l
E r
t

—5
v
im
F
ig. 1
-15
. Grad
ient o
f Va
nd e
l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld E f
o
r a
n a
ssumed v
aria
tion o
f t
he e
l
ect
ric
p
oten
tial V
.

X 1-15. G radienti nR ectangu la rC oo rdinates. I nt his sect

ion ar e
la t
ion
f
or grad ien t will be d eve loped i n rectangu lar c oordina tes
. T o do t h
is,
c
onside r t he electric p oten t
ial d istribution o f Fig. 1 -16. T he w ork p er
c
oulomb t o b r
ing a p o s
itive t est c harge t o t he p oin t P (at o r
igin o f
c
oordina tes) is1 04 v olt s
. Th is i st he a bsolute p oten tia
l Va t P. T he
p
oten tial e l
sewhe re i s af unction o f both x a nd y , a nd it
s v ariat
ion i s
i
nd
ica ted b y the e quipo tential c ontour s. The f i
eld i su ni
fo rm. T hus,
t
he c on tours a re s traigh t
, p a rallel
, a nd e qualy s paced . T here i sn o
v
ariation w ith respect t o z( norma l to p age). A t Pt he e
lectric fi
eld is
a
si ndica ted b y the v ec torE , p erpend icular to t he equ ipotential li
ne.
Con sidern ow t he change i np otential along a ni nf
in ites
ima le lemen to f
SE
C. 1
-
151 THE STATI C ELECTRIC F
IELD . PART 1 2
1

1
04 1
03 1
02 V=
101
V=
105

Fm
. 1
-
16
. P
ot
ent
iald
i
str
ibu
tion w
i
th e
l
ec
tri
cfi
e
ld E a
t ap
o
intP
.

p
ath l
e
ngth i
nthe xd
i
rec
tion (
y =c
ons
tan
t). T
hen

a
V
— — = Ec
os a= E
, (
1
-34
)
a
x

where a = a
ngle b
etween E a
nd t
he xax
is
E
, =c omponen t o
f Ei
n xdi
rect
ion
L
ikewise
, fo
r aninf
inite
sima
l el
ement o
fp a
th l
e
ngth i
nthe yd
i
rec
tion
,

a
v
(
1
-35
)
— a
y

w
here f
t= a ng
le be
tween E and the yax
is
E„ =c omponent o
f Ein yd i
rec
tion
T
he rela
tion o
f (
1-34
) is asca
lar e
quation
. I
t may a
l
so b
e e
xpre
ssed
a
s avectorequat
ion. T hus
,
a
v
-1 - = .
v (
1
-36
)
O
x
w
here i= u
nit v
ecto
rin xd
i
rec
tion
. L
ikew
ise (
1
-35
) may b
e w
ritten

—
j—a
v
8
y =j
E„ (
1
-37
)

where j= un
it vectorin ydi
rection
.
By t
he p
rinciple o
fsuperpos
ition the t
o
tal f
i
eld E a
t t
he p
oint P i
sthe
v
ectorsum oft he component f
i
elds at t
he p
oin
t. H ence
,

a
v .
av
E=i
E, j
E„ = — j (
1
-38
)

C
ompa
ring (
1
-38
) w
ith (
1
-32
), i
tfo
llow
s t
hat

.
av .
av
(
1
-39
)
1Ti a
-i = g
rad V
2
2 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1

Thus
, the g
rad
ient i
n t
his r
e
ctangu
lar two
-dimens
ional cas
e i
sequa
l t
o
t
he x a
nd yder
ivat
ives o
fthe po
tent
ial a
dded v
ector
ial
ly.

E
xamp le 1
. Suppose t
hat i
n Fig
. 1
-16 t
he p
otent
ial d
ecreasesby 2vol
ts/me
teri
n
t
he xdirec
tion a
nd b
y 1v o
lt/meter i
nthe yd
irec
tion. Find the e
le
ctr
ic fi
e
ld E
.
S
olu
tion:
g
rad V = —
i2 — j
l v
olt
s/me
ter
a
nd
E = —g
rad V = i
2 j
l =
.2.
24/27
° v
ol
ts/me
ter

T
herefore
, Eh a
s a magnitude o
f 2
.
24 volts a
nd i
sdi
rected a
t a
n a
ngle o
f 2
7° w
ith
r
e
spect to t
he p
osi
tive xaxis (
a =27°
).

The two
-dimens
iona
l ca
se di
scussed above c
an read
ily be e
xtended to
t
hree d
imen s
ion
s. Thus, a
sshown inF ig
. 1-
17 t
here a
re f
i
eld c
omponen ts
a
t t he orig
in in the th
ree coordina
te
d
irections a
s f
o
llows
.
av
i
E, =i
Eco
s a= —
1—
a
x
.
av
j
E
,, =j
Eco
s = (
140
)

a
v
kE
, = kE c
os 7 = —k a
z
—

By the princ
iple of supe
rpos
ition the
t
ota
l fi
eld E at the o
r
igin ist
he vec
to r
s
um oft he c
omponent fi
elds
, o
r

a
v .
av a
v
(
1
-41
)

FIG
. 1
-17
. C omponents o
f e
lec
tric whe
re t
he r
e
lat
ion i
n t
he p
aren
the
ses i
s
f
i
eld i
nrectangu
lar c
oord
inates
,
t
he comple
te expre s
sion in r
ectangula
r
c
oordinate
s f o
r the gradient of V
.t I t isof
ten c onven
ient t
o consider
t
hat th
is express
ion isthe product o
f Va nd a
n o pe
ratord e
l (V
). Thus ,
i
n re
ctangular coord
ina tes
.a , .a ,,a
(
142)
a
x a
y a
z

The o
pera
tor V is aqua
si v
ector
. It is meaning
les
s u
nti
l appl
ied
.
Tak
ing t
he p
roduct o
fVand V y
ie
lds t
he g
radien
t of V
. That i
s
,

v
v =1
a
v
—
,j —
a
v ,A
,
a—
L v = —E (
1
-43
)
a
x a
y a
z
o
r w
e c
an w
rite
VV = g
rad V = —E (
1
-44
)

tThe t
wo-d
imen
siona
l e
xamp
le o
f F
ig
. 1
-
16 i
s as
pec
ial c
ase o
f (
1
-41) w
here
a
v 0
a
z •
SE
C. 1
-16
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD . PART 1 2
3

The electric po
ten tial is ascalar f
unction . T aking i t
s gradient results
i
n av tor t
ec hat i
nd icates the magn itude a nd direction o f the max imum
r
ate o f change o ft he p o
tential with distance. Th is vector ise qual a nd
o
ppo site t o the e l
ec tr
ic fi
eld E . I n g ene ra
l, t ak
ing t he g radient o f a
s
calar f unction yield s av ector that indica tes the magn itude a nd direc-
t
ion oft he max imum r ate ofc hange with d is
tance o ft he scalarf unction.
E
qua t
ion ( 1-44
) i se xpressed in aconc ise v ector notation t hat implies
n
o p a
r t
icula r coordina te sy
s tem. I n r ectangu lar coordina tes ith as the
f
orm o f (1
-43 )
.
Afu r
the ri lustration ofg radientisp rov ided b yt he fo
llow ing examp le.
E
xamp
le 2
. C
ons
ider an
onun
iform f
i
e
ld w
ith ap
oten
tia
ldi
str
ibu
tion g
iven b
y

10
V
1
/2

where V i sinv o
lts and za nd ya re incentime ter
s. T here i
sno var
iation of Vwi
th
r
espect t o z
. Hence t he dis
tribution i stwo-dimen s
ional. T he po
ten t
ial var
iat
ion i
s
i
lustrated b ythe equipotentialcon toursinF ig. 1
-18. F ind (
a)the express
ion f
orthe
g
radient o f the potential
; ( b
) the v a
lue of the gradient a
t the p
oint (2, 1) c
m; (c
)
t
he e l
ectric f
ie
ld intensity a
t t h
is p o
int.
Solution. a . S
ince t he poten t
ial distr
ibu t
ion i s
i
ndependen t o
fz , aviaz = 0a nd

iaV 4
g
rad V = 1
7V+= i
a
x ay
2
0
(
x
i +y 1) (
2ix + 2
P
o
int(
2
,1)
b
. A
t t
he p
oin
t (
2
, 1
)

VV — t(
l
2 +j
1
) =1
.
79/206
° v
olts/
cm 1 2 3 4
Fm. 1
-18
. P otent
ial di
str
ibu-
c
.T he e
l
ectr
ic f
i
e
ld h
as t
he o
ppos
ite d
i
rect
ion
.
t
i
on show ing gradient o
f V
Thus
a
nd e
lect
ric fi
e
ld E a t apo
int
E = —TV —
1.79/206
° =1
.
79/26
° v
ol
ts/cm P
.

X 1-16. Electr
ic F lux
. A p oint charge i s s
urrounded b y an el
ectric
f
i
e
ld a sdiscussed i nS
ec . 1
-6. T hus
, an is
olated, p
osi
tive po
int charge Q
h
as ar adia
l fie
ld a s ind
icated b ythe li
nesr ad
iating f
rom Q inFig. 1-
19.
The
se lines i
ndica te the d
irection ofthe el
ectric f
i
eld
, that i
s
,t he di
rec-
t
i
on o fthe fo
rce o n ap os
itive te
st charge
.
The el
ectr
ic fie
ld intensity E at t
he radius rfrom Q (see F
ig
. 1 -
19) is
,
b
y (1-4
),

E=a
,4T
er2 (
145
)

w
here a
, =u
nit v
ecto
r i
nrad
ial d
i
rec
tion
. Mu
ltip
lying (
1
-45
) b
y e
,we
o
bta
in

4„r2 (
1
-46
)
2
4 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1

T
he d
imen
sion
s o
f (
1
-46
) a
re
C
harge
=s
ur
face c
harge d
ens
ity
A
rea
H
ence
,the p
roduct e
Ehast
he d
imensions o
fsur
face c
harge d
ens
ity. (
Q/L 2)
.
T
he p
roduc
t eE may be d
es
ignated by the s
ymbol D, c
al
led the e
lec
tri
c
f
lux d
ensi
ty. T hus

D =e
E c
oulomb
s/me
ter2 (
1
-47
)

w here D = e lec tric flux d en s

ity ( coulombs/
me ter 2)
e= p erm ittivi ty o fm edium ( farad s/
me ter)
E=e lect ric f i
eld i n
ten sity ( vo lts/
met er )
Acco rding t o ( 1-47) t he f l
ux d en s
ity a nd
f
ield i nten sity a r e v ecto rs w ith t he s ame
d
irec tion. Th is i s t rue f or a l
l i sotrop ic
m edia, t ha t is
, m edia w hose p roper tie s d o
not d epend o n d irec tion .
F
lo. 1 -
19. Elec
t r
ic f i
e
ld l i
nes Now t he integ ral o f t he n orma l c ompo -
o
r
iginating on achargeQ .
nent o f av ector o ve r as urface i sd efined a s
t
he f l
ux o f the v ecto r over tha t s urface. L e t u s a pp ly t his d efinition
t
o Db y in
teg rating ito ver as urfa ce S a t ac on stan t radius rf r om t he
p
oin t c harge Q ( F ig. 1 -20 ). D e verywhe re
o
n t he s urface S i s ac on stant a nd i sn orma l
•
+Q t
o S ; s o t he f lux o f D o ver S i ss imp ly S
t
ime s t he magn i tude o fD . T ha t is
,
F
in. 1-20. E
lectri
c f l
ux over
s
u
rf a
ce S d ue t o ap o
int F
lux ( of Do ver S ) = SD (
1-48a )
c
harge Qi sequa
lt o SD.
S
ince D h as t he d imen sion so fc harge d en si
ty
(Q/L 2), t
he fl
ux o fDh as the dimen sion s ofc ha rge d en s
ity t ime s a rea o r
t
he dimen sion so fc harge (Q). T hu s
, t he dimen siona lf orm o f( 1-48a ) is

C
harge = a
rea c
harge
a
rea
1A
s anone
lect
rica
l example
, c o
nsid
er the ca
se oft h
e fr
ic
tionl
ess fl
ow ofwate
r
t
h
rough api
peofu ni
form cr
osssect
ion. Lett heveloc
ity o
fthew ate
ri nthepi
pebe
t
hesame e
ve
rywherea nd e
qualtov . Ac r
osssec
tion th
rough th
ep ip
eh asanar
ea A
a
nd i
sno
rmalt ov. H ence t
h
ef l
ux ofth
eve
loci
ty ve
c ro
to v
erthec r
oss
-sec
tiona
larea i
s
t
hein
teg
ralof vo
vert hesu
rfa
ce orinthi
sc a
ses i
mply thepr
odu c
to fA and v
. Thus
F
l
ux (
o
f vo
v
erA
) =A
v

w
hi
ch i
seq
ualt
oth
eto
talf
l
ow o
fwate
rt h
rough t
hep
i
pei
ncu
bicm
ete
rsp
e
rse
cond i
f
Aisi
nsq
uarem
ete
rsa
nd vi
nmete
rsp e
rs e
cond
.
 SE
C. 1
-17
] THE STAT
IC ELECTRIC F
IELD . PART 1 2
5

T
he f
lux o
f Do
ver as
ur
face i
scal
led t
he e
l
ect
ricf
lux
, d
es
igna
ted by
T
hus
=flux (
o
f Do ve
rS) = SD (
1
-48b)

E
lectr
ic f
lux h
asthe dimensionsofcharge
. T he mksc un
itisthe c
oulomb
.
The e
l
ectr
ic fl
ux per u
nit a
rea i
sthe e
le
ctr
icf
lux d
ensi
ty de
signated b
yD.
Thus
, fr
om ( 1
-48b)

D =—=f
l
ux d
ens
ity (
1
-49
)

E
lectr
ic fl
ux density has t
he dimensions o
fcharge p
er a
rea
. T he mk
sc
u
nit i
st he c
oulomb p e
r square mete
r.
S
ubstitut
ing E f r
om ( 1
-45) in
to (1-47
), we o
bta
in the f
l
ux d
ensi
ty D
f
or apoint charge Q
. T hatis
,

D = =a
, €C
2 = Q (
1
-50
)
4
Ter2 4
a
rr2

Hence the flux d ens

ity d epend s on the c harge and the radius but is
i
ndependen t oft he p
erm i
ttivity oft he medium .
S
ince 4i
rr2e quals t
he area of asphe re o
fr ad
ius r,itfo
llow sfr om (
1-50)
t
hat the magn itude o f D at t he radius ri si d
ent
ical with t he s
urface
c
harge density wh ich would o ccur ifthe charge Q were dis
tributed u n
i-
f
ormly over as phere o
f radius ri n
stead of concentrated at the cen
te r
.'
Th
is isilustra ted by Fig. 1-21. F rom t h
is e xample itise vident that

+Q d
i
st
ributed
o
ve
r sphere

r
+Q

(
a
) (
b
)
Fm. 1
-21. Flux d
en
sity D atrad
iu s ri
sthesame f
orth
ec ha
rge Qc
oncent
rated a
t a
p
oint a
s in (
a) o
r d
is
tributed u
niform
ly over as
phe
re a
s i
n (
b)
.

t
he t e
rm " appa rent surfa ce c
harge dens
ity" m ight be appropriate forD
s
ince itrep resen ts t
he s urface c
harge den s
ity which w ould be present i
f
Qw ere redistributed. Howeve r
, the te
rm " f
lux density" i sused.
X 1 -17. Flux L ines. R eferr
ing to Fig. 1-19
, the lines in th
is diagram
may n ow b e g iven a no ther in
terpretation
. T hus, e a
ch l i
ne may b e
i
mag ined a s e mana t
ing f rom a certa
in amoun t of posit
ive charge a nd
e
nding o n a n equa l amoun t of n
egative charge
. I n the fi
gure the li
nes
1
Thes
u
rfa
cec
h
arg
ede
nsi
ty p
. =Q
/4p
rs =D
.
2
6 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1

a
l
l e manate f r
om a p os
itive point charge a
nd e nd on an equa l nega tive
c
harge si
tua ted o n as phere at inf
ini
ty. T he numbe r of lines p a
s s
ing
t
hrough a n ormal surface (F
ig. 1-22) then i
ndicates t
he flux d ensity D ,
a
nd t he ind
iv idual li
nes are flux li
nes, e
ach a s
socia
ted w ith a c ertain
f
r
action of t he charge Q. The n umber of fl
ux li
nes used i sa rbitrary,
b
ut itisalways proport
iona l t
o t
he cha rge Q .

Examp le. A p oint charge has a v

alue Q = +10 - 10 cou-
l
omb. A rbitrar
ily taking 1 0" fl
ux lines p e
r c oulomb o f
c
harge, find t he number o f l
i
nes per squa
re me te
r at ad i
s-
t
ance o f 1 0 me te
rs. F ind also t
he fl
ux d ensity D a t t
his
d
is
tance .
So
lution :
Tota
l n o. oflines = 10-1
0 X 10" = 10"
no. 1 -22
. Numbe r 1
0
10
o
f f
lux l
ines p
er u
nit L
ines/me
ter
' a
t 1
0 me
ter
s = =7
.95 X 1
06
4
77
.2
a
rea norma l t
o the
f
i
eld equals t
he f
lux D =7
.95 X 1
06 X c
harge/
line = 7
.95 X 1
06 X 10-
60
d
ensity
. =7.95 X 1
0 -" c
oulomb/me
ter 2

o
r
, d
irec
tly f
r
om (
1
-50
),

Q 1
0-"
D =— — =7
.
95 X 1
0 -" c
oulomb/me
ter
'
4
714 4
r10 6

>
, 1 -18. F lux T ubes . I t s hould b e n oted t ha t t he f i
eld i nten sity a t a
c
ons tan t r adius f rom a p oin t charge a s i nF ig. 1 -19 i st he s ame b e
tween
the l i
nes ( po int a ) asi ti so n al i
ne ( poin t b)
. T he f i
e
ld i nten sity E a nd
the f l
ux d ens ity D a re con tinuous f unc tions o fp osition a round t he p oint
cha rge
, a nd b o
th a re cons tant f or af i
xed r adius. T hus, i fn o f l
ux l ines
pas s through ac ertain ar ea i n ad iagram , this d oesn otn eces sa ri
ly i mp ly
t
ha t the f l
ux d ensity t here i sz e
ro . I t may b e t ha t some l ine s w ou ld
p
as s through t he area i f al arger n umbe r o
ff l
ux l ines h ad b een a s
sumed .
Th is dif i
cu lty c an b e a voided b y as imple e x
ten sion o f t he c oncep t o f
t
he flux l ine t o the flux tu be.
Aflux t u be i sdef
ined a s a n i magina ry t ube w i th w al
ls t ha t a re e very -
where p ara llel t o Da nd w ith a c ons tan t electric f lux o ve r a ny c ross s ec-
t
ion. T he r equiremen tt ha tt he flux o vera ny c r osss ection b e ac ons tan t
a
ctua l
ly i s an ecessa ry con sequence o ft he f act t ha t Di sp ara lle l to t he
s
ide s o
ft he t ube a nd, the refore, t hat t he fl
ux o ver t he s ide w all s isz ero.
Using a f l
ux -tube r epresen tat
ion , w e h ave t he f lux t ube s o f F ig. 1 -23b
i
nstead o ft he f l
ux l i
nes o f Fig. 1 -23a. E ach t ube i n Fig . 1 - 23b h as t he
s
ame t otalf lux as repres en ted b ye ach l i
ne i nF ig. 1 -23a. T he c rosss ec-
t
ion o f at ube may b e o
fa ny conven ien t shape . Howeve r
, t ube s oft r
i-
a
ngu lar, s qua re, o
rh exagona l crosss e c
tion h ave t he a dvan tage t hatt heir
walls can b e made t o co
inc ide, a nd h ence a ll ofs pace c an b e f i
lled w i th
t
ube s oft he s ame k ind.
 SE
C. 1
-
191 THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD
. PART 1 2
7

F
l
ux I
nes

(
a
) (
b
)
F
Ia. 1
-23
. F
lux l
i
nes (
a
) a
nd f
l
ux t
ube
s (
b
).

I
n F ig. 1 -24 a s ingle f l
ux t ube o fs qua re c ros s s ection i ss hown wh ich
o
rigina te s o n ac ertain f rac tion o ft he c ha rge +Q a nd e nds o n a n e qual
f
raction o ft he c ha rge —Q . T he magn itude o ft he f lux d ens
ity D v ar
ie s
a
long t he t ube, b u t the i nteg ra l oft he n orma l componen t ofDo ver a ny
c
ros s sec t
ion o ft he t ube i sc ons tan t. I n Fig. 1 -
24 t he flux d en sity D i s
i
ndica ted a t t hree p o
in t s a long t he t ube. Whe re t he magn itude o fDi s
l
arge, t he c ross-sec tiona l a rea i ss ma ll
, a nd w he re D i ss mall
, t he a rea i s
l
arge, t he i ntegral o fDo ve re ach c ro ss-sectiona l a rea b eing ac on stan t.
A
ll ofs pace c an b e d iv ided u p into
t
ube s o fe qua l f l
ux o r
ig ina ting o n t he
p
o s
i t
ive c ha rge o fF ig. 1 - 24 a nd e nd ing
o
n t he n ega tive. T he t ube s n eve r
c
ros s
. T he n umber o f t ube s i nto + Q —Q

which s pace i s d ivided i s a rbitra ry. F

la. 1-24. F lux tube extend ing f r
om a
As a ma tte r o f conven ience t he num - p ositive charge Q t oane qual n egative
b
e r iss ome time s t aken a s 47 s o tha t c
ha rge.
n
ea r e ach c ha rge as i ngle t ube s ub tend s as ol
id a ngle o f 1r ad 2. N ea r a
c
ha rge t he f i
eld i sn ot a pprec iably a fected b y t he r emo te c harge , a nd
h
ence n ear ac ha rge e ach t ube i sl i
ke ap yram id. T he n umbe r o ft ube s
migh t
, o n t he o the r h and , b e t aken a s 1 00. O r t he n umbe r c ould b e
4
1,253 s o t ha t n ea r each c ha rge as ingle tube s ub tends as ol
id a ng le o f 1
s
qua re d eg ree.t
X 1 -19 . E lec tr
ic F lux o ver a C losed S urface . G auss 's L aw. C onside r
a
n i nfinite sima l s urfa ce e l
ement d s a s in Fig . 1 -25a . T he i nf
in ite sima l
amoun t o fe l
ectric f lux ove r this s urface e l
emen t i s
, b y a n e xten sion
o
f ( 1
-48b ),
=Dc os ad s = D •nd s c
ou lombs (
1-51a )
tI
n t wo d imens ions a c ircle s ubtends a n angle of 2T rad o r 360° with r espect to a
p
oin
t i
nside
; so 1r
ad = 360°/2T 5
7.3°
. I n t
hree d
imensions
, asphere s
ubtends
,
w
ith r
e
spect to apo
int ins
ide, aso
lid ang
le of zl
i
r s
quare rad
ians (s
terad
ians) o
r
4
1
,253 s
quare d
egrees
.
2
8 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1

w
here D = f
l
ux dens
ity at t
he s
ur
fa ce el
emen t (c
oulombs/me
ter'
)

.)
.
,
.
.
a= angle b
etween D and norma l to sur
face e
lement (
dimension
-
l
e
ss)
n= unit v
ector no
rmal t
o the surface element (
d
imensionle
ss)
d
s =area o
fsurface e
l
ement ( meters'
)

a
Th
is notation may be s
hor
tened ifwe
D
a (
a) w
rite
f
l (
un
it n
o
rma
l) d
s = nd
s
where d
s (
seeFig. 1-
25b) i
scons
idered
t
o be avector hav
ing adirec
tion nor
-
[i ]I
.r ,
rD mal to t
he sur
face and a magnitude
t
o d
s. I ntroduc
ing this no
ta-
d
s(no
rma
ltos
u
rface
) t
ion i
nto (
1-51a
), w e h
ave
Inf
in
i
tes
ima l s
ur
face (
b
) d
l
y = D •d
s (
1
-51b)
o
fa r
ea de R
efer
ring n
ow t
o F
ig
. 1
-
26, le
t a
no. 1-
2.5
. R e
la t
ion of vector
s t
o i
n
-
f
i
nite
sima l s
urface e
lement. po
sit
ive p oint c
harge Q besi
tuated a
t
t
he cen ter o
f an imaginary s
phere o
f
r
adius r
. The i
nf
in
ite
simal amoun
to felectric f
l
ux d
4,o ve
rt he s
ur
face e
le
-
ment d
si sa
sgi
ven by(1
-51b)
. I ntegra
t ing th
is o
vert he s
phere o
frad
ius

Fm
. 1
-26
. P
oin
t c
harge Q a
t o
r
igin o
fsphe
rica
l c
oord
inate s
yst
em.

rt
hen g
ive
s t
he t
o
tal f
l
ux o
ver t
he s
phe
re, o
r

= ffD •d
s (
1
-52
)

S
ince D e
verywhere o
n t
he s
phe
re i
sno
rma
l t
ods
, c
os a= 1
,and t
here-
f
ore
, i
nt h
is c
ase
,
D •d
s = Dd
s (
1-53
)
SE
C. 1
-
19] THE STAT
IC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART I 2
9

where D = I
DI =sca
lar magnitude o
fthe v
ectorD
d
s =Ids
1 =scala
r magnitude oft
he v
ectord s
I
ntroducing (
1
-53
) i
nto (1
-52) and a
lso t
he magni
tude o
fDf 1-
ro m ( 5
0)
y
ields

F
rom F
ig
. 1
-
26
0
=P-
d
8 4
2
-r2
(
1
-54
)

d
s =(
rd0
)(r d
i
A s
i
n 0
) = r2 s
in 0d
Oc1
4
, (
1
-55
)

The s
urface a
rea divided byt he s
quare o
fits r
ad
ius yie
lds the s
ol
id a
ngle
s
ubtended by the surface a
rea insquare r
ad
ians (s
teradians
). T hus
, the
s
o
lid angle d
fl sub
tended b y the s
pher
ica
l el
ement ofs ur
face a
rea d
sis

d
s
—
2 = (
r R
I =s
i
n 0d
Odc
l
) (
1-56
)

S
ubs
titut
ing (
1
-56
) i
n (
1
-54
), w
e o
bta
in'

4
y
r j
j
f
r= 4
7 J
o
2
T
J
o
fi
r s
i
n d
o46
2
r
[
—co
s0]
;)f d
ç
b =—
Q X 2X 2
7 =Q (
1
-57
)

Thus, the total el

ec tr
ic flux o ver the sphere ( obta
ined b yi ntegra t
ing the
n
orma l componen t oft he flux den s
ity D o ve r the s
phere ) i
se qua l t
o the
c
harge Q e nclosed b y the sphe re
. We c ould h ave obtained t he resu
lt in
t
his case mo re simp ly b y mu ltiplying D = Q /47
rr2 by t he a rea of the
s
phe re (4
7cr 2)
. However , t he above d evelopmen t serve s t
o i lustrate a
more generalp rocedure wh ich c an also bea pplied tocase s where D i snot
c
onstan t as af unc t
ion o fa ngle.
The r e
sult in t he a bove e xamp le is as tatemen t o
f Gau ss's law for a
s
pecial case
. Ag ene ral s
tatemen t ofG auss's law for electr
ic fields i
s:
Thes urfacei nt
eg ralo fthen orma lc omponen to ftheel
e c
tr i
cf lux densi
ty D
o
vera ny clo
sed s urface equals the charge enc
los ed.t
Thus, ins ymbo l s
ffD c
os ed
s = fJ
D •d
s =Q (
1
-58a
)

whe
re Q i
sthe t
otal o
r n
et c
harge e
nclo
sed. This c
harge may a
l
so b
e
e
xpres
sed a
s t
he vo
lume i
nteg
ral o
fthe cha
rge d
ens
ity pso t
hat (
1
-58a
)
'T he fi
rst integ ra
l with limits 0 a
nd 2 7 isassoc
iated w ith the s
econd d
ife rent
ial
d
ck and the second i ntegra
l with the fi
rst d
iferential
.
tT hi
ss ta
temen tofG auss
's law appl
iess pec
ifi
cally tothe ra
tional
ized mkscs ystem.
I
ng eneral,G au ss
's l
aw state
st hatt he s
urface i
ntegraloft he normalcomponen to fthe
e
lec
tric flux d en s
ity over ac l
osed surface isproportional to t
he charge e
nclosed (or
e
qual to t he c harge times a constant
, t h
is constant being u n
ity in t
he r
ationalized
mksc system ).
 3
0 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1

b
ecome
s
ff
D •d
s = fff
pdv =Q (
1
-58b
)

w
here t
he surface in
tegration i
scar
ried ou
t o ver ac
l
osed s
ur
face a
nd the
v
olume i
ntegration throughoutthe r
egion e
nclosed
. A nal
ternat
ive n
ota-
t
i
on fo
r (1-58b) is

9
6. D •d
s =9
6. pd
v =Q (
1
-59
)

w
here f
i i
nd
ica
tes ad
oub
le, o
rsur
face
,in
teg
ralo
ver ac
l
osed s
ur
face a
nd
8

9
6. i
nd
ica
tes at
r
iple
, o
rvo
lume
, i
n
teg
ral t
hroughout t
he r
eg
ion e
nclo
sed
.
F
rom (
1
-47
) G
aus
s's l
aw may a
l
so b
e e
xpre
ssed a
s

e9
6 E •d
s =Q c
oulombs (
1
-60
)

whe re E = e lectr
ic f ie
ld i nten s
ity ( volts/me ter)
e= p e rmittivity o fm edium ( farad s/me ter
)
G auss's l aw i st he b asic t heorem o f elec trostat
ics . I t i s an ecessary
c
on sequence o fthe i nverse-squa re law ( Cou lomb 's law )
. T hu s
,i fD f ora
poin t cha rge d id n ot vary a s 1 /r 2,the t otal f l
ux o ver as urface e nclosing
i
tw ould n o t e qual t he cha rge ( s
ee S ec. 2 -36 ).
I
f av o
lume c on tains n o cha rge, the e lect ric fl
ux o vert he surface o fthe
volume i sa lway s z ero, e ven t hough t he v olume may b e in a n electr
ic
f
ie
ld . I n s uch a c ase, the i nwa rd flux e qua ls the o utwa rd f l
ux ( ne
t f l
ux
z
e ro ); ino the rw ord s
,t he n umbe ro ff l
ux t ube se nter
ing e qua ls the numbe r
l
eav ing.
T o i lust ra te t he u ti
lity o f G aus s's l aw , s everal s i
tua tions w ill be
analy zed w ith i t
s aid int he n ext sections .
.
>
< 1 -20. S ing le S hel o fC harge . R efe rring t o Fig
. 1 -27a, suppo se thata
positive c ha rge Q i su niform ly d istributed o ver an i magina ry sphe r
ical
s
he ll o f rad ius 7 .1. It i sa ssumed t hat t he m edium e ve rywhe re i sa i
r
(e= t o)
. A pp lying G auss's law b yi n
teg ra ting D o ver as phericals urface
(radius ri — d r
) j ust ins
ide t he s hel
l o fc ha rge, w e h ave

e9
6 E •d
s =0 (
1
-61
)
a
s
i
nce the c
harge e
nclo
sed i
szero
. I tf o
llows that Einside the s
he
ll is
z
ero
. A pply
ing Gauss
's l
aw t
o asphericalshe
ll (r
adius r1 ± d
r
) ju
sto u
t-
s
i
de the s
hel o
fcharge
, we h
ave, neg
lecting i
nfin
ites
imals,

e E •d
s = 0E4
1712 = Q (
1
-62
)
.
1-a
o
r

E— Q (
1
-63
)
4
re
ori2
SE
C
. 1
-
201 STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 1 3
1

/
- ,
-Sphe
rica
l sh
el
l o
f
. c
harge
r
i+dr

(
a
)
r
,
—dr

(
b
)
E=0
r
i

V a
re

(
c)

T I

P
s (
d)

TI r
FIG
. 1-
27. Uni
formly charged s
pherica
lshel
lw ith g
raphs s
howing v
aria
tion o
felec
tric
f
i
eld in
tensi
ty E, e
lect
ric poten
tia
l V , a
nd sur
face c
harge dens
ity p
.as afunct
ion of
r
adial d
is
tance r
.
Th
is value of f
i
eld in
ten s
ity i
si d
en t
ical w
ith t
hat a
t aradius ri f
r
om a
p
oint charge Q. We c an t
herefore conc
lude t
hat t
he fi
eld outs
ide the
s
hel
l of charge i
st he s
ame as ift he c
harge Q w
ere c
oncentrated a
t the
c
enter
. S umma riz
ing, the f
i
eld everywhere d
ue to aspherical s
hel
l of
c
harge is
E = 0ins
ide (r < ri) (
1
-64)

E=a
, 4 reor2 o
uts
ide (
r > ri) (
1
-65
)

The var
iation of Eas afunc
tion o
f ri
silustra
ted by Fig
. 1-
27b
.1
The absolute p
oten
tia
l at arad
ius ro
utside the s
hel
lisgiven b
y

V= — f r E • d
r (
1
-66
)

I
ntroduc
ing t
he v
alue o
f Ef
r
om (
1
-65
),

Q ''
Q ( Q
(
1
-67
)
4
7
reo r2 4
i
reo
r
1Note t
hat ap o
int charge a
tt he or
igin g
ives an inf
in
ite E as r-
• 0b ut asurface
c
harge o
f fi
nite a
rea at ar ad
ius r1 gives afi
nite E as r—+ r1. This isbecause the
v
olume charge density p of apoint charge isinf
inite, wherea
s the sur
fa ce charge
d
ensity p
,oft he s
he
ll ofcharge i
sf i
nite
. I n t
he present ca
se p. = Q/4rr 1. 2
3
2 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1

A
t t
he s
he
ll w
here r = r
1we h
ave

v = (
1
-68
)
4
7
re
ori
S
ince E i
ns
ide the she
ll i
szero, i
tr equires now ork t
o move ate
stc ha
rge
i
ns
ide and the
refore the p
otentia
li sc ons
tan t
, being e
qua
ltot he v
alue a
t
t
he she
ll. S umma r
izing
, t he el
ectric p o
ten t
ial eve
rywhere due to a
s
pher
ical s
hell o
fc harge o
fr adiu
s r1 is

✓— Q i
n
side (
r < ri) (
1
-69
)
'
WW 2

✓ —
%
w
ee Q o uts i
de(
2
. > ri) (
1
-70
)
The v aria t
ion o f Va s af unc tion o f ri si lustra ted b y Fig. 1-27 c. T he
v
a r
ia t
ion o ft he s urface c harge d ensity p .iss hown b y Fig. 1-27d . T he
s
urface d ensity i sz ero e verywhe re excep ta t r= r1,w he re ithas t he value
Q/4/rr i2 a
si ndica ted b y t he v ertical line
, o r spike.
I
ti stob en o ted t hatt he p oten t
iali sc ontinuous ,b oth (1-69) and ( 1
-70)
b
eing e qual a tt he s hell ( r = ri) . Howeve r, the e l
ectric fie
ld i sd iscon-
t
inuou s, j ump ing a brup tly f rom z ero j ust i ns
ide t he s hell to av alue
Q/47e ori2 just o ut s
ide t he s hel
l. T his resu l
ts f rom t he assump tion t hat
t
he s hel o f cha rge h as z ero t hickne ss. I f as hell of fi
nite thickne ss is
a
ssumed , t he field i salso c on t
inuous ( see Prob . 1-15). A st he shellt hick-
n
essi sd ecreased , t he c hange i n Eb ecome sv ery r ap
id, u l
tima tely b ecom -
i
ng a n a brup t c hange a s t he shell thickne ss app roache s zero.
1-21. Two C oncen tric S pher icalS hells ofC harge . L ett wo i magina ry
c
oncen t r
ic s pher ica l shellsh ave r adi
i r1a nd r2 with ac harge Q1u niform ly
d
istribu ted o ve r t he s hell o f radius r1 a nd a c harge Q2 u ni
form ly d i
s-
t
r
ibu ted o ve r t he s hell o f r adius r2,a s s uggested i n F ig. 1-28a. I t is
a
ssumed t ha t t he m edium e verywhe re i sa i
r. A pplying G auss's l aw in
asim i
la r manne r t o tha t u sed f or the s i
ngle s hell, i
t may b e shown t hat
t
he e l
ec tric fi
eld i ntensity e verywhere i sgiven b y
E = 0i
n
side b
oth s
he
lls (
r < r1) (
1
-71
)
Q
i
E=a
,
.4i
re
or2 b
etween s
he
lls (
r
i < r< r2) (
1
-72
)

E=a
, Q
1 + Q2 o
uts
ide b
oth s
he
lls (
r > r2) (
1
-73
)
4
i
re
or2
The v
aria
tion o
f Eas afunct
ion o
fthe r
ad
ius ri
sshown b
y F
ig
. 1
-
28b
.
The p
otentia
l e
verywhe
re is

▪ r
i) f
o
r r< ri (
1
-74
)

▪ r f
o
r r1 < r< r
2 (
1-7
5)
SE
C. 1
-22
1 THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 1 3
3

1 (
2
2 + Q
i
v= , f
o
r r> r2 (
1
-76
)
-
k
re
o r

The va
riat
ion of Vas afunction of ri
silustrated byFig. 1
-28c and oft
he
s
urface c
harge dens
ity p, b
yF ig. 1
-28d
. I tisa ga
in t
ob en oted that Vis
c
ontinuous, si
nce (1-74
) e quals (1
-75) w hen r= r 1 and ( 1
-75) equa
ls
(
1-76) when r = r2. The verif
ica
tion ofthe above re
sults (
1-71) th
rough
(
1-76) i
sleft t
o the r
eader as anexerc
ise (see Prob
. 1-22
).

S
he
ll
sofc
h
arg
e

(
a
)

4Q

E— — 7
:
4 r2
4760r
f

4
reor2
E-
0 (
b
)

1 ( Q
2 Q1
47 E0 r
2+ V
,r
v — " Q
2
4
,e 2
QI+
Q2
V
4 Ye0 r

L L (
c)
r1 r
.4 - -r
,
,_ Q,
1
4r,
1
,3
9 Q2
"
Pa 4
s,a
r (
d)
3
4 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1

F
urthermore, the e
lectric fie
ld between s hells 2a nd 3i st he s ame a si ft he
c
harges o
n shel
ls 1a nd 2w ere c
oncen t
ra ted a t the c enter.
I
t isbut a s mall a dditional step t o c on s
ider a n inf
in ite n umbe r o f
i
maginary concentric s hel
ls with u n
iform ly d istribu ted c ha rge, e ach o f
s
l
ightly d
iferent radius. T he charge o n e ach s hell may b e a ny func tion
o
fthe r
adius. I fthe spac ing between s hells i s made a ss malla sw ep l
ea se,
avolume charge d
is tr
ibu tion iso btained wh ich iss ome f unction o f rb ut
is i ndependen t o f a ngle ( latitude
and l ongitude ). A t ar adius rlt he
S
he
llso f
c
har
g e e
le ctri c f
i
eld i
nten s
it y t
he n d
e pen ds
only o nt he charge a tr adi
if or wh ich
r< r1 a nd i s independen t o f t he
cha rge a t radii for w hich r> r1.
T hus , for a ny s pher ical v olume
d
is tribu tion o f charge ( which i sa
f
unct ion o nly o fr )t he electric fi
eld
i
nten sity E e verywhe re isg iven b y

E=a
,
. QR f
o
r r> R (
1
-77
)
4
re or2

F
i
n. 1
-29
. nc
oncentr
ic s
he
lls o
fcharge
. E=a
r42
.f
or2
Q
r f
o
r r< R (
1
-78
)

where R -=radius o fs pher

ical volume d ist
ribution o
fc harge
QR = total charge i n t
he spherical volume ofradius R
Q
, =c ha rge within a radius r( r<R )
Forthe cas
e w here the charge isu n
ifo rmly d
istr
ibuted throughout t
he
s
phere so t
hat t he volume c harge density pi sc
on s
tant,
' the el
ectr
ic f
i
eld
i
ntens
ity outs
ide t he sphere (r>R , Fig. 1-30a
) isthe same as gi
ven by
(
1-77)
. T o find t he f i
e
ld intensity i n
side the sphe
re (r<R )
, w e u
se
(
1-78) where for Q,w e have

(
1
-79
)
T
hus

E—a
, 4
i
re
oR3 f
o
r r< R (
1
-80
)

The var
iation o
f pa s af unct
ion of ri sshown i n Fig. 1 -
30d, a nd t he
v
ariat
ion of Eas afunction of risilus
trated b y the solid curve in Fig.
1
-30b. I tisto be n
oted t ha
t if QR we
re c oncentrated a t t
he c enter of
t
he sphere t
he f
i
eld a
t radi
i le
ss than R would fol
low t he dashed c urve to
a
ni nf
ini
te E, wh
i f QR w
le i ere al
lu n
iformly dist
ributed o vera ni maginary
I
Int
h
isc
a
se
QR
P l
a
rR3
SE
C. 1
-22
1 THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD . PART 1 3
5

s
he
ll ofradius f
tthe fi
e
ld a
tradi
i lessthan R w
ould b
e zero
, asind
ica
ted
b
y the d
a sh-dot c
urve
. T he var
iation o
f Efor t
he u
niform vo
lume dis
-
t
r
ibution ofc ha
rge (s
ol
id c
urve
) lie
s between t
hes
e e
xtreme s
.
S
phe
re o
fcha
rge

(
a)

(
b
)

V
(
c
)

p QR
.
17R
3
(
d
)

Fm. 1
-30
. So
lid s
phere o
f c
harge w
ith g
raphs s
howing v
aria
tion of e
l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld E
,
p
oten
tia
l V, a
nd v
olume c
harge d
ens
ity pas af
unct
ion o
fradial d
i
stance r
.

T
he absolute potent
ialatany r
ad
iu s risgi
ven byinteg
rating t
he wo
rk
p
er un
it charge required t
o b
r
ing a pos
itive te
st c
harge f
rom inf
ini
ty to
t
he r
adius r. H ence, in
teg
rat
ing (
1-77)
, w e ob
tain

V — AQR f
o
r r> R (
1
-81
)
f
i
r
,e or

I
nside the s
phere (r<R ) the po
tential i
sequal to t
hat a
t the sphe
re,
a
s given by (1
-81) w he
re r = R, plus the a
dditiona
l work requ
ired to
move the te
st charge f
rom R t o aradius rins
ide. T h
is ext
ra w ork i
s
g
iven by in
tegrat
ing the negat
ive of (
1-80) f
r
om R t or. Thus,

V =
QR QR rd
r
L
i
re oR 4
i
re
oR 3f
R
QR QR (
R2 - r2) (
1
-82
)
4
1
reoR E
i
reoR 3

The v
ar
iation o
f Va
s afunc
tion o
f rispresented by t
he s
ol
id curve in
F
ig. 1
-
30c. I ti
sto b
e n
oted t
ha f QR w
t i ere concen
trated a
t t
he cente
r
3
6 ELECTRO MAGNETICS l
C
ilAp
. I

t
he p oten t
ia l at r ad i
i l e
ss t han R w ou ld f ollow t he d ashed c urve t o a n
i
nfin ite V , w h
ile i f QR w ere a l
l u n
i form ly d ist ribut ed o ve r a n i mag ina ry
s
he ll ofr adius R t he p o ten tial at r adii l ess t han R w ould b e ac ons tant ,
a
s s hown b y t he d ash -do t c urve . T he v a r
ia tion o f Vf or t he u niform
volume d istribu tion o fc ha rge ( solid c urve ) l i
es b e tween t hese e xtreme s
.
1
-23. C onduc to rs a nd I nduced C harges . Ac onduc torc an c onduc t, or
c
onvey , electric c ha rge . I ns tatic s itua t
ions ac onduc tor may b ed efined
a
s am edium i n w hich t he e l
ect ric f ield i sa lway s z ero. I tf olow s t ha t
a
ll p art s of ac onduc to r mus t be a t t he s ame p oten tial. Me ta ls such a s
c
opper , b ras s
, a lum inum , a nd s i
lver a re e xamp le s o fc onduc to rs.
When a me ta llic c onduc tor isb rough t i nto a n e lectric f i
eld , d ife ren t
part s oft he c onduc tor w ould as sume d ife ren t p oten tia
ls w ere i tn ot f o
r
t
he f act t hat e l
ect ron s f l
ow i n the c onduc to r u n til as urface c harge d i s
-
t
r
ibu tion i sb u
iltu pt ha tr educe st he t otalf i
eld i nt he conduc to rt oz ero.'
Thi s s urface c ha rge d i stribu tion i ss aid t o c on si st o f i nduc ed c ha rge s
.
The f i
eld i n wh ich t he c onduc to r i sp la ced may b e c alled t he a pp l
i ed
f
i
eld E .
, w hile t he f i
eld p roduced b y t he s ur face c ha rge d istribu t
ion may
b
e c a
lled t he indu c ed f i
e ld E . T he s um o ft he a pp lied a nd i nduced f ie
ld s
y
ield s at otal field i n t he c onduc to r e qua l t o z e ro. A lthough t he t otal
f
i
eld i n s
ide t he c onduc to r is z ero a fte r t he s t atic s i
tua t
ion h as b een
r
ea ched , t he t otal f i
eld i s n ot z ero w hile t he i nduced c ha rge s a re i n
mo tion , t ha t i s
, w hile c urrent s a re
f
low ing .
C
onduc t
ing
s
hel
l To s umma rize , u nde rs tatic c onch -
t
ion s t he e lec tric f i
eld i n ac onducto r
i
s z e
ro , a nd i ts p oten tial i s ac on -
s
t an t
. C ha rge may r eside o n t he
s
ur face o f t he c onducto r, a nd, i n
g
ene ral, t he s urface c ha rge d en sity
n
eed n ot b e c on stan t
.
1
-24 . C onduc ting S hel . A n i i-
I
nduced ch
arges t ialy u ncha rged c onduct ing s hel o f
FIG
. 1 -31. C onduct ing s hell o f w all
i
n ne r r
a di us a a
nd o
ut er r
a diu s b
t
hicknes s b — aw ith p oint c harge Q a t (w a
ll thic k n es s b — a
) i
s s
h ow n i
n
c
en ter. c
ros ss ec tion i nF ig.1 -31. L et ap oin t
c
ha rge +Q b ep laced a tt he c ente ro f
t
he s he ll
. Th is m igh t b e d one b yi ntroduc ing t he c harge t h rough ah ole
i
nt he s he
llw h
ich i sp lugged a ftert he c ha rge i si nside .' T he p oin tc ha rge
h
as a r adial e l
ec tric f i
e ld. L et t hi s b e c aled t he a pplied f ield E .. F or

1The e
lect
ronsint he o
utermost s
hel
lo fthe a
toms o
f aconducto
ra re s
oloose
ly he
ld
t
hatthey migrate r
eadi
ly from atom toatom underthe i
nfluen
ce ofanelectr
ic f
i
eld.
2This i
sa n i
dea
lized ver
sion of a
n expe
rimen t f
i
rst p
erformed by Faraday, u
sing
a
n ic
ep ai
l.
S
zc. 1
-
241 THE S
TAT
IC ELECTR
IC F
IELD
. PART 1 3
7

t
he t
ota
l fi
eld E i
n the c
onduct
ing w
al t
o b
e z
e
ro r
equ
ire
s a
n i
nduced
f
i
eld Eii
ns
ide the w
all s
uch t
hat

(
1
-83
)
o
r
Ei = —E
. (
1
-84
)

The i nduced f ie
ld E , isp roduced b y ad istr
ibution o
f induced nega tive
c
ha rgeso n t he inners hell wal
l a nd induced pos
itive c
harges on t
he o uter
s
hell w al
l a s sugge sted in Fig. 1 -
31. L et u
s apply Gauss's law to t h
is
s
i
tua tion t o d eterm ine q uantitative
ly t he magn i
tude of these induced
c
harge s.
Suppos e t hat a n i maginary s phe re
C
onduct
ing
d
esigna ted S 1 w ith a r adius a — d r is s
hel
l
s
i
tua ted j u
s t inside t he inner w al
l o f
t
he s hel
l a s i n Fig
. 1 -32
. B y G auss's
l
aw t he s urface i n
teg ral ofthe n orma l
c
omponen t o fD o ver th
is sphe re mu st
e
qua l +Q . T hati s
,

5
6s
, D •d
s = +Q (
1
-85
)

A
pplying Gauss
's l
aw to the s
phere S2 -- -
o
f rad
ius a + dr j
ust in
side the con
- F
la. 1-32. Conduct
ing s
hel
l of w
all
t
hickness b— a w ith sur
faces of
d
uctor
, we have
, s
ince t
he tota
l fi
e
ld E
i
ntegrat
ion.
i
nthe conducto
riszero
,

9
6s
, D•ds =e9
6 Si
E •d
s =0 (
1
-86
)

Thus, the t
otal c harge i n
side t he sphere S2 mus tb ezero
. I tfo
llow sthat
acharge —Q i ss i
tuated o n the inners urface ofthe shel
lw al
. S ince t
he
s
hel
l w a s o
rigina l
ly u ncharged , this n egative charge Q, p
roduced b y a
m
igra t
ion o f electrons t o t he inner s urface, must leave a d
efi
ciency of
e
lect
ron s or p osi
tive c harge Q o n the o uter s
urface of t
he shel. I t is
a
ssumed t hat t he surfa ce charges r e
side i na n i
nf
inites
imal
ly thin layer
.
Applying G auss's l aw t o the sphe re S3 of radius b+ dr just outs
ide
t
he oute r s
urface o ft he shell, we then h ave

9
6s
. D•d
s = +Q (
1
-87
)

To summa r
ize, the charge +Q a t the c
ente r of t
he s hel induces an
e
xact
ly equalb ut negat
ive charge (—Q ) o
n the innersurface oft he s
hel,
a
nd thisinturn re
su l
tsina ne qua
l pos
i t
ive c
ha rge (+Q) d ist
ributed over
t
he outersur
face oft he she
ll
. T he f
lux t
ube s or
iginat
ing o n +Q a t the
c
enterend ont he e
qua lnegative c
harge onthe ins
ide oft he she
ll
. T here
3
8 ELECTRO MAGNETICS I
CHAp
. 1

i
sno tota
l fi
e
ld and n o fl
ux inthe she
ll wall
. O uts
ide the s
he
ll t
he fl
ux
t
ubes con
tinue fr
om t he cha
rge +Q o n the o u
te r s
ur
face as t
hough no
s
he
ll were p
resent
. T he var
iat
ion o f t
he componen t fi
e
lds E. (
appl
ied)
a
nd Ei (i
nduced) a s ,
af unct
ion of risi lustrated by Fig
. 1-
33b. T he
v
ar
iation of the t
o ta
l f i
e
ld E iss hown i n Fig
. 1 -
33c
. F or r< a and
r> b,E = E „
, while for a < r< b, ±E i =E =O .

Co
nduc
ting s
he
l
l

C
omponen
t E.
f
i
e
lds

T
o
tal (
c
) (
g
)
f
i
e
ld

P
o
ten
tia
l (
d
) (
b
)

S
u
rface (
e
) P$ (
i)
c
harge
d
ensi
ty
e8

FI
G. 1
-
33. Conducting s
he
ll o
fw al
l th
icknes
s b — awith g
raphsshow ing va
riat
ion of
a
ppl
ied fi
e
ld E.
, induced f
i
eld E
i, t
ota
l fi
e
ld E, p
otent
ial V
, sur
face charge d
ensity p
.
w
ith c
harge Q a
t cen
ter (
b
, c,d,and e)and wi
th c
harge o
nly on out
side ofshel (f
,g,
h
,and i
).

I
f ac onducting wire isc onnec ted fr
om t he i
nners urface oft he shel
l to
t
he charge - 1Q at the c enter
, e l
ectrons w i
ll fl
ow a nd r educe the c harge
a
tthe c enterand ont he inners urface toz ero
. Howeve r, the cha rge -1
-Q
r
emainso nthe outers urface oft he she
ll. T his r
esultsi na na pplied fi
eld
o
nly externaltot he shell (r>b )a nd oft he same va
lue a sb e
fore. T here
i
snoi nduced fie
ld w ha t
so ever
. T hus, the tota
l f
i
eld i sid ent
ical w i
th the
a
ppl
ied f ie
ld, a
ss hown b y Figs. 1-33f and g ,and iszero f or r< b . T h
is
f
i
nal result might have b een achieved mo re simp
ly i n t he fi
rs
t p lace by
SE
C. 1
-25
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD . PART I 3
9

a
pplying t he c harge t
o t he outside oft he originally uncharged c on-
d
ucting s phe re
.
The v ar
ia tion of Va nd p ,a s afunc t
ion o f rw hen the charge +Q i s
a
t the c enter of the sphe re i si nd
ica ted in Figs. 1 -
33d a nd e, whi
le t he
v
ar
ia tion w hen t he cha
rge i so nly on the outside oft he shel
li sshown b y
F
igs
. 1 -33h a nd i.
1
-25 . C onduc t
ing Box a nd P lates
. I
nstead oft he spher
icalc onduc t
ing
e
nc
lo sure d iscussed in the p revious s ec
tion, l e
t us c ons
ider a n in
itially
u
ncha rged c onduc t
ing e nclo sure oft he shape s hown b y t
he cross se
c t
ion
o
f Fig. 1 -34a. T his enclo su re consists of t wo l a
rge flat paral
lel c on-

E
nd p
l
ate
-
-71
.arge f
l
at p
l
ates

A
xis

(
a)

C
omponen
t
f
i
e
lds
(
b
)

T
ota
l
f
i
eld (
c
)

P
oten
tia
l
(
d
)

S
ur
face
d
harge I (
e
)
d
ensi
ty
P
s
FIG
. 1-
34. Crossse
ction t
hrough r
ectangu
lar meta
lb ox w
ith l
arge f
lat s
idesinuni
form
a
pplied f
i
eld E.. G raphs show v
ariat
ion o
f appl
ied fi
e
ld E.,i nduced fi
eld E ,t
ota
l
f
i
eld E,potentia
l V, and s
ur
face c
harge d
ens
ity p. a
s afunc
tion ofdistance a
long a
xis
t
hrough cente
ro fbox.
4
0 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP 1

d
ucting p
lates o
fthicknes
s aw ith conducting p
lates al
ong al
l f
our edges
s
o as t
o make acomp le
te enc
lo su
re, o
r box. L et th
is box b
e pl
aced ina
u
niform app
lied f
i
eld E.
. T his f
i
eld induces n
egative cha
rges o
n the le
ft
s
i
de of t
he lef
t p
late and pos
i t
ive charges on t
he right s
ide o
f the r
ight
L
a
rge f
l
a
t p
l
ates

E
, E
.

A
xis

(
a
)

C
omponen
t E
.
f
i
e
lds
(
b
)

_
T
o
tal
f
i
e
ld (
c
)

P
o
ten
tia
l
V
(
d)

S
ur
face (
e
)
c
harge
d
ensi
ty
P
s
F
ig. 1-
35. Cro ss s
ection th
rough two l
a
rge fl
at meta
l plates i
n un
iform appl
ied fi
eld
E
.. G raphs show variat
ion o
fa pp
lied f
i
eld E.
, i
nduced fie
ld Ei
, t
otal f
i
eld E, p
oten-
t
i
al V,a nd s
urface charge d
ens
ity p
.as afunc
tion o
fdistance a
long ax
is t
hrough c
enter
o
f p
lates.

p
late
, p roducing an i
nduced f ie
ld Ei opposite to E
.. S ince n o c
ha rge i
s
e
nclosed b y as ur
face just ins
ide t he w a
lls of t
he box, itf o
llows f r
om
Gauss's l
aw t ha
t the to
ta l fi
e
ld E i ns
ide t he b
ox iszero and h ence that
Ei = —E .. I ngenera
l,t he fi
e
ld inside ofany ho
llow c
onduc ting enclosure
i
salway sz e
ro under s
tatic conditionsp rov
ided n ocha
rge isp resenti n
side
t
he shell
.
S
ac
.I-
25] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD
. PART I 4
1

The v ariation o ft he app l

ied f i
e
ld E .a nd i nduced f i
e
ld E ,a long t he a xis
(
no rma l t o the c en ter o ft he l a
rge f l
at side s oft he box) isi lustra ted b y
F
ig . 1-34b a nd o f t he t o
tal f ie
ld E b y Fig . 1-34c . T he v ar
ia t
ion o f the
p
o tential Va nd s ur face c harge d ens
ity isp resen ted inF ig s
. 1 -
34d a nd e .
L
et u s c on s
ide r n ex t two l arge flat p arallel c onduc t
ing p l
a tes a s i n
F
ig. 1-35a . T he t wo p latesa re in
itial
ly u ncha rged a nd aren otc onnec ted .
L
e t the pl ates b e i ntroduced i nto a u n
iform a pplied fi
eld E .
. T his f i
eld
i
nduce sn ega tive c ha rgeso nt he l e
ftside a nd p osi
tive cha rgeso nt he righ t
s
ide ofe ach p late s o that t he v ariat
ion o ft he i nduced f i
eld Ei a long t he
a
xis isa s shown i n F ig. 1 -
35b a nd the v ariation o f the t o
tal f i
eld a s i n
F
ig. 1 -35 c. T he p otential a nd s urface-cha rge-den s
ity v ariations a r e
p
res ented i nF igs
. 1 -35d a nd e .
I
fn ow a w ire i sc onnected b etween t he p late s
, the e l
ectrons o n t he
i
nside s urface o f t he r ight p late c an fl
ow t o t he l e
ft plate
, r educing t he
c
ha rge o n t he i nside s urface s t o ze
ro. T he i nduced f i
eld n ow e xtends
f
rom t he r ights i
de o ft he righ tp late tot he l e
ft s ide o
ft he le
ft p late, a nd
t
he t otal f i
e
ld b e twe en t he p lates v an
ishe s l ike inside a c onduc ting

•••••11

A
x
is

(
a
)

T
o
tal
f
i
e
ld
(
b
)

P
o
ten
tia
l
V A (
c)

S
ur
face (
d
)
c
harge
d
ens
ity
P
s
F
ro. I-36
. C ro
ss se
ction through two la
rge fi
at metal plat
es with app
lied potentia
l
d
iference VI. G raphs show v ar
iation of t
otal fi
e
ld E , p o
tentia
l V, and s ur
face
c
harge dens
ity P.as afunction o
fdistance a
long a
xis through cente
ro f p
late
s.
4
2 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1

e
nclosure
.1 I fthe wire isdisconnected a ga
in afterthe fl
ow ofc ha
rge h as
c
eased, the total f
ie
ld i nside remains e qual to zero
, unless t
he a ppl
ied
f
i
eld is removed , in w hich c a
se the i nduced f i
e
ld r emains
. Howeve r
,
when the ex
te rna
l fi
e
ld i sr emoved, the chargesm igrate f
rom the outert o
t
he inner surfaces of the plates so that the induced fie
ld extends o n
ly
b
etween t he inner s
urfaces oft he p
lates.
Let us c
onside r fi
nal
ly t wo large f
la
t p ara
lle
l
c
onduc t
ing plates,in
itia
lly uncharged,a nd p
laced
1
4—d
l i
n af i
eld-f
ree r egion. I ft he p
lates are c harged,
a
s s hown i n Fig . 1-36a
, b y a battery, c harges
appear ont he inners ur
face soft he plates a nd an
e
lectr
ic fi
eld i sa ppl
ied b e
tween t he p late s
.2 I f
t
he plates arel arge compa red with their spacing,
t
he f i
e
ld o uts
ide i snegl
igib ly smal
l. T he to ta
l
A
r
ea A f
i
eld v ar
iation a long the a xis would t hen b e as
i
ndicated i n Fig. 1-36b, the potential v ariat
ion
4"
. —Vo
lume a
s in Fig. 1 -
36c, a nd the surfa
ce c harge d ensity
e
l
emen
t a
s i
n F
ig. 1
-36d
.
1
-26. Boundary Re
lat
ions a t a Conducting
Su
rface
. R e
fer
ring t
oFig. 1
-37
,l e
t ath
in imag-
C
onduc
tor A
i
r i
nary vo
lume el
ement becons
tructed a
t the su
r-
FI
G. 1
-37
. Conductor
-ai
r f
ace o
f aconduc
tor
. T he med
ium o uts
ide t
he
b
oundary w
ith c
ross s
ec- c
onduc
tor may
,forexamp
le,beai
r. T he vo
lume
t
ion th
rough small vo
l- e
l
ement i
sh a
lf i
n t
he c
onduc
tor and ha
lfinai
r.
t
ime e
lement ha
lf in t
he
c
onductor a
nd h
alfinai
r. The v
olu me e
le ment h
as a
n a
rea A p
ara
lle
l t
o
the conductor surface but has a
n inf
inite
simal
t
h
icknes
sd lnorma ltothe surfa
ce. A ccord
ing toG auss
's l
aw the n
ormal
c
omponent o
fthe flux d
ensity D overt he v
olume el
emen t mus
te qual t
he
t
o
talcharge Q e
nclo
sed. T hus,ifp,isthe s
urface
-charge d
ens
ity, wehave

5
6 D •d
s =Q=p
.A (
1
-88
)

Now D i
nthe c
onducto
riszero, a
nd s
othe i
ntegra
lreducestothe n
ormal
c
omponent D
.o fthe f
l
ux d
ensity i
nai
r mu
ltipl
ied bythe a
rea A
. H ence

DA = p
,A
or

D a = P. (
1
-89
)

Th
is impo
rtant b
ounda
ry r
ela
tion s
t
ates tha
t t
he no
rmal component o
f
t
he f
lux den
sity D a
t aconduct
ing s
urface e
qua
ls the s
urfa
ce-cha
rge

ITh
is i
snots t
rict
ly t
rue b
ecause o
ffr
ing
ing o
fthe f
i
e
ld around t
he e
dges
, but p
ro-
v
ided t
he p
late
sa re suf
i
cien
tly la
rge t
he f
i
e
ld a
t t
he c
ente
r wil
lbesubstan
tial
ly z
ero
.
IHe
re E = E., and E
, =0 .
SE
C. I-
26
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 1 4
3

d
ens ity. B oth D „a nd pa h ave t he dimens ions o
fcharge pe
ra rea and a re
e
xpre ssed i nc ou lombs p ers qua re m eter.
I
f at hin c onduc t
ing s heeti si ntroduced T
h
in sh
eet
-+
n
orma l toa n elec tr
ic fie
ld ,s urface c harge s
a
rei nduced o n t he sheet s ot hatt he or
ig i- -+
n
al f i
e
ld e xt erna l t o t he s heet i su nd is-
-+
t
urbed . T he v alue o ft he induced s urface
c
ha rge den s
i ty p .i s
,b y( 1-89 )
,e qua ltot he -+
f
l
ux d ensity D a t the s hee t
. H ence , o ne -+ j
c
an i nterpret t he f lux dens ity D a t ap oin t
a
s e qua l to t he c harge d ensity p . w hich -
would a ppea r o n at hin c onduc ting s hee t —+ S urf
ace ch
arge
i
n
t roduced n orma l t o D a t t he p o
in t, d
ens
ity ps
R
e ferring, f or e xamp le, t o the t h
in c on - -+
d
uc ting s heet n orma l to t he f i
eld i n Fig .
1
-38, t he re
la tion o fDa nd p .isa sf ol
low s: FI G
. 1
-38
. Thin c
onduct
ing sheet
p
laced n
orma l t
o fi
eld h
as an
O
n l
e
ft s
i
de: D = —np
, i
nduced s
urface c
harge d
ens
ity
O
n r
i
ght s
ide
: D = +np
. pequal t
o t
he fl
ux den
sity D of
t
he f
i
eld a
tthe s
heet
.T he s
urface
w
here n = u
nit v
ector n
orma
l t
othe s
ur- c
harge d
ens
itie
s o
n t
he t
wo s
i
des
f
a
ce. T hus D i
sn orma
lly i
nwa
rd o
n the o
f t
he s
hee
t a
re equa
l in magn
i-
t
ude b
ut o
ppos
ite i
nsign
.
l
e
ft side and normal
ly outwa
rd on the
r
i
ght. T he magn
itude o
f t
he fl
ux d
ens
ity o
n e
ach s
i
de i
sequa
l t
o t
he
c
harge dens
ity p
..

PROBLE MS

1
-1
. Whatare (
a
)t he d
imens
ionaldescr
ip t
ion
, (6
)the d
imen
siona
lf o
rmula
sint
e
rms
o
fthe s
ymbo
ls M, L, T
, and Q
, (
c) t
he mk sc u
nits f
o
reach o
fthe f
ol
lowing
:

d
i L meter
s
— whe
re /= l
e
ngth An
a.: V
eloc
ity
; :
d
i T
' s
econd
/= t
ime

f(
f
orce
) d
l Ana
.: Work
;— 22
ML ;j
oule
s.
T
d
l
T
c
x Ana
.: R
atio
;dimen
sion
les
s.

1
-2
. G
ive t
he s
ame i
n
forma
tion a
sreque
sted i
nProb
. 1
-
1 f
o
reach o
fthe f
o
llow
ing
:

iv p
dv
•p• V
I• e
E• f D •d
• s
8

1
f E •d
l
; VV
; Tir
e;E

1
-3
. F
ind t
he f
o
rce F o
n aposi
tive po
int c
harge of 10 -0 c
oulomb a
t adis
tance o
f
1
0c m i
nai
rfr
om apos
itive p
oint c
harge o
f 1
0-2 coulomb.
An
s.: 9 X 1
0-2 newton = 0.09 dyne (
r
epuls
ive)
.
 4
4 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1

1
-4. Ap os itive p oin t c ha rge o f 1 0- 1
0 c
oulomb i sl ocated i n air a t x= 0 , y= 0 .1
metera nd a no ther s uch c ha rge a t x= 0 , y = —0 .1 m eter. F ind t he magn i
tude a nd
d
irection o f t he f orce F o n ap os itive p oin t c ha rge o f 1 0- 3 c ou lomb a t x=0 .2
meter, y= 0 .
1
-5. F ind t he e lectr ic f ield s treng th E a nd t he a bso lute p oten tia l Va t ad i
s tance o f
10 cm i na ir f rom a p osi t
ive p o
in t c ha rge o f 1 0- 0 c oulomb .
Ans .: E = 9X 1 03 v olts/me te r; V =9 00 v o
l t
s.
A 1 -6. R epea t P rob . 1 -4 f or t he c ase w here t he p ositive c ha rge a t x= 0 , y = —0 .1
meter i sr ep laced b y a n e qua l b ut n ega tive c ha rge .
X 1 -7. A p osit ive p oin t c ha rge o f 1 0- 10 c oulomb i sl o
ca ted i na i
ra t x= 0 , y= 0 .1
meter a nd a no the rs uch c harge a t x=0 , y — —0 .1 m eter. Wha ta re t he magn i tude
a
nd d irection o ft he e lectr ic f ield i n
ten sity E ,a nd w ha ti st he a bsolu te p oten tial V ,a t
x2 .0 .
2 me te r, y 0 ?
1
-8. R epea t P rob . 1 -7 f or t he c ase whe re t he p o sitive c harge a tx 0 ,y —0.1
meter i sr ep laced b y a n e qua l b ut n ega tive c ha rge .
x 1 -9. Ap oten t
ia ld istr ibu t
ion i sg iven b y V=5 x +2 . Wha t i st he e xp ression f or
t
he grad ien t o f V ? Wha t i si ts vector v alue ( magn itude a nd d irection ) a t t he p oint
(
0, 0a nd a t ( 10, 0 )
, t ha t i s
, ( x =0 , y= 0 ) a nd ( x =1 0
, y 0 )?
1
-10. Ap oten tia l d is tribut ion i sg iven b y V =2 y 1. Wha ti st he e xp res s
ion f o rt he
e
lectric fi
eld i ntens ity E ? Wha ti si t
s v ector v alue ( magn itude a nd d ire ction ) att he
p
oints ( 0, 0 ), ( 4
, 0 ), a nd ( 0
, 4 )?
x 1 -11. Ap o ten tiald is tribu tion i sg iven b y V =5 y1 - I
-1 0x. Wha ti st he e xp ression
f
ort he ele ctric f i
eld i ntens i ty E ? Wha ti si t
sv ecto rv alue ( magn itude a nd d irection )
a
t the p oin ts ( 0, 0), ( 1 0, 0 ), ( 0, 2 ), a nd ( 10, 2 )?
x 1 -12. A p o ten tial d istribu tion i sg iven b y V=1 0/(x y2 + z1) . Wha t ist he
e
xp ression f or t he e lectr ic f i
eld i ntens ity E ? Wha t i si t
s v ecto r v alue a t t he p oin ts
(
0, 0,2 )a nd ( 5
, 3 ,2 )?
1
-13. As phe r
ica lc onduct ing s hell 2 0 cm i nd iame terh as ap ositive c ha rge o f 1 0-10

c
oulomb . C alcu late a nd p lo tt he a bso lute p oten tial V( ordina te) a s af unc tion o ft he
d
istance f rom t he c en te r o f t he s phe re ( absc is sa) t o ad istan ce o f 1m ete r
. D o t he
s
ame f ort he magn itude o ft he e lectr ic f i
eld i nten sity E .
1
-14. Ap osi t
ive c ha rge o f 1 0-10 c
ou lomb i su niform ly d is tribu ted t hroughou t a
s
phe r
ica l v olume 3 0 cm i nd iame ter. C alcu la te a nd p lot t he v aria t
ion o ft he e l
e ctric
f
i
eld i ntens ity E a nd t he a bso lu te p o tent ial Va s af unc tion o ft he r ad iu s rf rom t he
c
enter o ft he s phe re t o ad istance o f 1me ter.
1
-15. A ne lectric c ha rge Q i sd i
stribu ted w ith u nifo rm v olume d en s
i ty b etwe en t wo
imaginary s phe rica l s hells o f r adius a ( i
nne r s he l
l ) a nd b ( ou ter s hell). F ind t he
e
xpre ssions f o r Ea nd V e verywhe re ( 0 < r< )
. P lott he v aria t
ion o f Ea nd V a s
afunct ion o ft he r ad ia l d istance rf o r 0 < r< 5 b.
1
-16. P o s
it ive e lectr ic c ha rge o f d ens ity 1 0 -°c ou lomb/me te rs i sd i
s tribu ted u n
i-
f
orm ly o ver av olume l ocated b etween t wo c oncen tric i mag ina ry s hellsw ith d iame te rs
o
f 1 0a nd 2 0 cm . Wha ta re t he magn itude a nd d i
re ction o fDa t ad istance o f5 0 cm
f
rom t he c en te r o ft he s hel ls?
1
-17. C alcu late a nd p lot t he v ar
ia t ion o f Ea nd V a s af unc t
ion o ft he r ad iu s rfrom
t
he c enter t o ad i stance o f 1me ter f rom t he s hel so f P rob . 1 -16 .
1
-18. As pher ica l v olume o fr adius R h as av olume c harge d en sity g iven b yp k r,
where r = r ad ial d i stance a nd k = c ons tan t. F ind t he e xp re ssion s f or E a nd V
e
ve rywhe re ( 0 < r< 2 0). P lo t the v a r
ia tion o f E , V , a nd pa s af unc tion o f rf or
0 < r< 5 R.
1
-19. R epea t P rob . 1 -18 f ort he c ase w here p k /r 3.
1
-20. As phe rica l v olume o f r 1me ter h as au nifo rm c ha rge d ens ity p = 1c ou-
l
omb/met er s
. Wha t i s Va t r- 25 0c m? Ara .: V = 1/24 ev o
lt s
.
 THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD
. PART 1 4
5

1
-21 . Find t he fi
e
ld s t
reng th E i fV m .Q /Irer b y taking t he gradient o
f Vi n rec-
t
angu larc oordinates (r N
/x2 yl z
2)a nd also byt aking the gradientinsphe r
ical
c
oordinate s. ( See expression for VV i ns phe r
ical coordina tesi nA pp end
ix.)
1
-22 . V er
ify E qs
. (1-71) t o (
1-76) inc
lus ive.
1-23. Att he surface oft he ear
th t he gravitational fi
eld G ( force perunit mass) has
avalue o f 9.8 newtons/kg . The f i
e
ld i sn orma l to the e ar
th 's s
urface. Ag ravita-
t
i
ona l vector W a nalogous t o Di nthe electric case (e
E =D ) isobtained by multiply-
i
ng the gravitational fi
eld G b yt he universalg ravitat
iona l c onstant7 . T he value of
7is1 .2 X 1 09k g
-FRO/mete r'. T hus 7G = W . T he direction o fW i snormalt ot he
e
arth's surface
. The d imens ions ofW a re

MT
I L A
l
=—
L3 T2 L2

These are e xp re
ssed i n mksc u nits a s kilograms p er square m e
ter. T hus W h as the
d
imens ion so f mas s sur face d ensity a nd int his examp le h as av a
lue e qualt ot he ma ss
p
er u nit area wh ich w ou ld resul t ift he ma ss o ft he ea rth w ere distr
ibu ted u n
i form ly
i
n at hin s pherical shell o f t
he s ame d iame ter a s the e arth. T he magn itude o f W i n
our examp le i sW 7G =1 .2 X1 09 X 9 .8 =1 .
17 X 1 0" k g/me ter '
. A s
sume t hat
t
he e ar
th i ss pherical w ith a r adius =6. 36 X 1 0 9 meter s
. A pply G aus s's law t o
t
his gravita t
iona l prob lem t o show t ha tt he mas s oft he e arth is5.98 X 1 02 4 kg.
1
-24. A n i magina ry c ubical v olume e lement i so r
iented w i
th i t
s sidesp arallel to a
un
iform f ield I Cin ac ha rge-free r egion . P rove t hat t he n et flux ove r the v o
lume i s
z
ero.
1
-25. P oint c harges i n air a re l ocated a s f ol
low s: +5 X 1 0-8 c oulomb a t ( 0, 0)
meters; +4 X 1 0-9 c ou lomb a t ( 3
, 0 ) me ter s
; —6 X 1 0- 9 coulomb a t (0, 4) me ters.
(
a) Find V , E, a nd D a t ( 3
, 4). ( b
) Wha t ist he tota l electric fl
ux o ver as phe re of
5
-me ter radius w ith c ente r a
t ( 0
, 0 )?
1
-26. F our p osit
ive p oint c harge s a re situa ted at ( 0
, 0 )
, ( 0
, 1 ) (1
, 1 )
, a nd ( 1
, 0)
meters, t
ha t i s
, at the c orners o f as quare 1me ter o n as ide. ( a
) F ind E a nd V a t
(
,4 .
)( at cen tero ft he s quare). ( b
) F ind E a nd V a t , 1
,4 ).
 CHAPTER 2

THE S
TATIC ELECTR
IC F
IELD
. PART 2

2-1. The Electric Dipo le a nd E lectric Dipole Momen t. When t wo

p
oin t c
harges +Q a nd — Q a re s upe rposed, the resultant fi
eld i szero.
Howeve r
, when t he charges are sepa rated by as mall distance 1,there isa
f
in
ite re
sultant fi
eld. Th is comb ina tion oft wo point charge sofo pposite
s
ign separated b y as mall dis
tance i sc a
lled a n el
ectric dipo
le, a nd the
p
roduc t Q
li scal
led t he el
ectr
ic d ipo
l em om ent
. B y regarding the separa-
t
ion between the c ha
rge s as av ector1 ,p o
inting from t he negative to the
p
o s
itive cha
rge' a s i
n Fig. 2-1
, t he dipole momen t can b e expressed as a
v
ec torQ 1with the magn itude Qla nd the
A
x
isof P d
irec
tion of1.
d
i
po
leI , r Refe
rring t
oF ig
. 2
-1, t
he po
ten
tia
lof
t
he pos
itive c
harge a
t apoin
t Pis
+Q
- Q (
2
-1)
•
I
i
rer
t
T
he po
ten
tia
l o
fthe n
ega
tive c
harge a
t
Pis
V
2 — A (
2
-2)
t
i
r
,er
2
T
he t
o
tal p
oten
tia
l Va
t Pi
sthen

F
n;
. 2
-
1. E
lec
tric d
ipo
le. V = Vi + V2 = 4
(
1 (
-1 — (
2
-3)
-
2
re r
i ,
I
fthe p
oint P i
sa t ala
rge d
is
tance compared wi
th the s
epa
rat
ion 1
,so
t
hat t
he rad
ial l
ines r1,r
,and r2 a
re e
s
sen
t ia
lly pa
ral
lel
, we h
ave v
ery
n
ear
ly tha
t
r1 = r— — cos 0 (
2-4)
2
a
nd
r
2 =r -
/c
2 o
s 0 (
2
-5)

The vector Imay be regarded a

s au n
it vector al p
oin
ting in t
he direc
tion fr
om
t
he nega
tive to the p
osi
tive charge mu
ltipl
ied b y t
he magn i
tude o
f the separa
tion /.
Thus
, I a d. The s ymbo l pisof
ten used t
o d es
ignate the e
l
ectr
ic dipole momen t
.
T , p Q
hus l
.
4
6
SF
.
c
.. 2
-1
1 THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 2 4
7

where r= distance fr
om c ente
r ofd ipole t
othe po
intP
0= ang
le between a x
is ofdipole and r
Substi
tuting (2
-4) and (2
-5) into (2
-3), we ob
tain f
or t
he p
otent
ial Va
t
adistance rfr
om a ne l
ectr
ic dipole the e
xpress
ion
Q
1 c
os 0
V— (
2
-6)
4
1
-er2
whe re itisassumed tha t ri s much grea te r t han 1( r> 1 )s ot hat term si n
12can b e neg
lected compa red w ith tho se i n r2. V i si n v ol
ts i fQi si n
c
oulomb s
, 1a nd rinm e
ters, a nd einf arads p e r m e
te r
.
According to (
2-6
) t he pot entialof ad ipo le v arie sa st he inve rse square
o
ft he d
istance, whereas acco rd ing t
o ( 2-1 ) t he p oten tial o f asingle p o
int
c
ha rge varies asthe inverse d istance
. T he p oten tial oft he dipole i sal
so
afunc t
ion oft he a
ngle 0. A t af i
xed radius t he p o ten t
iali s amax imum o n
t
he a x
i s o f t he d ipole ( 0 =0 ) and
E
,
a,
i
sz ero n orma l to the a xis (0 =9 0°)
.
P This c ou ld h ave b een a nticipated
s
ince , w hen 0 = 9 0°
, t he p o
in t Pi s
E, e
xa ctly e qu id istan t f rom t he t wo
+ Q c
ha rge s s o t ha t their e fects c ancel
.
To f i
nd t he e l
ectric f i
eld i n
tensity
Ea t t he p oin t P, w e t ake t he nega-
t
ive g rad ien t o f the p o
ten t
ia l given
b
y ( 2-6), o bta ining '
a
v 1a
v
E
rae
= — a„ — ae - —
FI
G
. 2
-2
. C
omponent f
i
e
lds a
nd t
ota
l a
r
f
i
eld E a
t ad
i
stance rf
r
om a
n e
l
ectr
ic Q
l c
os 0+ , Q
a lsi
n 0
d
ipo
le. = a
r 2
rer 3 4 3 (
2
-7)
w
here a, =u nit vectorin rdirect
ion (s
ee Fig
. 2
-2
)
a• = u
nit vector i
n 0direct
ion
1= separation ofdipo
le charges Q
A
ccording to (
2-7) the e
lec
tric fi
e
ld has two c
omponentsasshown i
nFig.
2
-2
, one inthe rdi rec
tion (Er)and one inthe 0d
irec
tion (
E o)
. Thus
E=a
rE, ± a
8E0 (
2-8
)
o
r
=Q
l c
os 0
Er (
2-9
)
2
Ter
s
a
nd
Q
lsin 0
E
. — (
2
-10
)
4
re'
'See Append
ix for g
radien
t i
n spher
ica
l coord
inate
s. E
qua
tion (
2
-7) c
an a
l
so b
e
e
xpressed w
ith the d
ot-p
roduct n
otat
ion as f
o
llows:

E —
Q (
2a
, •1— a
e •1
)
t
rer
s
4
8 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 2

The f i
eld c omponen tso f ad ipo le v ary a st he inver se cube o ft he distance,
wher ea s the f ie
ld o f ap oint c harge v a r
ie s a s the i nverse s qua re of the
d
istance .
I
n ( 2-9) a nd ( 2
-10) the r es tr
ic t
ion a pp lies t hat r> > 1s i
nce t h
is condi-
t
ion i si mplicit i nthe poten tia le xpres sion ( 2-6) used ino b taining t he f
ie
ld.
2
-2. D ielectrics a nd P erm i tt
iv i
ty. Ac ondu cto ri s asub stance i nw hich
t
he o uter e l
ect ron s of an a tom a re e as
ily d e
ta ched a nd m ig rate readily
f
rom a tom t o a tom u nde r t he i nf
luence o fa n electric fi
eld. Ad iel
ectric
,
o
nt he o therh and , is asub stance i nw hich t he electron sa res ow el
lb ound
o
rh e
ld n ear t heir equil
ibr ium p osit
ion s t hat t hey c anno t b e detached b y
t
he a pplication o f ord
inary e lectric f i
elds. H ence , an e le
c tr
ic f i
eld pro-
d
uces n om igra tion ofc ha rge i n ad ielec tric, a nd, ing ene ral
, t his property
make s d ielectric s act as g ood i nsula tor s
. P araff
in, g lass, a nd m ica are
e
xamp les ofd i e
lec tr
ics.
An i mpor tan t c haracteristic o f ad ielec tric i sit
s p erm it
tivity' e. S ince
t
he p e rm itt
iv i
ty o f adielect ric isa lways g reate r than t he p erm itt
ivity of
v
acuum , i tiso ften conven ien t to u se t he r e
lative p erm ittivity e ,oft he
d
ielec tric, that i s, t
he ratio o fi ts perm ittiv ity t o thato fv acuum . T hus

S
r= — (
2
-11
)
e
o
w
here e
,= re
lat
ive perm
itt
ivity ofdie
lec
tric
e= permit
tiv
ity o
fd i
elec
tric
e
o=p ermit
tiv
ity o
fv acuum
A
s ment
ioned e
arl
ier
,
1
0-9
e
o = 8
.85 X 1
0-1
2 f
a
rad
s/me
ter
3
6T
Wherea s eo re oi sexpres sed inf a
rads p erm eter, t
he r e
lative permitt
ivity
eri
s ad imen sion less ratio.
The relative p ermittivity i sthe v a
lue ordinari
ly g iven intables
. The
r
e
lative p e
rm ittiv i
ty o f af ew m edia isgi ven in T able 2-1
, w ith media
a
rranged i n o rde r of increa s
ing p ermitt
ivity. T he v alues are fo
r sta
tic
(
orl ow-frequency ) fie
lds a nd, excep tforv acuum o ra ir, a
re approximate.
2
-3. P o
larization . A lthough t here isn o migration of charge w hen a
d
ie
lec t
ric i splaced i na n electr
ic f i
e
ld, the
re d oes occur as l
ight disp
lace-
mento ft he electrons w ith r e
spectt othe
ir n uc
lei s
ot hatindividualatom s
b
ehave a sv ery s mall
, ora tom ic
, dipoles
.' When t hese atomic dipolesare
T
he term dielec
tric constant i
salso used synonymou sly w
ith p ermit
tivity
. How -
e
ver, the pe
rm itt
ivity i sn ot a
lways a c ons
tant as migh t b
e infe
rred from the term
"d
ielectr
ic constant" b ut may d epend o n t
he temperature a
nd , a
sd i
scussed la
ter, o
n
t
he frequency. The t erm c apaci
tiv
ity isal
so used fo
r permitt
ivity.
*The dipoles may a lso be of molecular s
ize
. I n ali
quid the molecu
les are f
ree t
o
t
urn when a f i
eld isa pplied, and this may result i
n ar e
lat
ively large pe
rm it
tivity
.
Wateri sane xamp le.
SE
C. 2
-3
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 2 4
9

TABLE 2-
1
PER MITT
IVITIES OF D
IELECTR
IC MEDIA
R
elativ
e
Med
ium p
erm i
tti
vity e
,
Va cuum 1(by def
in
ition
)
A
ir ( a
tmosphe ric p ressure) 1
.0006
Pa raf f
in 2.1
Poly s tyrene 2. 7
Ambe r 3
R ubbe r 3
Sulfur 4
Qua rtz 5
Bake lite 5
Lead g las s 6
Mica 6
Ma rble 8
F
lin t g l
a ss 10
Ammon ia ( liqu id) 22
Glyce rin 5
0
Wa te r (distilled )
R utile ( TiO 2) 89
81-
173f
Ba rium t i
tana te ( BaT iO 3) 1
,200$
Barium s t
ron t
ium t i
tana te ( 2BaT iO s: 1SrT iO 3) 1
0,000 t
tC ry stals, i ng eneral, are n oniso tropic, t hati s
, their p rop e
rtie sv a ry with di re
ction .
Ru tile i sa ne xamp le ofs uch an oni sotropic crys tall
ine s ubs tance. I tsr e
lative p erm it-
t
ivity d epends o nt he direction o ft he applied e lectric f i
eld w i
th r elation t ot he cry stal
a
xe s, b e
ing 8 9 w hen t he f i
e
ld i sp erpend icula r to ac e rtain c rystal a x is and 1 73 w hen
t
he f i
eld i sp arallel t o t h
is a xis. F or a n a gg rega t
ion o f random ly o r
ien ted r utile
c
ry sta ls e , = 14 . A l
l c rysta ls, e xcep t those o ft he c ubic s ystem , a re n onisotropic t o
e
lec tric f ie
lds, t ha ti s
, their p roper ties vary w i
th d irection . T hu s
, t he p erm it
tivity o f
many o ther c rys tall
ine s ubs tance s may v ary w ith direct ion . H oweve r,i n many c ases
t
he d ife rence i ss l
ight. F or e xamp le, aq ua rtz crysta l h as a relative p ermittivity o f
4
.7 i no ne d irect ion a nd 5 .1 a t r igh t angles. T he a ve rage v alue i s4 . 9
. The n ea rest
i
ntege r i s 5a nd t h
is ist he v a
lue g iven i nt he t able.
tT he p erm ittivity o f the se t itana tes i sh ighly t empe ra ture-sen s
i tive. T he a bove
v
alue s a re f or 2 5°C. S ee, for e xamp le
, E . Wa iner, H igh T itan ia D ielectr
ic s
, T ran s.
E
l ectro chem . S oc
., 8 9, 1946 .

p
resent
, the d i
elec tric i ss a
id t o b
e polarized o rin as tate ofpolari
zation.
When t he fi
eld i sr emoved a nd t he atoms r eturn t o the
ir n o
rma l, or
u
npolarized, state, t he d ipoles di
sappea r.
'
Cons
ide r the d ielec tric slab of p e
rm itt
iv ity e in Fig. 2-3 si
tua ted in
v
acuum . L et au n
i form f i
eld E0 b e appl
ied n ormal t o the sl
ab. Th is
p
olar
izes the d ielectr ic, tha t is
, induces a tom ic dipoles throughout t he
s
l
ab. I nthe inte r
io rt he posit
ive and nega tive chargeso fa d
jacen tdipoles
a
nnule ach other's e fect s. ' r
he netresulto ft he po
lariza t
ion istoproduce

1When polar
izat
ion i
n adie
lectr
ic pers
istsinthe a
bsence o
fana
ppl
ied el
ectr
ic f
i
eld
,
t
he s
ubstance i
spermanent
ly p o
larized and i
sca
lled a
n el
ec
tre
t. Ast
rained p
iezoe
lec
-
t
r
ic c
rystal i
sa n e
xample o
fa n el
ectre
t.
5
0 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
Ca m
.
. 2

al
ayerofnegat
ive cha
rge onone surface ofthe s
lab a
nd alayerofposit
ive
c
harge o
n the o
the
r as s
ugges
ted i nF ig
. 2-3
.
The e
fec
t ofthe a
tomic d
ipole
sc an bed e
scribed by t
he po
lariza
tion P
or d ipole momen t p e
r u nit volume.
T hus
,

2-
( 1
2)
A
r
ea A

where p = Q
l =n e
t dipo
le momen t i
n
v
olume v . For e
xample, c ons
ider t
he
A
t
om ic r
e
c tangula
r volume of surface A and
d
i
poles t
h
ickne ss 1(v=A l) i
n F ig. 2-
3. For
E
0 i
UT•
11 E
. t
h
is v o
lume

= Al
l= (
2
-13
)
a
,

V
acuum D
i
ele
ctr
ic V
acuum where Q = c ha
rge on area A ofone face
o
fv olume v. B utQ /A i
sc ha
rge pe
ra rea.
Hence P h a
s t he dimensions both o f
F
io.2-3. D
ielect
ric s
l
ab inun
iform d
ipole momen t per vo
lume a nd c ha
rge
f
i
e
ld, p
er a rea (QL/L 3 = Q
/L 2). T he cha
rge
p
er a rea equals t he su
rface charge d ens
ity p „ of po
larizat
ion charge
a
ppea ring on the slab f
ace. T hus

P = = P
ep (
2-14
)
A
T
he v alue of Pi n (2-12
) isa n a verage f o
rt he volume v . T od efine the
meaning o f Pa t ap oint, i
tisc onven ient t oa s
sume t hat ad i
electric ina n
e
lectric fi
eld has ac ontinuous d is
tribu tion o finf
initesima ldipoles, tha tis,
acon tinuous p olar
ization, w hereast he dipolesa c
tua l
ly a r
ed iscrete p olar-
i
zed a tom s. N evertheless
, t he assump tion of ac ontinuous d is
tribu tion
l
eads t o no app reciable erro
r p rov ided t hat w e rest
rict our atten tion t o
v
olume s c on
ta ining many a tom s o r dipoles
, t ha t is, to macro scopic
r
egions .
' A ssum ing n ow ac on t
inuous ly polarized dielectr
ic, the v a
lue o f
Pa t ap ointc an bed efined ast he n etd ipole momen t po f as mal
lv o
lume
A
v d ivided b y t he v o
lume , w ith t he limit taken a s A v shr
inks t o z e
ro
a
round t he poin t
. T hus
,

P= l
im (
2-15
)
£
v—'O I
XV

n ad
I ie
lec
tric t
he f
l
ux d
ens
ity D i
sre
lated t
othe p
ola
riza
tion P b
yt he
e
quation
D =e0E P (
2-16)
The r
eason
ing h
ere i
ssim
ila
rtot
hati
nconne
ction w
ith c
ont
inuous d
is
tribut
ions o
f
c
harge (
Sec. 1
-12
).
SE
C
. 2
-3
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 2 5
1

w
here eo= p
ermit
tiv
ity ofvacuum
E=f i
eld i
ndie
lec
tric
F
rom (2
-16
) w ehave

D =(
0 P )E
E (
2
-17
)

C
ompa
ring (
2
-17
) w
ith t
he r
e
lat
ion g
iven i
n (
1
-47
) t
hat

D =e
E (
2
-18
)

i
tfo
llow
s t
hat
'
P
e= e
o-r— (
2
-19
)
E

where e= p erm itt

ivity o fd i
electric
. I n is
o tropic m edia P a nd E a re in
t
he s ame direction s o that their q uot
ient i s as calar, and h ence ei sa
s
calar. I n nonisotropic m edia, such a s c
rystals, Pa nd E are, i n general,
n
ot i n t
he same d irection s o that ei sno lo nge r as calar b ut b ecome s a
n
ine-componen t q uantity c a
lled a t ensor
.' I f Ei sa pplied p arallel to
c
ertain crys
ta l axes
, Pa nd E may b e in t
he s ame d irect
ion a nd f or this
d
irection eisa lso a scalar quan t
i ty
. 3 Thus , i ta ppears tha t ( 2
- 16) isa
g
ene ral r
ela
tion , while (2-18) is a mo re concise e xpre ss
ion , wh ich , how -
e
ver, has as imple signif
icance o nly for i
sotrop ic med ia or c e
rtain s pecial
c
asesi n non
iso tropic med ia.
The fl
ux d ensity D, w hich isn orma l to the s l
ab f ace (Fig. 2- 3), ist he
s
ame i nthe v acuum a si nt he die
lectric
.4 H ence ( 2
-16) can b ee xpressed
e
0E
0 =t
oE P
or

P=t
o(E
0 —E
) (
2
-20
)

whe
re E0 = f i
e
ld i nv acuum ( applied fi
e
ld)
E=f i
e
ld i ndi e
lectr
ic (resultant f
i
eld)
A
ccording to (
2-20) the polar
iza t
ion P equals t
he d
iference ofthe a
ppl
ied
a
nd r e
sultant f i
e
lds mu l
tiplied b y 60. This diference is due to the
i
nduced fi
eld E
,o pposing E0 wh ich isproduced by t
he pola
rizat
ion charge
o
n the sl
ab surfaces
. Thus ,

E0 — E = —E
i o
r E=E
o E
i (
2
-21
)
a
nd
P= —
€ 0E1 (
2
-22
)

The ratio P/E may b e w

ritten as xeo,w
here x i
scal
led t
he e
l
ectr
ic s
usc
ept
ibi
lity
(
d
imen sionless
). Thus , f
rom (2-19) e= tea X
)
•
2Av ector i
se xpres
sable b
yt h ree c
omponents
.
3S
ee footnote for r
uti
le i
nT ab le 2
-1
.
'This isdemons tra
ted inSec
. 2 -4 o
n Boundary Re
lat
ions
.
 5
2 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 2

B
ut fr
om (2-14
) Pa l
so h
as t
he s
ame v
alue a
s t
he p
o
lar
iza
tion c
harge
s
ur
face d
ens
ity pi
p; s
o
P= —toE
i = P•
1
2 (
2-23)

I
n aconducto
r the induced f
i
eld e qua
ls the a
pplied fi
e
ld s o t
hat t
he
r
e
sultant f
ie
ld i
sz e
ro. O n the o
the r hand
, in ad ie
lec
tric the i
nduced
f
i
e
ld Eiisalways l
ess t
han the a
pplied fi
e
ld E0 s
o that t
he re
sultant f
i
eld
Eisnot z
ero. This may beilust
ra ted by e
xpres
sing (2
-19) as

P
ieo
E= (
2
-24
)
E

I
ft he r e
la tive p ermit tivity o ft he d ielectric isl arge, E may b e s ma ll
, b ut
n
ot z ero. F or Et o b e zero w ould r equire a n i nf
inite e,. H oweve r
, n o
d
ielectrics o fi nfin
ite e ,are k nown .
A
lthough t he p ola rization P i sb ased o n t he a ctual p olar
iza tion p he-
nomenon , i ti su sua lly s imple r a nd mo re c onven ien t in mo s
t p ractical
p
rob lems w ith i sotrop ic d ielec trics t o i gno re t he m echan ism o f t he
p
henomenon a nd emp loy o n
ly t he p erm ittivity et od escribe the c ha racter-
i
s
ticso ft he d i
electric . I n this c ase, ei sd eterm ined e xper imen tally f rom
aslab o ft he dielectric,a nd iti sn otn ece ssary t oc onside rt he polariza tion.
I
fw ew ish t oc a
lcu late e ,h oweve r
,w e mu stc on s
ide rt he p o
larization . A n
e
xamp le o fs uch ac alcu lation i sg iven i nS ec. 2-6 o n A rt
if
i c
ial D ielec tr
ics.
)
( 2 -4. B ounda ry R elations. I n as ingle m edium t he e l
ectric f i
eld is
c
on t
inuous . T hat i s
, t he f ield, i fn ot c onstan t, c hange s o nly b y a n
i
nf
in itesima l amount i n a n i nfinitesima l d i
stance . Howeve r
, a t t he
b
ounda ry b etween t wo d ife ren t m edia t he e lectric f i
eld may c hange
a
brup t
ly b oth i n magn itude a nd d i
rec t
ion . I ti so fg reat i mpo rtance i n
many p rob lem s t o k now t he r elations o f the f i
elds a t such b ounda r
ies.
These b ounda ry r e
la tions a re d iscus sed i nt his section.

M
edium 1
e
, cr
,
a
n,Y

Ea M
edium 2
e
a 04
FI
G
. 2
-4
. The t
angen
tia
l e
l
ectr
ic f
i
eld i
scon
tinuous a
cros
s ab
oundary
.

I
ti sc onven ient to analyze the b oundar y problem i n two part
s, con-
s
i
de r
ing f i
rs
t t he re
lation between t he fi
elds ta
ngen t to t
he bounda ry and
s
econd t he fi
elds normal to the bounda ry.
Taking u p f i
r
st the re
la t
ion o fthe fi
elds tangent t o the boundary, le
t
t
wo d ie
lectric m edia of permittiv
itie s eiand e 2 b
e separated by ap lane
b
oundary a s i n Fig
. 2 -
4. I t isassumed t hat b o
th m edia are per
fect
i
nsulators, thati s
,the conduc t
ivit
ie s
' aza nd az ofthe two m edia a
rez e
ro.
1F
or d
iscus
sion o
f c
onduc
tiv
ity s
ee S
ec. 3
-7
.
Sz
e
.. 2
-4
] THE STAT
IC ELECTRIC F
IELD . PART 2 5
3

Cons
ide r ar e
c tangular p ath, h a
lf ine ach medium , ofl ength d x para
llel
t
o the b ounda ry a nd of l ength A y n ormal to the b ounda ry
. L et the
a
verage e l
ectr
ic f i
eld in
t en s
ity t angen t to t
he b oundary i n m edium 1b e
En and the ave rage fi
e
ld i n
ten s
ity t angen t t
ot he bounda ry i nm edium 2
b
e E n. T he w ork per u nit charge r equired to transpo rt ap o
sit
ive test
c
harge around t h
is clo
sed p ath i sthe l i
ne i
ntegral of Ea round t he path
(fE •dl). B y mak ing t he p a
th l e
ng th A yapproach ze ro,t he work al
ong
t
he segmen ts o fthe path n ormal to t he boundary i sze ro even though a
f
i
nite el
ectric fie
ld may e x
ist n ormal t o the b
ounda ry
. T he l i
ne in
tegral
o
f Ea round t he rectangle i nthe d i
rec t
ion oft he arrow si st hen

Es,A.
T— E 2 L
ILT = 0 (
2
-25
)
o
r
Ell = Et2 2-
( 2
6)

A
ccord
ing to (2
-26) th
e tangent
ial compon ents ofthe e
l
ectr
ic f
i
eld a
re t
h
e
s
ame o
n both s
ides o
f aboundary between t wo d
ielec
tric
s. I n o
ther w
ords
,
t
he t
angentia
l el
ectr
ic fi
e
ld i scon
tinuou s acros
s such ab oundary
.
I
fmedium 2i s aconducto
r ( az 0 )
, the fi
e
ld E 2 inm edium 2mustbe
z
ero u
nder st
atic c
ondit
ions a nd hence (2-25) reduces t
o

Egt = 0 (
2
-27
)

A
cco rding t o ( 2-27 ) the t angential el
ectric f
i
eld a t ad ie
l e
ctri
c-condu c
tor
b
oundary i szero.
'
Turning o ur a ttention n ext to the fi
e
ld s norma l to the b ounda ry
, con-
s
ide
r t wo d i
elect r
ic m edia o f p ermitt
ivities ei and E2 s eparated b y the
x
-yp lane a sshown i nF ig. 2 -5
. I tisassumed t ha tbo th m edia arep er
fect
i
nsu
la tor s (a
l =a z =0 ). S uppose thata nimag inary b ox isconstructed,
h
alfi ne ach med ium ,ofa r ea AxA yand heightA z. L etD ,1 b ethe average
f
l
ux d ensity n orma lt ot he t op ofthe box inm edium 1a nd D ,
.2the average
f
l
ux d ens ity n orma l to t he b ottom o f the box i n med ium 2 . D ., i
sa n
o
utwa rd n orma l ( pos
i t
ive ), w hile D .2 isan i nward n orma l (negat
ive).
By G au ss's law t he electric f l
ux or surface integral o f the norma l com-
p
onen to fD o ver ac losed s urface equals the c
ha rge enclosed. B y mak ing
t
he heigh to ft he b ox Aza pproach z e
ro the contribution o ft he s
idest othe

1T h
is assume s t
hat n o curren ts are fl
ow ing . I fc ur
rent sare present, then E int he
c
onducto ri snotz ero,u nlesst he conduc tivity i si
nfinite
,a nd (
2-26) appliesr ather t
han
(
2-27 ). I n Chap . 7t he relat
ion s of (2
-26 ) a nd (2-27) are extended t o include time-
c
hang ing f i
eld
s, a nd itiss hown t hat the rela t
ion E n Et
:o f (2
-26) holds w ith s
tatic
o
r c hang ing fi
elds for the b ounda ry b
e tween a ny two med ia o
fp erm i
ttivities, p
erme -
a
bilities, and conduct ivities el
, Al, ala nd t , µ
g 2,02. F urthermo re, f
or chang ing fi
elds
t
he r e
lation E ,1 0o f (2-27 ) i s r
es
tricted t o the c ase whe re the conduct ivi
ty o f
med ium 2 i si nf
inite (472 .• co
). Th is f o
llows f rom t he fact that at ime -changing
e
lectric f i
e
ld in ac onductor i sze ro on
ly i ft he conduct ivity isinf
inite
.
5
4 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS (
CHAP
. 2

M
edium 1
Ay
e
l a
;

--

M
edium 2
A
z D
.2 e
2 12
4

F
lo. 2
-5
. The norma
l c
omponen
t o
f t
he f
l
ux d
ens
ity i
scon
tinuous a
cro
ss a c
harge
-
f
r
ee boundary
.

s
ur
fa ce i
nteg
ral i
sze
ro. T he t
ota
l flux o
ver t
he box i
sthen due e
nt
irely
t
oflux over t
he t
op and bo
t tom sur
faces
. I fthe ave
rage sur
face c
harge
d
ensity on t
he b
ounda ry i
sp , w
e have on a
pplying Gauss
's law

D
. 1Ax Ay — D
. 2A
xAy =p
, Ax Ay
o
r
D n2 D n
2 = P
s (
2
-28
)

According t
o (2-28) t
hen ormalc omponentoft h
ef lux d
ensi
ty changesata
c
harged boundary betwe
en t wo d
iel
e c
tri
cs by an a mount e
qual tothe s
urfac
e
c
harge densi
ty. T h
is isu sual
ly z e
ro at ad ie
lec tr
ic-d
ielec
t r
ic boundary
u
nlessc harge ha
sb een placed there bym echanical means, asb yrubbing
.
I
ft he boundary i sf
ree from charge, p
, = 0a nd ( 2
-28) reduces t
o

D
ni = D
n2 (
2
-29
)

A
ccord
ing to (
2-29) t
henormalcomponentofth
ef l
ux densi
ty i
scon
tinuou
s
a
cro
ss t
he c
harg
e-fr
ee boundary b
e
tw e
en t
wo d
i
elec
tri
cs.
I
fmedium 2i s aconductor
, D.2 = 0a
nd (2
-28) reduces t
o

D
., =p
. (
2
-30
)
According t o (2-30) t
hen ormalc ompon ento ft hef l
ux density at adie
lectric-
c
ondu c
tor b ounda ry isequal tothe s
ur face charge density on t h
e condu c
to r
.'
I
tisi mpo rtant ton o
te thatp ,int hese relations referst oa ctualelectric
c
ha rge sepa rated b y fi
nite dis
tance s f r
om e qua l quan t
ities of oppo site
c
ha rge and n ott osur
face charge pa,due t op o
la rizat
ion. T he polar
ization
s
urface c harge i sproduced b y atomic d ipoles h aving equa l and oppo site
c
ha rges sepa rated b y w hat i
sa ssumed t o b e a n inf
initesima l di
stance .
I
ti snotp e
rm i
s s
ible toseparate the p o
sitive a nd negative c hargesofs uch
At aconductor-conductor boundary with currents pre
sent Ei snot z
ero in e
ither
medium u n
less t
he conductiv
ity isinfin
ite so t
hat (2-28) app
lies r
ather than (2
-30).
I
n C hap
. 7i tispo
inted outthatt he r
elat
ion D. , — D.2 =p .of (
2-28) a
nd D. , =
o
f (2-29) hold w
ith stat
ic o
r t
ime -changing fi
eld
s for any two media o
f pe
rm it
tivitie
s,
permeab i
lit
ies, a
nd c onduc
tiv
ities el,pi,al a
nd et
, 1
2, .
72
.
SE
C
. 2
-4
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD
. PART 2 5
5

adipole b y as ur
face ofi ntegrat
ion, a nd h ence the volume mus t a lways
c
ontain a n integral (whole) n umbe r of d ipoles and, therefore, zero n et
c
harge. O n
ly w hen the posit
ive and n ega tive chargesa res eparated b ya
macroscop ic distance (as on the oppo s
ite s urfaces of aconduc ting s heet)
c
an w e s epa rate them b y as u
rface o f integration. T his e mphasize s a
f
undamen tal diference between t he p olarization, or s
o-ca l
led " bound ,"
c
harge o n ad ie
lectric s
urface and the tr ue charge on ac onduc tors urface.
Toi lust rate the appl
ication oft hese b ounda ry re
lat
ion s
, two examp les
w
il
l be c on sidered.
N
orma
l
Examp le 1 . B oundary b etween two diele
c-
t
r
ics
. L et t wo is o
trop ic di
electr
ic med ia 1
a
nd 2 b e sepa rated b y ac harge-
free p lane
b
ounda ry a si nFig. 2 -6
. L ett he perm i
ttiv-
M
edium 1
i
tes b e e land e s,a nd let t
he conduct ivit
ies
CL c
r
,
o
i =e r
: =0 . R eferring toFig.2-6 the prob-
l
em i sto f i
nd t he relation be
twe en the angles
B
ound
ary
al and a : o f as tatic fi
eld li
ne or fl
ux t ube
wh
ich t rave rses t he b oundary. F or exam -
p
le
, g iven al,t o find a:.
So
lu tion. L et M
edium 2
Di = magn itude o fDi n medium 1 F
i
e
ld l
i
ne c
r
2
D2 = magn itude o f Di n medium 2 Eo
rD
El = magn itude o f Ei n medium 1
E2 = magn itude o f Ei n medium 2 FM . 2 -6
. Boundary b e
tween two
I
n a n i sotropic med ium , Da nd E h ave the d
ielectr
ic media showing c
hange i
n
s
ame d irection . A ccord ing t
ot he bounda ry d
irection off
i
eld l
i
ne.
r
e
lations ,
D.1 D.: and E
n = ES2 (
2
-31)
R
efer
ring t
o F
ig
. 2
-6

D„1 DI c
os al a
nd D
.: = D
2 c
os a
: (
242
)
wh
ile
Es
t Els
i
n a
l a
nd Bi2 = E2 s
i
n a
s (
2
-33
)

S
ubs
titu
ting (
2
-32
) a
nd (
2
-33
) i
n
to (
2
-31) a
nd d
iv
iding t
he r
e
sult
ing e
qua
tionsy
ie
lds

DI c
os al _ D:cos a
:
(
2
-34
)
EI s
i
n al E2 s
in a
:

B
ut DI — e
iEl
, a
nd D:= 5
2E
2, s
o t
hat (
2
-34
) b
ecome
s

t
an al = S
i =5
,
15o =5
,
1
(
2
-35
)
t
an C
22 E
2 e
r e0 5
.2

where e
,i = r
elative permitt
ivity o
f medium 1
5
,2 = r
elative permitt
ivity o
f medium 2
t
o=p e rmittiv
i ty o
fv acuum
Suppose, f
or examp le, t
hat medium 1i sai
r (Sr
i = 1)
, while med
ium 2 is asl
ab o
f
s
ulfur (E
,
.
: =4 )
. Then when ai = 3 0°
, the ang
le a:in medium 2i s6
6.6°
.
E
xamp le 2
. B oundary be
tween ac
onducto
ra nd adi
ele
ctri
c. S uppose t
hatm ed
ium 2
i
nFig
. 2
-6 i
s ac
onductor
. F
ind a
l
.
 5
6 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CRAP
. 2

S
olu
tion
. S ince medium 2 i
s aconductor
, D2 = E2 .
2
. 0u
nde
r s
tat
ic c
ond
itions
.
A
ccording t
o t
he boundary r
e
lat
ions
,

D
,
,1 p
. o
r 1—
E

a
nd
E
,
, =0
T
here
fore
E
e
o
ti = t
an -
1 l t
on -
1 0 0

I
tfollow s that asta
tic el
ectr
ic fi
eld l
ine o
r flux t
ube a
t ad ie
lectr
ic-con-
d
ucto rb oundary isalwaysp erpendicu
lar tothe conduc
tors urface (when
n
oc ur rentsare p
resent)
. T his f
actisoffundamen ta
li mportance i
nf i
eld
mapping ( see S
ec
. 2-27)
.
y 2-5. T ab
le ofBounda ry Relat
ions. T able 2-
2 summarizest he bound-
a
ry relations f
orstatic f
i
elds deve
loped int he p
reced
ing se
ction.

TABLE 2
-2
BOUNDARY RELAT
IONS FOR STATIC ELECTR
IC F
IELDSt

F
ie
ld
B
oundary r
e
lat
ion C
ond
ition
c
omponent

T
angen
tia
l E
,1 E
l, 1) A
( ny t
wo med
ia

T
angent
ial =0 (
2
) Med
ium 1i
s ad
ie
lectr
ic
Med
ium 2i
s ac
onductor

Norma
l — D, = P
s (
3
) Any t
wo med
ia w
ith c
harge a
t b
ounda
ry

Norma
l = D 2 (4
) A
ny t
wo med
ia w
ith n
o c
harge a
t b
oundary
(
e
LE.
1 e
sE.
2)

Norma
l D
.1 =p
. (
5
) Med
ium 1i
s ad
ie
lectr
ic
= Med
ium 2i
s ac
onductor w
ith s
urface c
harge

tRelations (1)
,( 3)
,and ( 4
) a pp
ly i
n the presence o
f cur
rents and a
lso f
or t
ime
-
v
ary
ing f ie
lds (
Chap. 7
). The o the rr
e
lations
, ( 2
) and (
5)
, also a
pply f
ortime
-chang
-
i
ng s
i
tua tions p
rovided (
T2 = 00.

2
-6. Artif
ic
ial D ie
lectrics. C ertain of t he proper t
ies o f ad ielectric
mat
erial may b e simulated with artifi
cia
l d i
elec
tric
s. T hese were d evel-
o
ped as ama teria
l forl ensesforf o
cu sing short-waveleng th rad
io w ave s
.'
Whereas the true die
lect r
ic cons
ists o f a
tom ic or mo lecular particles of
m
icroscopic si
ze, t
he art
ificialdi
electric c
onsistso fdiscrete meta
lp a
r t
icles
o
f macroscopic si
ze. F ore xample, the a
rtific
ial d
ielectric may c onsist of
1W. E
. Kock, Metal
lic De
lay Lens
, B
ell S
yst
em Tech
. J
.
, 2
7, 5
8-82, J
anuary
, 1948
.
S
ee a
lso d
iscus
sion by J
.D . Kraus
, "An
tennas," McGraw
-Hi
ll Book Company, I
nc.
,
New York
, 1950, p
. 3
90.
SE
C. 2
-6
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD . PART 2 5
7

alarge n umbe r of m etal s phe re s

, a s i n Fig
. 2 -7, arranged i n at h ree-
d
imen s
iona l or l a
ttice s t
ructure w hich s imulates t he arrangemen t oft he
a
toms o f at rue dielec tric buto n amu ch l a
rger sc
ale.'
The p erm ittivity o f a n ar tificial d ie
lec tr
ic made o f m etal sphere s w i
ll
now b ec a
lcu lated. T his calcu la tion i sa pproxima te b ut p rovides ag ood
i
lustration o fthe sign if
i cance o fp olariza t
ion Met
al
a
nd i ts applica t
ion i n ap rac tica l prob lem . s
pheres
L
et au ni
fo rm e lectric f ie
ld E b ea pplied,a s
i
n Fig. 2-7, t o as lab o fa rt
if icial d ielectric
c
onsisting of many m etals phe res. T he fi
eld
Einduce s cha rge so nt he ind ividua ls phe res E
o ; 61 1
a
s s uggested i n F ig. 2 -8a . T hus, t he
s
phere s become a nalogous t o t he p olarizedz
a
tom s o f at rue d ielect r
ic, a nd e ach s phe re FI G
. 2 -7
. S lab of art
ifi
cial d i
-
may b e represen ted b ya ne qu iva len td ipole e lectr
ic c onsist
ing o f meta l
o
f c harge q a nd l e ngth 1a s i n F ig. 2 -8h.sphe
res in la
ttice arrangement .

The po
lar
iza
tion P o
fthe a
rt
ifi
cia
l d
ie
lec
tric i
sby (
2
-12
) e
qua
ltot
he n
et
d
ipole moment p
er u
nit v
olume, o
r

P=N
ql (
2
-36
)

w
here N = n
umber o
fsphere
s pe
ru nit vo
lume (mete
rs-
3 )

q
l=d ipo
le momen
to find
ividual s
phere (
c
oulomb-mete
rs)
From (2-
19) the permi
ttiv
ity i
s
g
iven by

(
a) (
2
-37
)

I
ntroducing t
he v
alue o
f Pf
r
om (
2
-36
)
i
n
to (2-37)
,
,N
ql ,Nq
l
= e
o -r 2-
( 3
8)
E E

(
b
) The last step in (2-38) f o
llows from
t
he fact that 1a nd E are i nthe same
A
x
is o
f d
irect
ion, a nd h ence t heir rat
io ( a
s
E 1 +
q d
i
pole v
ectors) e quals that of t heir sca
lar
F
la. 2
-8
. I
ndiv
idua
l s
phe
re o
f a
rt
i- magnitudes (1a nd E).
f
i
cia
l di
elect
ric (
a
) a
nd e
quiva
lent According t o (2
-38) t he permitt
iv-
d
ipo
le (
b)
.
it
y of t
he ar
tif
ic
ial d
ie
lectr
ic can be
d
eterm
ined ift
he number o
f s
pheres p
er un
it volume and the dipo
le
momentofone s
phe
re p
erun
it a
ppl
ied fi
e
ld a
re known. Proceeding now
1I
fthe s
pheres a
re h
ollow (
or i
f me
tal d
iscs or s
t
rips a
re u
sed), t
he ar
tifi
cial d
ie
lec-
t
r
ic sl
ab can be made much li
ghter in w
eigh t t
han the c
orre
spond ing slab o
f true
d
ie
lec
tric
. Th is i
s apr
incipa
l advantage o
ft he a
rtif
ic
ial d
ie
lec
tric material
.
5
8 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
.2

t
ofind t
he dipole momen tofo ne s
phere
, itisassumed tha
te ach s
phere i
s
i
n au n
ifo
rm f i
e ld. T h
is neglec
ts the i
nteract
ion ofspheres
, but th
is i
s
n
egl
igib
le provided the sphere r
adius i
ss mal
l compared w
i th t
he s
pacing
b
etween spheres.
F
rom (1-14) t he p
otent
ial Vo at apo
in t i
n au n
iform fi
eld i
sgiven by

Vo = — fo r Ec
os 0d
r = —E
rco
s0 (
2
-39
)

whe
re r= r
ad ial d
istance f
rom orig
in (taken a
t cente r o
fdipo
le)
0= angle between fi
eld d
irection o
r ax
is ofd ipole a
nd rad
ial li
ne
(
s
ee F ig
. 2-8h
)
A
ccord
ing t
o( 2-39)
, Vo = 0a tal
lp ointsin ap
lane t
hrough t he o
r
igin and
n
ormaltoE. E qua t
ion (2
-39) g
ivest he p
otent
ialat ap o
intin auni
form
f
i
e
ld. A s
sum ing tha t r> 1,the potent
ial Vd of ad ipo
le i
n ai
r is
, fr
om
(
-6 )
2 ,
q
lcos0
Vd — (
2
-40
)
4T
e or2

T
he t
o
talp
otent
ial Vi
s
,bys
upe
rpo
sit
ion
,the s
um o
f(2
-39
) a
nd (
2
-40
),o
r

V = V0-
I
- Vd
q
lcos0
= —E
rco
s 0+ (
2
-41
)
4T
eor2

T
he meta
ls phere h
aso n
ly i
nduced c
hargesonit
ss ur
face (
equa
l amoun
ts
o
fpo
sit
ive a nd n
egative c
harge
) s
o that i
t
s p
otent
ial i
szero
. T hus
, fo
r
r= a
,( 2
-41
) reduces to
lc
os0
0 = —E
aco
s 0+ q (
2
-42
)
4
7
r e oa2
S
olv
ing (
2
-42
) f
o
r q
l
/E, w
e h
ave

1-=
2 4
7e 0a3 (
2
-43
)
E

I
ntroduc
ing (
2
-43
) i
n
to (
2
-38
), w
e o
bta
in

e= e
o± 4
Te oNa 3 (
244
)
o
r
e
r = 1+ 4
rNa
a (
245
)

where e= p
erm it
tivi
ty ofa r
tif
ic
ial di
elec t
ric
e,
.= r
e
la t
ive permitt
ivity ofart
ificial d
ie
lectr
ic
N =numbe r o
fspheres/unit vo
lume
a= r
adius ofsphere
Both t
he u
nit volume a nd the r
adius are expres
sed in t
he s
ame u
nit o
f
l
ength
.
SE
C. 2
-8
1 THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD . PART 2 5
9

S
ince t
he v
olume vo
fthe s
phe
re i
s47
ra 3/
3
, (
2
-45
) c
an a
l
so b
ewr
itten a
s

e
, = 1± 3
vN (
2
-46
)

where N = n umbe r ofsphe res/unit v o

lume
v v olume ofs phere ( i
n same u nits a
s u nit volume )
Thus, the permittiv
ity o f the a r
tif
icial die
lectric depend s on b o
th t he
n
umbe rofs phere
s per unit v olume a nd the si
ze oft he s pheres
.
2
-7. C apaci
tors and C apacitance. Ac apacitor' isa n electr
ical device
c
onsist
ing o f two conduc tors s eparated b y a n insulating o r die
lectric
medium.
Byd ef
init
ion the capa
c i
tanc eo f acapacitori sthe ratio oft he c
harge o n
o
ne ofi ts c
onduc tor
s to the p o
ten t
ial diference b etween t hem . T hus,
t
he capacitance C of acapac itori s

c
i=c
v (
2
-47
)

w
here Q = c
harge on one conduc
tor
V=p otentia
l diference o
fconducto
rs
D
imens
ional
ly (2-47) i
s

C
harge _ charge =c
harge 2
—c
apac
itance
P
otent
ial e
nergy/charge e
nergy

o
rind
imen
siona
l s
ymbo
ls
Q2 Q 2T2

ML 2/
T 2 - ML 2

T
he mks
c u n
it o
f c
apac
itance isthe f
arad. Thus
, 1c
oulomb p
er v
olt
e
qua
ls 1fa
rad, o
r
Cou
lombs
—f a
rads
Volt

I
n other words, acapac
itor t
hat c
an st
ore 1c ou
lomb o f c
harge with a
p
otentia
ldiference of 1vo
lthas ac
apac
itance o
f 1f a
rad
. Ac apacitoro
f
1fa
rad capacitance i
s much l
a
rger t
han isord
inarily u
sed i
np rac
tice s
o
t
hat the u
nits
M
icro
farad = 1
0-6 f
a
rad
a
nd
M
icrom
icro
farad = 1
0-2 f
1 a
rad

a
re commonly e mp
loyed.
2
-8. Capac
itance of Iso
lated Sphere
. A v ery simple c apacito
r o f
t
heoret
ica
l in
terest c
ons
ists of as
ing
le i
solated c
onducting sphere. T he
s
phere may beso
lid o
rh o
llow. L e
tt he r
adius o
fthe sphere be r1. Since
1A
lso c
al
led a c
onden
ser
.
6
0 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 2

acapac
ito r musth ave two conductors, the second conductori nthis c
ase
c
an be regarded as asphere ofinfin
ite rad ius and zero po
tentia
l. L et a
c
harge Q bep laced o
n the sphere ofradius r1. F rom (1-
11 ) t
he poten
tial
o
ft he s
phe re (work pe
r unit charge to bring ap os
itive tes
t charge f
rom
i
nf
inity to the s
phere) i
sgiven b y

V= (
2
-48
)
4
wer
i
where e= p ermittiv
ity o fm edium fi
l
ling a l
l o
fs pace s
urround ing sphere
.
S
ince V in (2
-48) representsthe p
oten tialorv o
ltage dife
rence b e
tween
t
he i nf
inite s
phere and the is
olated s
phe re ofradius r1,t
he capaci
tance of
t
he isolated s
phere i
so b
tained b ysubsti
tu ting (
2-48)for Vin( 2
-47),w h
ich
y
ields

C= -
v =4
weri (
2
-49
)

The c apacitance C oft he is

olated s phere i sinf arads i f rii
sinm e
tersa nd
einf arads per m eter
.
2-9. C apacitor of Two C oncen tric S pher ical S hells. C onsider n ow a
c
apac itor consist
ing o f two sphe rical c onduc ting s he
lls of radius r 1and
r2arranged c oncentrically a
si nF ig. 2-9. T his c apac itoriss imilart othe
i
so
lated s phere o f S ec. 2 -8 bu t w ith the
r
adius o f t he o ute r conduc tor reduced f rom
i
nf
inity t or 2
.
Assume t hat ac harge Q i splaced o n t
he
o
uter s urface o f t he i nner shell (radius r1).
There w il
l t hen b e induced a n e qual charge
o
f oppo s
ite s ign o n the i nner surface o f t
he
o
uter s hel
l ( r
adius r2) . T he e l
ectric fie
ld
e
xtends r adia l
ly b e tween t he two shel
ls and is
o
ft he s ame i ntens ity a s the fi
eld att he same
r
adius f r
om a p oin t c harge Q. T hus, from
FIG
. 2-9. Capac
itorconsis
ting (
1-4) the r adial c omponent E ,oft he f i
e
ld is
o
f t wo c
oncent
ric s
phe
rica
l
s
hel
ls.
Er = (
2
-50
)

where r1 < r< r2. T he potent

ial d ife
rence V21 between the shel
ls is
t
hen the same a
s the w o
rk p er un
it c harge r
equ
ired to br
ing a p o
sitive
t
est c
harge f
rom ar ad
ius r2t o aradius r1inthe f
i
eld ofan is
olated point
c
harge Q. T he r
esult isid
en t
ical with that o
f (
1-10
) and isgiven b y

Q f" d
r Q (1 1 Q r
2—r i
- (
2
-51
)
V 21 =
/
we „ r2 = 4
we r
i 7 2
) = 4
we r
ir
2

The c
apac
itance C o
f the sphe
rica
l she
ll c
apac
ito
r i
sthe r
a
tio o
f t
he
c
harge 9 t
othe vo
ltage d
iference Vu, o
r
SE
C. 2
-
10] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD
. PART 2 6
1

rir2
C= =4
7e (
2
-52
)
Y 2
1 r
2—
Thus, the capacitance o fthe sphe r
ica ls hel
l capac itori spropo rt
iona lt o
t
he produc t oft he s hel
l r ad
ii and inve rse
ly p ropo rtiona l tot he diference
o
ft he radi
i.
2
-10 . Parallel-pla te C apacitor. T he capacito r
sd escribed i nthe a bove
s
ect
ions ar en otc ommon ly used,w he rea sthe p a
ra l
lel-pla te capacitors uch
a
ss hown i nF ig. 2-10 i s av e
ry c ommon t ype. Th is capac itorc onsistso f
t
wo p aral
lel f l
at pla tes ofa rea A s epa -
r
ated b y ad istance / . T he c apacito r
c
an b e charged o r d i
scha rged b y wires
c
onnec ted asi ndica ted.
Suppose t hat ap oten tia
l Va pplied
t
o t he capac itor p lates r esults in a F ia. 2
-10. P ara
lle
l-plate c
apacitor.
c
harge +Q o n one p late a nd —Q o n
t
he o ther
. A ssum ing t hat t he c ha rge i su niform ly d istributed ( e dge
e
fects'n eglected), t he surface charge d ens
i ty p,isu n
iform a nd isgiven b y

P
e = (
2
-53
)

w
here A = a
rea of p
late
s. T
he f
l
ux d
ens
ity D b
etween t
he p
la
tes i
s
e
qual t
opa
. T hus
V
Q=A
p, = AD = A
tE A
e— (
2-54
)

where E = fi
e
ld s
trength b
etween plates
e= perm
itt
ivity o
fm edium b etween plate
s
The capac
itance C of t
he pa
ralle
l-plate capaci
tor e
qua
ls Q
/V. I
ntro
-
duc
ing the v
alue o
f Qfrom (2
-54), we have
e
A
C=— (
2
-55
)

w
here e= p e rmit
tivity of m edium b etween capac
itor p
lates (f
arads/
meter
)
A =a rea ofp lates (meters 2)
1= separation ofp lates (me te
r s
)
I
ntroducing the relat
ive p ermittivity e
,a nd t
he va
lue o
fc o,w
e obtain
f
o
r the capacitance oft he paral
lel
-p late c
apacito
r
A
e
C=8
.
85 X 1
0-1
2 f
a
rads

or (
2
-56
)
88
5A e
r
C— • m
icrom
icro
farads (
44
1 f
)

The edge e
fects d
ecrease i
nimpor
tance a
sthe s
i
ze o
fthe p
late
sisi
ncrea
sed c
om-
p
ared wi
th the spac
ing.
6
2 FLECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 2

whe
re e risthe re
lat
ive permit
tivity of the medium between t
he pl
ates.
A
s m entioned above
, th
is formula neglec
t s t
he el
ect
ric f
i
eld f
r
inging the
e
dge oft he capac
itor s
o tha
t Cb y (
2-56) issl
ight
ly le
ss t
han t
he actual
c
apacitance.

Example
. Ap a
ralle
l-p
late c
apacito
r consis
ts oft wo s
quare meta
l pla
te s 5
0 cm on
asi
de and sepa
rated by 1cm. As lab o
fs u
lfur (er = 4
) 6mm t h
ick isplaced on t
he
l
owerplate asi
ndicated i
n F
ig. 2
-11a
. Th is l
eave
sa n ai
rg ap 4mm thick between t
he

mm A
i
r C.

c
,
m
S
u
lphu
r
C
.
f
(
a) (
b
)
FI
G. 2
-11. Pa
rale
l-pla
te c
apac
ito
r w
ith s
u
lfur s
l
ab a
nd a
i
r g
ap (
a
) a
nd e
quiva
lent
s
er
ies c
apac
itor (
6
).

s
ulfur s lab and the u pper plate
. F ind the capacitance o f the c apacitor
. Neg lect
f
r
ing ing o f t
he fi
eld at the edges of the c
apacitor.
Solution. Imag ine that athin me talfoi
li splaced ont he upper s urface o
ft he sulfur
s
lab. The f o
il is not connected to e i
ther plate
. S ince the foi
l isn ormal to E, a nd
a
ssum ing that itiso f negl
igible thickness, the fi
e
ld i n the capacitor i sundisturbed .
The c apacitor may n ow b e regarded a s two capacitors in se
ries, a n air c
apac itor of
4 mm p late s
pacing a nd capacitance C ., and as ulfur-f
i
lled capac itor of 6 mm p late
s
pacing a nd capacitance C „ as sugge s
ted in Fig. 2-1lb. The c apac itance of the a i
r
c
apac itor is
, fr
om ( 2-56),
8
.85i
ler 8
.85 X 0
.52 X 1
C
. — =5
53 14
0
.004

The c
apac
itance o
f t
he s
ul
fur
-fi
lled c
apac
itor i
s

8
.85 X 0
.5 2 X 4
= — 1
,
475 i
s
pi
0
.006

The tota
lc apac
itance o
ft wo capac
itorsi nparaleli
sthe sum ofthe i
ndiv
idualcapac
i-
t
ances. Howeve r
, the to
ta l c
apacitance o
f t wo c
apacitors i
n s
er
ies
, as h
ere
, isthe
r
eciprocal of t
he s
um o f the re
ciprocals o
f the i
ndiv
idua l c
apac
itances
. Thus, the
t
otal capac
itance C i
sgiven b y

1 1 1

o
r
C.C
. 5
53 X 1475
C = C
. -IC. 5
53 1
'
,475 — 4
02 i
.
A
.f

2
-11. Act
ion o f Die
lectr
ic in aC apac
itor. I n the a bove r e
lat
ions
f
or t
he capac
itance ofcapacitor
si tistobe noted tha
t t he c
apacitance i
s
p
roport
ional to t
he permitt
ivity e. For e
xamp le, i
fthe capa c
itance ofa
p
aral
lel
-plate capac
itor with air as t
he di
electr
ic med ium i s 1 ft hen
f
i
l
ling the space be
tween t he pla
tes with paraff
in (, = 2
e .
1) raises t
he
SE
C. 2
-
11] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD . PART 2 6
3

c
apacitance t
o 2.1 pf
. T hatis
, with t
he paraff
in d
ie
lect
ric the c
apacito
r
p
late
s can store 2.1 t
imes a
s much charge f
or agiven app
lied potent
ial
.
The r
eason fo
rt h
is i
ncrea
se inthe c
harge s
torage c
apac
ity istobef ound
i
nthe p o
lar
iza t
ion ofthe pa
raff
in.
P
l
ate
s
".—P
late
s
/ çP
araf
f
in \
+
—Q +Q -
Q

A
x
is A
x
is

4
-

A
i
r

--)

v t
•

P
a
l P
sI
o
r I

(
a
) (
b
)
FI
G. 2-
12. T he v
ariat
ion ofthe fl
ux d
ensity D, el
ectr
ic fi
e
ld inten
sity E
, p
olarizat
ion
P
, potentia
l V, and s
urface c
harge d
ensi
ty p ,along t
he axis b
etween t
he p
lates o
fa n
a
i
r capacitor i
sshown at (a
). The varia
t ion a
fter aparaff
in s
l
ab h a
sbeen i
ntroduced
i
silustrated a
t (b
).

Referr
ing t o Fig. 2-12a, le
t t he m edium b e tween t he plate
s b e a i
r.
L
et ap otential orvoltage diference V b ea ppl
ied t ot he p
lates, asw ith a
b
attery, re
sulting inc harges +Q a nd —Q o n the plates
. T he b a
tte ry i
s
t
hen disconnec ted. T he re
sulting v ar
iation of the f l
ux den s
ity D , fi
eld
i
ntensi
ty E,p o
larizat
ion P,p otent ia
l V,a nd surface charge density p,a sa
f
unction ofd i
stance along the capac ito
ra x
is (norma l tothe center o fthe
p
lates) i
sp resented b y t
he graphs i nF ig
. 2-12a. S ince t
h.
e p ermittivity
6
4 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 2

o
fa irisn early u nity, the p o
la r
iza tion issub stantial
ly zero. The s urface
c
harge d ensity isd ue to true c harge on the c apacitor pla
tes a nd isi ndi-
c
ated b yv ertical line sint he g raph.
Consider n ow t he s i
tuation w hen a slab ofp a
raf f
in (e
,
. =2 .1) isi ntro-
d
uced b etween t he c apac
ito r pla tes asi nFig . 2-
12b. I tisa s
sumed t hat
t
he slab i s subs tan tia
lly a s t hick a s the s pacing b etween t he p lates.
Howeve r, forc l
arity t he airg aps b etween t he platesa nd the paraff
in s lab
a
re exagge ra ted i n F ig. 2 -12b . S ince t he b at
tery w a
s d isconnec ted
b
efore the p a
raf f
in w asintroduced , the charge o nthe platesist he s
ame a s
p
reviously. T herefo re
, the f lux d ensity D i st he same a s before a nd is
c
onstant b etween t he plates. Howeve r
, t he total fi
eld inten s
ity E i n
t
he dielectric i s r educed t o 0 .475 o f its v alue i n the a i
r c apa citor
(
E = D/e oe
,
.= 0 .475D/e 0) . T he p olarization P h as a v a
lue i n t he
p
araff
in s uch t hatP e
oE = D o r

P =D(
1 ——
1) = 0
.525 D

S
ince E i nt he p araf f
in i sr educed , t he p oten t
ial d ife rence oft he p lates
i
sa lso r educed a s i ndica ted i n Fig. 2 -12. W ith t he p araff
in d ielect r
ic
t
here i sn ot o nly t he t rue s urface c ha rge o f dens ity p .o n the c apac itor
p
lates b ut also t he p ola rization c harge o fd ensity P .,o nt he surface o fthe
p
araf f
in. I ti st ob en o ted t ha tD =p .
,w hi
le P = p .o. T he polariza tion
c
harge d oesn ota fect D , b uti td oesr educe E i nt he d i
elec t
ric b yp artially
n
eu tralizing t he e fec t o f t he t rue s urface c harge o n t he plates
. A s a
r
esult t he p oten tial d if
fe rence o f t he p lates i sonly 1 /2.1 = 0 .475 o fi t
s
v
alue f ort he a irc apac ito r ( the e fecto ft he airg ap i nt he p a
raf f
in c apa c
i-
t
orb e
ing n eglec ted ). T here fore,i ft he b attery wi th p otential Vt hatw as
o
r
igina l
ly a pp l
ied t o the a i
r c apacito r isn ow c onnec ted t o the p araf f
in
c
apac itor, the t rue c ha rge s tored o n t he p la
te s c an b e increased t o 2.1
t
ime s its or
igina l v alue. A cco rding ly , t he capac itance ( charge p e r u n
it
p
oten tial) is2 .1 i t
sv alue w ith a ir. T he f i
eld E i nt he p araff
in c apac itor
i
sn ow e qua l toi t
sv alue i nt he airc apac i
to r, but t he flux density D i s2.1
t
ime s as much .
2
-12 . D ielec tric S treng th. T he f i
eld i ntensity E i n ad ie
lectric c anno t
b
ei ncreased i ndefin itely. I f ac er
ta in v alue i sexceeded , sparking o ccurs
a
nd t he d ie
lec tric i ss a
id t o b reak d own .' T he max imum f i
e
ld i nten sity
t
hat ad ie
lec tric c an s us tain w ithout b reakdown i sc a
lled its d ie
l ec
t r
ic
s
t
reng th.
1As Ei sg radually increased
, s parking o ccurs in a
ir almost immediate
ly w hen a
c
r
itica
l v a
lue of fi
e
ld ise xceeded ift he fi
e
ld i su n
iform (Ee verywhere pa
rallel
), but a
g
lowing, or corona, di
scha rge may o ccur fi
rst ifthe fi
eld isnonuniform (diverging)
w
ith spark-overf o
llowing a s Eisincreased fur ther
. F or adeta
iled d
iscu
ssion see, f
or
e
xamp le
, F . W . Peek, Jr., "Dielectric P henomena i n H igh V o
ltage Engineering,"
3
d ed.
, McGraw -Hil
l B ook C ompany , I
nc., N ew Y ork
, 1929.
SE
C. 2
-
13] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD
. PART 2 6
5

I
n the d es
ign o f c apacitors i ti si mportant t o k now t he max imum
p
oten t
iald iference t hatc an bea pplied b efore breakdown o ccur s
. F ora
g
iven p late s pac
ing t h
is b reakdown i s propo rt
iona l t o the d i e
lectric
s
trength o fthe med ium b etween t he p lates. T he radius ofc urva ture of
t
he e dge of the c apacitor pla te isa nothe r factor
, s ince this c urvature
l
argely determ ines the max imum f i
e
ld i n
tensity tha t occurs f or ag iven
p
o tent
ial diference ( see Sec
. 2 -28)
.
Many c apacitors h ave a i
r a s t he d ie
lect r
ic. T hese t ypes h ave t he
a
dvan tage t hat ifb reakdown o ccur s the c apacitor i sn ot permanen t
ly
d
amaged . F ora ppl
i cat
ions r equiring l arge capacitance o rs ma l
lp hysical
s
i
ze o rb o
th, otherd ielectr
ics a ree mployed . T he dielec t
ric streng th ofa
n
umbe r of c ommon d ie
lectric ma terials i s li
sted i n T able 2 -3. T he
d
ielectr
ic strengths a re f
or au n
iform f i
eld. T he mat e r
ials are a rranged
i
n order ofi nc
reasing s t
reng th.
TABLE 2-3
Mater
ial Di
elec
tri
c s
t
reng
th,vo
lts/me
ter
A
ir ( a
tmospher ic pres
sure
) 3X 1
06
O
il ( mineral) 1
5 X106
P
ape r (imp regnated) 1
5 X 106
P
olys tyrene 2
0 X106
Rubber ( hard) 2
1 X 106
Bakelite 2
5 X 106
G
lass ( p
late) 3
0 X 1
06
P
a raff
in 3
0 X 1
0°
Q
uar tz (fused) 3
0 X 1
06
Mica 2
00 X 1
06

2
-13. E nergy i
n aC apaci
tor
. I trequires work t
o cha
rge a c
apac
itor
.
Hence energy iss
tored by acharged capac
itor.
To determine the magnitude of t
his energy, c
ons
ider acapac
itor of
c
apacitance C cha
rged t o apoten
tia
l diference V be
tween t
he two con
-
d
uctors. T hen f
r
om ( 2-47
)
q = CV (
2
-57
)

whe
re q = charge on e ach conductor
. Now p otent
ial i
s work pe
r
c
harge. In t
erm s o
f inf
inite
simals i
tisthe i
nf
in
itesimal w
ork dW pe
r
i
nf
inite
sima
l charge d
q
. T hatis
,
, dW
r = — (
2
-58
)
dg
I
ntroduc
ing t
he v
alue o
f Vf
r
om (
2
-58
) i
n (
2
-57
), w
e h
ave

dW = d
q (
2
-59
)

I
fthe c
ha rg
ing p
roces
s star
ts f
rom a z
ero c
harge a
nd cont
inues unt
il a
f
i
nal c
harge Q i
sde
livered
, the t
o
tal w
ork 17 i
sthe i
nteg
ral o
f (
2-59
), o
r
6
6 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 2

1f Q 1Q 2
W = —
C 0ada = -—
2
C (
2
-60
)

This i
sthe e
nergy st
ored i
nthe c
apac
ito
r. B
y (
2
-47
) t
h
is r
e
lat
ion c
an b
e
va
rious
ly expressed a
s
1Q2
2C
V2 =2 QV
tu 1 1
r
r = 2 = (
2
-61
)

where W = energy (jou

les)
C=c apacitance (f
arads)
V- =potential d
iference (vo
lts)
Q=c harge on one conductor (coulomb s
)
2
-14. Energy Density i
n aStat
ic Electric F
ield. C on
siderthe para
lle
l-
.
p
late c
apacito
r ofc apac
itance C shown i nFig. 2-
13. When i tischarged
t
o ap o
tentia
ldiference Vbetween
t
he plate
s, t
he energy s
to
red is
A
r
ea A
W = 1C17
2 = -
I
NV (
2
-62
)
I
E ,-
D A
, The q
ues
tion may n
ow b
easked
:
+ + + I
n what p
art o
ft he c
apac
itoris
t
he e
nergy st
ored? The a nswer
i
s
: The ene
rgy i s s
to
red in the
FI
G
. 2
-13
. Energy i
sst
ored i
n t
he e
l ict
ectr hee
l
ep
l
ca
tt
r
ie
cs
. f
ie
ld b e
tw een
f
i
e
ld b
etween t
he c
apac
itor p
la
tes
. Todemon strate th
is,le
tu sp roceed
a
s fo
llow s
: C on
side r t
he s mall cu-
b
ical vo
lume A v
( =A P) between the p
late
sa sindicated inFig.2-13. Th is
v
olume i ss hown t o alarge r s
ca
le in F
ig
. 2-14. T he le
ngth ofe ach side
i
sAl, and t he top and b ottom faces (
ofarea A
l
2) a
re paral
leltot hesapac -
i
t
o r p
la tes ( normal to t he fi
eld E)
. I f
t
hin shee ts of metal f
oi
l a re p
laced co
in-
c
ident w ith the top and b o
ttom faces o
f
t
he volume , the fi
e
ld willb eu nd
isturbed T
hs
in
hem
e
et
s
tal
p
rovided the s
hee
ts a
re suff
ic
iently t
h
in.
The volume Av now c
onstitute
s as mal
l L
1
c
apacitor o
fcapac
itance

AC = —
e
Al2 = eA
/ (
2
-63
) Fm. 2
-14. Sma
ll cub
ica
l v
olume
A
/ o
fcapac
itance ad
.

The p
oten
tia
l d
ife
rence AV o
fthe t
h
in s
hee
ts i
sgiven b
y

(
2
-64
)

Now t
he e
nergy AW s
tored i
n t
he v
olume h
w i
s
, f
rom (
2
-61
),

A
TV = t
L C AV 2 (
2
-65
)
SE
C. 2
-15
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 2 6
7

S
ubs
titu
ting (
2
-63
) f
o
r AC a
nd (
2
-64
) f
o
r AV i
n (
2
-65
), w
ehave
AW = l
re
E2 A
y (
2
-66
)
D
ividing (2-66) b
y Av and t
ak
ing the l
imit o
f t
he ra
tio AW/ iv as A
v
a
pproachesz ero
, w
eo bta
in t
he e
nergy p
erv o
lume, o
renergy d
ens
ity
, toa
t
t
he poin
t around which A
v s
hr
inks to z
e
ro. T hus
'
AW 1
t
o =lim —A = EE 2 (
2
-67a
)
A
v.(
)
Now t
he tota
l e
nergy W st
ored by the c
apaci
tor o
fFig
. 2-
13 wil
l b
e
g
iven b
y the in
teg
ral o
f t
he ene
rgy d en
sity t
oover t
he e
nt
ire r
eg
ion i
n
wh
ich t
he el
ectr
ic f
i
eld E h
as avalue
.

W = t
odv = j€E 2d
v (
2
-68
)

w
here t
he integrat
ion istaken t
hroughout t
he r
eg
ion between t
he plates
.
F
or s
implic
ity i tisassumed tha
t the f
i
eld i
suni
form b e
tween the plate
s
a
nd tha
t the re i
sn o fr
ing
ing of t
he fi
e
ld at t
he edge
s of t
he capacitor
.
T
hus, e
valua ting (
2-68)
,
W =i
€E 2A
1 = DA E
l =i
QV j
ou
les (
2
-69
)
where A = a rea o fo ne c apacito rp late ( me ter s 2)
1= s pacing b e tween c apac ito r pla te s ( me te rs)
This r esult, o btained b y i n
teg ra t
ing t he e ne rgy d en s
ity throughou t the
v
olume b e tween t he p lates o ft he c apac ito r, i sid en tical with t he r e
lation
g
iven b y (2-61).
2
-15 . F ields o f S imp le C ha rge C onfigura tions . I n many p rob lem s it
i
sd esirab le t ok now t he distribu tion o ft he e lectric f ield and t he a ssociated
p
oten tial. F o
r e xamp le, ift he f ield i n tens ity e xceed s the b reakdown
v
alue f ort he di e
lec t r
ic m edium , s pa rking , o rc orona , c an o
ccur . F rom a
k
now ledge o f the f ie
ld d istribu tion , t he c ha rge s urface d en sity o n con-
d
uc to rsb ound ing t he fie
ld a nd t he c apac itance b etween t hem c an also be
d
ete rm ined.
I
n S ec s
. 2 -16 t o2 -25 t he f i
eld a nd p oten tia l dist ribu tionsf or an umbe r
o
f s imp le g eome tric f o
rm s ar e d iscuss ed . T he f ie
ld a nd p oten tial dis
-
t
r
ibut ion s a round p oin t c harge s
, c harged s phe re s, l i
ne c ha rge s
, a nd
c
ha rged c ylinde rs a re c onside red f i
r st. T he f i
e
ld a nd p oten tial d is
tribu-
t
ions o ft hese c onfigu ra t
ion s c an b e e xpre s sed b y r e
la t
ively s imp le equa-
t
ions. T he e xt ension o f t hese r ela tions b y t he m ethod o f i mages t o
s
i
tua tions i nvolv ing l a
rge c onduc ting s hee t s o r g round p lane s is then
c
on sidered . F ina lly, inS ec
. 2 - 26, t he f i
eld a nd p o ten tialdis tr
ibu tionsf o
r
s
ome c onduc to r c onf igura t
ions , w hich a re n ot e asily tr eated ma the-
F
orthe more g
enera
lcase o
f an
oni
sotrop
ic med
ium i
nwh
ich D a
nd E may n
otbe
i
nthe s
ame di
rect
ion,
w iD •E (
2-67h
)
6
8 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 2

mat
ically, a re found b y a s imple graphica
l m ethod known a s fi
eld
mapping.
2
-16. F ields ofPoint Charges and C onduct
ing Spheres
. T he fi
eld
so f
p
oint cha rges and conduct
ing s phere
s h ave al
ready been d
iscussed, but
t
he re
lation s wi
ll be s
ummar ized inthis sec
tion.
The electric fi
e
ld of an is
olated po
int charge iseve
rywhere radial and
i
sgiven i n volt
s per meter by

E
,
. = Q (
2
-70
)
4
rer2

w
here Q i
sthe c
harge i
ncou
lombs a
nd ri
sthe d
i
stance f
r
om t
he c
harge i
n
m
eter
s.

(
a)

r
, r

E
qu
ipo
ten
tie
ls

(
b
)

F
la. 2
-15
. V ar
iat
ion of e
lectr
ic f
i
e
ld E a
nd p
otent
ial Vf
o
r a
n i
s
ola
ted c
harged c
on-
d
uct
ing sphe
re of r
adius r
l.
SE
C
. 2
-
18] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD . PART 2 6
9

T
he ab
solut
e e
l
ect
ric p
otent
ial Vo
fan i
s
ola
ted p
oin
t c
harge i
sgiven
i
nvolt
sb y

v= Q (
2
-7 1
)
4
1
-er

T he e l
ec tr
ic f i
eld o f a n i solated c ondu ct
ing s ph ere ( hollow o r s o
lid ) o f
r
ad ius r1 w i
th at otal c ha rge Q i se verywhe re r adia l a nd i sa l
so g iven b y
(
2-70 ) f or a l
l v alue s o f rl arge r t han r 1. F or v a
lue s o f rl es s t han r i
(
in s
ide s phe re) E=0 .
T he e lectric p oten tia l Vo fs uch a n i so
la ted c onduc ting s phe re i sg iven
b
y ( 2-71 ) f or a l
l v alue s o f rl a
rge r t han r1. F or v alues o f rl ess t han r1
(
inside s phe re) t he p o ten tia l i sc ons tan t a nd h a s t he s ame v alue a s t he
p
o ten tia l o ft he s phe re .
F
ie ld a nd p o ten tia l d is tribu tions may b e p re sented i n v a
rious w ays.
F
o r e xamp le, ag raph o f t he v ariation o f the magn itude o f t he e l
ec tric
f
i
eld E a nd o ft he e lec tric p ot en t
ia l Va long ar e
fe rence l i
ne may g i ve t he
d
esired i nfo rma tion . T his i si lus tra ted b y t he c urve s for Ea nd V i n
F
ig. 2 -15a f or t he f i
eld a nd p oten tial a long a r ad ial l i
ne e xtend ing f rom
t
he c en ter o f ac ha rged c onduc ting s phe re o fr adius r1. O r t he f ie
ld a nd
p
o ten tia ld i
stribut ion may b ei ndica ted b y ac on tour map , org raph , a si n
F
ig. 2 - 15b. I n t his map t he r adia l l i
ne s i ndicate t he d irec tion o f t he
e
lec tric f i
e
ld , w hile t he c ircu la r c ontour sa re e qu ipo ten tial line s
. I n t his
d
iag ram t he p oten tial d ife rence b etween c on tour s i s ac ons tant .
2
-17 . F ield o f Two E qua l P oin t C ha rges o f O ppos ite S ign ( Elec tric
D
ipo le) . T he e lec tric f i
eld a t ap oin t Pd ue t o t wo p oint c ha rge s +Q
a
nd -Q i se qua l t o t he v ec to r sum o ft he fields a t Pd ue t o e ach o ft he
c
ha rges a lone. Th is i si lus tra ted i n F ig. 2 -16 . T he p oten tia l Va t P
i
s e qua l to t he a lgebra ic s um o f t he p oten t
ia ls a t Pd ue t o e ach c ha rge
a
lone . T he field c an a lso b e o bta ined f rom t he g rad ien t oft he p o tent ial
(
E = -V V ) i ft he p oten tial d istribu tion i sk nown .
A map o ft he f i
eld l i
ne s ( so
lid ) a nd e quipo ten tia l c on tour s ( da shed ) i s
s
hown i n F ig. 2 -16 f or t he c ase o fp oin t c ha rge s +Q a nd -Q s epa rated
b
y 1 2.7 c m. T he e qu ipo ten tia l c on tour s a re g i ven i n v o
lt s f or
Q= 1 .4 X 1 0- 1 °c oulomb . T he c ha rge c onf igura tion i n Fig . 2 -16 c on-
s
t
itut e s a n e lec tric d ipo le w ith a c ha rge s epa ra tion o f 1 2
.7 c m. T he
e
xp re s s
ion s for Ea nd V o f a n e l
ec tric d ipo le g iven b y ( 2-7) a nd ( 2-6)
wou ld n ot app ly t ot he map s hown i nF ig. 2 -16 s ince t hese a re r e
str icted
t
od i s
tance s tha t a re l arge c ompa red w ith t he c ha rge s epara tion .
2-18 . F ield o f Two E qua lP o
in tC ha rges o fS ame S ign . I nc on tra stt o
t
he c onf igura tion i nS ec. 2 -17 l etu sc on side rt he s itua tion o ft wo p o s
i t
ive
p
oin t c harge s o f e qua l magn itude a s i n Fig . 2 -17 . A map o f t he f i
eld
l
ine s ( so
lid ) a nd e qu ipo ten tia l c on tour s ( da shed ) i ss hown f or ac ha rge
s
epa ra tion o f1 2.7 c m. T he e qu ipo tent ia l contour sa r eg iven i nv ol tsf o
r
7
0 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 2

ii I I i
C
ent
ime
ter
s

Fm. 2-16. Electric fi

e
ld and potential variat
ion around an el
ectr
ic dipo
le c
onsist
ing
o
f ap ositive a nd negative charge of 1 .4 X 1
0-10 c
oulomb separated by 12
.7 cm
(
5in.
). The s olid l
inesare f
i
eld li
nes, a
nd t he d
ashed li
nes a
re equ
ipotent
ialcontours
,
w
ith their potentia
l leve
l ind
icated inv o
l ts
.

Q= 1 .
4 X 1 0-
1 °c ou
lomb . T he o nly d iference b etween t he c harge
c
onfiguration o
fF ig. 2-
17 a nd thati nFig. 2 -
16 isthatt he lowe rc harge is
p
ositive
.
At distances from t he c harges that a re l a
rge compa red w ith t he
ir
s
eparation the equ
ipo tentials become circles, while t
he fie
ld lines become
r
adials as t
hough the fie
ld w ere caused by ac harge of +2Q s i
tua ted atP
m
idway b etween the charges. A tlarge distancest h
is pointa ppear stob e
t
he center ofcharge, or "cen ter ofgravity," o fthe charge configura t
ion.
 -

SE
C. 2
-
19] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD . PART 2 7
1

Nea
re ach charge t
he efect o
fthe other charge issma
ll, and t
he equi
-
p
otent
ials a
re ci
rcles l
ike around an is
olated p o
int charge
. F o
r in
te r
-
m
ediate dis
tance s t
he equipotent
ials have t he shapes shown i n Fig
.
2
-
17. O f par
ticular i
nterest is t
he f i
gure-e
igh t
-shaped e qu
ipotentia
l

FI
G. 2-
17. Electric fi
e
ld a nd p otent
ial va
ria
tion a
round two equa
l pos
i t
ive cha
rges
o
f 1
.4 X1 0-1 °coulomb s eparated by 12
.7 cm (5in
.). The so
lid l
ine
s are f
i
eld l
ines
,
a
nd the dashed l i
nes are equipotent
ial c
ontours
, w
ith t
he
ir potent
ial l
evel i
nd
icated
i
nv o
lts
.
(V =3 9.5 vo
lts) t
hat c
rosses i
t
sel
f at t
he p
oint P
. A t the po
intPt he
g
radient of Viszero
, and hence E = 0
. Ap o
int s
uch a
s this i
scal
led a
s
ingular po
int
.
2
-19. Field of a Number of Po
int Cha
rges and Conduct
ing Sphe res.
The el
ectr
ic f
ie
ld E a
t apo
in t Pdue t
o anumberofpo
intchargesisequalt o
7
2 E
LECTROMAGNET
1CS [
Cam
.
. 2

t
he vec tor sum o ft he f i
e
ld s at Pd ue to each oft he charge s a
lone. The
p
otentia l Va t Pi se qual to t he algebraic s um oft he poten t
ials a
t Pd ue
t
oe ach c harge a lone.
The e l
ectric fi
eld E a t ap oint P d ue to an umbe r o
fc ha rg
ed condu c
ting
s
pheresi sa pproxima tely equa l t othe v ec
to rs um o fthe f i
e
ld sat Pd ue to
e
ach s phere alone , w hi
le t he p otential Va t Pi sa pproxima tely equal to
t
he algebraic s um o ft he p oten tia
ls at Pd ue t
o each s phere alone
. I ti s
a
ssumed t ha t the s pheres a re s mall compa red with t heir separation so
t
hat the c harge d is
tribution o n each s phere i ssubstantially unifo
rm .
2
-20. F ield of aF inite L ine o f C harge. C ons
ide r now t he fi
eld pro-
d
uced b y at hin l i
ne o felectric c harge. L e
t ap osit
ive c harge Q b e di
s-
t
r
ibuted u niform ly as a n inf
in ites
ima lly thin l i
ne oflength 2 awith center

z
-
ax
is

d
E,
.
r
-ax
is

dE

L
i
ne o
fch
arg
e

Fm
. 2
-18
. Th
in l
i
ne o
fcha
rge o
f l
e
ngth 2
a
.

a
t the o
r
igin a
s i
n Fig
. 2
-
18. T
he l
i
nea
r c
harge d
ens
ity p
q
, (
cha
rge p
er
u
nit l
eng
th) i
sthen

P
c = —a
2 (
2
-72
)

where pi,
i
si ncou
lombs perm e
terwhen Qi sinc
oulomb sand aisi
nm eter
s.
Atthe point Po nthe ra
x
is, t
he i
nf
in
ite simalelec
tric f
i
eld d
Ed ue t
oa n
i
nf
inite
sima l l
ength ofwi
re d
zi st
he s
ame a sfr
om ap o
int c
harge o
f mag-
n
itude pi
,d z
. T hus
,
P
r,d z
dE =aj 4irep (
2-7
3)
SE
C
. 2
-
211 T
HE S
TAT
IC E
LECTR
IC F
IELD. P
ART 2 7
3

w
here 1= y r2 z2

ai = u
nit v
ectori
nd i
rect
ion o
f1
T
he zax
is in F
ig. 2-
18 i
san ax
is o
fs ymme
try s
o t
hat t
he f
i
e
ld w
i
ll h
ave
o
nly za
nd rc omponent
s. T hese a
re

d
E, =d
Eco
s 0= d
E (
2
-74
)

a
nd

d
E =d
Esi
n 0= d
ET (
2
-75
)

The r
e
sul
tant o
rtotal rc
omponent E
,ofthe f
ie
ld a
t apo
int o
n t
he rax
is
i
sobta
ined b
yintegrat
ing (
2
-74) o
ver t
he e
nt
ire l
i
ne o
fcharge
. T ha
ti s
,

E =p
Lr f +a d
z _ r a d
z
4
i
re —a 13 — 7r
4 e —a /
(r 2 +z 2)
1

a
nd
Er — pLa (
2
-76
)
2
Ter N
/r2 a2

By symmetry t
he re
sul
tant zc
omponen
t E, o
fthe f
i
eld a
t ap
oint o
n the
rax
is i
szero
. H ence t
he t
o
tal f
i
e
ld E a
tpoin
tsalong t
he ra
x
is isr
adial
a
nd isgi
ven by

l
E
l = Er — p
at (
2
-77
)
2
rer Vr 2 a2

Th
is r
elation givesthe fi
eld a s afunct
ion o f ra
tp oints o n t
he ra x
is fora
f
i
niteli
ne o fcharge ofl e
ng th 2aa nd u n
iform cha rge d ensity P
L
. For t
he
p
otent
ial Va t any point se e P
rob. 2-28.
2
-21
. F ield of an I nf
ini te Line of C harge. C onside r t
hat t he li
ne
o
f cha
rge i n Fig
. 2-18 extend s to inf
inity in both p ositive and nega t
ive
zd
irect
ions. B y d
ividing t he numeratora nd denom ina torof( 2
-77 ) bya
a
nd le
tting ab ecome i nf
inite, t
he elec
t r
ic fi
e
ld inten sity d ue t
oa ni nf
init
e
l
ine o
fp osi
tiv
e chargei sfound t o be

l
E
l =E
, = 2
T
e
r(
2-78
)

The poten
tial diference V21 be
tween t wo p
oint
s at radial di
stances r
2
a
nd ri from the infin
ite l
ine of c
harge i
st hen t
he w ork per unit cha
rge
r
equired to t
ranspo rt aposi
tive tes
t cha
rge from r2 t
o r1
. A ssume that
r2 > r1. Th
is p o
tentialdiference isg
iven bythe li
ne in
teg ra
l ofE ,from
r2 t
o r1,t
he potential a
t r1 b
eing h
igher t
han at r2 i
fthe li
ne ofc ha
rge i
s
p
ositive
. T hus
T
1
v 21 f E
r d
r = f
rid
r
r
: 2
i
re r
7
4 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 2

o
r
'
r
t
PL 1 PL r
2
V21 = nr =— in— (
2-79
)
2
7
re I in I 2
7
re r1

2
-22. I nf
in i
te C ylinder o f C harge. I f the charge i sdistributed u ni-
f
orm ly a long a c y
linde r of radius rl i nstead of concen t
ra ted a long a n
i
nf
in ite
sima lly t hin line, the f i
eld e xternal to the cylinde r isg iven b y
(
2-78 ) f
or r> r1. I n
side o fthe c yl
inde r
, E=0 .
The potent ial diference b etween t he cy
linder and p o
in ts o u
tside t he
c
ylinde r isg iven b y (2-79
) , w here r 2>r la nd pi
,ist he c harge p er unit
l
eng th oft he c y
linder. I nside o ft he c y
linder the potential ist he same
a
s t he poten t
ial at the surface ( r = ri) .
2
-23. I nf
inite C oaxial T ransm iss ion L ine. A c oaxial t ransm iss
ion
l
i
ne c onsists o ft wo conduc tors a r
ranged c oax
ially as shown b y the cross
s
ection o fF ig. 2-19a. T his is ac ommon t ype oft r
ansm is s
ion l ine
, and
much c an b el earned concern ing i t
sp ropert
ies fr
om ac onsidera t
ion o fi t
s
O
ute
r
c
onducto
r

(
a) (
b
)
FI
G
. 2
-
19. C
oax
ial t
r
ansm
iss
ion l
i
ne.

b
ehav ior under s tatic cond it
ions. L e
t af i
xed potential diference be
a
pp l
ied b etween t he i nner a nd o uter conductors of an i nf
ini
tely long
c
oaxial li
ne so that t he charge Q p er unit l
ength 1ofone line is PL
. T he
f
i
eld i sconfined to t he space b e
tween t he two conduc tors. The f i
eld
l
i
ne s are radial and t he e quipoten tia
l l i
nes are concentric circ
les as
i
ndicated inF ig. 2
-19b . T he magn itude oft he f
i
eld a
t ar adius risgiven
b
y ( 2-78)
, whe re a < r< ba nd w here pi
,i sthe c
harge p er unit l
ength
o
nt he innerc onduc to r
. T he p o
ten tialdiference V between the conduc-
t
ors is
, fr
om ( 2
-79)
,

V=,
.
,
' (
2
-80
)
,
a
re a

1The a
bbrev
iat
ion I
nind
icatesthe n
aturalloga
rithm (
tobase e
)
. The a
bbrev
iat
ion
l
og i
ndica
tes t
he c
ommon logar
ithm (to base 1
0)
. T hatis
,

n x.
I .log
. x. 2
.
3 l
og
,. x.
E
.2.
3 l
og x
SE
C. 2
-24
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD . PART 2 7
5

Now c
apac
itance i
sgiven b
y t
he r
a
tio o
fcharge t
opo
ten
tia
l. T
hus

C =
D
ivid
ing b
y l
e
ngth 1
,we h
ave

C_Q/
1
1— V

T
he r
atio Q
/1 equals t
he l
inea
r c
harge d
ensity pi,(
c
oulombs per me
ter
).
H
ence
, the c
apacitance p
er un
it l
e
ngth, C
//
, ofthe coax
ial l
i
ne is

C p = 2
i
re
f
a
rads/me
ter (
2
-81
)
T =V i
n (
b/a)

where e= permittiv
ity ofm ed
ium between conductor
s. W ith einfa
rads
p
erm e te
r, Cisal
so inf a
radsp ermeter
. T he rad
ii aand bare e
xpre
ssed
i
nt he same un
its oflength
.
S
ince e= e o
e,
, w here eo=8 .
85 X 10-1
2 fa
rad/meter, (
2-81) can be
e
xpressed more convenient
ly as

C_ 5
5.6er _ 2
4.2
e,
m
i
if/ meter (
2
-82
)
/ i
n( b/a
) l
og (
b/a
)

where t = r
e
lat
ive p
er m
itt
ivity o
fmed
ium b
etween c
onduc
tor
s
wsf =m ic rom icro farad s
b= inside r adius o fo uter c onduc tor
a= r adius o finne r conduc to r (in same u nits a
s b)
I
n =n a tural l ogarithm
lo
g =l ogarithm t o base 1 0
2
-24. Two I nf
in ite L ines o f C ha rge. L et t wo inf
inite p aral
lel li
nes
o
fcharge bes epara ted b y ad istance 2 sa si n Fig
. 2-20. A s sume t hatthe
l
i
near charge d ensity o ft he t wo li
ne si se qual but ofo pposite si
gn. T he
r
e
sultant electric f i
eld E a t ap oint P, d istant r1 fr
om t he nega tive li
ne
a
nd r2f r
om t he p ositive l i
ne, ist hen t he v ector sum oft he fi
eld o feach
l
i
ne taken alone.
L
et the o r
igin o f t he coo rdinate s in F ig. 2-20 b e the reference for
p
otent
ial. T hen t he p otential dife rence b etween P a nd t he or
ig in p
ro-
d
uced b y t
he p ositively c harged l ine is

V + = i
n—8 (
2
-83
)
h
i
re r
2

a
nd t
he p
oten
tia
l d
ue t
o t
he n
ega
tive
ly c
harged l
i
ne i
s

V
_ = — i
n—8 (
2
-84
)
2
we r1
7
6 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CH\
P
. 2

E
qui
poten
tia
l
F
lo
. 2
-
20. T
wo i
n
f
ini
tel
i
neso
fch
arg
ese
para
ted b
y ad
i
stan
ce2
s
.

T
he t
ota
l po
tent
ial d
ife
rence V b
etween P a
nd t
he o
r
igin i
sthe a
lgeb
raic
s
um o
f (2
-83) a
nd (
2-84
), o
r

V= -
I
- V
_ = l
n 7
.
1 (
2
-85
)
2
7
re r2

I
f Vi
n (
2-85
) i
s acons
tant, (
2
-85
) isthe e
qua
tion o
fan equ
ipoten
tia
l
l
i
ne. The f
orm o
fthe e
quipo
tent
ialli
ne w
il
lbe more a
ppa
rent i
f(2
-85) i
s
t
rans
formed i
n t
he f
o
llow
ing manne
r: F
rom (
2
-85
)

2
weV
I
nr1 (
2
-86
)
r
2 P
c
a
nd
r
i
— = e 2
t
r
eV/p
L
, (
2
-87
)
r
2

S
ince 2
reV/p /,i
s ac
onstant f
or a
ny e
quipo
ten
tia
l l
i
ne, t
he r
i
ght s
i
de o
f
(
2-87
) i
s aconstant K
. T hus

e2
.
.v/
pf
. =K a
nd r1 = K
r2 (
2
-88
)

The c
oord
ina
tes o
fthe p
oint P i
n F
ig
. 2
-20 a
re (
x
, y
)so t
hat

2
-1 = V(8 + x
) 2 + y2 (
2
-89
)
a
nd
r
2= /
(8 x
)2 d
- y2 (
2
-90
)

S
ubs
titu
ting (
2
-89
) a
nd (
2
-90
) i
n (
2
-88
), s
qua
ring
, a
nd r
ear
rang
ing y
ie
lds

K2 + 1
X2 — 2xs K
2 — 1+ 82 + y2 = 0 (
2
-91)
SE
C. 2
-25
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 2 7
7

Add
ing s2(
K2 1
)2/(K 2 — 1
)2 t
o b
oth s
i
des o
f (
2
-91
) t
o c
omp
lete t
he
s
quare o
n t
he l
e
ft s
ide
, we have

(
X K - + 2Ks
K 2 — 1/ (
2
-92
)
2 y 2 -

T
his i
sthe e
qua
tion o
f ac
i
rcle h
aving t
he f
o
rm

(
x —h
)2 (
y - = 1.
2 (
2
-93
)

where xand yare t

he coord
inates of apo
int on t
he c
ir
cle, hand 1a
re t he
c
oordinates o
f the c
enter of t
he c
ircle
, and risthe r
adius of t
he c
ircle.
Comparing (2
-92) a
nd (2-93
),itfo
llow sthatthe e
quipotent
ialcurve pa
ss -
i
ng through t
he po
int (x
, y)is aci
rcle ofrad
ius

2Ks
r= K2 — 1 (
2
-94
)

w
ith i
t
s c
ente
r o
n t
he xa
x
is a
t ad
i
stance f
r
om t
he o
r
igin

K2 + 1
h = 8K2 1 (
2
-95
)

A n equ ipo ten tial l ine o f rad ius r w i

th c en ter a t ( h, 0 ) i ss hown i n
F
ig . 2 -20. A s K i ncrea ses
, c orrespond ing t o l arger e qu ipo tentials , r
a
pp roaches z ero a nd ha pp roache s ss ot hatt he e quipo ten tia ls a re s maller
c
ircles w ith t heir c ente r s mo re n ea rly a t t he l i
ne o f c ha rge . Th is is
i
lus trat ed b y t he a dditiona l e quipo ten tial c ircles inF ig . 2 -21 .
The p ot en tia li sz ero a long t he ya xis. P ot en t
ials t ot he r igh t oft he y
a
xis a re p os itive a nd t o t he left are n ega tive .
F
ield l ines a re a l
so s hown i nF ig. 2 -21. These a re e verywhe re o rthog -
o
na l to t he p o ten tial c irclesa nd a l
so a re circle s with t heir c en ter so n t he
ya xis.
2
-25 . I nfin ite Two-w ire T ransm iss ion L ine . The d i scus sion o f t wo
i
nfinite l ines o f c harge i n the p revious s e
ct ion i se asi
ly e x tended t o t he
c
ase o fa ni nfin ite l ine c onsist
ing o ft wo p aralle l cylindr ical c onduc tor so r
w
ire s. T h is i s at ype o f transm iss
ion l i
ne c ommon ly u sed i n prac tice,
a
nd much c an b el e
arned c once rning i tsp roper ties from ac ons idera tion o f
i
t
s b ehav io r u nde r s t
a t
ic c ond ition s
. L et af i
xed p oten tia l d ife rence b e
a
pp lied b e tween t he c onduc tor ss ot ha tt he c ha rge p eru nit l e
ng th o fe ach
c
onducto ri s PL .
The s ur face o f t he w ire i sa n equ ipo tent ial s urface, a nd t herefore a n
e
qu ipo ten tia l c ircle i n F ig. 2 -21 w il
l c o
inc ide w ith t he w i re s urface .
Thu s, the h eavy c ircle s of rad ius ra nd c en ter -
to-cen ter s pac ing 2 h c an
r
ep resen t t he t wo w ire s
. T he f i
eld a nd p oten tial di s
tr ibut ions e xte rnal
t
o t he w ire s urfaces a re t he s ame a s i fthe f i
eld w ere p roduced b y t wo
i
nfinitesima lly t hin l i
ne s o fcharge w ith as pac ing o f2 8. The f i
eld in side
7
8 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 2

V=0
FI
G
. 2 . F
-21 i
eld a
nd e
qu
ipo
ten
tia
l l
i
ne
s a
round t
wo i
n
f
ini
te p
a
ral
lel l
i
ne
s o
fch
arg
e
o
rar
ound a
n i
n
f
ini
tet
wo
-condu
cto
rtr
ansm
iss
ion l
i
ne
.

t
he wiresis
, o fcourse
, zero a
nd t he po
tentia
l the same a
so n t
he s
ur
face
.
The cha
rge isa o
tu n
iformly d
istr
ibu ted onthe wire s
ur
face b
uthashighe
r
d
ensity on the adjacent si
des o
ft he conductors
.
The potentia
l diference Vc be
tween o ne ofthe conduc
torsand apoin
t
midway b etween them is, f
rom (2-85) and (2
-88),

V = I
nK (
2
-96
)
2
7e

The va
lue o
f K can be e
xpre
ssed i
n t
erms o
f t
he r
adius rand ha
lf t
he
c
ente
r-to-
cen
ter spac
ing h by e
l
iminat
ing sf
rom (2
-94) and (
2-95
) and
s
o
lving fo
r K
, ob
ta in
ing
h ‘l
. h2
K =-
r — 1 (
2
-97
)

T
he p
oten
tia
l d
ife
rence V2c b
etween t
he t
wo c
onduc
tor
sist
hen

PL
17 2
c = — I
n - (
2
-98
)
r
e r r2

T
o fi
nd the c
apac
itanc
e perun
itle
ngth
, C/1
, o
fthe two
- conduc
torline,
w
e take t
he r
at
io ofthe cha
rge p
er u
nit l
eng
th on o
ne conductor t
o the
SE
C
. 2
-26
1 THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 2 7
9

d
ife
rence o
fpo
tent
ial b
etween t
he c
onduc
tor
s. T
hat i
s
,

C PL TE
= = f
a
rads/me
ter (
2
-99
)
1 V 2c
{
r
,
J
(
1
)r
2_1
]

or

C= 1
2
.1e
,
µ
µf/me
ter (
2
-100
)
l
og [
-
h ±•
\10) 2— 1
r r

where e r= r e
la t
ive p erm it t
iv ity o f t he med ium s urround ing t he c on-
ducto rs (dimen sion less)
h= h alf center-to -cen te r spacing
r= c onduc to r radius ( same u nits a s h
)
2
-26 . I nf
in ite S ingle-w ire T ransm ission L ine. Me thod o f I mages.
Asingle -wire t ransm ission l ine w ith g round r e
turn i sano therf orm o fline
s
ome time s used . L et t he c onduc to r r adius be ra nd t he heigh t of the
c
ente r oft he c onduc tora bove g round b eh. A ssume t ha t t
he c onduc tor
h
as ap os
itive c harge pi,p er u n
it l eng th a nd tha t the ground i sa t zero
p
oten tial
.
The f i
eld a nd p otentia ld i
stribu tion o ft his t
ype o fline isreadily found
b
yt he m e
thod o fi mages. T hus ,i ft he g round i sremoved a nd ani dentical
c
onduc tor w ith c harge — P L p e r u n
it l ength placed a s far be
low g round
l
eve
l a s t he o ther c onduc to r i sa bove , t he si
tua tion ist he same a s for a
t
wo- conduc to r l i
ne ( Fig. 2 - 21). The c onduc tor w h
ich r ep
lace s t he
g
round i s called t he i mag e o f the u ppe r conduc tor
. T he f i
eld a nd
p
otent iald istribution f ort he single c onduc torl i
ne isthen asi lustrated b y
F
ig. 2- 22.
The d iference i n p o ten t
ia l b etween t he single conduc to r a nd t he
g
round i sa s g i
ven b y (2-96 ) o r b y o ne-ha l
f of (2-98). T he c apacitance
p
er u nit leng th, C //
, ist w
ice t he v alue g i
ven b y ( 2
-99), or
2
re
f
a
rads/me
ter (
2
-101
)
1
r r
o
r
C_ 2
4
.2e
,
.
.
4
14/me
ter (
2
-102
)
l
og [
-h N
f(-
)2 — 1
i ]
r r

The s
urface c
harge dens
ity p.o n t
he c
onducting ground plane i
s n
ot
u
niform. I t i
s a max
imum d i
rectly b
elow the wire and iszero a
t an
i
nf
inite d
is
tance
. The v ar
iat
ion ofpgas afunct
ion ofd i
stance al
ong t
he
g
round plane i
sgiven i
nP rob. 2-
34.
8
0 ELECTRO MAGNETICS (
CHAP
. 2

G u
nd

I
•,-7 '-IL t 0
/
•.
.
o .
.7
,„7
.-
_
. -
...
7
.„ ,,
, _
, /
%
, /1x\
-
-, A
-
r-f., • -,
-
,s
-
/ )
:,k , Ì
,
4_ iIL-t
TyL
% \ ,
%
>
:1
l I,A' t
4

i tr - v
• r-1 t •
/ i
1 ‘
,
.
.%
.
.
./4 1
4 .i t i
-
0,
x
, A.
,. t
i i
1
I ,
.
.
' A`
•
•
. -
",
.."
'
, '-
..
.
I
.
1
*
I
..
.. _
y
0s"
l
i
s
.
.
.
•nag
1 .
e
.
•
I
-- \ _ _.
...
...
\ I / I

_-•
•
°
i
t •• I , 1
4
•
•
'
s - —

I i
/
• I /
\ /
•
%
I
I
/
F
la. 2
-22
. I
nf
in
ite s
i
ngle c
onductor a
bove g
round w
ith e
l
eetr
iea
l i
mage

2
-27. G raph ical Mapp ing o f S tat
ic E lectr
ic F ields. F ield C els.
Notal
lc onduc torconfigurations c an b
etreated ma thema tically as readi
ly
a
s those int he preceding sect
ions . A lthough i tist heoret
ica l
ly p ossible
t
o fi
nd t he potential di
stribution f o
r any configuration o fconduc to rs by
means ofL aplace's equation, asw ill b
ediscussed later, such a na pproach
may b e i mprac t
ical a nd o ther m ethods mus t b e u sed. I n t wo-
d
imen s
iona l problem s' av ery e fect
ive graphical m ethod, k nown a sf i
eld
mapping,' isa ppl
icable.
I
n g raphical f i
e
ld mapp ing t he fol
lowing f undamenta l p roperties of
s
tat
ic electr
ic f i
e
ld s a
re useful:

1
. F
ield a
nd po
tent
ial l
ine
s in
ters
ect a
t ri
ght ang
les
.
2
. The s
ur
face o
f aconducto
ri san e
quipoten
tial s
ur
face
.
By at wo-d
imen sional p
roblem i s mean tone i
n wh ich the conductor configuration
c
an bes hown b y asing
le c
ross se
c t
ion, all c
ross s
ections paral
lel to i
tb e
ing t he s
ame .
Au n
iform coaxial t
ransmiss
ion line isan examp le o
f at wo-dimen siona
l configuration.
Thus
, the cros
s sect
ion of F
ig. 2-19 isrepresentative of a
ny c ros
s sect
ion oft he l
ine
.
2A.D.Moore , "Fundamen ta
ls of E lectr
ica
l De s
ign," McGraw -Hil
l B ook C om -
p
any, Inc.
, N ew Yo rk, 1
927
.
SE
C
. 2
-27
] THE S
TAT
IC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 2 8
1

3
. The fi
eld meets ac onducting s
urface normally
.
4
. I
n au n
iform fi
eld, the po
tential var
ies l
inear
ly with d
is
tance
.
5
. Af l
ux tube isparalle
l to the f
i
eld
,' a nd t
he el
ectr
ic f
lux i
scons
tant
ove
ra ny c
ross sec
tion of aflux t
ube.
6
. At ube offl
ux originate
s o n apos
itive charge and e
nds on a
n equa
l
n
ega t
ive charge
.

G
raphica
l f
i
eld mapping willbeintroduced with t
he a
id o
fa nexamp le.
C
onside
rt wo c
harged sheet c
onductors 1a nd 2asshown incro
ss sec
tion
i
n F
ig. 2
-23
. T he sheets ex
tend inf
initely fa
r to t
he l
e
ft and ri
ght a nd
a
l
so normal
ly tothe page. Th is i
s at wo-d
imen s
iona
l prob
lem, al
l cross

/ C
onduc
tor 1
4
0 v
o
lts

3
0 v
o
lts

-
:
'
;" T
enta
tive fi
e
ld a
nd
, 1 e
quipoten
tia
l l
i
nes
. i
'
I i 1'. W W V
2
0 v
o
lts
-
.
.,.
...
. ,
ft:,

1
0 v
o
lts

0v
o
lts
'
1
. •
Conduc
tor2
FI
G
. 2
-23
. Cross s
ect
ion o
f t
wo s
heet c
onductor
s w
ith p
art
ial
ly c
omp
leted f
i
eld map
.

s
ections p a
ra llel to the p age b eing t he same . There fo re, the f i
eld and
p
oten tial d
istribution e verywhe re b etween t he s heets w ill be known i fit
c
an b e found f o
r at wo-dimen s
iona l cros
s s ect
ion s uch a s shown i n Fig.
2
-23. L et t he poten t
ial d ife rence b etween t he c onduc tors b e 40 volts,
w
ith t he uppe r conduc tor p o
sitive a nd t he l owe r c onducto r a t zero
p
oten tial
. T o the left of aa nd t o t he right o f bt he fi
e ld isu niform s o
t
hat e quipo ten t
ial surface s 1 0 v olt s apar t a re e qua l
ly s paced a s indi-
c
ated , the c onduc tor s ur
face s b e
ing e quipo tentials a t 0a nd 4 0 volts.
Between a a nd bt he c onduc to r s pacing c hanges , and t he equipo tentials
may b e drawn t entatively a s s hown b y the d ashed l i
nes.
T he nexts tep int he mapp ing p rocedure i stod raw f i
eld linesf rom c on-
d
uc tor 1t o c onduc tor 2i n t he u nifo rm f i
eld r egion t o t he le
ft of aw ith
t
he s pacing e qual t o t
ha t be tween t he equ ipo ten t
ials. I n t h
is w ay the
r
egion i sd ivided i n
to s qua re s
. E ach s qua re i s the e nd s urface o f a
r
ectangu larv olume , orc e
ll, ofd ep th di nto t he p age. As t
ack , ors e
rie s
,
1T
he s
i
de w
al
lso
f af
l
ux t
ube a
re f
i
eld l
ine
s.
8
2 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 2

o
fs quares bounded b y the same f i
eld l ines represents t he si
de wal
l ofa
r
ectangular fl
ux tube extending b etween t he p o
sitive cha rge on o
ne con-
d
uctor to t he negative cha rge on t he o ther. T he fi
eld map i s next
e
xtended to the right by draw ing fi
eld l ines as near
ly n orma l tot
h
e equi-
p
otent
ials a
s p o
ssible
, with the fi
eld lines s paced so that t he a
reas f
ormed
a
re as n ea
rly s quare as p oss
ible. A f
te r o ne or t wo r evis
ions of the
t
entat
ive e quipotentia
ls between a a nd b a nd a lso of the fie
ld l
ines
, it

C
onduc
tor 1

Fl
ux t
u
be w
ith
4ce
l
ls i
nse
r
ies

C
ondu
cto
r 2
F
l
ux t
ube R
ema
inder
w
i
th 4ce
lls F
l
ux t
ube
i
nse
r
ie s w
i
th 91/4
c
e
l
ls inse
ries
Fm. 2
-24. Cros
ssec
tion o
ftwo s
hee
t conductor
s w
ith c
omp
leted f
i
e
ld map
. At
hree
-
d
imensiona
l view o
f afi
e
ld c
el
l i
salso g
iven
.

s
hould b ep ossib le t o r emap t he region t o t
he right of as o tha
t f i
eld a
nd
e
quipo tentia
l l inesa re eve rywhe re or
thogona l and the ar eas between t he
l
i
nes are a l
l squar es o r cur vi
lin ear squa re
s.' T he comp le ted fi
eld map i s
s
hown i n Fig
. 2 -24. T he r ema inder t ube a t the righ t o f the map i s
e
xplained i nthe e xamp le o n p.8 6
.
By ac urvi
lin ear s quar ei sm ean ta na rea tha
tt endstoy ield trues quar
esa s
i
tiss ubd i
vided i n
to s ma l
l er and s mal
le r ar
eas by successi ve hal
v ing ofthe
e
quipotential i nter val a nd t h
e f lux p er t ub
e. A p artia l
ly s ubd iv
ided
c
urvi
linear s quare i si lustra ted i nFig. 2-25.
Af i
eld map , s uch a s s hown i n Fig
. 2 -24, divides the f ie
ld i nto many
s
quares e ach of w hich r epresen ts a side of af i
eld c
ell
. T hese f i
e
ld ce
lls
h
ave ad epth d( into t he p age) a ssugges ted byt he t
hree -dimens iona lview
A more a
ccurate t
echnique o
f f
i
e
ld mapp
ing i
nvo
lving c
i
rcl
ing o
f t
he s
qua
res i
s
d
escr
ibed i
n the Appendix
.
SE
C. 2
-27
1 THE STAT
IC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 2 8
3

o
ft he t
ypica l f
ie
ld c e
ll i
nF ig. 2-
24. T he ce
ll has ale ngth 1( paral
lel t
o
t
he fi
e
ld) a nd aw idth b. T he side wa
lls of afi
eld ce
ll are the w al
ls ofa
f
l
ux tube ( para
llel to the f
i
eld), w h
ile the t
op a nd bottom c oincide with
e
quipotential surfaces
. A s curvi
linear ce
lls are subd
iv ided i n
to s mal
ler
c
e
lls
, their end areast end t
o b ecome true squares. The s ubdivided cel
ls

F
i
e
ld l
i
nes

E
qu
ipo
ten
tia
l
l
i
n
es
/ (

FI
G
. 2
-25
. P
art
ial
ly s
ubd
ivided c
urv
il
inears
quare
.

a
re always o fdepth d (i
nto the p
age) the s
ame ast he largerce
lls
. Thus ,
afi
eld ce
ll
, ors imply acel
l, may bed ef
ined as acurvil
in ear s
quarevo
lume.
I
ft h
in s heets o
fm etalf o
ilare a
pplied t
othe equipo tentia
ls ur
face
so fa
f
i
eld ce
ll, w e have afi
eld ce
ll c
apac
itor. T he c
apac itance C of aparal
lel
-
p
late capacitori sfr
om ( 2-55)
e
A
C=- (
2
-103)

w
here e = permit
tivity ofm edium
A =area ofp la
te s
/= s
pacing ofp lates
A
pplying t
his re
lation to afie
ld c
el
l c
apaci
tor wi
th as
qua
re e
nd (
b =1
)
,
w
e have f
or the capacitance Co o
fthe f
i
e
ld ce
ll

e
b
d
Co= — = e
d (
2
-104
)
1

D
ivid
ing b
yd,w
eob
tain t
he c
apac
itance p
eru
nit d
epth o
f af
i
e
ld c
e
ll a
s

c
o (
2
-105
)
=
w
here e = p
ermit
tivity o
fm ed
ium (farads/me
ter
).
T
hus
, the s
ign
ificance o
fthe v
alue o
f eist
hatitist
he c
apac
itance p
er
8
4 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 2

unit depth o
f afie
ld ce
ll capac itor. F o re xamp le, af i
eld c e
ll capac itoro f
unit depth i
n am edium o fa ir (orv acuum ) h as ac apac itance o f8 .85 A p f
.
Such ac apaci
tori silust
ra ted i nF ig. 2 -26.
Any fi
eld c
e
ll can besubd ivided i nto s malle rs qua re-ended c e
lls w ith a s
many c e
lls i
np a
rallelasi ns er
ie s
. H ence t he c apac itancet p e
ru nitd ep th
o
fa ny f
ie
ld ce
ll
,l arge o
r s mall
,e xact
ly s qua re o rc urv il
inea ri se qua lt oe .
I
n af i
eld map , s uch a sinF ig
. 2 - 24,
mo st o f t he area i sd ivided i nto "r eg-
u
la r" c ells w ith f our ins eriesf ore ach
f
lux t ube. T hese c ells all have t he
s
ame p oten tial d iference a cross t hem
(10 volt s
) . H ence t he se cel
ls may b e
'Conduct
ing def
ined a s c e
lls oft h
es ame k ind . T he
s
hee
ts r
e ma ining a rea o ft he map c onsists o f
af ractiona l
, o r r ema inde r
, f lux t ube .
T h
is t ube i sa lso d ivided i nto c ells.
These c e
lls a re o ft wo k inds, b oth d if-
f
eren t f rom t hose i n t he re st o f t he
map. O ne kind o fc e
lli nt he rema in -
/
der f lux t ube h a s a bout 4 .3 v olt s
FI
G. 2-26
. A ir
-fi
lled fi
e
ld-ce
ll capaci
-
t
orofu ni
td epth h av
ing acapac
itance acro ss ita nd the o ther kind a bout 1
o
f 8.
85 w if
. V o
lume b etween plate
s vo lt & MSS i t
. The re a re n ine 4 .3-
i
s/X /X 1meter . volt c e
lls and four 1 -volt ce
lls.
Any f i
eld c el
l h as t
he s
ame c apacitance p er unit d epth. Many a ddi-
t
ionalp roper ties are c
ommon t of i
eld cel
l so ft
hes am ek ind. The se ce
lls of
t
he s ame k ind h ave the s
ame p o
ten t
ia l diference a cross t hem. I n uni-
f
orm f i
elds t he areas of t
he ends o f tho se ce
lls are the s ame, b uti nn on-
u
nifo rm f i
elds the areas w
ill not be the s ame.
Since the capac itance p
eru nit depth o fa ny cel
lo ft he same k ind ist he
s
ame , i
tf o
llow st hatthe e
lectr
ic flux t hrough a ny ce
ll o ft he same k ind is
t
he same ( Q/d = VC/d )
. T hus,the 1 0-volt c
ells i
nF ig.2 -24 have af l
ux of
s c
O oulombs p eru n
itd ep
th, w hi
le the 4 .3-a nd 1-volt cel
ls h ave 4.3e a nd
ecoulombs p er u n
it depth
, respectively.
Now t he ave rage fl
ux dens
ity D a t t he equipoten tial surface of af ield
c
e
ll i sgiven b y
D =— Q = p
a c
oulombs/me
ter2 (
2
-106
)
b
d
The c
apaci
tance o
f an is
olated capacitor s
uch a
s shown i
n Fig. 2
-26 i
ssomewhat
g
rea
ter t
han 8.85 a
pfbecause offring
ing ofthe fi
e
ld. H owever
, af i
e
ld ce
llrep
resent
s
o
nly a po
rtion o
f a more extensive fi
e
ld , and i
ts s
i
des are p
aral
lel t
o the f
i
eld (
no
f
r
ing
ing )
.
I
ti su nder
stood tha
t t
h
is capac
itance ist
hat wh
ich w ou
ld beobta
ined ift
he f
i
eld
c
e
llis made in
to afi
eld c
e
llc
apaci
torb yplac
ing t
hin s
heetsofm eta
lfo
ilcoinc
identwith
i
t
s e
quipo tent
ial s
urface
s (
i
fn o c
onductor isa
l
ready present
).
S
F
.c. 2
-27
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD
. PART 2 8
5

where Q = t o tal cha rge o n foil at e quipoten tia l sur face o ff i

e
ld c e
ll ( a
lso
equa l to total f l
ux 4 ,t hrough c el
l) ( cou lombs )
b= w id th o fc ell ( mete rs)
d= d epth o fc ell ( mete rs)
P
a=a verage s urface c harge d ensity o nf oi
la te qu ipo tentials urface
(coulombs/me te r 2)
Hence, the a verage f lux d ensity i sinversely p ropo rt
iona l to the fie
ld c e
ll
o
rf l
ux t ube w idth . A lso t he a verage s urface c ha rge d ensity p ,a t ac on-
d
uc t
ing s urface i si nversely p ropo rtional to t he w id th o ft he fi
e ld cel
l or
f
l
ux t ube a tt he s urface. F ore xamp le
, the s pac ing o fc onduc to rs 1a nd 2
t
ot he r i
gh t of bi nF ig. 2 -24 i sfour t imes t ha t to t he l eft ofa ;s oi nt he
u
niform f i
eld r egion t o t he lef t of at he surface c ha rge d ensity p ,i sfour
t
ime s the v alue o f ps in the u n
iform f i
eld reg ion t o t he righ t ofb . The
s
urface c harge d ensity i se ven s mallert han t ot he r igh t of bi nt he region
o
fc oncave c onduc to r curva tu re n ea r band s omewha tl a
rge r than t o the
l
e
ft of ai nt he r egion o fc onvex c onduc tor c urva ture n ea r a.
S
ince E = D /e
, t he fie
ld i nten sity i sal
so i nve rsely p ropor t
iona l to the
c
el
l w idth, o r l e
ng th ( E = V/l )
. F urthermo re, t he e nergy W( = -1-Q V)
s
tored i n a ny c e
ll o f the s ame k ind i st he s ame . I t follows t ha t the
a
verage e nergy d ensity w i sinve rsely propo r tiona l t ot he a rea o fthe e nd
o
f the c ell ( = b l for as qua re-ended c ell
). F or e xamp le, t he e nergy
d
en s
ity i nt he u n
iform f i
eld r egion t othe left o f ai nF ig. 2 -24 is1 6 times
t
he energy d ens ity i nt he u nifo rm f i
eld region t o t he r i
gh t o fb.
To s umma rize, t he prop erties o f a n accura te e lectric fie
ld m ap ' are as
f
o
llow s:

1
.T he c
apac itance o fany f i
eld cell isthe same .
2
. T he c
apac itance Co p er u nit d epth ofa ny f i
eld cel
l i sequal to t
he
p
ermittivity eo ft he m edium .
3
. T he p
o tentiald if
fe rence a cros sa ny fi
eld cel
lo ft he same kind isthe
s
ame.
4
. T he f
lux i ,t h
rough a ny f i
eld c e
ll of the same k ind ist he same .
5
. T he f
lux 4,o ver a ny c ross s ec
tion o f aflux tube i st he s
ame .
6
. T he a
ve rage flux d ensity D i na ny cel
lo ft he same k ind isinverse
ly
p
roportiona l to the w idth o ft he ce
ll orf l
ux t ube.
7
. The a verage c harge d ensity p ,a t the c
onduc ting bounda ry o fany
c
el
l oft he same k ind i si nve r
se ly proportiona l to the width oft he
c
el or flux tube a t the s urface.
8
. The a verage f i
eld i ntens ity E i n a ny c el
l o f the s ame k ind is
i
nver
sely p ropo rtiona l tot he c e
ll width
.
9
. The ene rgy s tored i na ny c e
ll o fthe same k ind ist he same.
1
0
. The a verage e ne rgy d ens ity w i n any c ell of the s ame k ind is

'
In as
ing
le med
ium o
fun
ifo
rm p
erm
itt
ivi
ty.
8
6 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 2

i
nve
rsely p
ropo
rtiona
l t
o the a
rea o
fthe e
nd o
fthe c
e
ll
. (
This i
s
t
he a
rea t
hat a
ppearsin t
he f
i
eld map.
)

I
n o rde r to t e
st t he a ccuracy o f af i
eld map , a nd h ence t he accuracy
w
ith w h
ich t he a bove p rope rtie sh old for ap a rticula r map , t he curvil
inea r
s
quare so ft he map c an bef u
r the rs ubdivided b yh a
lv ing t he e quipotential
i
nterva l and h a
lv ing t he f l
ux p e r t ube a s i n F ig. 2 -25. I ft he s maller
r
egions s op roduced t end t ob ecome mo re n ea rly tr ue s qua re s
, t he f
ie
ld i s
a
ccura tely mapped . Howeve r, i ft he regions t end t o b ecome r ectangle s
,
t
he map i si naccurate a nd a no the ra ttempt s hou ld b e made . O ften iti s
p
refe rab le toe rase and b egin a gain t han t oat temp tt or evise a ninaccura te
map. I n fi
eld mapp ing a n e ra seri sa si mpo r tant a s ap enc il
.
Field a nd e quipo ten t
ial l ines s hould i nte rsect o rthogona l
ly . I t i s
e
spec ially i mpo rtant t hat t his r ule b e o bserved a ta l
l s tages o f making a
f
i
eld map . I ft h
is i sd one i ti sp ossible t o dete rm ine w ha t mod ificat
ions
a
re n eces sary t o make a lla rea ss qua reso rc urv ilinea rs qua re s
. Howeve r
,
i
fthe i n
te rsections a re n otr igh t a ngle s
, i t may b ev ery d i f
ficult tod eter-
m
ine h ow t o proceed i n c orrec ting t he map . A dditiona l d etai
ls o n fi
eld
mapp ing t e chnique sa re g iven i nt he A ppend ix.
T oi lus t
ra te the util
ity o fg raph icalf i
eld mapp ing i ns olving ap ractical
p
rob lem , c onside r the follow ing e xamp le.

Examp le. R eferr

ing to Fig. 2
-24, l
e
tt he c
onductor sepa rat
ion atifbe 1cm and a
t
g be 4cm , and l e
tt he c
onductorsh ave adepth (into t
he p age
) of20 cm. Ifthe c
on-
d
uctors e nd at ifa nd g a nd i
ffr
inging of t
he fi
eld isneglected, f
i
nd the c
apac
itance
Cof the resu
l ting capacitor. The med ium in the capaci
tor isair
.
S
olution. The me thod o f s
olut
ion w i
ll be to e va
lua te the s
erie
s-pa
ral
lel com-
b
ination of capacitor s f
o
rmed b y the i
ndividua
l c e
lls
.
Each cell has ac apaci
tance

C
o =e
o
d =8
.85 X 0
.2 = 1
.
77 AO

The c
apac
itance b
etween t
he e
nds o
f e
ach f
l
ux t
ube w
ith 4c
e
lls i
nse
rie
s i
sthen

1
.77
—4 - 0
.442aa
f

The c
apac
itance b
etween t
he e
nds o
fthe r
ema
inde
rfl
ux t
ube w
ith 9
.25 c
e
lls i
nse
rie
sis

1
.
77
=0
.
191 ;4

The
re are f
i
teen 4-ce
ll t
ube
s and one r
ema
inder (
9.25-ce
ll) t
ube. Hence t
he t
ota
l
c
apaci
tance C b
etween i
fand g i
sthe s
um o
fthe c
apacitances o
fal
l t
he f
l
ux t
ube
s,or

C = 1
5 X0
.442 ± 0
.
191 = 6
.82 p
t
of

The above ca
lculat
ion i
ssomewha t s
impl
ified ife
ach ce
ll i
sarbitra
rily a
ss
igned a
c
apacitance o
fu n
ity. O nt
his b
asis t
he t
o
talc apac
itance i
narb
itra
ry u n
itsisgiven b
y

1
5 1
-
,-+
4 -5-. 3
.86 u
nit
s
SE
C. 2
-28
] THE STAT
IC ELECTRIC F
IELD . PART 2 8
7

a
nd the t
ota
la c
tual c
apac
itance C i
sthe p
roduct o
fth
is r
esult a
nd t
he a
ctua
lcapac
i-
t
ance o
f acel, o
r
C=3 .86 X (8
.85 X 0.2
) =6.82 pm
f

Yetanother me
thod o
fca
lcu
lat
ion i
stou
se t
he r
e
lat
ion t
hatt
he t
o
talc
apac
itance C
i
sgiven by

C=—
n C
o (
2
-106a
)

w
here N = number o fcells (o
r fl
ux tube
s) i
npara
lle
l
n =number o fc elsi nser
ies
Co = c
apacitance ofo ne c
el
l
a
nd where a
l
l c e
lls a
re of the same kind
. T hus i
n the a
bove e
xamp
le, c
oun
ting i
n
t
e
rms ofthe 10-volt c
el
ls, we have

1
5
.43
C=
, X8
.85 X 0
.2 =6
.
82 p
pf
4

Note thati fthe c apacitance h ad b een d e

sired o f acapacitorw ith con-
.
d
uc tors coinciding w ith t he equipo ten tia
ls m a nd n ( F
ig. 2-24) a nd of
2
0 c m dep th
, t he cel
ls ins er
ie s would b e reduced t o two and the capac i
-
t
ance d oubled. I n t h
is w ay the capac itance o fa ny c onductorc onfigura-
t
ion conform ing tot he equipotential s urface so f af i
eld map can b ee as
ily
c
alculated.
2-28. 90°a nd 2 70°C o
rners . A s af urthe ri lus
t ra t
ion off i
e
ld mapp ing
c
onsider al ong trough o ft wo conduc ting s heetsinte rsect
ing soa st ofo rm
a9 0° corner a s shown i n cross section i n Fig. 2- 27a. T he fl
ux t ubes
(
sol
id l i
nes) a nd e quipoten t
ial surface s ( dashed l ines) are shown i n the
E
f
i
sec
tor
Q
uad
rise
cto
r

9
0*

C
onduc
ting
s
hee
t

a
no
. 2
-27
. F
ie
ld maps i
nthe v
ic
ini
ty o
f a9
0° c
orner (
a
) a
nd a2
70° c
orne
r (
b
).

v
ic
in i
ty oft he corner of t he trough a
s produced b y ar eg
ion ofp os
itive
c
harge at al arge d
i s
tance a bove. T he opposite s
i
tuation of al
o ng p
r
ism ,
o
r2 70°c o
rne r,isi lustrated i ncrossse
ction b yFig
. 2-
27b. I fthe c
orners
a
re perfectly sharp, the flux d ens
ity and fi
e
ld int he co
rner ofF ig
. 2-27a
w
il
l b e zero, w h
ile at the a pex i
n Fig
. 2-27b they wi
ll b e i
nf
in
ite. The
 8
8 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 2

l
arge f i
e
ld o r high -po ten tial g rad ien t nea r as ha rp p oint w ill r esu lt ina n
e
lec tr
ica ld ischa rge t ot he p o in tr a
the rt han t on earby c onduc t
ing r egions
when t he f i
eld i si ncrea sed a bove t he d ielectr ic s treng th o ft he m edium .
This i st he p rincip le o ft he l igh tning r od.' C onve r sely, in ac orne r a si n
F
ig .2 -27a t he field i sw eak , a nd i ti ssaid t hatt he r egion n eart he c orneri s
s
hielded , a t l east p ar tia lly , f rom t he f i
eld a bove .
In mapp ing n ea rc orne rs,a si nF ig .2 -27a,o ne c an take a dvan tage o fthe
s
ymme try b y d raw ing , a s t he f i
r st fi
eld l ine, t he b isecto r o ft he c orne r
.
The f i
eld i ss ymme t r
ica l a round t his l i
ne s o t ha t iti sn ece ssa ry t o con-
s
truc t af i
eld map f or o nly o ne o ctan t, t he o the r o ctant b eing a m irror
image o ft he f i
rs t int he b i
sec tor l i
ne . The l ine s tha t bisec t t he o ctants
(
orq uadr isec t the c o rne r ) a re a lso l i
ne s o fsymme try b ut w ith t he d ifer-
e
nce t ha t t he e qu ipo tent ials i n o ne-ha lf o f t he o ctan t a re m ir rored a s
f
i
eld l i
ne s i n t he o the r h al
f, a nd v ice v ersa. I t ish e
lp ful t o c on struct
t
he se q uad risec to rst empo ra rily w hile d raw ing t he map i no rde rt oe nsure
s
ymme try. Q uadr isec to rs a re s hown i nb oth F ig s
. 2 -27a a nd b( s
ee a l
so
Append ix , S ec. A -2).
I
ti st ob en o
ted t ha ti na pproach ing t he co rner sa long t he b isec to rl i
nes
Ea pproache sz ero i nF ig. 2 - 27a , w hile E a pproache si nf
inity i nF ig . 2-27h,
i
tb eing a ssumed t hat b o th c orner s a re p erfec tly s ha rp.
x 2 -29 . D ivergence o ft he F lux D ens ity D . I n Se c
. 1 -19 G aus s's law i s
a
pp lied t o s urface s e nc lo sing f i
nite v olume s, a nd i tiss hown t ha t the
n
o rma l c omponent o ft he f lux d ensity D i nteg ra ted o ver ac lo
sed s urface
e
qua ls t he e lectric c ha rge e nclo sed . B y a n e xten sion o ft his r ela t
ion t o
s
urfaces e nc losing i nfin ite sima l v o
lume s, w e a re l e d to au sefu l r elation
c
alled d iv erg en ce.
Let A v b e as mall b ut f in
ite v olume . A ssum ing a u niform c harge
d
ens ity t hroughout t he v o
lume , t he c ha rge A Q e nclo sed i st he p roduc t o
f
t
he v olume c harge d ens ity p a nd t he v o
lume A v
. B y G auss's l aw t he
c
ha rge e nclo sed i sa lso e qua l t ot he i nteg ral o ft he n orma l c omponen tD „
o
ft he flux d ensity o ve r t he s urface o ft he v olume A v
. T hu s
,

9
6 D
.de =A
Q = pA
t
) (
2
-107
)
8

a
nd
9
6.D
.de
(
2
-108
)
A
v

I
fthe c
harge d
ensity i
snotu n
iform t
hroughoutAv
, we may t
ake t
he l
imit
o
f (2
-108) a
s Av shr
inks to z
ero
, ob
taining t
he cha
rge den
sity pat the
p
ointaround which Av c
o
llapses
. The l im
it o
f (
2
-108) a
sA v a
pproaches
I
fthe c
orner i
srounded, Ei sreduced. In genera
l, to i
ncrease t
he breakdown
v
oltage o
f h
igh-vol
tage e
lectrica
l equipment, t
he conductor
s ar
e made w i
th rounded
e
dges of r
e
lative
ly la
rge radius of c
urvature
. S harp edges a
re ass
iduous
ly a vo
ided
.
SE
C. 2
-29
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 2 8
9

z
e
ro i
sca
lled t
he d
ive
rgence o
fD, w
rit
ten d
iv D o
r V •D
. H
ence

9
6 D„d
s
l
im s —d
iv D = p c
oulomb
s/me
ter
: (
2
-109
)
-
.
0 A
v

Whereast he integra lo ft he normalc omponen to fDo ver afin

ite volume
y
ieldst he c
hargee nclo sed, the divergence o
fDg ivesthe chargedensity a
ta
p
oint. I ft he cha rge isz ero at apo
in t
,i tfo
llows thatthe charge density i
s
z
ero and also tha tt he d ivergence o fDi szero atthatp o
in t
. I tisi mpor-
t
ant ton ote tha t the d ive rgence ofDi s asca
larp ointfunc t
ion.
Let us now d iscus s dive rgence in a more formal way, d eve
loping i tas
adiferen t
ial exp ression. As mall volume AxA yAz =i vi splaced ina n
e
l
ec tr
ic f i
e
ld w ith f l
ux d ensity D, h aving componen ts D„ Dv,a nd D ,
i
n the three coord ina te directions as shown inF ig. 2
-28. T he total f
lux

-Dy a
r
o,
T
- T A Y

3
D.
Dz+ Tx-
A

A
y

F
in. 2
-28
. C
ons
truct
ion u
sed t
o d
eve
lop d
iferent
ial e
xpres
s or d
ion f ive
rgence o
f D
.

d
ens
ity D i
sre
lated t
o i
t
s c
omponen
ts b
y

D =i
D. j
D„ kD
, (
2
-110
)

The normal outwa rd c

omponent o
fDa t t
he back f
ace i
s —D i s
ince t
he
f
i
eld isdi
rected inward. Ifthe f
i
e
ld changes b
etween the b
ack and fr
on t
f
aces
, the norma l component o
f D at the f
ront f
ace can
, by T aylor's
t
heorem, be represen
ted by a
n i
nf
inite s
e
ries
,

a
D. x a2D
.Ax2 a3D
.Az
'
+ •••• (
2
-111
)
a
iT ± a
x2 2
! a
x3 3
!

When A
x i
svery sma
ll
, the s
quare a
nd h
ighe
r -o
rder t
erm
s may be n
eg-
l
e
cted
, s
o t
hat a
t t
he fr
ont f
ace we h
ave f
o
r the norma
l c
omponent o
fD

,a
D.
-
r — (
2
-112
)
ax
9
0 E
LECTROMAGNET1
CS [
CHAP
. 2

I
nlike manne
rt he n
ormalc
omponen
tofDa
tthe l
e
fts
i
de f
ace i
s —D
„and
a
t t
he r
ight s
ide f
ace i
s
D„+ 7
aD
,.
i-A
y (
2
-113
)

S
imi
lar
ly a
t t
he b
ottom f
ace i
tis —D
. a
nd a
t t
he t
op f
a
ce i
s

D
, + — a
D, A
z (
2
-114
)
a
z

Now t
he o
utwa
rd f
l
ux o
fDo
ver t
he b
ack f
ace i
s

—D
.AyA
z (
2
-115
)
a
nd o
ver t
he f
r
ont f
ace i
s

(D, ± — a
p. A
x) A
yAz (
2
-116
)
ax

A
dding u
p t
he o
utwa
rd f
l
ux o
fDo
vert
he e
nt
ire v
olume
,weo
bta
in f
o
rthe
t
o
tal f
l
ux

a
D,

aD
+ (—D
. + D
„ + c 'A
y) A
xAz

-
I (_D
. + D
, ± a
D, A
z) A
d
a A
y (
2
-117
)
a
z
w
hitl e
imp
lif
ies t
o
aD aD
.
(
2
-118
)
'
6
* = (
.
- ,± W + -
a5
, 0
D A
x A
Y A
z

F
rom Gauss
's law w e know t
hatt he t
otal e
l
ectr
ic fl
ux ove
rt he surface of
t
he v
olume (
ori ntegra
l ofthe normal component o
fDo verthe surface of
t
he v
olume) i
se qual t
ot he c
harge enc
losed
. The c harge enclo
sed i sal
so
e
qua
lt othe i
n
teg ral o
ft he c
harge d
ensity poverthe v
olume . T here
fore

o =9
A 6.D
.ds = (a
D
a
—
, -
x
,
1-—
aD.-
a
y
I, —
a
a
z
D
,) i
v
. =9
6v pd
v
(
2
-119
)

D
ividing byAvand t
aking t
he l
im
it a
sAv a
pproache
sze
ro, w
eob
tain t
he
d
ivergence o
fD. Thus,

9
6 D
.ds a
D. aD
. ,a
D,
Ur
n + — + =P (
2
-120
)
a
v
-
-o a
y a
x ay a
z
a
nd
a
D, a
p
„ a
p
,
d
iv D = (
2
-121
)
a
x a
y a
Z
SE
C. 2
-29
) THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 2 9
1

The c
ente
rm emberof(2-
121) is ad
iferent
ial r
elation fo
rt he d
ivergence
o
fDe xpressed i
nrec
tangula
rc oord
inates
. T he divergence ofDc an a
lso
b
ew r
itten asthe s
ca
lar
, ordot
, productoft he operator Va nd D
. T hat
i
s
,
d
iv D = V• D (
2
-122
)

T
his may be mo
re r
eadi
ly s
een b
yexpanding (
2
-122) i
nto t
he e
xpre
ssions
f
o
r Va s g
iven i
n (
1-42
) and f
or Da
s gi
ven by (2
-110
). T hen

V •D = a +
i a +k —
a)•(
iD i
D kD ) (
2
-123
)
a
x a
y a
z -
D
V

P
erfo
rming the mu
ltip
licat
ion i
nd
ica
ted i
n (
2
-123
), n
ine d
ot-produc
t
t
e
rm s a
re o
bta
ined a
s f
ollows:

a
n
z .
ap
. .
ap
, .
ap
„ .
op
,
V
• D =i•i — +j•i —
a
y 1
-k•i z—
O -
Fi•j — A
-j•j
ax a
x a
y

+k•j z—
a +i•k - -1
-j•k —
a
y +k•k —a
z (
2-1
24)
a
x

The do
tp roduc
tof au
nitv
ecto
roni
t
sel
fisu
nity s
i
nce t
he a
ngle b
etween
t
he vecto
rsi sz
ero
. Hence

i•i= i c
os0
° = 1

O
n the othe
r hand, t
he do
t p
roduct of v
ector w
ith a
nother v
ecto
r a
t
r
i
ght a
nglesi sz
ero s
i
nce t
he a
ngle b
etween t
he v
ecto
rsis90°
. Thus

i
•j =i
jco
s90
° -
=0

Accordingly
, s
ixofthe n
ine d
otp
roduct
si n (
2
-124) v
anish
, but t
he t
hree
i
nvolving i•i,j•j
,and k •kd
onot
, and t
he p
roduct i
nd
icated b
y (2
-123)
b
ecome s
a
p
, a
z
) o
p
,
V •D = (
2
-125
)
a
x a
y a
z

T
he dot produc t oft he o perato r Vw ith avectorf unction isthe dive r-
g
ence oft he vector. T he quan tity V •may b e cons
ide red as adivergenc e
o
perator
. T hus the d ive rgence o pera tor app
lied t o av ec
tor func tion
y
ields as ca
la r f
unc t
ion . F o
r e xamp le , V •D (d
ive rgence ofD ) isg iven
i
n rectangula r coordina tes b y the r i
gh t s
ide o
f (2-125) a nd is as calar,
b
eing equa l to t
he c harge d ensity p .
I
fD isk nown e verywhe re
, t hen tak ing the d
ivergence o fDe nable s us
t
o find the sources ( posit
ive c ha rge r egions) a
nd s inks (negat
ive c ha rge
r
egions) responsible f o
r t he el
ec tr
ic f l
ux a nd, h
ence, for D. T he source s
o
r sinks of Da re in t hose region s w he re d
iv D isn ot zero
9
2 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS I
CHAp
. 2

2
-30
. Maxwe
ll
's D
ive
rgence Equa
tion
. T
he r
e
lat
ion o
f (
2
-120
) o
r
(
2
-121) t
hat
V •D = p (
2
-126
)
was deve
loped b y an a
ppl
ica t
ion o f G auss
's law t o an inf
inite
sima l
v
olume. I t i
s the f
undamen ta
l d iferent
ial rela
tion for sta
tic el
ectric
f
i
elds
. Th is r
e
lation i
sone o
f as e
to ff our d
iferentialre
lat
ion sknown a s
Maxwell
's equations
. T he other three equat
ions a re d
eveloped in l
ater
c
hapters
.
I
n ar e
gion fr
ee fr
om charge p = 0 ,a nd
V •D = 0 (
2
-127
)
2
-31. Example of Dive
rgence
. A s asimple n
onelect
rica
l e
xample of
d
ivergence c
onside
r that along h
ol
low c
ylinder i
sf i
l
led wi
th a
ir unde
r
p
ressure
. I fthe cove
r over o
ne e
nd o
fthe cyl
inderisremoved qu
ickly
,

(
a
)

(
b
)

(
c)
Fm. 2
-29
. T he v
eloc
ity vofai
rrushing f
r
om at ube h
asd
ivergence (
aand b
). When
a
i
r fl
ows wi
th u n
iform v
eloc
ity t
hrough atube o
pen a
t b
oth ends a
sat (
c
), t
he d
ive
r-
g
ence o
f viszero.

t
he air rushes o ut
. I ti sapparen t that the v
elocity of the a
ir wi
ll be
g
reatest n ea
r t he open e nd of t
he c y
linder as suggested b y t
he arrows
r
epresent
ing t he veloc
ity v ec
tor vinF ig.2-29a. S uppo se t
ha tthe f
l
ow of
a
ir i
sf r
ee f rom turbu lence so t
ha t vh as only a
n xc omponen t
. L e t u
s
a
ssume t ha t the velocity v in the cylinder isindependen t of yb ut i
s
d
irect
ly p roportional to xa sind
ica ted by the f
ol
low ing re
lation
,
i
v
! =v
, = Kx (
2
-128
)

where K is ac
onstant o
f propor
tiona
lity. T he q
ues
tion
, what i
st he
d
ivergence o
f vi
n the c
y
linder, c
an be answe
red by a
pply
ing t
he d
iver-
SE
C
. 2
-
331 THE S
TAT
IC E
LECTR
IC F
IELD. P
ART 2 9
3

g
ence o
pera
tor t
o (
2
-128
). T
his g
ive
s

V •v = a
—
y
o
x
. =.
a
,
. (
2
-129
)

Hence , t he d ive rgence o f vi se qua l to the c onstan t K.

Av elocity f i
eld may b e r epre sented g raph ically b y lines s how ing t he
d
irec tion o f vw ith t he density o ft he line sindica t
ing t he magn itude o fv.
The v eloc ity f ie
ld i n the c y
linde r, w hen r epre sen ted i n t his w ay, is
i
lus tra ted i n F ig. 2-29h. We n o te tha t vl i
nes o r
igina te ( t
ha t is
, h ave
t
heir s ource ) t hroughou t the c ylinde r
, t he n umbe r i ncrea s
ing w ith x.
This i nd ica te s t hat vi ncrea se s a s af unc tion o f x . Th is s ituation is
c
onc isely e xpres sed b y div v = K . T ha t i s
, the d ive rgence o f vh as a
c
on stan t v a
lue K t h roughou t t he c yl
inde r, and th is tel
ls u st ha t [
assum -
i
ng ( 2-128 ) t o b ec o
r rect] the s ource o ft he velocity f i
e
ld p rovided b yt he
e
xpand ing a iri su nifo rmly d istribu ted t hroughou t the c ylinde r.
I
f
, o n t he o the r h and, b oth e nd s of t he c yl
inde r w ere o pen a nd a ir
pa
s sed t hrough w ith t he same v elocity e verywhe re, v.e qua ls a cons tant
a
nd t he d ive rgence o f visz ero i nt he c y
linde r
. I nt his case , the source of
t
he v eloci ty f i
eld mu st b e somewhe re e xternal t o t he c ylinde r and t he
v
eloc ity f i
eld d iag ram w ould b e as s hown i nF ig. 2 -29c.
I
f mo re l inese nter as mall v olume ' than l e
ave i tor mo re l eave itt han
e
nte r, t he f i
eld h as d ivergence . I ft he s ame n umbe r e nte r as l e
ave t he
vo
lume , t he f i
eld h as z e
ro d ive rgence .
X 2-32 . D ive rgence T heorem . F rom G aus s
's law ( 1-59) w e h ave

9
6.D •d
s =9
6. pd
v (
2
-130
)

whe
re D i
sinteg
rated o
ver the s
ur
face sa
nd pi
sintegra
ted th
roughou
t
t
he vo
lume venc
losed b
y s.
F
rom (2
-126) l
et u
sin
troduce V •D f
or pi
n (
2
-130), o
bta
ining

9
6 D •d
s =9
6v V •D d
v (
2
-131
)
8

The r elation stated in ( 2-131) isthe divergenc e th

eorem a s applied t o the
f
l
ux d en s
ity D , or G auss's theorem ( as distinguished f rom G aus s's law).
This r e
la t
ion h olds n o
t o nly for Da s in ( 2-131) b u
t a l
so for a ny v ector
f
unc t
ion . I nw ords, the divergence theo rem s tates thatt h
ei n
teg ralo ft h
e
n
orma l c ompon ent of av ect
or function o ver a closed surface se quals t h
e
i
nteg ral oft h
e divergenc e oft h
at ve
ctor throu ghout the vo
lum e ve nclosed by
t
h
e s urface 8.
2
-33 . D ivergence o fDa nd P in aC apacitor. A sf urther ilus trations
o
ft he signif
icance o fdive rgence le
tu scon sidert he charged p arallel-plate
c
apac i
to r of Fig. 2-30. A s lab of paraf f
in f i
l
ls the s pace between t he
1Inthel im
ita ni n
f
inite
sima lv o
lume.
9
4 ELECTRO MAGNETICS (
Clup
. 2

p
latesexcep
tf ort he sma
ll ai
rg aps. T rue c
harge ofs
ur
face d
ens
ity p.i
s
p
resent on the surface of the plate
s. P o
larizat
ion cha
rge o
f sur
face
d
en s
ity p
.,ispresent on the sur
face ofthe p
araff
in
.
C
apac
ito
r p
l
ates
( — A
ir g
aps —_

1
41
"-
- —C
harge l
a
yers
1
_L},
,
D ,

II
I
i
1
7
-
1).
.
.p

i
l
1
1
0 i
iI i
E
I Ii
I i1
:I
i
I
P „
,
1

4 1 i

-
V•P=p
,1
!
i
1
I
I
1
1
I
I
1 I

I:
i
I I
I

FI
G. 2
-30
. C ross s
ection through parallel-pla
te capac
itor w
ith paraf
f
in slab show
ing
t
he v
aria
tion ofthe f l
ux density D
, c harge density p
,el
ectr
ic f
i
eld E, p
ola r
izat
ion P
,
a
nd po
larizat
ion charge density p along t he ax
is b
etween t
he p
lates
. T he th
icknes
s
A
z ofthe charge l
ayers i
sg reatly e
xagge rated.

A
cco
rding t
o(3
)ofT
able 2
-2t
he r
e
lat
ion o
fDa
t ab
ounda
ry i
sgiven b
y

D n1 — D u2 = Pa (
2
-132
)

whe
re (i
n t
his case) D.1 =f l
ux density inair g
ap
D 2 = f
nl
ux density in c
onduct
ing pla
te = 0
p
.=t rue s
urface charge d
ens
ity
S
uppose tha
t t he s
urface c
harge isd i
str
ibuted uni
formly t
hroughou
t a
t
hin l
ayer of th
icknes s Ax as s
ugges ted in F
ig. 2
-30. Then t he t
ota
l
Sz
e
. 2
-
33] THE S
TAT
IC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 2 9
5

c
hange AD„ i
nf l
ux densi
ty f rom one s
ide o
fthe l
aye
rtot
he o
the
risg
iven
b
y
D. 1 — D n
2 = AD. = AD: 2-
( 1
33)
Bu
t when ,LT i
ss ma
ll,
dD
AD
. -
= Ax (
2-134
)
d
x
T
here
fore
, (
2-1
32) b
ecome
s
dD
. _ p
, _
(
2-135
)
d
x Ax P

where p = v
olume c
harge d
ens
ity i
nthe cha
rge l
ayer
.
S
ince D has on
ly a
n xcomponent
, dD x/
dx = d
iv D. Thus
,
dD x
= V• D = p (
2-1
36)
d
x
Hence t he change o f D w ith d i
stance ( in the charge laye
r) equa ls the
d
ivergence o fDa nd a l
so t he volume c ha rge density
. I tfol
low s that i
f
t
he charge layeri sinf
initesima l
ly t h
in ( AT 0 )
,t hen V •D and papp roach
i
nf
inity. Howeve r, iti s mo re re a
sonab le to consider that the c harge
l
ayeri s of small b ut fin
ite t h
ickne ss so that al
though V •D a nd pmay
b
el arge, they are not infin
i te
. The v ariation ofDa nd V •D a l
ong t he
xaxis oft he capacitori sshown g raphically inFig. 2-30
.
Att he paraff
in surface D i sconstant
, b ut both E and P change. F rom
(
2-16
)
P=D — e
oE (
2
-137
)
Now the c
hange i
np o
lar
iza
tion P i
sequa
l t
o t
he s
ur
face c
harge d
ens
ity
p
.„ d
ue to p
ola
riza
tion
. Thus
P
x1 — Pn
2 p
it9 (
2-138
)

w
here P. 1 = p
olarization inp araff
in
.2 = p
P olarization inai r g
ap ,L•,0
‘
_
p,
„ =p olarization sur
face c harge density
Assume that the p o
lar
iza t
ion s urface charge isun
iformly dis
tributed
t
hroughout at hin layer of thickness Ax a t t
he para
ffin s
urface as s
ug-
g
ested i
nF ig
. 2- 3
0. T hen the total change AP. inpo
la r
izat
ion from one
s
i
de o fthe l
ayer to the otheri sgiven b y

Pnl — Px2 = AP, = AP

z (
2-139
)
B
ut w
hen i
xiss
mal
l,
d
P
AP
. = Ax (
2-140
)
d
x
T
here
fore
, (
2-1
38) b
ecome
s
d
P. = P
.
p
(
2-141)
d
x = PP
9
6 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
Cum,.2

w
he re p„ =v o
lume d ensity of po
larization c harge in the l
ayer a
t the
p
araf f
in surface (coulomb s/meter
'). P olarizat
ion c ha
rge difers fr
om
t
rue c ha
rge ( p
) in that itc annot be is
ola ted, whereas true c
harge c
an.
I
n this sen
se iti s afi
ctit
ious charge. S ince P h as on
ly a n xcomponent
w
h ich is afunction on
ly o fx ,dPx/dx = d iv P. T hus
,

(
2
-142
)

Hence the c hange o f Pw i th distance ( in the c ha

rge l ayer) equals t he
d
ivergence o f Pa nd al
so t he volume d ensity p, of p o
larization cha rge.
The assump tion o f apolarizat
ion c harge layer thati sofs ma
ll but f i
nite
t
hickness results in av alue of V •P t hat may b e l
arge b ut not i
nfinite.
The divergence o f D y ields the s ources of the D f i
eld ( t
rue cha rge),
whi
le the divergence o f Py ie
lds t he sources oft he polar
iza t
ion fi
eld.
The variation o fE, P, and — V •P a l
ong t he xa x
is oft he capacitori s
i
lustrated graph ical
ly inF ig. 2-30.
I
t may b e s hown ( see P rob. 2 -66) that t he poten t
ial Vp d ue t o a
p
olarizat
ion d is
t ribut
ion isg iven b y

1 f V •P d
v
Vp = (
2
-143
)
4
/
re
o

Thus
, when b
oth t
rue c
harge a
nd p o
lariza
tion a
re pre
sen
t a
nd t
he d
i
s-
t
r
ibution o
fbo
th a
re fi
xed
, the t
ota
l potent
ial V
,i s

VT =
4
-
feo
1 PC
1
2
1
- r 4
r
1
e
of V • P
r
d
v

= A 1 fp — V• P d
v
(
2
-144
)
%Ireo Jo r

where p =
-true charge vo
lume d en
sity (coulomb s/me te
rs)
P=p olarization (
cou
lomb s/me ter
')
eo = p
erm itt
ivity o
fv acuum ( 8
.85 X 1 0-
12 farad/me ter
)
r= distance from vo
lume e l
emen t containing charge or po
lariza
-
t
ion to pointat which Vr isto be c
alculated (meters
)
The vo
lume i n
tegration i
st aken over al
l reg
ion s contain
ing c harge o
r
po
lariz
ation
.
The f
i
eld intensi
ty E isthen

E = —VV (
2
-145
)

Whe reas (
1-26) appl
ies to asingle homogeneous die
lec
tric medium of
p
erm i
ttivity e,(2-144
) i s mo
re g enera
l since i
tc an be app
lied al
so t
o
s
pace w i
th severa
l diferent d
ielectr
ic m ed
ia, t
hat is
, anonhomogeneous
medium . F or the case of as ing
le homogeneou s medium, (1-26) a
nd
(
2-144) are e
quivalent
.
SE
C. 2
-35
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD . PART 2 9
7

X 2
-34. The Lap
lacian Operatorand Po
isson
's and L
aplace
's Equat
ions.
A
s an exten
sion of t
he dive
rgence o
perator we a
re l
ed t
o the Lap
lacian
o
perator
. E qua
tion (
2-126) st
ate
s tha
t

V •D = p (
2
-146
)

Now D = e
E
, a
nd a
l
so E = —VV
. Thus
,

D = — VV (
2
-147
)

S
ubs
titu
ting D i
n (
2
-147
) i
n
to (
2
-146
), w
e h
ave

1v•
vv =—e
S
(
2
-148
)

This isPoi
s son
's equat
ion
. The d ouble opera
tor (
dive
rgence of t
he
g
radient) i
salso writ
ten as V2 (
de
l s
quared) and isc
a
lled the L
apla
cian
o
perator
. Thus P o
isson's e
qua
tion c
an be wr
itten

v
2
v =—e
S
(
2
-149
)'

I
f p= 0
, (
2
-149
) r
educe
s t
o
1VV = 0 (
2
-150
)

w
hich i
sknown a
sL ap
lac
e's e
qua
tion
.
I
n r
ec
tangu
lar c
oord
inate
s

V =i 1
--1
-i-
cl + k-
a— (
2
-151
)
a
x a
y a
z

T
here
fore
, i
nre
ctangu
lar c
oord
ina
tes

a a
v
2v =v•v
v =(
i— + i— + k—
9)
1
a
x a
y a
z
.( a
v 4_ia
v 4_k a
v\ i
(
2
-152
)
\ax 'a
y a
z/
C
arry
ing o
ut t
he d
ot p
roduct g
ive
s

a
2
v a
2v a2
v
v v =-
2 , +v + a
z
2 (
2
-153
)

o
r t
he L
aplac
ian o
pera
tor a
lone i
n r
e
ctangu
lar c
oord
ina
tesi
sgi
ven b
y
2 82 82 82
(
2-154
)
° = ax 2 + ay 2 + a
z
2
X2-35
. Iso
lated Conduct
ing Sphere. As mentioned e a
rlie
r, the s
tat
ic
p
otent
ialdis
tribu
tion f
or any c
onducto
r c
onf
iguration can be d
etermined
i
fas o
lut
ion to Lap
lace
's equat
ion can b
e f
ound w hich al
so sa
tisf
ies t
he
'E
qua
tion (
1-26
) i
s as
o
lut
ion t
o t
h
is e
qua
tion
.
9
8 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 2

bounda ry c ond ition s. F or many c onduc tor c onfigura tion s it may b e

imprac t
ica l t o u se t h
is m ethod . Howeve r
, i t i s ab a sic m ethod o f
approach o f g reat i mpo rtance i n static p roblem s. A s a n ilustration , a
v
e ry simp le a pp l
ica t
ion o fL aplace's e qua tion
w
ill b e con s
ide red i n t his s ection .
Considera n i s
olated m etal s phe re of r adius
r1 w
ith au n
i form ly d istribu ted c harge Q a sin
F
ig. 2 -31. T he s phere i ss i
tua ted i n an u n-
b
ounded d ielect r
ic m edium o f p ermittivity e.
This p roblem h as b een d iscus sed p revious ly
b
ut w ill be r e
cons ide red h ere w ith the a id of
Laplace's e qua tion. T he p rob lem i st o find a
F
lo. 2-31
. I sola ted c onduct
-
s
olu t
ion o f L aplace's e qua tion , V2V = 0 ,for
i
ng sphere o fr adius ri.
t
he s pace o utside t he s phe re w hich g ive s a
p
o tentiald i
s tribu tion s at
isfying t he b ounda ry cond it
ion s. T hese b ound -
a
ry c ondition sa re thatt he p oten t
ial Vi scons tan t o vert he s phere a nd is
z
ero a ti nfinity .
S
ince t he c onducto rh assphe r
icals ymme try, i tw il
lb ea dvan tageous t o
e
xpand V2V i ns phe r
ical coord inates ( see A ppend ix )
. T hus

( av 1 a(i a
v) 1 a 2v
7 = 1a r
n a _
L
.
21
2
-
a
r) e s
n ea
r2s
i a
o r .20 0
2s
i
n 4
,2 (
2
-155
)

w
here t
he spher
ica
l coo
rd ina
tes r,0,4,are a
s
, for e
xample, i
n Fig
. 1-
26.
B
y vi
rtue o
ft he s
ymme try ofthe s
phere
, the p
otent
ial Visindependent
o
fangle (
0a nd 4
.
) and i
s afunc
tion on
ly ofr. H ence (
2-155
) reducesto

1 d ( d V\
2 d V 2 2d
V _
(
2
-156
)
V
2V = (
T
• T
/T
.) = -
cfr u

This i
san ordina
ry s econd-o
rde r diferent
ial equation
. I t isthe most
g
eneral way of e
xp ress
ing the p o
ten t
ial variat
ion w i
th r espec
t t o t
he
r
adius r. Howeve r, to determine t he p art
icula
r d i
s t
ribution of our
p
roblem, we need to obta
in a solut
ion o f the d
iferential equat
ion. I n
t
his c
ase we may proceed asfol
lows : Since V2V = 0 ,itfol
low st ha
t

d dV\ 2

r k
d r d
r

i
n (
2
-156
) mus
t b
e z
e
ro, o
r t
hat

d
V
=C
1 (
2
-157
)

w
here C1 = a c
ons
tan
t. T
hen

dV = Cir
2 d
- r
SE
C. 2
-36
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD. PART 2 9
9

I
nteg
rat
ing
,

V = CIf r
2 d
- r = ——
CI ,1
,
2 (
2
-158
)

where Cy = ano
therc on
stan
t. B oth C
1 a
nd C2 mustb
ed ete
rmined f
rom
t
he b oundary c
ondit
ions. Since V = 0 a
t i
nf
inity
, C2 = 0 a
nd (
2-
158)
t
herefore r
educes t
o

= ——
V - C (
2
-159
)
rI

B
y c
ompa
rison w
ith (
1
-11
) t
he c
ons
tan
t mus
t h
ave t
he v
alue

CI= — (
2
-160
)
4
/
re

s
o t
hat t
he s
o
lut
ion f
o
r Vb
ecome
s

V= Q (
2
-161
)
4
/
fer
where r> r1.
I
ti sto be no ted tha t this i s athree -dimensiona l prob lem s o tha
t the
g
raph ical approach o fS ec. 2-27 i sno t appl
icab le
.
Furthe
ri lustra t
ion so fL aplace's e quation are given inP rob s
. 2-61 and
2
-67. P roblem 2 -61 i lustra tes t he p rincip
le s i nvolved i n applying
Laplace's equation w i
th am inimum o f mathema tics a nd isr ecommended
a
sa n exe
rcise for the reade r.
2-36. Dependence o f G auss's L aw o n t he I nverse-squa re L aw.
Gaus s
's law asi n (1-59) o r (2-130 ) states that the surface i ntegral ofthe
norma l c
omponen t oft he flux d ensi
ty D o ver ac losed s urface e quals t
he
c
ha rge enclosed. I ft he e nclo sed c harge isze ro, the sur face i n
tegral i
s
z
ero. T his conclusion d epend s o n the fact t
ha tDv ar
iesi nversely as t
he
s
qua re ofthe distance f rom ap o
int c harge (Cou lomb 's law ).

r
, r
2

F
lo. 2
-32
. The in
tegra
l oft he n
ormal component o
fDo ve
r t he s
urface o
fthe v
olume
A
viszero b
ecause D v
aries i
nver
sely a
st he s
qua
re o
fthe d
istance rfrom t
he cha
rge Q
.

A
s a n i
lus
trat
ion c
ons
ider as mal
l volume Av i
n the f
i
eld o
f ap o
int
c
harge Q a
sinFig.2
-32
. B yG aus
s's l
aw t
he fl
ux o
fDo verthe s
urface o
f
t
he vo
lume equa
ls t
he c
harge e
nclo
sed. Th is w
eshould e
xpect t
ob ezero
1
00 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CnAp
. 2

s
i
nce al
l oft he charge i sat Qa nd none isin the vo
lume . H owever
, le
t
u
s c
arry through t he calculation t
o ver
ify th
is resul
t.
T
he flux over the surface o fthe vo
lume w il
l b e given en
tirely by t
he
f
l
ux over the two c urved s ur
faces AS 1and AS 2. T he fl
ux o ve
r the f
our
f
l
atfaceso fthe volume i szero s
ince D i
sp a
rallel t
ot hem, and hence h
as
n
o norma l c
omponen t.
T
he area oft he surface A S 1a
t adistance r1isgiven b y

A
S 1 = r12s
i
n 0A
OAO (
2
-162
)

a
nd t
he a
rea o
fAS
2 a
t ad
i
stance r2 b
y

A
S2 = r
22s
i
n 0A
OAO (
2
-163
)

T
he t
o
tal f
l
ux A
i o
ver t
he s
ur
face o
fthe v
o
lume i
s

A
O = —D
.1A
S1 + D n2 A
S2 (
2
-164
)

w
here D
.1 = magn
itude o
fn o
rmal component o
fDa t r1
D
.2 = s
ame at r
2
S
ubst
itu
ting (
2
-162) a
nd (
2-163) i
n
to (2
-164) y
ie
lds

A
O =(
—D.
iri2 ± D
.2r
2 2)s
i
n 0A
OAO (
2
-165
)

F
rom (
1
-50
) D =Q
/42
14 s
o t
hat

Dn1 —
Q (
2
-166
)
4
i
rri
2

Dn
2 —
Q (
2
-167
)
4
Tr22

S
ubs
titu
ting (
2
-166
) a
nd (
2
-167
) i
n
to (
2
-165
) g
ive
s

A
l
p = (— —12 ri2 + -
12r )1
22 ,
fs i
n 0A
OAO (
2
-168
)
ri r
2 '
kr

T
he e xp
res
sion i
n t
he pa
renthese
s o
f (
2
-168) i
sze
ro, s
o t
hat A
l
i
, = 0a
s
a
ntic
ipated
. Howeve r
, if
,ins
tead o
f (
1
-50
),

D =
Q (
2
-169
)
4
7
rrn

where n isnotequal t
o 2,then A O would no
t be zero
.
This r
esultisal
so readi
ly deduced f rom t
he fac
t tha t t
he s ur
face
s AS1
a
nd A S2 s ub
tend the same sol
id a ngle. T he fl
ux o ver the t wo c
ros
s-
s
ect
iona lareas i
sequalin magnitude b utopposi
te insi gn on
ly ifD var
ies
a
s 1/r 2.
S
ince t he net e
lect
ric fl
ux o ver a ny vo
lume n o
t e nclosing el
ectr
ic
SE
C. 2
-36
] THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD . PART 2 1
01

c
harge isz ero
, itf
o
llows t
hat t
he divergence ofDiszero i
nal
l s
pace f
ree
f
r
om c harge.
Gravitational f
o
rces vary inve
r sely as the s
qua
re of the di
stance
b
etween mas ses
, a
nd Gauss's l
aw a l
so appl
ies t
o t
hese f
i
elds (
s
ee Prob.
1
-23
) .
PROBLE MS
2
-1. Ift wo p
oint charges +Q a nd —Q a re a
ttached t o the ends o f an ax
is 1 0 cm
l
ong, w
hat i st
he dipole moment o fthe comb inat
ion? Q 1
0-10 coulomb.
Ans
.: 1 0- 1 c
1 oulomb -me ter
.
2
-2. RepeatP rob.2 -
1f ort
he case where t
he axi
si s 1cm long a nd Q 1
0-4 c
oulomb .
2
-8. Confirm E q
. (2-7)
.
2
-4. Four equal chargesof magnitude Q a nd o
fs i
gn indica ted are ar
ranged i nairas
s
hown in Fig. 2
-33, fo
rm ing aquadripole (double d
ipole). S how t hat a
t al arge dis
-
t
ance r(that i
s
, r> 1a nd r> a)t he potential d
ue to th
is q uad ripole is

Q
las
i
n 0c os 0
V=
2
re or
s

w
here r = r
adia
l d
i
stance a
nd 8 = a
ngle f
r
om a
x
is t
o r
ad
ial l
i
ne (
s
ee F
ig
. 2
-33
).

A
x
is

• —Q

s +Q

FI
G
. 2
-33
. Q
uadr
ipo
le o
rdoub
le d
ipo
le f
o
r P
rob
. 2
-4
.

2
-5. Ad ipole i n au niform fi
eld experiences n o tran s
lational force. H oweve
r, i t
d
oes experience a t orque t ending to al
ign t he dipole a x
is with the f i
eld. S how that
f
o
r ad ipole o f moment q lin au n
iform f i
eld E this to
rque i sq1E sin 8,w here 8ist he
a
ngle between t he dipole axis and the fi
e
ld .
2
-6. Show t ha t P —1/e,)
.
2
-7. Af l
ats lab ofd ielectric (
e
, =5 )i splaced n o
rma l to au ni
fo rm f i
eld with aflux
d
ensi
ty D = 1c ou
lomb/me ters
. I fthe s l
ab occup ie
s av olume o f 0.1 m eters a
nd i s
u
niformly p olarized, wha t a
re (a) po
larization int he slab; (b
) totald ipole momen to f
s
l
ab? Ans.: (a) P =0 .8c oulomb/me ters; (b
) moment = 0 .08 cou lomb -meter
.
2
-8. A f lat s l
ab o f s u
lfur (e
, =4 ) is placed n orma l to au ni
fo rm f i
eld. I f the
p
olar
ization c harge s urface density p. o n the s l
ab s urfaces is0.5 c oulomb/me te rs
,
what a
re:
1
02 ELECTRO MAGNET 1CS [
CHAP
. 2

a
. P o
lar
ization inthe s l
ab
b
. Flux density i
nt he slab
c
. Flux density out
side o fsl
ab (
in ai
r)
d
. Field i
ntensity inslab
e
. Field i
ntensity outs
ide slab (
in a
ir)
2
-9. Two c avit
iesare cuti n ad
ie
lectr
ic med
ium (
e
, 5
)ofla
rge e
xtent
. C avi
ty 1
(
s
ee Fig. 2
-34) is at
hin di
sc-shaped c
avity w
ith f
l
atf
ace
spe
rpend
icu
lart othe d
irec
tion

/ / L
k/4,vy
<
/ />4C
av
ity l

FI
G
. 2
-34
. D
isc
-shaped a
nd n
eed
le-
shaped c
avi
tie
s i
ndi
elec
tric f
or P
rob
. 2
-9
.

o
f Di nthe d ielectr ic. C avity 2i s al ong n eedle -
shaped c avity w ith i t
sa xis p ara llelt o
D
. The c avi t
iesa re f i
lled w ith a ir
. G iven t hat D = 1 0-6 cou lomb/me ter'. Wha ti s
t
he magn itude o ft he e lectric f i
e
ld i ntens ity E ( a) at t he c en tero fc av ity 1 ;( b) a t t he
c
enter o f cav ity 2 ?
2-10. The e l
ectr ic f i
eld E i na i ra bove ab lock o fp araf f
in ( e, 2
.
1) i sa ta na ng le o f
4
5° w ith respect t ot he p lane s urface o ft he b lock . F ind t he a ngle b etwe en E a nd t he
s
urface i n the p a raf f
in.
2-11. An i s
olated p ositive p oin t cha rge h a
s av a
lue o f 10- 1 °cou lomb . Wha ti st he
magn itude o f Ea nd D a t ad i s
tance o f2 0 cm when t he c ha rge i sl ocated ( a) ina ir; ( b)
i
n al arge t ank o fg lycer in ( e
, 50)?
AM .: ( a) E =2 2.5 v olts/me ter, D = 2X 1 0 -0 c ou lomb/me ter ';
(
b) E =0 .45 v olt/me te r
, D = 2X 1 0- 0 c
1 ou lomb / me ter 2.
2-12. Wha tist he f o
rce o n ap ositive p oint c ha rge o f 1 0-10 cou lomb a t ad is tance o f
3
0 cm f rom a p os itive p oint c ha rge o f 1 0- 10 cou lomb when b oth c ha rges a re l oca ted
(
a) in air; (b) i ng lycer in ( er = 5 0)?
2-13. Wha t ist he r ela t
ive p erm it tivity o f a n a rtificial d ielectr ic c ons isting o f a
un
iform c ubica l l attice w ith me tal s phere s 2 cm i n d iame ter s paced u nifo rm ly 5 cm
b
etween c en ters i nt he x -, y-
, a nd z -
coord ina te d irect ions?
2-14. S how t ha t t he max imum p os sible p e
rm ittiv ity o f a n a r
tificial d iele ctric o f
metal sphe res a rranged i n au niform c ub ica l latt
ice i s2 .57. I ti sa ssumed t ha t t he re
i
sn o in
te ract ion b etween s phe res a nd t ha t they a re a lmo s t t ouch ing . The s pace
b
etween t he s phe re s i sa ir (or v acuum ).
2-16. Ac apac itor o ft wo large h orizon tal p arallel p late s h as a n inte rna l sepa ra tion
db etwe en p lates. A d ielectric s lab o f r elative p erm i
t t
iv ity e ,a nd t hicknes s ai s
p
laced o n t he l owe r p la te of t he c apac itor. N eglect e dge e fec ts. I ft he p oten tial
d
ife rence b etween t he c apac itor p lates i sV , show t ha t t he e l
ec tric f i
eld i ntens ity Ei
i
nt he dielectr ic i s

e
r
a V
—a — 1
)
 THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD
. PART 2 1
03

a
nd t
hat t
he e
lec
tric f
i
eld i
ntens
ity E0i
nthe a
i
rspace b
etween t
he t
op o
fthe d
ie
lec
tric
s
l
ab a
nd the u
pper capac
itor pl
ate i
s

e
rV
E0 e
,E =
e
r
d —a
(e
, — 1
)

2
-16 . I n P rob .2 - 15 l ett he slab b eo fs ulfur ( e, =4 )
, V=1 0v olts, a nd d = 1 0c m.
P
lo t ag raph o ft he p o tent ia la s af unct ion o ft he d istance b etwe en p late sf ora 0 ,1 ,
5
,9 ,a nd 1 0 c m. T ake t he p oten tia l o f the l owe r p la te a s zero.
2
-17 . Wha t i sthe c apac itance o f ac apac i tor c on sis ting o ft wo p arallel me tal plate s
30b y 3 0 cm s epa ra ted b y 5mm i na ir? N eg lect f r
ing ing o ft he f i
eld.
2
-18 . Wha t i st he e nergy s tored b y t he c apac itor o f P rob . 2- 17 i ft he c apa c
itor i s
c
ha rged t o ap oten tia l d if erence o f5 00 v ol ts? Wha ti st he e ne rgy d en s
ity?
2
-19 . Wha ti st he c apac itance o ft he c apac itor o fP rob . 2 -17 i f as hee to ff l
int gla ss
(
er = 1 0) isi ntroduced b etween t he p la tesu nder t he f olow ing c ond ition s:
a
. G las ss hee t 1mm t hick ( r
ema in ing 4mm b e tween p late si sa i
r)
b
. G lass s heet 2 . 5 mm t h
ick
c
. G las ss hee t 4mm t hick
d
. G las ss hee t 5mm t hick ( g
las s e ntirely f i
l
l ss pace b etwe en p late s)
2
-20 . W i th f l
int g lass ( o
r = 1 0) c omp le tely f i
l
ling t he s pa ce b etween t he p lates o f
t
he c apa c
itor o f P rob . 2 -17 w ha t i st he e ne rgy s tored i fthe c apa cito r i sc ha rged t o a
p
o ten t
ia l dife rence o f5 00 v o
lts? Wha t i st he e nergy d ensity?
2
-21 . Wha t i sthe c apac itance o f t he c apac i tor o f P rob . 2-17 i f ap re ssed s heet of
p
owe red r utile ( take e , = 14 ) i si n troduced b etween t he p late s u nde r t he f olow ing
c
ond i
tions :
a
. S hee t 1mm t hick ( rema ining 4mm b etween p la te si sa ir)
b
. S hee t 2 .
5 mm t hick
c
.S hee t 4mm t hick
d
. S hee t 5mm t hick
2
-22 . D eve lop t he r e
lat ion f or t he c apac itance o f ap arallel-p late c apa cito r from
(
2-52 ) b y consider ing a n a rea A o f t he d oub le s phe rica l-she ll capa cito r for t he c ase
whe re r1i sv e
ry l arge a nd r2 — ri 3 . 1i ss mal b yc ompa rison .
2
-23 . Wha t i st he max imum p oten tial t o w hich a n i solated me ta l s phe re c an b e
c
ha rged i ft he sphe re i s2 0 cm i n diame ter a nd s i
tua ted i n air? T ake t he d ielectric
s
treng th o fa i
r a s 3X 1 06v olts/me te r
.
2
-24 . Wha ti st he v oltage b etween t he pla te so f ap arallel-p late a irc apa cito ri fiti s
f
i
rs t c harged t o 1 00 v olts, t he p oten tial s ource d isconnec ted , a nd t he p la tes then
s
epa rated t ot wice t he ir o r
ig ina ls pacing? Wha ti st he e nergy s tored i nt he t wo c a
se s?
2
-25. Ac apac i
tor o f t wo i nf
in ite p a rale l c onduc ting p late s spa ced 1 0 c m a part i s
h
alf f i
lled w ith a d ielectr ic med ium ( e
, = 1 0) . The r ema ining s pace i sa ir fi
l
led .
The p o tentia l diference b etween t he p latesi s1 00 v o lts. Wha t i st he magn itude o f
:
a
. Din a ir
b
. Di nt he d ie
lec tric
c
. Ei nair
d
. Ei nthe d ielec tric
2
-26. D eve lop E q. ( 2-78 )b ya pp ly ing G aus s'sl aw t o ac ylind rica lv olume o fleng th
1and r adius rc oncen tr ic w i th t he u niform l i
ne o fc ha rge.
2
-27. Ac harge o f 1 0- 1 °c oulomb i sd istributed u ni form ly a long at hin l i
ne 1me ter
l
ong. T he l i
ne isc oinc ident w ith t he ya x
is a nd i tsc en teri sa tt he o rig in. C a
lcula te
a
nd p l
o tt he v ariation o ft he p oten t
ia l Va long t he xa xis f rom t he o rigin t o ad istance
o
f 2m eters.
1
04 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 2

2
-28. At h
in l
ine o
fcharge o
flength 2aisco
inciden
t wi
th t he yaxis w
ith i
t
sc en
ter
a
t the o
rig
in. The charge i
suniformly d
is
tributed a
long the l
ine a
nd has avalue o
f
pr
,coulombs/meter
. S how tha
t the po
tentia
l Va t a
ny point (x, y
) isg
iven by

V= I
n V ix
2 (
y — (
1
)2 — (y —
+ )1 — (
+ a y +a )

where ai st he p erm it
tiv ity o f the med ium .
2-29. What i st he c apac itance p er kilome ter o f leng th o f an air-fi
lled c oaxial line
w
ith a n i nne r conductor d iame ter o f 3 mm a nd a n o uter c onductor w ith a n ins
ide
d
iamete r of 1cm?
2-30. Wha ti sthe capac itance o ft he coaxia ll ine ofP rob.2 -29 ift he innerc onductor
sc
i overed w i th rubbe ri nsulation ( a
, =3 ) to ad iame te ro f 7mm a nd t he r
ema inder o f
t
he s pace ( to ad iame ter o f 1c in) fi
lled w ith ad i
elec tric ofp erm ittivity a,m .6 ?
2
-31. Wha ti st he energy s tored p er me tero fl ength o ft he coaxiall i
ne ofP rob . 2-29
i
f5 00 v o
lts i sa pplied t o the line? Wha t ist he e nergy s tored unde r these cond it
ions
f
or the line o f Prob . 2-30?
2
-82. Wha t ist he c apac itance p e r ki
lome ter of le ng th o f atwo -w ire line of No . 8
gauge ( B
. &S .
) w ire (3.26 mm d iame ter) w ith ac en ter -to
- center s pacing o ft he wires
equal to meter? The w ires are s uff
iciently h igh a bove g round t hat its efect may
be neglected .
2
-33. Wha t ist he capac itance p er kilome ter o fleng th of as i
ng le-w ire li
ne o f No. 8
gauge ( B
. &S .) wire s paced a n ave rage d istance o f 1 0 me ters above t he ground?
2
-34. S how t hatt he s urface c harge d ens i
ty p . on af latc onducting g round p lane d ue
t
oa n inf
initely l ong pos itively c harged t h
in w ire p a
ra llelt o the ground p lane a nd at a
he
igh t aa bove i t
, as in F ig. 2-22, is

- PLS
P
s s
r
(X 2 + 82)

where pi
,i sthe charge per u n
it leng th along the w
ire and x i
sthe di
stance along t
he
p
lane, perpendicula r t
o the wire direction a nd measured f
rom the po
in t on t
he p
lane
n
eare s
t to the wire.
2-35. Draw ag raph oft he variation ofp , g
iven in P
rob. 2
-34 as afunc
tion of xf
or
d
istance of 10s
.
2-36. Show tha tthe surface charge d ensi
ty i. o
s n afla
tc onduct
ing ground plane d
ue
t
o ap osi
tive point c ha
rge Q a t adis tance af r
om t he p
lane i
s

— Q8
P
a "
'
2
1'(z 2 + 82)
,

where xisthe dis tance along the p

lane mea sured f r
om t he point on the plane nearest
t
o the charge
.
2
-37
. D raw ag raph oft he v
ariation of pa g
iven i nP rob. 2-36 as afunction of xf o
ra
d
istance of 10s
.
2
-38
. The o ute rc onductorot ac oaxialline h as an inne r r
adius ba nd the inner con-
ductor anouterr ad
ius a . If av o
ltage V isa pplied tot he line
, find t
he e xpre
ssion for
t
he max imum f i
eld intensity E inthe li
ne. A t w hat radius is E amax imum?
2
-39
. A h igh-vo ltage conductor i sb rough t t hrough a g rounded me tal panel b y
means of the d oub le concentr
ic c apaci
tor b ushing s hown i n Fig. 2
-35. The s pace
b
e tween the concen tric metal s
leeves is adielectric (a
, =3 ) with aw orking die
lectric
s
trength of 100 k v/cm . Neg lect fr
inging. A lso neglect the thickness oft he sl
eeve s
.
 THE STAT
IC ELECTRIC F
IELD
. PART 2 1
05

M
eta
l p
ane
l

H
i
gh vol
tage
c
onduc
tor

1
4 1 [7 1
1
5c m

F
la. 2
-35
. C
apac
itor b
ush
ing f
or P
rob
. 2
-39
.

(
a) Wha t mu s t be t he l e
ng th L o f t he o uter s l
eeve i n orde r to e qual ize t he v oltage
a
cros s e ach d ielectric s pace? ( b) Wha t i s the max imum w orking v ol
tage o f the
b
ush ing?
2
-40. I ft he i nner sleeve ( 15 cm l ongro f Prob . 2-39 w ere removed , wha t w ould be
t
he max imum w orking v o
ltage o ft he b ush ing?
2
-41 . Ift he n umbe rofc oncen tric s leeve si nt he b ushing o fP rob.2 -39 w ere i n
creased
i
nn umbe r so t ha t the s pacing b etween s leeve s become s s mal
ler, wha t i st he ul t
ima te
working v oltage o fs uch ab ushing? N eglec tt he thickne sso ft he sleeve s, a nd assume
t
ha t the s l
eeve l engths a re a d
jus ted s o tha t the v oltage acros s each d ie lectr ic s pace is
t
he s ame .
2
-42 . Map t he f i
eld o f ac oax ial l ine c ons ist
ing o f ac ircular i nner c onductor o f
d
iame ter ds ymme trically l o
cated i nside o fa n o uter c onduc tor ofs quare c ro ss section
w
ith a n inne r side d imens ion o f3 d. No te t ha t becau se o
fs ymme try o nly o ne octant
(
45 ° secto r
) n eeds t o be mapped .
2
-43. Wha t ist he capac itance p er me te r ofl ength o f the line of P rob . 2 -42?
2
-44. Map t he f i
eld b etween t wo i nfinite p arallel conductor so fs qua re c ros ssection
w
ith a djacent s ides sepa rated b y ad i stance e qua l to one side of the s qua re .
2
-45. Wha t i st he c apacitance p er me ter o f l e
ng th of t he t wo -conductor l i
ne o i
P
rob . 2 -44?
2
-48. I n S ec. 2 -14 t he e nergy -dens ity r ela t
ion w E
l i sd eve loped f rom t he
e
xpre ssion AW = AC AV '. Deve lop t he s ame e nergy-dens ity r ela tion f rom t he
e
xp ression AW = A Q AV b y expre s ing A
s Qi n terms o f D .
2
-47. A g rid o f p arallel me tal r od s i si ntroduced b etween t he p la tes o f al a
rge
p
a rallel-plate a ir capac ito r as shown i nt he c ross se ct
ion i n Fig. 2-36 . Map t he fie
ld
i
n t he c apac itor w ith r ods a nd w ithout r ods . B y wha t f actor i st he c apac itance

R
od co

P
l
ates

4
/
F
Ia. 2
-36
. C
apac
itor w
ith me
tal r
ods f
or P
rob
. 2
-47
.
1
06 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 2

i
ncreased b y the rods? Wha t i sthe efective p erm it
tiv ity of t he space (w
ith rods)
b
etween t he capacitor plates?
2-48. Ac oaxial transm i
ssion l i
ne cons
ists ofa n inner c onduc to r o
fd iameter da nd
asymme tr
ically si
tua ted o uter conductor h aving t he c ross section o f a
n equila
teral
t
r
iang le w i
th as ide length of2 .
5d. Map t he fi
eld int he l i
ne,a nd f i
nd the r
atio ofthe
s
urface c harge density at the centerp oint of as ide oft he o u
te rc onducto rto the s
ur-
f
ace c harge density at ap oint m idway f r
om t he c entert o ac orne r
.
2-49. Wha t isthe capacitance p er meter fort he line ofP rob . 2-48 ifiti
sfil
led with
p
olys tyrene?
2-50. Al ong, thick ribbonlike me tal el
ectrode i ssi
tua ted 1c m f
rom a large con-
d
uc ting ground p lane as indicated i nthe cross section i n Fig. 2-37. I f1,
000 v o
ltsis

E
l
ect
rode
1
0cm
.
..
...
.
..
..
..
..
..
.
..
..
..
..
..
.
..
..
.
...
2mm
1c
m r
a
diu
s

1 -
Ground p
l
ate
F
lo. 2
-37
. E
lec
trode n
ear g
round plane f
or P
rob
. 2
-50
.

a
pplied b etween t he e lectrode and g round p l ane, w hat isthe m aximum f i
e
ld i ntens i
ty
o
ccurring a t t he electrode?
2
-51. Map t he f i
eld a nd equipo tent ial lines for t wo p o
int cha rge s + Qa nd + IQ
s
eparated b y 1 0 cm . L et Q= 1 0- 1 °coulomb .
2
-52. Map t he f i
eld a nd equipo ten tial li
nes f or t wo point cha rges + Qa nd - 4
-
Q
s
eparated b y 1 0 cm . L et Q 1 0- 1 °coulomb .
2
-53. Map t he f ie
ld a nd equipo ten tia
l l ines of four e qual cha rges o f magn i tude
Q = 10- 1 °cou lomb s i
tua ted att he c ornerso f as qua re 10c mo n as ide. T he c harge s
a
tt wo diagona lc orner sa re pos
itive a nd att he othert wo diagonalc orne rsa re nega tive.
2
-54. C ons truct at hree -d
imens iona lc lay o rplaster mode lo fthe p oten t
iald istribu -
t
i
on oft he t wo equa l p ositive charges o fF ig
. 2 -
17. Make t he el
eva tion d imen sion o f
t
he mode lc or respond t ot he potentia l V. S ince the p otentialatt he cha rgesi sinfinite,
i
tisneces sary t ol imit the max imum e l
evation a tsome a rb
itrary levels uch a s 1
00 v olts.
2
-55. Wha t i st he dive rgence oft he f o
llow ing vec tor functions:

A=i
0 jc
os a
x k
0; B= c
os a
x J
O I
c
0

An
a. V •A = 0
; v •B = —a s
i
n a
x
.
2
-56
. At
wo-d
imen
siona
l s
ca
lar d
i
str
ibu
tion i
sexpre
ssed b
y the f
unc
tion

U 1
/(x
' ±0
)

(
a) Wha tisthe g
radient o fthis f
unct
ion? ( b
) Wha tisthe d
ivergence o
ft he g
rad
ient
o
ft his f
unc
tion?
2-57
. Wha t i
sthe L aplacian ofthe s
calar f
unction f = a + b
xt?
2-58
. Wha t i
sthe dive rgence of
:
a
. A =1 2x +j3y 3 k
4z 3
b. A =i4zs j2x k3y 3
c
.A =i 2x j
4z3 k3y 3
d
. A =1 2 x j
3y 3 k
2x
2-59
. Wha t isthe dive rgence o
f the g
ravitat
ional f
ie
ld at ap oint j
ust be
low the
s
urface ofthe o
cean and a t ap o
int j
ust above?
 THE STATIC ELECTRIC F
IELD
. PART 2 1
07

2-60. Ap arallel pla te c apac itor h as ap late a rea o f 1me ter 2a nd ap late sepa ration
o
f 1c m. The p lates a re ma in tained a t ap otent ial diference o f 1 00 v olts
. N egle ct
f
r
ing ing. C alcu late t he c apac itance C , fl
ux d ensity D , fi
eld i nten s
i ty E, p o
la r
iza tion
P
, a nd surface c harge d ensity p .f ort he case whe re the diele c
tric med ium b e
tween t he
p
late s i
s( a) ai
r ( take e ,=1 ); ( 1
9
) p araf f
in (er = 2 .
1); (c) ru t
ile ( take e r = 1 4)
.
2-61. Al arge p arallel-pla te c apacitor h as its plates norma l t o the x a x
is. P late 1
w
ith ap otential V = 0i sa tt he origin. P la te 2w ith ap oten tial V = VIi sa t x=x l
.
Expre s
s L aplace's e qua t
ion i n rectangu lar c oordina tes, and s olve i tfor t h
is prob lem
b
y t he same p rocedure a su sed i nS ec.2 -35,o btain ing ast he s olution f ort he p otentia l
d
istribution, V= ( V / xi)
x.
2-82. Make a f i
eld map f ort he case o fa n i nfinite
ly l ong p o si
tive ly c harged c y
lin -
d
rical conductor o fr adius ra nd c harge P t
.p er u n
i tlength . T he c onduc tor isp arallel
t
o a n inf
inite ground p lane . The c en ter oft he c onductor i sa t ah eight ha bove t he
p
lane .
2-63. C ompa re t he r elative c ha rge d ensity o n the ground p lane a s obtained f rom
t
he f i
e
ld map o fP rob .2 -62 w ith t ha tc a
lcula ted ,u sing the r e
la t
ion g iven i nP rob.2 -34 .
2-64. Why c an a s olution b y means o f f i
eld mapp ing b e o b tained f or the c on -
f
i
gun iti o
n of P rob. 2 -34 b ut n otf or the configura tion of P rob. 2 -36?
2-65. S how t hat V •P (
e
, — 1 )
e o V •E .
2
-66. G iven t hat t he p oten tial V .
,d ue top olarization i srelated t ot he p o
la r
iza t
ion
Ph v
1 P •a,
V
, — 4Ti
o d
v

s
how t
hatt
h
is c
an b
e r
e
expres
sed a
s

1 fv• P
V
, = d
v
'
t
wee f
e r

2-67. D erive t he e xpression for the el

ectric fi
eld i ntens i
ty e verywhe re due to a
u
nifo rm sphe r
ica ld is
tribution ofc harge o
fdens ity pa nd radius ab ya pplying Poi
sson's
e
qua tion or its e quivalent d iv D = pb oth inside a nd o utside t
he s phere. O ne con-
s
tanti seva lua ted b y match ing so
lutions a
tt he boundary o ft he sphere,a nd t
he other
c
ons tant ise valua ted b yn oting tha
t Di sz e
ro a t t
he c en tero fthe sphere.
2
-68 . Ap aral
lel-plate capac i
tor h as aplate separa tion d . T he capa c
itance with
a
i
ro nly between t he plate
si sC. When as l
ab o fthickne ss ta nd re
lative permitt
ivity
e
,isp laced o no ne oft he plates
, the capac
itance isC '
. S how tha t

C
' erd

C t e
,
(d — I
)

D
raw ag
raph o
fC '/C v
s
. tasb
ased o
n t
h
is r
e
lat
ion
. D
iscus
sthe e
fec
toft
he a
i
rgap
(
d —t
)on the c
apaci
tance
.
 CHAPTER 3

THE S
TEADY ELECTR
IC CURRENT

3-1. I ntroduc tion . E lect ric c ha rge i n mo t

ion c onstitute s a n e l
ec tric
c
ur ren t
. I n m etalli c conduc to rst he cha rge i scar r
ied b ye l
ect ron s. O ne
e
lec tron h as an ega tive c ha rge o f 1 .6 X 1 0-1 "cou lomb . I n l i
qu id c on -
ducto rs ( e
lec t roly te s) t he c ha rge i sc arried b y ion s
, b o th p ositive a nd
n
ega tive .
In t his c hap ter t he i mpo rtan t r ela t
ion s g ove rning t he b ehav ior o f
s
teady e lectric c ur ren ts i n c onduc to rs are d iscussed . B y " steady" c ur-
r
en ti sm ean to ne t ha ti sc on s tan tw ith t ime .' T he f i
eldsa ssoc iated w i th
s
teady c urren ts a re a l
so c on s tan t w ith t ime a nd, h ence, a re s tatic f i
eld s
.
I
n C hap s
. 1a nd 2t he d i scus sion i sa lmo ste nt
irely c once rned w ith s ta tic
f
i
eld s h aving a l
l a ssoc ia ted c ha rge s sta t
ionary , t ha t is
, w ith n o c urren ts
p
re sen t. I n t hi s chap te r t he f ields a re also s t
a t
ic, b u ts teady d irec t c ur-
r
en ts may b e p re sen t.
3
-2 . C onduc tors a nd I nsu la tors . I n s ome m etals, l i
ke s i
lve r a nd
c
oppe r
, t here i sb ut o ne e l
ec t ron i n the o ute rmo st o ccup ied s hell of t he
a
tom . Th i s e lect ron i ss ol oo sely h e
ld t ha ti tm igra tes e asily f rom a tom
t
o a tom w hen a n e lectr ic f i
eld i s applied . A s m entioned p rev iou sly
(
Secs . 1 -23 a nd 2 - 2
) ma teria ls t ha t p erm it s uch mo tion o fe lectron s a re
c
alled c ondu cto rs. S i
lve r a nd c oppe r a re e xamp les o f g ood c onduc to rs,
t
heir r esistance t os uch e lect ron ic mo tion b eing r elative ly s l
igh t. No ta l
l
g
ood c onduc to r s h ave o nly o ne e lectron i nt he outermo st o ccup ied s he ll.
S
ome h ave t wo, a nd a f ew, s uch a s alum inum , three . Howeve r, in a l
l
c
onduc tor s t he se e lectron s a re l o osely b ound a nd c an m igra te r ead ily
f
rom a tom t oa tom . S uch e lectron sa re o ften c a
lled t r
ue c ha rge s.
I
no the rs ub s tance s, h oweve r
, t he e lectron s may b es o fi
rm ly h eld n ea r
t
heir n orma l p o si
t ion t ha t t hey c anno t be l iberated b y the a ppl ica t
ion o f
o
rdina ry f i
eld s
. ' T hese ma ter ials a re c al
led d i
ele ct
rics o r i nsulato rs.
A
lthough a f i
eld a pplied t o a n in sula tor may p roduce n o m igra tion o f
c
ha rge , itc an p roduce a p ola riza tion o ft he i nsula to r
, o r di e
lec tric ( S ec.
2
-3), t ha t i s
, ad isp lacement o ft he e lectron s w ith r espect t o t heir e qu i-

1S
pecif
ica
lly
, aa t
eady d
irec
t c
urren
tis meant. Thi sshou
ld n o
tb econ
fused w
ith a
"
steady -s
tate" cur
rent, w
hich may imply atime
-changing cur
ren t t
hat r
epea
tsitse
lf
p
eriodical
ly.
2 However, t
hey may be to
rn ofb y mechan
ical means s
uch as rubb
ing.
1
08
SE
C. 3
-3
1 THE STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENT 1
09

l
ibr
ium p osit
ions. T he c ha
rge s ofan i n
sula tor are o ften c al
led b ound or
p
ola ri
za tion c harges in c ontrast to the f r
ee, o r true, c harges o f ac on-
d
uc ting ma terial
.
Certain o ther mate r
ial s with p roperties i ntermed ia te b etween c on-
d
uc tor s a nd i n
sulator s are c a
lled s emicondu ctors
. Unde r s ome c ondi-
t
ionss uch as ub stance may a ctlike ani nsulato rb utw i th the applicat
ion
o
fh ea t o rsuff
i c
ien t f
ie
ld may b ecome af a
ir c onduc to r
.
3-3. T he Elec tr
ic C urren t
. When a n i solated c onduc ting o b
ject i s
i
ntroduced i nto a n el
ec tr
ic f i
e
ld, c ha
rge s mig rate (c ur rents flow) u nt
il a
s
urface c harge distr
ibu tion h as been built up t hat reduce s the total fi
eld
i
nt he c onduc tort oz ero. Th is w asdiscussed i nS ec. 1 -23
. I f
, h oweve r
,
t
he c onduc t
ing o bjecti sn ot is
olated and t he a ppl
ied f i
eld is maintained,
c
urren t w il
l con t
inue t o flow int he conduc to r
.
Fore xamp le,c onsidera ninf
initely long conduc tor,s uch a s am etalwire,
i
n au nifo rm f i
e
ld E a s in Fig. 3-1. T he f i
e
ld E i n t he c onducto r isn ot
W
ire

"
1- E
l
ect
ron
4-
-I •—(
-
10-

V
Fm
. 3
-
1 I
nf
in
ite c
onductor i
nun
iform f
i
e
ld.

z
ero i
fc ur
ren t isf l
owing. R athe r
, Ei sthe same inside a nd outs
ide o f
t
he c
onduc tor
. T his f
o
llow sf rom t he bounda ry re
lation (1) o
fT able 2-2
t
hat the t
angen tial c
omponen t oft he electric f
i
eld iscon t
inuou s acrossa
b
ounda ry
. T he f i
eld causes t he electrons in the conduc tor to mig rate
p
aral
lel to the f i
e
ld. S ince t he electron s are negat
ively c harged, t hey
move in asense o ppos
ite to the fi
eld d irect
ion. I fthere are n e
lectrons
p
erm eterofl ength ofthe conduc tora nd their a
verage velocity i
s vm eters
p
er sec, t
hen t he tota
l cha rge p e
r s econd p ass
ing a f i
xed p oint o n the
w
ire is
n
qv

whe
re q = c
harge o
feach e
l
ectron
. T he e
l
ect
ric c
urren
t /i
nthe w
ire i
s
t
hen d
ef
ined as
I = —nq
v (
3
-1)

The e
lec
t r
ic curren
ti s
,b ydef
inition
, taken t
ob einthe oppos
ite di
rect
ion
t
ot he e
lectron motion. Hence t he n
egative s
ign i
n (
3-1
). E lectric c
ur-
r
ent has the dimensions o
f charge per time
, or i
n dimensiona
l symbo ls
Q
/T . T he mksc u n
it o
fcurrent isthe ampere
. Thus ,

C
oulombs
— ampe
res
S
econd
1
10 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 3

Thatis
, charge f l
owing by afixed point at the r
ate of 1coulomb p e
rs ec
c
onst
itutes ac urrent of 1amp.
3
-4. Resis
tance a nd Ohm 's Law . R e
ferring to Fig
. 3-1, itisfound
t
hatat acon s
tan tt emperature the potentialdiference V over alength d
o
fthe conducto r isproport
ional to the current I. T he constant o
fp ro-
p
ort
ionali
ty b etween V a nd Iisc a
lled the re
sistance R ofthe le
ngth do f
c
onductor
. T hus
V=I R (
3-2
)
o
r

V
R= (
3
-3)
or

V
/= (
3
-4)

The
se rela
tionsare e
xpress
ionsofO hm's l
aw. I nw o
rd s
,Ohm's l
aw s
ta
tes
t
hat th
e potent
ial d
ife
rence orvo
ltag
e Vb etween t
he end
s o
f ac
onduc
tor i
s
e
qual t
ot h
e produc
t o
fi t
s r
esi
stance Rand th
e cur
rent I.
Res
istance has t
he d
imen s
ions

P
otentia
l
Current
o
rind
imen
siona
l s
ymbo
ls
T MV
R
esi
stance = QT 2Q TQ
2

The mk
sc u
nit o
fre
sis
tance i
sthe o
hm. T
hus

v
olts
O
hms —
ampere

Tha tis
, the res
istance o f aconduc toris 1ohm i fac urrento f 1amp flows
when a po tential diference of 1v olt i
sapp l
ied b e
tween t he e nds ofthe
c
onduc tor
.
3
-5
. P owe r R elations and Joule's Law. R eferring again to Fig. 3-
1,
t
he p o
tential dife rence orv o
ltage V across the l
eng th doft he conductor
i
se qual t
o t he w ork per unit charge r
equired to move a c harge th
rough
t
he d i
stance d . Mu lt
iplying b y the current I( c ha
rge p er u n
it time)
y
ields the w ork pe r un
it time or powerP . T hus,

Work c
harge w
ork
X . — —p
owe
r
C
harge t
ime t
ime
o
r
P=V
I (
3
-5)

Th
is i
sthe p
owe
rdi
ssipa
ted i
nthe l
e
ngth do
fthe c
onduc
tor
. T
he mk
sc
SE
C. 3
-6
1 THE STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENT 1
11

u
nit o
fpowe
r i
sthe w
att
. H
ence
,

Wa
tts =v
ol
ts X ampe
res

o
rind
imen
siona
l s
ymbo
ls
ML 2Q _ M V
Wa
tts =
QT 2 T T3

I
ntroduc
ing t
he v
alue o
f Vf
r
om O
hm's l
aw (
3
-2) i
n
to (
3
-5) y
i
eld
s
P = I2R (
3
-6)
A
cco rding to(3-6
) the work orenergy di
ssipated per u
nittime i
nthe c
on-
d
ucto r i
sg iven by the product o
fi ts r
es
istance R and the s
qua
re o
ft he
c
urrent I. T h
is energy appears a
s heat inthe conductor
.
The energy W d is
sipated inthe conductor in atime T ist
hen
W = PT = PRT (
3
-7)
where W = e ne rgy ( joule s
)
P=p owe r ( wa tt s
)
/= c ur ren t ( amp )
R =-resistance ( ohm s)
T=t ime ( s
ec )
This r e
lation i sk nown a s Joule's law . I tisa ssumed i n (3
-7) t ha t Pi s
c
on stan to vert he t ime T . I fitisn otc onstant, PR i sintegrated o vert he
t
ime i n
terva l T.
3
-6. T he E lec tric C i rcuit. T he d iscus s
ion i n t he p receding s ect
ion s
c
once rn s a n inf
in itely l ong c onduc to r along w hich a f i
eld E i sa pplied
(
Fig. 3 -1)
. C on s
ide r n ow ac yl
ind rica l conduc to ro ff i
nite leng
th da s i
n
F
ig. 3 -2a. T he c onduc tor isi n the u n
iform f i
e
ld E b etween t wo l a
rge
c
onduc ting b locks o f n egl
igible r esistance ma in tained a t ac on stant
p
oten tial d ife
rence V b y ab at
te ry. I fthe e nds oft he conduc to r w ere
s
epa rated f rom t he b lock sb ys malli nsu lat
ing g ap s
, c urren tw ou
ld f low in
t
he c onduc to ro nly wh ile as urface c ha rge dis
tribu tion w asb e
ing b uiltu p
t
ha tn eutralizest he a pp lied fi
eld. However ,w ith t he conduc torc onnec ted
t
o the b locks a si n Fig . 3 -2a an eut ralizing surface c harge canno tb eb ui
lt
u
p, a nd t he total f ield i n the conduc tor i se qual t o t he applied f ie
ld.
This f i
e
ld i sgiven b y
E= (
3
-8)

A
slong a
sth
is f
i
e
ld i
s ma
inta
ined i
nthe c
onduc
tor
, c
urren
tfl
owst
hathas
ava
lue
V E
d
(
3
-9)

I
fthe e
nd b
locks a
re r
emoved a
nd the b
attery c
onnec
ted a
s i
n Fig
.
3
-2
1)
, t
he f
i
eld i
sno l
onge
r un
iform o
ver t
he e
ntire c
yl
indr
ica
l c
onduc
tor
12 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS (
CHAP
. 3

b
ut becomesn onuni
form nearthe ends o
fthe conductor. A s ar e
sultthe
r
es
istance R' b
etween the t
erm
inals ofthe conductor isgreater t
han the
r
es
istance R o
ft he c
onductorwhen s i
tua
ted int he un
iform fi
eld between
t
he end b
locks
. Th is efec
tisdis
cus sed i
n more deta
ilinS ec
.3 -16
. T he
c
urrentI'int he c
onductor c
onnected asinF ig
. 3-26 isthen

(
3
-10
)

A
ssuming tha
t the r
es
istance of the w
ires connecting t
he bat
tery to
t
he cyl
indr
ica
l conduc
tor isn egl
igib
le co mpared with R
', the p
otent
ial

(
a)

C
y
lindr
ical
c
onducto
r

4
\
AA/VvV
v

(
b
)
no.3-2
. C
ylindr
ica
l c
onductor o
fleng
th db
etween e
nd b
lock
s (
a
), mod
ifi
ed a
rrange
-
men
t (b
) a
nd schemat
ic d
iagram (c
)
.

d
iference V i se qual to the v oltage a ppearing a cross the t ermina l softhe
b
attery . T he ar rangemen t o fF ig. 3-26 may t hen b e represen ted by the
s
chema tic diagram o fF ig. 3 -2c.
This i sadiagram o f aclosed e l
ectricc i
rcuitoft he mo ste lemen ta ry f
orm.
I
tcon sistso f aresistorofr es istance R a nd ab attery o fv o
l tage V . I tisto
b
e n oted t hat i n the c ircu it r epre
sen tation n o i n
fo rma tion i s g
iven
e
xplici
t ly c oncern ing t he f ield o r i t
s d istr
ibu tion, t he c i
rcu it being
d
escr
ibed o nly int erm soft he l umped q uantit
ie so fr es
istance a nd v ol
tage.
I
tis, ofc ourse, true that t he p otential between t wo p o
in tsi se qua ltothe
l
i
ne integ ralo fthe f i
e
ld, b uto n
ly t he resul
to ft he i n
teg ration i sgiven and
n
ot the f i
eld distribution i tself.
3
-7. R esist
ivity a nd C onduc t
ivity
. T he r esistance o f ac onductor
d
epends n ot only o n the type o f ma terial o
fw hich t he conduc tori s made
SE
C. 3
-71 THE STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENT 1
13

b
u tal
so oni t
ss hape and s ize. T ofacil
ita te compar ison s b etween d ifer-
e
nt types o
f sub stances, i ti sconvenien t to d ef
ine a q uan tity w h
ich is
c
haracter
ist
ic o n
ly oft he sub stance. T he resist
ivity Si ss uch aq uan t
ity.
The r
esis
tiv
ity o f a ma terial isn umerically e qual t o t he r es
istance o f a
h
omogeneous u n
it cube o ft he ma ter
ial wi th au n
i form c urrent d i
stribu-
t
i
on. T he current dis
t ribution i suni
fo rm i fthe f i
eld i su n
iform . Th is
c
ondit
ion may b e produced b y clamping t he cube b etween t wo heavy
b
lock s ofn egligib le resistance as
Un
itcube
i
nF ig. 3-3, w i th c ontact made
overt he entire s urface ofb oth end
f
a ces. W i th ac urrent It hrough
t
he c ube, t he r esistivity S oft he
ma terial is g iven b y S = V/ I,
w here V ist he p otential between
t
he b locks.
In mk sc u nits, t hi
s m easure-

/
F
ia. 3
-3
. Un
it c
ube b
etween e
nd b
locks
. F
lo.3
-4. B
lock o
fc onduct
ing mater
ial
.

menti sino hms fo

r ac ube of mater
ial 1m e
ter o n asi
de. Ift wo c
ubes
a
re placed in se
ries be
tween t he bl
ocks, the res
istance mea
sured is2 S
,
whi
le iftwo cubes are p
laced i
np aral
lel
, the re
sis s S
tance i . I tfo
llows
t
hat the re
sis
tance R of ar e
ctangular block oflength land c
ro
ss se
c t
ion
a
,a s i
nF ig. 3
-4
, is
S
1
R =—
a (
3
-11
)

w
here S = r
e
sist
ivi
ty ofb
lock ma
ter
ial
.
D
imens
ionally (
3-
11) h
as t
he f
o
rm

r
e
sis
tiv
ity X l
e
ngth
R
esi
stance =
a
rea

f
r
om w
hich w
e h
ave
r
e
sis
tance X a
rea
R
esi
stiv
ity = —r
e
sis
tance X l
e
ngth
l
eng
th

Thus
, res
ist
ivity has t he dimen
sions of r
e
sistance t
imes l
ength a
nd in
mksc un
its isexpressed in ohm-meter
s. F or the s
pecia
l ca
se o
f aunit
c
ube (t
hati s
, acubical block 1mete
ro n aside
) the r
es
ist
ivi
ty isnume
ri-
c
al
ly equal t
o the re
sistance.
14 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 3

The res
i s
tivity is afunction of the temperatu
re. I n m e
ta l
lic con
-
d
uctors it v a
ries near
ly linear
ly w i
th a bso
lute temperature
. O ve
r a
c
ons
ide rable temperature r
ange fr
om ar eference o
r ba
se tempe rature T
o
t
he re
sist
ivity S isgiven approx
ima tely by
S=S
o
[l a
(T — T
o
)] (
3
-12
)
w
here T = t
emperature of mater
ial (°C
)
T
o =r e
ference temperature (u
sually 2
0°C)
S
o =r e
sist
ivity at t
empe ra
ture To (ohm-meter
s)
a= temperature coef
f
icient o
fr e
sis
tivi
ty (numer
ica
l u
nit
s/°C
)
Examp le
. F or c
opperthe r
es
istiv
ity So a
t20°C is1.77 X 1
0-8 o
hm-me ter
, and t
he
c
orresponding c
oeff
i
cient a = 0
.0038 r
ec
iprocal d
egree
. F ind t
he r
esi
stiv
i ty a
t 3
0°C.
So
lution. The res
ist
ivi
ty S a
t at empera
ture T is

S= 1
.
77 X 1
0-8 [
1 0
.0038
(T — 2
0)
] o
hm-me
ter
s

A
t at
empe
ratu
re o
f 3
0°C
,

S 1
.
77 X 1
0-1 [
1 +0
.0038
(10
)] = 1
.
84 X 1
0-8 o
hm-me
ter

Th
is i
san i
ncrea
se o
f n
ear
ly 4p
er c
ent o
ver t
he r
e
sis
tiv
ity a
t 2
0°C
.

The reciprocal of resistance R i sc ondu ctance G . T ha t is

, G=1 /R.
S
ince res
istance isexp re ssed in ohm s, c onduc tance i se xpressed in recip
-
r
ocalo hm s
. Ar e
ciproca lo hm i sc a
lled am ho (ohm s pe
lled b ackwa rd) s
o
t
hat conduc tance isg iven in mho s.
The reciprocal of r es
istivity S i sc ondu ct
ivity a . T hat i s
, a= 1 /S
.
A
lthough t he res
ist
iv ity i sconven ient i n certain a pplications, itiso f
ten
more conven ient to d eal with i ts recip rocal, t he conduc tivity, as, fo
r
e
xamp le
, w here p arallel c ircu
its a re i nvo lved . S ince r esist
ivity i s
e
xpressed ino hm-me ter s
,t he conduc tivi ty isexp ressed in mho sp erm eter
.
The res
istance R o f ar e
ctangu lar b lock, as i n Fig. 3-4
, o f material o
f
c
onduc t
ivity ai s
R =—
1 o
hms (
3
-13
)
G
r
a
o
r t
he c
onduc
tance G o
fthe b
lock i
s
1 a
a
mho
s (
3
-14
)
R 1
Fo
rthe s
pec
ialcase o
f aun
it cube,the c
onductance i
snumer
ical
ly equa
lt o
t
he c
onduct
ivi
ty.
' C onversely
, the c
onduct
ivity o
f amate
ria
li snume r
i-
c
al
ly e
qualtothe c
onductance of ahomogeneousu n
it c
ube o
fthe mate
rial
w
ith aun
iform cur
rent d
istribut
ion.
INo te t
hat the u
nit cube is aspec
ial c
ase o
f the square-s
ided block orcel
l (
h =1 )
.
For s
uch ac e
ll, o
rblock, of un
it depth (d = 1me ter
) the res
istance R ofthe b
lock i
s
numerical
ly equal t
o the re
sis
tivity S o
ft he ma
te r
ial
, wh i
le the c
onduc tance G o
fthe
b
lock isn umerica
lly e
qua l t
o the conduc
tivity aof t
he ma teria
l (s
ee Sec. 3
-16)
.
SE
C. 3
-8
] THE STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENT 15

F
rom (
3-12
) the c
onduc
tiv
ity o
f am
eta
ll
ic c
onduc
tor a
s af
unc
tion o
f
t
he t
empe
rature i
s
T
O
(
3
-15
)
6 = 1 a
(T — T
o
)

where ao = c
onductiv
ity at the t
emperature To ( mho
s/me te
r)
a=s ame coeff
ic
ient asin (3
-12
)
T=t emperature (°C)
To = r
e
ference temperature (
°C)
3
-8. Table ofConduc t
ivit
ies. T he c
onduc t
ivities C
Io o
fsome c
ommon
mater
ials a
re li
s
ted inT able 3-
1 fo
r atempe rature of20°C. B y way o
f

TABLE 3
-1
TABLE OF CONDUCT
IVIT
IES

C
onduct
ivity
,
S
ubs
tance T
ype
mhos/meter

Qua rtz, fused I

nsulator 1
0-7 a
1 pprox
Ce resin w ax I
nsulator 1
0-7 a
1 pprox
Sulfur I
nsulator 1
0-" a pprox
M ica I
nsulator 1
0-6 a
1 pprox
Pa raffin I
nsulator 1
0-6 a
1 pprox
Rubber , h ard I
nsulator 1
0-6 a
1 pprox
Glas s I
nsulator 1
0-2 a
1 pprox
Bake lite I
nsulator 1
0-2 approx
Dis ti
lled w ater I
nsulator 1
0 -'approx
S
ea w ater Conductor 4approx
Tellur ium Conductor 5X 1 0
° approx
Ca rbon Conductor 3X 1 0 approx
Graph ite Conductor 1
06a pprox
Cas t i r
on Conductor 1
0° approx
Me rcury Conductor 10 6

Nichrome Conductor 1
06
Con s
tan tan Conductor 2X 106
S
ilicon s t
eel Conductor 2X 106
Ge rman s i
lver Conductor 3X 106
Lead Conductor 5X 106
T
in Conductor 9X 106
Phosphor b ronze Conductor 1
07
Bras s Conductor 1
.1 X 107
Z
inc Conductor 1
.7 X 107
Tung sten C
onductor 1
.8 X 107
Dura lum in C
onductor 3X 107
A
lum inum , h ard-drawn C
onducto r 3
.5 X 107
Gold C
onductor 4
.1 X 107
Coppe r C
onductor 5
.7 X 107
S
ilve r C
onductor 6
.1 X 10
7
1
16 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 3

contrast
, b oth in
sulators and c
onduc to
rs are li
sted.
' T he materials a
re
a
r ranged ino rder o
fi nc
reasing conduct
ivity.
> 3-9. C ur
ren t Density and Ohm 's Law a t aP oint
. I f t
he c urrent i
s
d
is t
ributed u nifo
rm ly throughout the cr
o s
s s e
c t
ion of awire
, t hen the
c
ur rentdensity J i
su n
iform and isgiven b
yt he totalcur
rent Id ivided by
the cros
s-sectionalarea ofthe wire
. T ha
t i s
,
I
J=-
a (
3
-16
)

Current density hasthe d

imensions o fc urrent p era rea and in mksc un
its
i
sexp ressed in amperes p
ersqua re m eter.
I
ft he cur
rent i snot un
ifo
rm ly d istr
ibuted , (3-16) gives the average
c
urren t dens
ity. Howeve r
, itiso ften ofi nte rest to c
on s
ider the c
urrent
d
ensity a t apoint
. T h
isisdef
ined a st he cur rent AIt hrough as mal
la rea
A
sd ivided b yA s
,w ith t
he l
imi
to ft h
is rat
io t aken asA sa pproachesz e
ro.
Hence , the c ur rent density at ap o
in t i
s
g
i ven b y
a
J = l
irn --
A (
3
-17
)
t
i
a-.0 I
-
18

I
tisassumed t ha t t he surface Asisn o r-
maltot he current d irec t
ion. B ythis defi-
n
it
ion t he c ur ren t den sity J i s av ecto r
F
in. 3 -5. Block of c onducting
p
ointf unction h aving a magn itude e qua l
materia
l w ith s mal i maginary
c
el
l e nc
losing the p
oint P. t
o t
he c
urrent d
en s
it y a
t t
he p
oint and the
d
irection oft he c urren ta t the point.
Consider n ow a b lock ofc onduc t
ing ma ter ial as i ndicated i n F
ig. 3 -5
.
Le
t as mall i mag
ina ry rectangular c e
ll ofl e
ng th 1a nd c ross sect
ion a b e
c
on struc ted around ap oint Pi n the i
nter
ioro ft he b l
ock w ith an o
rma lt o
Ja s indicated . T hen o n apply
ing O hm's l aw ( 3-2) t o this ce
ll we h ave
V=I
R (
3
-18
)
w
here V = p
otent
ial d
iference b
etween ends o
f c
e
ll
. B
ut V = E
l and
I= Ja
; s
o
E
l =J aR 3-
( 1
9)
S
olv
ing f
o
rJ , we h
ave
1,
J=— r , (
3-20
)
aR
IT he l
arge diference inconduct ivity between t he insu
latorsand conduc tors li
sted
make sthe d
istinct
ion between t he two ont he basis o
fthe conduct
ivity alone re
la t
ively
e
asy. T he divis
ion in t
he table i s made arbi
trar i
ly betwe en 1
0-4 m ho per m eter f
or
d
ist
illed water and 4mhos p er me terf orsea wa ter
. Th isisforthe case o
f ac onstant
c
urren t o
r fi
eld. I n the a
-c or h igh-frequency s i
tuation, however, the conduc t
ivity
a
lone isusually not sufi
cient, a nd itisoften more u seful t
o make ad ist
inc t
ion a s t
o
whether a ma ter
ial behaves like a c onductor o r adielectr
ic, b
asing this arbitrar
ily
o
n the rat
io a /
coe
, where co 2
1r X ( frequency). Th isi sdone i
n C hap. 1 .
SE
C
. 3
-
101 THE STEADY ELECTR
IC CURRENT 1
17

By mak
ing t
he c
e
ll e
nc
losing P a
s s
mallaswe wish, t
h
is r
e
lat
ion may b
e
made t
oapp
ly at t
he p
oint P
, and we may w
rite
J= c
r
E (
3
-21
)

Equat
ion (3-21) isO hm 's law at ap oin
t and r elates the cur
ren t dens
ity
Jat apoint to the total fi
eld E at t he po
int a nd the conduc t
ivity ao f
t
he mater
ial
. I ti sto b e noted that Ja nd E h ave the same d irect
ion
(med
ium assumed t o be isotropic
).
3
-10. Ki
rchho f
f's Voltage L aw a nd the D iference b etween P o
tential
a
nd EMF . C ons
ide r the simple elec
tric ci
rcu i
t s hown b y the schema tic
d
i ag
ram i nFig.3-6. T he ci
r cuit consist
so f aresisto
r Ro
and the b attery. The c urrent i s Ia t al
l points in the
c
ircuit
. A t a ny point inthe c onduc ting mate r
ial of the
c
ircuit w ehave from O hm's law a t ap o
in t (
3-21) that

FI
G. 3
-6
. S
er
ies =E (
3-22
)
a
c
i
rcui
t of b
at-
t
e
ry and exter- w
here E = t
o
tal f
i
e
ld a
t t
he p
o
int
.
n
a
l r
es
istance.
I
ngenera
lt he t
ota
lf i
e
ld E may b
ed ue n
oton
ly t
ostat
ic
c
harge
s but a
l
so t
o other c
auses s
uch as t
he c
hemica
la ct
ion i
n ab
atte
ry.
To i
nd
ica
te th
is e
xpl
icit
ly, we may wri
te
E=E
. +E
. (
3
-23
)
where E, =s tatic e l
ectric fi
eld d ue to charges; the subscript cist oi ndi-
c
ate e xplicit
ly t ha t the fi
e
ld i sd ue toc harge
s
E
. =e lectric f i
e
ld g ene ra ted by other cause s as by ab attery; t he
s
ub script ei stoi nd icate explic
itly thati tisa ne mf
-p roducing
f
i
eld ( see below )
Whe reas E. isd e r
ivab le a s t he g rad
ien t of as calar po tent
ial d ue t o
c
harge s (E
. = —VV ), t h
is i sn ot the case for E .
. S ubstitut
ing ( 3
-23 )
i
n (3-22)
, w r
iting J = I /a, w he re ai sthe cross
-se ct
ional a rea o
ft he c on-
d
ucto r
, and n ot
ing t he value o f af rom ( 3
-13),

(
3
-24
)

w
here R /1 =r
es
istance/unit le
ngth (ohms/mete
r). Equation (3-24
)
a
pplie
s a t a
ny p
o
int int he c
ir
cuit
. Integra
ting (
3-24
) a
round the c
om -
p
le
te circuit
,
5
6E c•
dl-
F 4E
.•d
l =l hd
l (
3
-25
)

F
rom (
1-
19) the fi
r
st te
rm iszero
, that i
s
, t
he l
ine i
nteg
ral o
f alamel
lar
f
i
e
ld d
ue toc
ha rge
si sze
ro a
round ac l
osed c
i
rcu
it. Howeve r, t
he s
econd
t
e
rm (
in 3
-25
), involv
ing t
he l
ine in
tegra
l ofE.around the c
i
rcui
t, i
snot
1
18 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 3

z
ero b ut isequal to av o
ltage ca
lled the total e
l
e c
tromoti
vefor c
e, o
r emf
,
'
Or o
ft he ci
rcuit
.' T he f
ie
ld E. isproduced, int he p
resent example, by
c
hem icala ct
ion i nthe ba
ttery. I fitw e
re a bsen
t, no c
urrent w ou
ld fl
ow
s
ince an electr
ic fi
eld E, due to c
harges isn o
t able t
o maintain as t
eady
c
urren t
. T he right-hand si
de of (
3-25) equals t
he tota
l I R d
rop around
t
he circuit
. H ence ( 3
-25) becomes

=J
R. (
3
-26
)

where Rr = t
o
tal re
sis
tance o f ci
rcu
it (=Ro ifinterna
l re
sis
tance o
f
b
atte
ry isze
ro).
I
ng ene
ral
, f
or acl
osed ci
rcuit c
onta
ining many r
e
sis
torsand s
ource
sof
emf
,
= (
3
-27
)

Th
is i sK irchhof f
's vol
tag e law. I n words its tates that the al
gebra ic sum
o
ft he e mfs a round ac losed circui
t e quals th
e a lg
eb raic sum o fthe ohm i
c or
I
R d rop s ar ound t he c i
rcu i
t.2 A s ac orol
la ry, K irchhof 's voltage l aw
s
tatest ha tt he a lgebraic s um o fallt he emfsa nd I Rdrop sa round ac losed
c
i
rcu it i sze ro. K irchhof 's voltage l aw a pplies n o
t o n
ly t o an i s
olated
e
l
ec tric circu it as in F ig. 3-6 b ut to a ny single m esh ( c
losed p ath) o f a
n
etwo rk.
T od i
s t
ingu ish e mff rom t he scalar potential V,t he symbo l'0(script V)
i
su sed f o
r em f. B oth V a nd '0a re expressed i nv oltssot ha tei
ther may
b
e r e
fer red t o as av oltage i fo ne d oes not w ish t o make a d istinction
b
etween p oten tial and e mf
.
Iti stob en oted that t he sca
larp oten t
ial Vi se qual tot he li
ne i n
teg ra
l
o
ft he static f i
eld Ec,w hile the e mf' 0e qualsthe l i
ne integra
lo fE.
. T hus,
b
etween t wo p o
in ts aa nd b ,3

Vab= V
b — V
a = a E.•d
l (
3
-28a
)
a
nd
a
b=V
b —V
. = 4b E
. •d
l (
3
-286
)

I
n (
3-28a
) Vab i
sindependen
t o
fthe p
ath o
fin
teg
rat
ion b
etween aa
nd b
,
b
ut '
0„
b, i
n (
3
-286), isnot
.
1Emfi sal
so called el
edromotance.
2I
nt im
e-varying s i
tuations
,w heret heci
rcuitd imensionsa res mal
lc ompar
ed w i
th
t
h
ew ave
length,K irchhof'slawism odif
ied to
:T hea lgebraicsum o ftheins
tantaneous
e
mfsa r
ound ac l
os ed ci
rcuitequal
st hea l
gebra
i csum o fthei ns
tantaneous o
hmicd r
ops
a
r
ound t h
ec ir
cuit.
3Anopen-ci
rcui ted battery (
noc u
rrentf l
owing)h as at e
rminalp oten
tia
ld ife
rence
Vequaltoi t
se m fV . T he po
tentia
l Vi sa sgiv
en b y (3-28a)
. A se x
pla
ined int h
e
e
x
amp lest h
at fo
llow , E,a nd E. h
aveo pposi
ted ir
e ct
ionsi ntheba t
tery
. T h
erefore
,
i
nordert h
at V at, = VAf orano pen-c
ircui
ted battery, (3
-286) ha
sn onegat
ives i
gn.
SE
C. 3
-10
] THE STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENT 1
19

F
or c
l
osed p
ath
s
fE
, •d
l =0 (
3
-28
c)
a
nd
fE
, •d
l = yr (
3
-28d
)

whe
re '0 7.= t
otal emf around the ci
rcuit.
Re
ferr
ing a ga
in t o (
3
-23 ) and (
3-25)
,i ti
stoben oted fu
rthert ha
ts ince
5 Ec •d
l = 0t he li
ne i
n teg
ral ofthe total f
i
eld E around aclo
sed ci
rcu i
t
e
quals t
he l i
ne integra
l o f E
„ around t he s
ame closed ci
rcui
t. T hi
s, in
t
urn
, equa ls t
he tota
l e mf ofthe ci
rcuit
. T hat i
s
,
FE •d
l =.
s
eEe •d
l = VT (
3
-29
)
The d
ife
rence b
etween po
ten
tial and e
mf i
sexpla
ined f
ur
ther in t
he
f
o
llowing e
xample
s ilus
tra
ting app
licat
ion
s o
f Kirchhof
's vo
ltage l
aw.
E
xample 1. Let t
he c
ircuit o
f Fig
. 3-6 b
e redrawn as in F
ig. 3
-7a
. T he b
attery
h
as an i
n
ternal r
e
sis
tance RI,a nd itwi
ll be convenient
, in t
his e
xample
, to a
ssume
t
hatthe f
i
eld E
.inthe b
attery i
su n
iform between the t
ermina
ls (cand d
)
. T he p
oint
/ i c
r=o0
o
i

_t a
i V
e Lo .1
o
. 1
L .
1 (
a
)
—
a --
r b C L
I]
1 Ec 1 i
i , I I
IF - go M1
, '
V1
i
P
o
ten
tia
l 1
V (
b
)

a b c d
F
lo. 3-7
. S
eries c
i
rcu
it of b
attery and externa
l r
e
sis
tance (
a
) w
ith g
raph s
how
ing
v
aria
tion o
fp o
tent
ial a
round c
ircui
t (6
).

b(o
rc )istaken arbitrari
ly tob ea tzero p
otential
. T he r
es
istorha
s au ni
form res
ist-
a
nce Ro, and the wires connecting t he r
es
istor and t he ba
ttery a
re assumed to h
ave
i
nf
inite c
onduc t
ivity (a = c o). Hence,inthe wire, E
, =0 . T he f
i
eld E.has ava
lue
o
nly in t
he b a
ttery, being zero e l
sewhere
. L et the problem be t
o fi
nd the va
riat
ion
o
fthe potential Va round the c ircuit
.
S
oluti
on. B y Kirchhof 's vo
l tage law t
he sum oft he emfsaround the c
i
rcu
ite quals
t
he sum oft he IR drops. T hus

1
) .
.IR
0 ±I
Ri (
3
-30
)
o
r
'
0
/= I R
o
±
R(3
-31
)

I
n t
he r
e
sis
tor E
. =0 ,but 1
,has a v
alue (
as d
i
scus
sed i
nconne
ction w
ith F
ig
. 3
-2)
A
pply
ing Ohm
's law (
3
-21) i
nthe r
e
sistor (
be
tween aand b
)
, wehave
J R
o
(
3
-32
)
U
o /
o
w
here ao = c
onduct
ivity o
fre
sis
tor ma
ter
ial (
a
ssumed u
nifo
rm)
/0 = d
is
tance fr
om ato b
1
20 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 3

I
nteg
rat
ing (
3
-32
) f
r
om at
o by
ie
lds

jb E
. •d
i = -
1
12 b
(
3
-33
)
i
o a
or
Va
b = —/R 0 (
3
-34
)

where Vol
,= potent
ial dife
rence between a and b . Since po
in t ai sconnec
ted to d
a
nd bt o cwith i
nf
initely c
onducting wire
s, 17,
a = V
ob
, whe re V al i
sthe p
otentia
l
d
iference a
ppearing acro
ss the t
e
rm ina
ls ofthe batte
ry. T herefore
,f rom (3
-34) and
(
3-30) we h
ave
V = I Ri (
3
-35)
or
Vc
a = V — /RI (
3
-36
)

A
cco rding to ( 3
-36) the potential diference a ppea r
ing b e
twe en the terminal
s of t he
b
attery i sequa l t
o the em f Vo f the ba ttery minus t he d
rop I R Idue tothe i
nterna l
r
es
istance o f the bat
te ry
. A ssum ing t hat R.i su n
iform int he b a
t tery, t
he var
iation
o
f the p otent
ia l Varound t he ci
rcuit isa s indi
ca ted in F
ig. 3-76.
To recapitulate, t
here is astat
ic e l
ectric fi
eld E. int he r
es
is tors uch asisdiscussed
i
n connect ion with Fig. 3-2. I ntegrating E . across the res
isto r y
i e
ld s t
he potential
d
iference V,1. L ikewise inthe b a
tte ryt here is astat
ic fi
e
ld E .d ue tot he c
hargeso n
t
he electrodes
. A ssum ing thatE .i su n
iform i nside the bat
te ry, weh ave o
ni n
tegra t-
i
ng E. between ca nd d
/47=00

(
0
E
. •d
l E
.11 = V
.
., (
3
-37
)

-
(
a
)
Ro=o
There isal
so the fi
e
ld E. inthe b
attery
,
Ec=
0 e
v
erywhe
re c d which has the oppos
ite di
rec
tion to E,
.
'
V
Assuming t ha
t E, isu n
iform, we have
on in
tegrat
ing E.f r
om ct o dthe emf V
.
V That is
,
(
b
)
d
r -
V=0
E
. •d
i =E
l1 ='
0 (
3
-38
)
FP3
. 3-8. Circu
it of b at
tery a nd no ex-
t
e
rna lresis
tance (battery s
hort-circu
ited) I
ntroduc
ing (3
-37
)and (
3
-38
)in
to (
3
-36
),
(
a
), a nd graph indicating tha
t p otent
ial w
e find t
hat
i
sc onstant (equal to zero) around c i
r- RI
c
uit (b
). (
3
-39
)

Accord ing to (
3-39 ) E.isl arger i
n magn itude t han E,b y an amoun t /R i/i. T hat
i
s
,t he f i
e
ld E.i senough l arger than E.s otha ti tcan move ap osit
ive charge aga
instE .
while a t the s
ame t ime overcom ing the i
nte rnal res
istance of t
he battery. I n over-
c
om ing E . the ba
t tery d oes w ork on the c harge a nd hence de
livers energy in
to t he
c
ircu it
. I n t
he resistor ( R o)the charge moves w ith E. and gives up energy w h
ich
a
ppear s a s h
eat i
nt he re
sistor.
Examp le 2
. L et t he externa l r
es
istor Ro o f Fig. 3
-7a be removed a nd the bat
te ry
s
hor t-circuited as i n Fig
. 3 -8a. F ind the v ar
ia t
ion of the potent
ial Va round t he
c
ircu it
. I tisaga
in a s
sumed t hat E.i nthe b attery isunifo
rm a nd constant.
Solution. A ccord ing to K irchhof's vol
tage l aw we have

V = PR
I (
3
-40
)

whe
re I
' =current f
l
owing inbat
tery
RI = i
n
ternalres
istance o
fb a
ttery
SE
C. 3
-
10] THE STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENT 1
21

This current i
sl arger than the current Iwith Ro c onnected. S ince t
he termina ls c
a
nd do ft he b
attery a re a
tthe same p o
tentia
l,the fi
eld E,i nthe ba
ttery isze
ro. A lso,
s
ince there i
sn oe xternalresistor
, E,i sz
ero eve
rywhe re
. H owever, 11 i
nthe battery
i
st he s
ame a sb e
fore, a nd i
ntegrat
ing itfrom cto d( ora l
lt he w
ay around the ci
rcuit)
y
ields the emf U . S ince E
, 0everywhere, the potential Vi sconstant (equal to
z
ero) around t he e n
tire ci
rcuit as sugge
sted b y Fig. 3-86. T here isan e mf i
n t h
is
c
ircuit
, b ut V = 0e verywhere.

I
tisi
nst
ruc t
ive tocompare t
he el
ectrica
lci
rcui
tsoft he a
bove e
xamples
w
ith t
he ana
logou s h
ydrau
lic s
ystem s
. T hu
s, ahydraul
ic sy
stem ana
lo-
g
ous t
othe c
ircui
to fExample 1(Fig
.3 -7)iss
hown inFig.3-
9a. B etween
T
r
ough (
uppe
rle
ve
l)

(
a
)
'
T
rough (l
o
werl
e
ve
l)

T
r
ough -

P
ump d (6
)
FI
G. 3
-9
. Hyd rau
lic a
nalogue f
or e
lect
ric ci
rcuit o
f F
ig
. 3
-7 i
sshown a
t (
a
), a
nd h
y-
d
raul
ic ana
logue fo
r e
l
ectric c
i
rcui
t of Fig
. 3-8 i
sshown a
t (
b
).

ba nd ct here i san open h o rizontalt rough a tw ha t may b e called al ower

l
evel, c o
rrespond ing t o the g round p oten t
ial i nF ig. 3-7
. B etween ca nd
dthe re is ap ump w h
ich r aise sthe wate ro rothe rl iquid agains tthe g ravi-
t
ationa lf i
eld int he same manne ra st he b a
tte ry inF ig. 3-7 ra
ise sp o
s itive
c
ha rge a gainst the static e l
ec tr
ic fi
eld E ,
. T hu s
, t he wateri n t
he u pper
t
rough h as ah ighe r poten tial energy t han the w ater int he lower t rough
i
nt he same w ay ast he cha rge int he wire b e
tween da nd ai nt he elec tr
ic
c
i
rcu it ofFig.3 -7i sat ah ighe rp otentialt han t he c harge inthe w ire fr om
btoc . F rom dt o at he w ater move si n ah orizon ta lfr
ictionles strough a t
a
n u pper le
vel co rrespond ing t o the p erfectly c onduc ting w ire between
t
he se p o
int s in Fig. 3-7. F rom a t o bt he w ater f al
ls through a p ipe t o
t
he l ower level and i nso d oing gives u p the e nergy i tacquired i n b eing
p
umped t o the u ppe r level. T he p ipe o fer s resistance to t he flow o f
wate r, and t he e nergy g iven u p by t he w a ter a ppea rs as h ea
t. T h
is
1
22 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 3

e
ne rgy i sa nalogous t o t ha t a ppea ring a s h ea t i n t he r es
is to r o f F ig. 3 -7
owing t o c ha rge f al
ling i n p oten tial f rom a t o b . I n t hi s a nalogy t he
pump d oe s w ork , r aising t he w ate r aga ins t t he g rav ita tiona l f i
eld i n t he
s
ame manne r a s t he c hem ica l a ction i n t he b at tery d oe s w o rk p e r u nit
c
harge ( aga ins tt he e lec tro s ta tic f i
eld E ,a nd i nte rna lr esi s
tance RI)e qua l
t
o t he em f o ft he b atte ry .
Ah yd raul ica na logue t ot he c ircu it ofE xamp le 2( F
ig . 3 -8) i ss hown i n
F
ig . 3-9b. H e re t he e n tire c ircu it isa t t he s ame l evel. T he t rough i s
a
ssumed t o b e f r
ic tion le ss, s o t ha t t he w ate r h as t he s ame p o ten tial
e
ne rgy a ta llp oin ts o ft he s y stem i nt he s ame manne rt ha t V = 0i nF ig.
3
-8. The p ump d oe s w ork e qua l to t hat r equ ired t o move t he w a ter
f
rom ct o da gains t t he f r
ic tion o f t he p ipe i n t he s ame manne r a s t he
b
a ttery i nF ig. 3 -8 d oe s w ork p e ru n
it c ha rge ( aga ins t t he i n te rna l r esist-
a
nce ) e qua l t o t he e m f o ft he b atte ry.
I
n as ing le -ce ll b at tery w ith t wo e lectrode s t he f i
eld Ee i sl arge ly c on-
f
ined t o at hin l aye ra t t he s ur face b e
tween t he e lec trode a nd t he e lect ro-
l
yte a nd i sz ero i nt he e lec tro ly te b etween t he t wo e lec trode s. T hu s
, t he
p
o ten t
ial v a ria tion a ssumed i nt he p reced ing e xamp lesi sn ot r ep re sen ta-
t
ive o f a n a c tua l t wo -elec trode c el
l a lthough i tc ou ld b e a pproached i f
e
ach b attery c ons is ts o f al arge n umbe ro fc ellso fs mall em fc onnec ted i n
s
eries b etween ca nd di n F igs. 3 -7 a nd 3 -8.
Ap i
c ture s omewha tc lose rt ot he a ctua ls itua tion i n at wo -e lec trode c el
l
i
s p ortrayed i n F ig . 3 -10 . T hree c ond ition s a re s hown . A t ( a
) t he
b
a ttery i so pen -ci rcu ited ( I =0 ). A t ( b
) t he b atte ry i sc onnected a cro ss
al arge r esis tance ( I s ma ll). A t ( c
) t he b at te ry i ss ho rt -circu ited ( I a
max imum ). ' I n e ach s ect ion o fF ig. 3 -10 t he c el
l i ss hown i n t he u ppe r
p
a rt of t he f igure w ith t he p oten tial v aria tion a cro s s t he c ell d irec tly
b
elow i t
. F o r c larity t he l aye rs w he re Ee i sn ot z e ro a re s hown w i th
a
pp reciab le t hickne ss, a nd f o r c onven ience t he e mf a t b o th l aye r
s i s
t
aken t o b e o ft he s ame magn itude a nd s ign . I ti sf u rthe ra s sumed t hat
t
he e l
ec tro ly te a nd a lso t he l aye rsc onta ining Eeh ave au nifo rm r esistivi ty.
S
ince , t he l aye rs c on tain ing Ee a re t hin, t he I R d rop i sc on side red, f or
c
onven ience , t o b e c onf ined t o t he e lect roly te r egion ( see F ig s.3 -10a a nd
b
)
.
I
ti st ob en oted t ha ti ft he e lemen ts o f ac l osed c ircu it c on ta in ing em fs
a
re s epa ra te f r om t ho se c on tain ing r esis tance , t he r e
la tion o f ( 1-19 )

f Ec •d
l =0 (
3
-41
)

g
ives the same re
sult as Kirchhof's vol
tage law. T hus
, a
ccord
ing t o
(
3-41) the s
um ofthe potentia
l r
ises and po
ten
tial drop
s a
round aclo
sed
c
ircu
it i s z
ero
. T his vers
ion of Kirchhof's vol
tage law i
s o
f
ten c on-
v
enient
, b ut i
tisn
ota lways appl
icable
. F ori
nstance,iti
sno
ta pp
licable
The em
foft
he c
e
ll i
scons
ide
red t
o b
e ac
ons
tant a
nd i
ndependen
t o
fthe c
urren
t.
SE
C. 3
-10
1 THE STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENT 1
23

where E
. = 0( a
s in E xample 2) u n
less t
he sources oft he emfs and the
r
es
istances are s eparated b y as suming a n e quivalent c i
rcui
t. F or
e
xamp le
, asource ofe mfVw ith i
nte rna
lr e
sis
tance Romay ,b y Thevenin's
t
heorem, beconsidered equivalent tot wo e
lementsi ns e
ries, o
ne ofe m
f
a
nd zero i
nternal re
sistance and the other o
fr e
sistance R o a
nd zero emf.

O
pen
-ci
rcui
ted L
a
rge re
s
ist
ance
c
e
ll a
c
ross c
e
ll C
e
ll s
ho
rtc
i
rcu
ited
(
a
) (
b
) (
0)
F
la. 3
-10
. Two electrode ce
ll s
how ing reg
ions w here e
mf-produc
ing f
ie
ld E
. and fi
eld
E
. due t
o c
harges are p
resent under three cond
itions o
fc e
ll o
perat
ion
. I n t
he lower
h
alf o
f t
he f
i
gure the idea
lized potentia
l variat
ion isshown as afunc
tion o
f po
sition
a
l
ong the c
e
ll ax
is for t
he three c
ond i
tions.

Examp le 3. C onsider t he cl
osed circuit, or me sh, s
hown i n Fig. 3
-11, w hich isa
p
art of a mo re c omp lex n etwork, as s ugge s
ted . A pply K i
rchhof 's vol
tage l aw to
t
his mesh.
Solu
tion. L etu sas sume t hatthe curren tint he ci
rcuitf l
ow sc lockwise,t he cur
rents
i
ne ach legb e
ing a si ndicated. The d irection a s
sumed i sa rbitrary. F or examp le
, i
f
IIactual
ly f l
ows o ppo site to t
he di
rec t
ion s hown , itwil
lb ef ound t o be negative. A
p
riorithe actual d irection isn ot k
nown s ot hato ne mustb ea s sumed . S tarting atthe
p
oin t a
,l e
t us p roceed t owa rd b. Thus , traversing RI in the s ame d i
rec t
ion a s t
he
c
urrent, we expe rience a p otent
ial drop e qual to — /iRi. I n crossing the b a
ttery we
e
ncoun ter ap oten tialr ise e
qua ltothe em f Vi. I nt h
is case the b atte
ry isa ssumed to
h
ave z ero interna l r esistance, or el
se i t
s r esis
tance isc omb ined i n RI. A pp
lying
K
i rchhof's voltage l aw i nthis way around t he ent
ire cl
osed c i
rcuit, weo btain

I1 R + — /2/
ii — isi
ts — =0 (
3
-42
)
1
24 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 3

o
r
V1 — Vs .
, /iRi + /2R2 + /aRa (
3
-43
)

I
fVi, . 3, RI
0 ,R:,a nd R2 a
re k
nown , we n
eed t
wo more i
ndependent e
quat
ions t
o fi
nd
t
he three current
s Ii,/2,and /2. Tha t is
, w
e n
eed t
ok now mo re a
bout t
he a
djo
ining
c
i
rcuits ino rder to f
i
nd these current
s.

F
ie. 3
-11
. C
losed c
i
rcu
it, o
r me
sh.

A
s av ar
iation o
ft he a
bove p
rob
lem, suppo
se tha
t we have a
n i
so
lated s
er
iesci
rcuit
c
ons
isting of the c
ircu
it a
round t
he c
losed path a
bca i
n Fig
. 3
-11 wi
th al
l ad
joining
c
i
rcuits d
isconnected. Then
/2 = /2 =
. /2 (
3
-44
)

H
ence
, i
f V:,Us,R1,R2,a
nd H2 a
re k
nown
, w
e c
an f
i
nd t
he c
urren
t f
r
om t
he r
e
lat
ion

'
L
ls — V
,
/
1 — RI+ R2 + R3 (
3
-45
)

I
f'01 >Vi, the c
urrent f
l
ows c
lockwise as a
ssumed. However
, i
f1.
)
, >'
01,t
he c
ur-
r
ent i
snegat
ive, t
ha t i
s
, i
tfl
ows counterc
lockwise
.

3-
11. Tubes o I
n C
f Curren
t. hap
. 1w e d
iscus
sed t
ubes offl
ux. L et
u
s n
ow c
ons
ider an a
nalogous c
oncept
, n amely, t
hat o
ftubes o
fc ur
rent.
Atape
red s
ect
ion o
f al
ong c
onductori sshown inFig
. 3
-12a. L e
ta l
lt he
s
pace i
nthe c
onduc
torbe f
i
led with cur
ren t t
ubes
. E ach tube i
severy-

F
ro. 3
-12a
. T
ape
red s
ect
ion o
f al
ong c
onduc
tor s
how
ing c
urren
t t
ube
.
SE
C
.3-
12) T
I
IE S
TEADY E
LECTR
IC C
URRENT 1
25

w
he re para
llel to t
he cur
ren t direct
ion a nd hence, fr
om t he re
lation
J= q E o
f (3-21)
, isa
lso paral
lel to the e
lect
ric f
ie
ld. S ince no cur
rent
p
asses t
hrough t he w
all o
f ac ur
ren t tube
, the to
tal current /0 t
hrough
a
ny cros
s section o
f atube is ac
ons tant. T hus

Jo = • d
s =c
ons
tan
t (
3
-46
)
a

w
here J = c
urrent d
en s
ity (
amp/meter
')
a= cro
s s s
ec
tion oftube (
ove
r which Ji
sin
teg
rated) (
mete
rs'
)
I
f Ji
sconstan
t over the c
ros
ssect
ion and n
orma
l toit
, t
hen

J
o = Ja (
3
-47
)

o
rre
fer
ring t
othe c
urren
ttube o
fre
ctangu
larc
ros
sse
ction i
nFig
. 3
-
12a
,

/0 = J
bd (
3
-48
)

w
here b = t
hickness oftube (
meters
)
d= d ep
th or width o
ftube ( mete
rs)
I
fal
l ofthe conductor i
sdiv
ided u p i
nto c
urren
t tubes
, each w
ith t
he
s
ame cur
rent /0,then t
he to
tal c
urrent Ithrough the c
onducto
ris

I= I
on (
3
-49
)

where n = n umbe r o
fcurrent tubes
.
Sur
face s normal to t
he d i
rection of the c
urren t (
or f
ie
ld) a
re equi
-
p
otential sur
faces. T he potential d
iference V between two e
quipoten
-
t
ia
ls urfacesseparated b
y adistance 1isbyO hm's law e
qua
lt othe c
urren
t
/0 i
n ac ur
rent t
ube and the res
istance R of ase
ction oftube o
flength 1
.
Thus,
V = /oR (
3-50a
)

I
fthe c
urren
tdens
ity i
sun
ifo
rm (
f
ie
ld u
nifo
rm)
, t
he r
e
sis
tance R i
s
,from
(
3
-13)
, given b
y
1
R =— o
hms (
3-50b
)
c
r
a

whe
re /= l ength o ft ube s ec
tion ( meters
)
=conduc tivity o fc onducting m ed ium ( mho s/me ter
)
a= cross-
sec t
iona l area o
ft ube ( me te
r s
')
3
-12. Kirchhoff's C u rrentL aw. Whe reas flux t
ube si n asta
tic electr
ic
f
i
eld begin and e nd o n e lect
ric charge a nd h ence are discont
inu ous, the
t
ubes of asteady c ur ren t fo
rm c lo
sed c ircuits on them selves and h ence
a
re con
tinuou s
. T o d escribe th
is con t
inuou s n ature of steady c ur
ren ts
,
i
tiss a
id that t he c urren t isso
len oidal
. T hat is
, ith as n o source s o
r
s
inks (
ending places) a sd ot he fl
ux tubes, w hich startand e nd one lectr
ic
c
harges in astat
ic elec tric fi
e
ld. A s acon sequence a s much curren t must
1
26 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 3

f
l
ow i
nto a v
olume a
s leaves i
t
. Thus , i
n g
enera
l, the i
n
teg ra
l o
f t
he
n
orma
l c
omponent o
ft he cur
rent dens
ity J o
ver acl
osed s
urface smu
st
equal z
ero
, or

9
6. J•d
s =0 (
3
-51
)

Th
i s relation i sfor st
eady c urrents a nd
applie st oa ny volume. F orexamp le ,the
volume may b e enti
rely i n
side o f ac on-
duc ting m edium, or it may b e on
ly p a
r-
tia
lly f i
lled w ith conduc tors. The c on-
duc to r
s may f orm a n etwo rk i ns
ide t he
volume , or t hey may m eet at ap o
in t
.
Fm. 3
-12b. Junct
ion point o
f s
ev-
As a n ilu strat
ion o ft h
is l a
tter case, the
e
ral c
onductors
.
surface S i nF ig. 3-
12b e ncloses av olume
t
ha t contains five conductors mee t
ing a t aj unct
ion p oin t P. T aking
t
he cur rent fl
owing a way f
rom the j unction as p o
sitive a nd the c urrent
f
lowing t oward t he j
unc t
ion a
s nega tive, w e have from ( 3-51) t ha
t
/1 — 12 — 13 + 14 — 13 = 0 (
3
-52
)
I
notherw o
rd s
, th
ealgeb
raicsum ofth
ecur
rent
sa t ajun
ction i
sze
ro. This
i
s K
irchhof
f's cu
rren
t law, which may be e
xpressed in g
enera
l by the
r
e
lat
ion
I
/ =0 (
3-53)

3
-13. Divergence o
f Jand Cont
inuity Re
lations f
orC u
rrent
. C ons
ider
t
he smal
l volume element iv s
hown i n F
ig
. 3-13 lo
cated i
ns
ide of acon
-
d
ucting medium. The c urren
t dens
ity Ji s avec
torh av
ing the d
i
rect
ion

Az

W ay

I
l

Ay

F
la. 3
-13
. C
ons
truct
ion u
sed t
o d
eve
lop d
iferen
tia
l e
xpre
ssion f
or d
ive
rgence o
f J
.

o
fthe c
urren
tf low
. I ngenera
l, i
tha
sthree r
e
ctangu
lar c
omponen
tst ha
t
v
ary w
ith pos
ition a
sind
icated i
nFig
. 3
-
1
.3 .
' T he p
roduc
tofthe c
urren
t
T
he d
eve
lopmen
t h
ere i
sfo
rma
lly t
he s
ame a
s i
nSec
. 2
-29
.
SE
C
. 3
-
13] THE STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENT 1
27

d
ensity a
nd t he a
rea of aface of the v olume el
emen t y
ields t
he c
urrent
p
ass
ing through the fa
ce. C urrent flowing out o
ft he volume ist
aken as
p
osi
tive and current f
lowing ina s nega t
ive. T he integral o
fthe n
orma l
c
omponen t of Joverthe sur
face o ft he volume isequal to t
he sum o
ft he
o
utwa rd c
urrentsf o
r the s
ix fa
ce s o
ft he vo
lume elemen t, o
r

(
3
-54
)

Now A xA yAz =A v
. D iv
iding b y iv and t
aking the l
im
it as iv
a
pproachesze
ro, weo b
tain the d
ive
rgence o
f Ja
t t
he p
ointa
round wh
ich
A
v co
llapse
s. T hus

J•d
s a
J
. a
.
i
. .
i
.=
,
i
l
u
r
n
9
v—
6
s
a
8 A
aV
= y .
j . _
__ .
4
. _
aZ ay
a
+ _
_
aZ
0 (
3-55
)

o
r
V •J = 0 (
3
-56
)

This is ap oint re
lation. I ta pp lies
, f or e xamp le, to a ny p oint i n ac on-
d
uc to r where curren t i
sf l
owing . I ts tates t hat steady c ur ren ts have n o
s
ource s or s i
nks. A ny v ector f unction w hose dive rgence i sz ero
, a s in
(
3-56 ), issa
id t o be so
lenoidal.
L
et u s digress brief
ly t o con side r t he s i
tua t
ion i ft he c urren t isn ot
s
teady a sa ssumed a bove. T hen ( 3
-51 ) d oesn otn ece ssari
ly h o
ld,a nd the
d
ife rence be tween the totalcur ren tf low ing o utofa nd into av o
lume mus t
e
qua lt he ra
te ofc hange ofelect ric cha rge i ns
ide the v olume . S pecif
ically,
anet f l
ow ofc urrento ut ofthe v olume ( posit
ive c urren t f
low ) mus t e qual
t
he n egati
ver ate o
fc hange o fc ha rge w ith t ime (rate ofd ecrea se ofc harge).
Now t he t otal c harge i nthe v olume A vo fF ig. 3-13
i
s pA v
, w here p i st he a verage c ha rge d ensity.
Therefo re

9
6 J•d
•
s = — A
v (
3
-57
)

D
ividing by A
v and tak
ing t
he l
im
it a
s A
v a
p-
F
in.3-14. Construction
p
roaches z
e
ro, we o
bta
in
f
o
r the cont
inuity r e
la-
t
i
on b
a
nd cha
e
tween c
rge
.
urrent
V •J = — I
P 3-
( 5
8)

Th
is isthe genera
l con
tinu i
ty r
ela
tion be
tween c urrent den
sity Ja nd t
he
c
harge dens
ity p at apoint. F or s
teady cur
ren ts a
s much c harge ente
rs
avolume as leave
s itso that a
p/at = 0a nd (3
-58) reduces to (3
-56 )
.
Cons
ider now the si
tuation s
hown i nFig. 3
-14 w here awire carrying a
c
urrent Iterminates in
side as mal
l volume Av. A pplying (3-57
) t o t
h
is
1
28 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 3

s
i
tua
tion, t
he i
n
tegra
lof Jove
rt he v
olume y
ie
ldst he n
etc
urren
ten
ter
ing
o
rle
aving t
he v
olume. Assum ing t
hat /i
sente
ring t
he v
olume
, w
ehave

J•d
s = —/ (
3
-59
)

Now pA
v e
qua
ls t
he t
o
tal c
harge Q i
n
side t
he v
olume
. H
ence

2
EA
( v —d
(
2 (
3
-60
)
a
t —d t

S
ubs
titu
ting (
3
-59
) a
nd (
3
-60
) i
n (
3
-57
) y
ie
lds

d
Q
I= — (
3
-61
)
d
t

T
his ist
he c ont
inui
ty re
la t
ion b
etween the current and c
harge in awire.
3
-14. Current and Field a
t aC onducto
r- Insula
tor B oundary. T he
r
e
lation be
tween the c
ur rentden
sity Jand the el
ectr
ic fi
e
ld inten
sity E in
aconductori s
, f
rom (
3-21 )
,
J= cr
E (
3-62 )

where a = c
onductivi
ty. T hus, w hen c urrent fl
ow s in ac onductor,
t
here must b
e afin
ite electr
ic f i
e
ld p re
sen t in t
he conductor (un
less the
c
onductiv
ity i
sinf
inite'
).
Cons
ider n
ow the s i
tua t
ion a t ac onduc tor-
insu
la tor boundary as in
F
ig. 3-
15. A ssuming t hat t he conduc t
ivity o f t
he i n
sulato
r i s z
ero,

I
n
sula
tor
Et
/ /. 7 1
-
0 Et7 /

C
yndu/c
t
or

Fm
. 3
-15
. I
nsu
lator
-conductor b
ounda
ry.

J = 0i
nt he i
nsu
lato
r. A tthe b
oundary
, c
urrentinthe c
onductor must
f
l
ow tangent
ial
ly tothe b
oundary s
ur
face
. T hu
s, o
n the c
onductor s
ide
o
fthe boundary we h
ave

(
3
-63
)

whe
re E , =c omponen t o
fe l
ec t
ric fi
eld tangential t o boundary = lE
l
Jg = componen t o
fc urrent density t angential to boundary = IJ
a= c onduct
ivity o
fc onduc t
ing m edium
By the con t
inu i
ty o f t
he tangen tial el
e ctr
ic f i
e
ld a t ab oundary, t
he
t
angen t
ial fi
eld on the i
nsu
la tor s
ide oft he b ounda ry isalso E.
When c urrent fl
ow s
, aconduc tor off i
nite conduc tivity isnot a
n equ
i-
p
otential body a s i
ti si
n the stat
ic c a
se w ith no c urrents p
resent
. F or
1I
f ai
sinf
in
ite
, a
n i
nf
inite
sima
l f
i
e
ld c
an p
roduce a f
i
nite c
urrent d
ens
ity
.
SE
C. 3
-I4
J T
IIE STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENT 1
29

e
xamp le, t
he p otentialv ariesa long ac ur
rent-carrying w ire w
ith u n
iform
c
urrent density as sugge sted i nFig
. 3-16. T he arrow s ind
icate the fi
eld
a
nd c urrent d i
rec t
ions, w hi
le t he transverse lines are e qu
ipoten tia
l s
.
S
ince E isu ni
form , the po tentia
l diference V o ft wo pointsseparated b y
adistance 1along t he wire i sEl. T h
is p o
tential diference isal
so e qual
t
o the I R drop, that is
, V=I R
, whe re Ii sthe current in t
he wire and
Rist he re
sistance o f ale ngth 1o fthe wire. T he f i
eld isthe s
ame b o
th
W
i
re

C
c
.
/

E
qu
ipo
ten
tia
ls
Fm
. 3
-
16. S
ect
ion o
flng w
o i
re.

i
ns
ide and o u
t s
ide the w ire and ise nt
irely tangent
ial (and p a
ralle
l to
t
he ax
is o
ft he wire)
.
I
fsuper
impo sed on th
is s i
tuation there i
s as t
atic e
lec
tric charge di
s-
t
r
ibution a
t t he bounda ry surface due to t he p
roximity of other con-
d
uctors a
t ad iferent po ten
tial
, ac omponen t of the el
ectric fi
e
ld E .
n
ormal to the c onductor -
insulator bounda ry may b e p re
sent o n the
i
nsu
lator s
ide of the boundary . T he t
otal fi
eld i
n the i
nsulator isthen
O
ute
r
c
o
nducto
r

I
n
ner
c
o
nducto
r

E
qu
ipo
ten
tia
ls
FI
G. 3
-17. L
ongi
tudina
l cross s
e
ction of c
oax
ial transmiss
ion l i
ne. Equipotent
ials
a
re s
hown by t
he d
ashed li
nes
. T he a
rrows i
ndicate t
he d
irection oft
he normal and
t
angent
ial f
i
e
ld components
, E.and Z, and t
he curren
t densi
ty J.

t
he vector sum o f the norma l componen t E „ and t he t angential com -
p
onent Es. I nt he c
onduc tor, En = 0,a nd the f i
eld isentirely tangential
t
o the bounda ry. F or in
stance, c ons
ider t he l o
ngitud inal cross sect
ion
s
hown inF ig. 3-17 through ap arto f along c oaxial cable. C urrentf l
ow s
t
o the ri
ght i n the inner conductor a nd returns t hrough t he o uter con-
d
uctor. T he fi
eld i n t
he c onductor ise nt
ire ly tangen tial (and p ara
llel
t
o t
he a x
is oft he cable) and isindicated b y E . S ince t he conduc tiv
i ty
o
fthe conduc tori slarge
, this fi
e
ld i sre
latively w eak a ss uggested b y the
1
30 ELEC fRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 3

s
hort a rrows f or E . I n t he i nsu lating s pace b etween t he i nne r a nd
o
uter c onduc tors t here may e x
ist ar elatively s t
rong f ield d ue t o t he
v
oltage a pplied a t the e nd o f t he cab le. T his fi
eld i s as ta tic e lect r
ic
f
i
eld (such a ss hown i n C hap . 2b y F ig. 2 -19). I to r
igina te s o n p o sitive
c
ha rge s o n the i nner c onduc to r a nd
e
nd so nn egative c harge so nt he i nside
s
urface o fthe o uter c onduc to r. I ti s
E, e
ntire ly n orma l t o the s urface s a nd
i
si nd icated b y E. I t i sr e
la tive ly
s
t
rong a ss ugge sted b yt he l ong a rrows
f
or E. A t ap o
in t Pa t t he s urface
I
nsu
lator o
ft he i nne r conduc to r ( Fig . 3 -17 ) the
7
7 C
onduc tor t
otalf i
eld E isthen t he s um o ft he t wo
c
omponen tsE „ a nd Et a dded v ecto ri-
FI
G. 3
-18. Total fi
eld E a t insulator - a
l
ly a s in Fig. 3-18. I f t he c onduc -
c
onductor b oundary r esolved i nto
t
ivity o ft he m e
ta li nt he c ab le i sh igh,
n
ormal and tangential c
omponen ts.
Etmay b e so s mall tha t Ei ss ub stan -
t
ia
lly n ormalt ot he surface a nd e qualt o E. Howeve r
,t he s ize o f Eth a
s
b
een e xaggera ted inF ig. 3 -18 i no rdert os how t he s l
an t oft he t otal f i
eld
more cl
ea r
ly. T he shape o ft he tota lf i
eld linesa c
ro sst he e ntire i n
su la ting
s
pace b etween t he inne r a nd o uter c onduc tors iss ugges ted i n F ig. 3 -19

E
qu
i— O
ute
r
p
o
tent
ials c
onduc
tor
I
n
ner
c
onduc
tor

F
i
e
ld l
i
nes

F
ig. 3
-19
. Long
itudina
l c
ross s
ect
ion of c
oax
ial t
ransm
iss
ion l
i
ne s
how
ing e
quipo
ten
-
t
i
als (
dashed
) and t
ota
l f
i
eld l
ines (
s
olid)
.

w
ith t
he sl
ant o fthe fi
eld at the c
onductors gr
eatly exaggerated
. E qu
i-
p
otent
ial s
urface s are i
ndicated by the d
ashed li
nes
.
Two ex
treme c ases of condit
ions at ac onductor
-insu la
tor boundary
h
ave been described in the a bove e
xamp le
s. I n one t he to
tal f
i
eld on
b
oth si
des of the b oundary ise nt
ire
ly tangentia
l (Figs. 3-15 a
nd 3-
16).
 SE
C. 3
-15
1 THE STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENT 1
31

I
n t he other the t otal fi
eld on t he c
onductor side i se n
tirely tangen
tial,
whi
le t he total fi
eld o n the insulator s
ide issub stantially normal to the
b
ounda ry (Figs.3 -17 to3 -19 i
nclusive
). T he e
lectric fi
eld at aconductor-
i
nsulato r bounda ry w il a lways b e o
f at ype s imilar t o or s
omewhere
b
etween t hese e
x treme s
.
A 3-15. C urrent a nd F ield at aC onductor-Conduc tor B oundary. C on-
s
idert he conduc to r-conduc tor boundary shown i nF ig. 3-20 between t wo
media o fcon s
tan ts al,e la nd a
2, €2
. I n g
eneral
, t he direction ofthe cur-
r
ent change si nf lowing f rom o ne medium t o t
he o ther.
'

C
ur
ren
t or
f
i
eld l
i
ne

M
edium 1
0
1 6
'
,
Pa , * ,
--Bounda
ry

M
edium 2
Cr2 6 2

E
2

Fm. 3-20
. Boundary be
tween t wo d
i
fferen
t c
onduc
ting med
ia s
how
ing c
hange i
n
d
irec
tion ofc
urren
t or f
i
eld l
i
ne.

F
or s
t
eady c
urren
ts w
e h
ave t
he b
ounda
ry r
e
lat
ion

J nl = J n2 (
3
-64
)

w
here J
n i =c omponent of curren
t densi
ty n
orma
l t
o b
oundary i
n
m
edium 1
J n2 = c
omponen
t o f cur
rent dens
ity n
orma
l t
o b
ounda
ry in
m
edium 2
F
rom re
la tion (
1) o
fTable 2
-2 we al
so h
ave

Ee
l = E t
2 (
3
-65
)

w
here En = componen
t offi
eld t
angent t
o t
he b
oundary i
nmed
ium 1
.

E 2 = c
omponen
t offi
e
ld tangen
t tothe b
oundary i
nmed
ium 2
F
rom (3-65
) itf
o
llows t
hat

Jt1 J12
= (
3
-66
)
0
2

1Note t
hat i
f el = 0
2 =0,then J1 = J2 = 0a
nd t
he p
rob
lem r
educes t
o t
hat c
on-
s
ide
red in c
onne
ction with F
ig. 2
-6
.
 1
32 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
.3

whe
re 4 1 = c
omponent o
f c
urrent d
ens
ity t
angent t
o b
ounda
ry i
n
med
ium 1
J,2 = c
omponen
t of c
urren
t dens
ity t
angen
t to b
ounda
ry i
n
med
ium 2
D
ivid
ing (
3
-66
) by (
3
-64
),
t
l
(
3
-67
)
t
ida
l ad n
2
o
r
t
an a
i _a
l
(
3
-68
)
t
an a
2 a
2

whe
re al and a2 a
re a
s s
hown i
n F
ig. 3
-20
.
Acco
rding t
o (3) o
fT ab
le 2
-2 w
e al
so have t
he r
e
lat
ion t
hat

E
iE n i — €
2En2 = P
s (
3
-69
)

whe
re p
, =s
urface c
harge d
ens
ity a
tboundary
. T
his may b
ere
exp
res
sed
a
s
Ji
ll n
2
— e
z— = P
s (
3
-70
)
a
l a
z

a
nd s
i
nce J
„i = J
. 2,w
e h
ave
• e
2)
P
s = Ji
ll — (
3
-71
)
• 0
2

According t
o (3
-71) there wi
ll, ingeneral
, be asurface c
harge p
resent on
t
he b oundary between t wo c onductor
s across which cu
rrent i
sf l
owing.
I
ft he cur
rents are s
teady, the d ens
ity of t
his charge i
s acon
stant. I f
b
o th media are sol
id me ta
llic conductors
, ei e
o €
2 so t
hat ( 3
-71
)
r
educe s t
o
1 1
P
s — e
ojn
i — (
3
-72
)
a
l 0
2

3
-16
. C urrent Mapp ing a nd t he R esistance o f Simp le G eometries.
C
onductor C el
ls. I f t
he current d ensi ty isu ni
fo rm t hroughou t ac on-
d
uctor
, i ts r es
istance iseas
ily c alcu
la ted f rom i t
s dimen s
ions and c on-
d
uctiv
ity. F or example
, conside r the h omogeneous r e
c tangular ba
r o f
c
onductivi ty 0 .s
hown inFig. 3-21. I th as ale ngth /'= 1 00 cm, ath
ick -
n
ess o
r w id th b' =4 0 cm, and aw idth o r dep th d = 4 0 c m
. I fthe e nd
f
ace
s of t he b ar are c
lamped a gainst heavy h igh -conduc tivity b
locks
, a s
i
n F
ig. 3-3, t he fi
eld a
nd curren t densi
ty t hroughout t he b ar w
il be uni-
f
orm. F rom ( 3-13) t
he r
es
istance R o ft he bar isg iven b y

o
hms (
3
-73
)
R =a
db
' 0
.
16f

whe
re a = c
onduc
tiv
ity o
fba
r (
mho
s/me
ter
).
SE
C. 3
-
16] THE STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENT 1
33

C
u
rr en
t
t
ube

-, /

C
e
ll

na
. 3
-21
. C
onduc
tor d
iv
ided i
n
to c
urrent t
ube
s. V
ert
ica
l l
i
nes a
re e
quipoten
tia
ls.

C
l
amp
ing b
l
ock
s

C
onduc
tor c
e
l
l

(
a
) (
b
)
no.3-22. Cellofun
itd epth and o
fconductance equaln umer
ically t
othe c
onductivi
ty
f o
fthe mater
ial
. T h
is c
ellalso h
as are
sistance equa
l numerica
lly t
othe re
sis
tivity S
o
ft he mater
ial
. Me thod o
fc lamping c
ell between l
arge h
igh-conduct
ivi
ty blocks to
measure c
onductance or r
es
istance i
sshown a t (b
).

The r
es
istance of t
he barcan a
lso b
ec alcu
lated byd iv
iding t
he si
de of
t
he barin
to square a
reaseach rep
resent
ing t he e
nd sur
face of ac
onductor
c
e
ll
. T he si
des of the c
els are equ
ipo tent
ials
. T he top and bottom
s
ur
faces o
ft he c
ell a
re pa
ralle
l to t
he current d
irec
tion. T he re
sis
tance
Ro o
fsuch acel
l isgiven by
1 1 S
= = =— (
3
-74a
)
c
r
db c
r
d d
whe
re S = r
e
sist
ivity o
fthe bar ma
ter
ial
. H ence t
he product o
fRoa
nd
t
he dep
th dequals t
he r
es
ist
ivity S o
fthe b
ar ma
teria
l, or
Rod = S (
3
-74b
)
F
orexample
, t
he r
es
istance o
f aconduc
torc e
llo
fu n
it (1mete
r) d
epth a
s
i
nFig
.3-22a i
snumer
ical
ly equa
lt othe v
alue o
fthe r
e
sis
tiv
ity o
fthe b
ar
1
34 ELECTRO MAGNET 1C
S [
CHAP
. 3

ma
te r
ial
. F igure 3
-22b s
hows t
he m
ethod o
fcl
amp
ing t
he c
e
llt
omea
sure
i
t
s res
istance.
Taking the r
ecip
rocal o
f (3
-74b
) y
ield
s

G
o _
(
3
-74
c)
d r̀

Tha
ti s
,t he c
onduc tance p eru n
it dep th of ac
onduc torc el
li sequalt othe
c
onduc t
ivity o
ft he medium . F ori nstance, t
he c onductance i n mhoso fa
c
e
llo funit d
epth,a sinF ig.3 -22a,i sequaln umer ical
ly tot he v
alue ofthe
c
onductivity a o
ft he med ium. T he above relations app ly to conductor
c
e
lls of any end area prov ided t hat this a
rea i s atrue o r ac urvi
linear
s
quare.
Re
turn ing t
ot he barofF ig
. 3-21, le
te ach ce
ll b earbitrarily a
ssigned a
c
onductance of 1mho . O n this basis the to
tal c onduc tance of the bar
e
quals
Numbe r o
fc e
lls (o
r curren t t
ube s
) i nparallel
Numbe r o fcell
s inseries
o
r
4
T
O
F
rom (3-74c) t
he conductance p
er un
it depth o
f aconduc
tor c
e
ll i
sas
o
t
hat t
he ac
tual conductance Go o
f ac
ell o
fb a
r mate
rial i
sgi
ven b
y

G
o =d
c
r =0
.
4a mho
s (
3
-75a
)

T
he a
ctua
l v
alue o
fthe t
o
tal c
onduc
tance o
f ab
ar i
sthen

G = /400
.
4a = 0
.
16a mho
s (
3
-75b
)

T
he a
ctua
l v
alue o
fthe t
o
tal r
e
sis
tance i
sthe r
e
cip
roca
l o
f(3
-75b
), o
r

1
R =0
. —6
.
25S o
hms (
3
-75
c)
1
6a

The m e
thod o fc a
lculating t he r e
sistance o r conduc tance o fthe b ar b y
means ofe valua ting the series-pa ral
le l comb ina tion ofc onducto r c el
ls is
more g
ene ral t han the m ethod u sed i n a r
riving a t (
3
-73 ) since itc an b e
a
pplied noto nly t ou n
iform c urren td is
tr ibutions ( ash e
re) b ut a
lso t ot he
more gene ra
l s i
tuation w here t he c ur rent d is
tr ibut
ion i s nonun iform .
I
n an onun iform d i
stribution t he sides o f many o r a
ll of the conduc to r
c
el
ls wil
l b e c urvil
inea r squa res. T heir a r
ea a nd arrangemen t may b e
d
etermined b y g raphical c urren t-mapp ing t echn iques tha t are like t he
f
i
eld mapp ing p rocedure sdi scussed i nS ec. 2-27 ( see a
lso Sec. 5-
20 a nd t he
Appendix).
Graphical c urrent-mapp ing t e
chn ique s can b e applied t o a ny t wo-
d
imen s
iona lp roblem ,t ha
ti s
,t o ac onduc torw hose shape c an bed escribed
SE
C. 3
-
16] THE STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENT 1
35

b
y as ingle cros
s sect
ion with al
l o
ther cro
ss sect
ions paral
lel t
o th
is one
b
e
ing i denticalt oit
. C urrent mapping i
sa ctual
ly e
lectr
ic fi
eld mapping
i
n ac ondu ct
ing m edium since t
he curren
t a nd the fi
e
ld h ave t
he same
d
i
rection ini sotrop
ic media (J =a E
).
T
he f ol
low ing fundamen tal p
rope
r t
ies are use
ful i
n current mapping:

1
.C urrentl i
ne s and equipotent
ials in
tersect a
t ri
ght angle
s.
2
. Current fl
ow s tangential
ly to an in
sulating boundary
.
3
. The total current th
rough a ny cr
osss ect
ion of acont
inuous cur
rent
t
ube is ac onstan t
.
4
. I
n au ni
form c ur
rent distr
ibution the poten
tial v
aries l
inea
rly w
ith
d
istance.
5
. Current tubes are continuous.

Wi th t hese p ropertiesi nm ind ac onduc torc ros

ss ect ion isd ivided i n to
c
urren t t ube s a nd then b y equ ipotentials into condu ct o
r c e
lls w i
th s i
de s
t
hat a re s qua re s or curvil
inea r squa res, u s
ing t he s ame t rial -and -erro r
method d escr
ibed i n Sec. 2-27 i n connec tion with f ield mapp ing i n a n
i
nsula t
ing m edium . T he tube s and e quipot ent
ial s a re r ev
ised u ntil a l
l
o
ft he c el
ls b ecome c urvil
inea r square s
. B y curvilinea r squa re i sm ean t
a
n a rea t ha t tend s to yie
ld t rue square s as itiss ubd iv ided i nto s mal
le r
a
nd s mallera reas b y s
ucce s
sive h a
lving o ft he equ ipo ten tiali n terval a nd
t
he c urren t pe r tube.
Al
l c ells w ith t he same c urrent through t hem may b e defined a s con -
d
ucto rc e
llso ft hes amek ind. I tfol
low sf rom O hm's l aw t ha tt he p oten t
ia l
d
rop a cro ss all cel
l s ofthe same k ind i sthe s ame.
In calcu lating t he conduc tance o f ac onduc tor w ith an onun iform c ur-
r
ent d istribu t
ion a c urrent map i sf i
rst made , a
s d iscu s
sed a bove . T he
c
onduc tance G i st hen given b y
N
G =—
n G
o (
3
-76
)

w
here N = n umber o
fc e
lls (
or c
urrent tube s
) inpara
llel
n=n umber ofce
lls i
nser
ies (equals n umber o
fc e
lls pe
r tube)
G
o =c onductance ofeach ce
ll (= do)
T
he accuracy ofthe c
onductance (
orit
sr eciprocal
,the re
sistance
) depends
p
r
imar i
ly ont he a
ccuracy w
ith which t
he c urvi
linea
rsqua resare mapped.
I
nc onclus
ion the p
ropert
iesofa naccura te cur
rent map' may bes t
ated
a
s f
ol
low s:
1
.T he c
onductance Go o
fa ny c
onductor ce
ll i
sthe s
ame.
2
. The c
onductance p
er u n
it depth o
fa ny conduc
tor c
el
l i
sequa
l t
o
t
he c
onduc t
ivi
ty aoft he medium.
3
. The r
es
istance Ro o
fany conductor c
ell i
sthe s
ame.
1I
n as
i
ngle med
ium o
f u
niform c
onduc
tiv
ity
.
1
36 ELECTRO MAGNET 1CS [
CHAP
. 3

4
. The r esistance -dep th product f ora ny conduc torc e
lli sequal t
ot he
r
esistivity S o ft he m edium .
5
. The c ur ren t It hrough a ll conduc tor cel
ls of t he same k ind ist he
s
ame .
6
. The c ur ren t t hrough a ny cro s
s section of ac onduc to r tube ist he
s
ame .
7
. The p oten tiald rop a c ross al
lc onduc torc e
lls oft he same k ind ist he
s
ame a nd i se qua l to t he /Ro d rop across the c ell
, w here I ist he
c
ur rent t hrough t he cel a nd Ro i sthe res
istance o ft he cel
l.
8
. The a ve rage c urren t d ensity J i n any c e
ll o f the s ame k ind i s
i
nve rsely p ropo rtiona l to t he t h
ickne s
s o r w idth o f the cel
l ( or
c
ur rent t ube )
.
9
. The a ve rage f i
eld i ntensity E i n any c el
l o f t he s ame k ind i s
i
nver sely p ropo rtiona lt othe t h
ickne ssorw id th o ft he cel
l (orc ur-
r
en t tube ) .
'
1
0
. T he p owe rd i
ssipa ted a sh eati na l
lc onduc torc ellsoft he same kind
i
st he s ame (= PR o)
•
1
. T he a verage p owe rd en sity ( wattspe rcubic m eter)i na llcel
lso ft he
s
ame k ind i sinve r se
ly p ropo rtional to the area o f t he end of t he
c
el. ( Th is i st he a rea that a ppears int he map .
)

Examp le
. Ah omogeneous r ectangular b ar o
f conduc tivity o h as the d
imens ions
s
hown i n Fig
. 3-23a . Th is b ar i
si d
en t
ical with the one of F ig
. 3-21 except that two
c
uts have been made a crosst he f
ul width oft he b
ar,asi ndica ted. F ind the r
esistance
o
ft he bar when i t
se nds are clamped b etween high-conduc tivity blocks asin Fig. 3-3
.
Solu
tion. Al ongitudinal cross se
ction of the bar isdrawn t o s
cale and a current
map made w ith t he r
esult s
hown i n F
ig. 3-236.2 A p ort
ion o fo ne quadrant has been
f
urther subdivided t o t
est the accuracy of the curvi
linear s qua res
. F rom (3-74a) or
(
3-75a) the re
sistance Ro o fo ne conductor cell i
s

1
R
o o
hms
0
.4a

There a
re 1
3 ce
lls i
nse
ries i
n at
ube
, a
nd t
here a
re 4t
ube
s i
n p
ara
lle
l. Hence
, f
r
om
(
3-76) t
he r
es
istance R o
fthe b
aris

13 ,
R 1
3Ro —
0
0. 1 0 o
hms (
3
-77
)
4 1
.
6a

Thus, c
omparing t
his r
esu
lt w
ith (
3-75c
) for t
he u
niform b
ar, t
he s
l
ots i
nthe b
ar p
ro-
duce a
n in
crease o
f 3
0 per c
ent i
nits r
es
istance
.

1I
tisalso t
o be noted t
hat the c
onductance (o
r the r
es
istance
) of a
ny cel
l isthe
s
ame f
orcurren
tf l
ow inei
therdirec
tion a
cros
st he c
e
ll. F ur
thermore,the c
onductance
o
fany c
el
l ofu n
it dep
th isthe s
ame as t
he conductance o
f aunit c
ube s
ince acube i
s
me
rely aspec
ial c
ase of ace
ll
.
IA
lthough the e
ntire c
ross s
ect
ion o
f t
he b
ar h
as b
een mapped
, t
he s
ymme
try i
s
s
uch t
hat amap o
fon
ly o
ne q
uad
ran
t w
ould h
ave s
uficed
.
SE
C. 3
-17
1 THE STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENT 1
37

(
a)

C
urv
i in
ear
c
e
ll

C
u
rren
t
tu
bes

E
qu
ipo
tenba
ls (
b)
Fm. 3
-23. Conduct
ing bar w
ith n
otch (a
) and c
urrent map (
b
). R esis
tance o
f bar
e
quals r
at
io o
fcel
ls ins
er
ies t
oce
lls i
npa
ralle
l mu
ltipl
ied b
ythe r
es
istance o
feach c
e
ll.

3
-17
. Lap
lace
's Equat
ion f
or C
onducting Med
ia. A
cco
rding t
o (
3
-56
)
w
e have t
he r
e
lation f
o
r st
eady c
urren
ts tha
t

V •J = 0 (
3
-78
)
F
rom (
3
-21
)
J= a
E (
3
-79
)
s
o t
hat (
3
-78
) b
ecome
s
aV• E = 0 (
3-8
0)
B
utf
r
om (
1
-33
)
E = —VV (
3
-81
)

I
ntroduc
ing t
h
is v
alue o
f Ei
n (
3
-80
) y
ie
lds

C
TV • ( V V) = 0 (
3
-82
)
o
r
=0 (
3
-83
)

Th
is isL ap
lace's equat
ion. I t was der
ived prev
iously i
n Sec
. 2-34 f
o
r
s
tat
ic el
ectr
ic fi
eld
s,a nd s
ince i
tal
so applie
shere, i
tfo
llowsthatproblem
s
i
nvolv
ing distr
ibu t
ions of st
eady currents i
n conduct
ing m ed
ia can be
1
38 ELECTRO MAGNETICS I
CHAp
. 3

h
and led i nthe s ame w ay a s p roblem s i nvolv ing s tatic fi
eld d i
str
ibu t
ions
i
n insulating m edia. I fw e have a c onduc to r w ith a n u nknown c urrent
d
istribution a nd ifas o
lu t
ion t oL aplace 's equa tion can b ef ound t ha talso
s
atisf
ies the boundary c ond i
tions , wec an o btain t he p otentiala nd c urrent
d
istribution int he conduc to r
. I ft his isn otp o
s s
ible, w ec an neve rtheless
f
i
nd t he a pp
roxima te p o
ten tial a nd c ur rent d is
t r
ibut ion i n two -dimen -
s
ional prob lem s by graph ical c urren t mapp ing a s di
s cussed i nS ec. 3-16.
F
rom a k nowledge o ft he c urrent d istribu t
ion , the r e
sistance, t he max i-
mum c urrent d ens
ity, a nd o the r i t
em s of p ractical i mpo rtance c an b e
d
eterm ined f or agiven c onduc tor conf igura tion .
I
n conduc ting m edia, c urren t tubes a nd t he c onduc tivity iTare a nalo-
g
ous t o the flux tubes a nd p erm ittivity ei ni nsulating m edia. T hus in
c
onduc ting m ed
ia w e have

J=a
E amp/me
ter
' (
3
-84
)

w
hile i
nin
sula
ting m
edia w
e h
ave

D =e
E c
oulomb
s/me
ter
' (
3
-85
)

I
ti sa
l
so t
obenoted t
hatin ac
onduc
ting medium t
he c
ondu
ctanc
ep e
run
it
d
epth o
f ac
onducto
r ce
ll e
qua
ls t
he conduc
tivi
ty o
fthe medium, o
r

G
o
mho
s/me
ter (
3
-86
)
=a

whe
re d = d epth o
fce
ll (
see F
ig
.3 -21
), wh
ile i
nani
nsu
lat
ing med
ium the
c
apacitance pe
r uni
t dep
th of adi
electr
ic f
i
eld c
e
lle
qua
lsthe p
ermit
tiv
ity
eofthe m ed
ium , o
r
c
o
f
a
rad
s/me
ter (
3
-87
)
=
I
nt he case of asta
tic e
lectr
ic f i
eld in adi
electr
ic medium ofp erm it t
ivity
et
here are noc urrents, b
utt here i s afl
ux dens
ity D = E . I nt he c ase o
f
astat
ic electric fi
eld in aconduc ting m edium o fconductivity at here i
s
c
urrent ofd ensity J = a E. S ince b oth fi
elds obey Lap
lace's equa tion, a
s
o
lu t
ion in t he conduc tor si
tua tion i sal
so a solut
ion for the a nalogous
d
ie
lectric s
itua t
ion,a nd vice versa. F orexamp le,ifthe medium b etween
c
onducto r
s 1a nd 2i nFig. 2
- 24 is ac onductoro fconductivity a
,t he con-
d
uctance p er unit depth between i fand g i sgiven by

G = 1
5
.43 a— 3
.
86a mho
s/me
ter
d 4

I
tisas
sumed t
hat p
la
tes 1and 2are p
erfect c
onductor
s. Afurtherd
i
s-
c
uss
ion o
ffi
e
lds t
hat o
bey L
aplace
's e
qua t
ion isgiven i
nChap
. 14
.
 THE STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENT 1
39

PROBLE MS
3-1. Wha ti st he p ower l os
ti nh eati n aNo . 10B . &S.g auge c oppe rw ire (2
.59 mm
d
iame ter
) 1 00 m e ters long i f2 0 v ol
ts i sa pplied b etween t he end s? A ssume t hat
t
he w ire tempera ture i s2 0
°C . An s.: 1,205 w atts
.
3-2. Wha tw i
ll t he power l oss fort he wire o fP rob . 3
-1 bei fthe wire t empe rature i
s
4
0°C?
3-3. Wha t ist he e nergy l ost i nh eat int he wire o f Prob. 3- 1 i
n 1h r?
An s
.: 4.34 X 1 0'j oules
.
3-4. Wha t i st he r es
istance b etween me tal e lectrodes 1m eter s qua re located at
e
ach e nd of at ank w ith n onconduc ting w a
lls 1 me ter squa re in c ros s sec
tion a nd
1
0m eter
sl ong w hen f i
l
led w ith ac onduc ting l i
quid h aving ac onduc tiv ity of 1
0 mho s/
mete r?
3-5. Wha t i st he c urrent d ensity i n the tank o f Prob. 3 -4 if1 0 v olts i
sa pplied
b
etween t he e l
ectrode s a t the e nds o fthe tank?
3-6. Wha t i sthe c urrent d ens ity i n a No. 1 0 B. &S .g auge c oppe r wire (159 mm
d
iame ter
) c arrying ac onstant c urrento f 10 amp a t atempe ra ture o f2 0
°C?
3-7. a. A r e
sistance R . a nd t hree b atteries a re connec ted i n se ries as shown i n
F
ig. 3 -24
. F or the f i
rstb atte ry the e m
f Vt = 1 .5v olts and the elect rolyte ori n
ternal
r
es
is tance R1 = 1o hm, f o
r t he s econd b attery t he e mf 1
)2 = 2v o
ltsa nd the in
ternal

'
V
,=15 "
V2=2 1
4=3

4VVVVVVVV
a Ro b
RI R2 R3

F
xa. 3
-24
. S
er
ies c
i
rcu
it f
o
r P
rob
. 3
-7
.

r
es
istance R2 = 0 ,a nd f o r the th
ird b atte ry the em f V = 3v o
lts a nd t he internal
r
es
is tance R3 = 1 o hm . The f i
rst t wo b a tter
ies h ave single cel
l s, w h
ile t he third
h
ast hree cells i
ns er
ie s,e ach c e
llof 1v olt em fa nd o hm inte
rna lresi s
tance . A ssume
t
hat h a
lf t he total em f of ac el
l occur s at e ach el
ec trode, and a ssume t hat all con-
n
ection s b e tween c ells h ave n egl
igible r esistance. D raw a g raph s uch a s in Fig.
3
-7, s how ing t he v aria t
ion o f po
tentia l wi th pos
ition b etween p oint s aa nd cw hen
Ro = 4 .5o hms a nd a lso w hen Ro = 0. T ake V = 0a t t
he point b .
b
. R eferring t o t he c ircuit of Fig
. 3 -24 , let the em fa b e as i ndica ted, a nd l e
t
RI = 1 .5 o hms , R2 . • 2o hms , a
nd R3 = 3 o hms. D raw a graph o ft he v ar
iation of
p
oten tial w ith p os
ition w hen Ro = 6.5o hms a nd also w hen R0 = -0 .
3-8. Wha ti sthe cur ren t magnitude i nt he ser
iesc ircuit o
fF ig. 3
- 25a? Wha ti sthe
c
urren t d irection ( c
lockw ise or coun terclockw ise)? T he b at
terie s h ave n egl
igible
i
nterna l resistance.

'
V=
10 v
o
l
ts 1o
hm '
V
•,5v
o
lts 3o
hms

2
o
hms
1ohm
VVV\A
.
,
F
la. 3
-25a
. S
er
ies c
i
rcu
it f
o
r P
robs
. 3
-8 a
nd 3
-9
.
1
40 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 3

3
-9. Wha
tare t
he c
urrent magn
itude a
nd d
i
rec
tion i
nthe s
er
iesc
i
rcu
it o
fFig
. 3
-25a
i
feach bat
tery has a
n in
terna
l re
sis
tance of 2o hms?
3
-10. Four w
ires mee
t at acommon j unct
ion p o
int. The current i
nw ires 1and 2
i
s 5amp each a
nd fl
owing away f
rom the j
unction, whi
le t
he c
urrent i
nwire 3is 6amp
f
l
owing toward the j
unct
ion. Wha t a
re the cur
ren t magn
itude and d
irection i
n t
he
f
ourth w
ire?

3
-25b
. C
ircu
it f
o
r l
'
rob
. 3
-11
.

3
-11. I f 11 = /2 = /3 = /4 = 1 amp i n
9
)=2 v
o
lts 1o
hm 1 t
he c ircuit o f Fig. 3 -256
, w hat a re t he
magn itude a nd direction of /a
3
-12. Wha t are the magn itude a nd d i
-
2o
hms r
e ct
ion o f the curren t /2 in the circuit of
5ohms Fig. 3-26? The b atteries have n egl
igible
A
IWNAA
,
i
nterna l r
e s
istance.
— ' V= 3
-13. A 1 -
cm -squa re copper c onduc tor
T=2 v
o
lts c
;t
\l
ms ÷ 6v
ol
ts has a r ight-angle b end. Wha t i s the
—I 4. r
e s
ista nce o
f a s
ection o
f t
he con du c
t or i
n-
c
l uding t he bend t ha t is 5 cm l ong e ach
F
ia. 3
-26. Two me sh c i
rcuit fo
r P rob .
way f rom t he b end, measur ing f rom t he
3
-12
.
outs
ide c orner? The t empera ture o f the
c
onductor i s2 0
°C .
3
-14. What l eng
th o f stra
igh t c opper c
onducto r h as the same r es
istance a s the
r
i
ght-angle s
ect
ion o f Prob. 3-
13?

F
in. 3
-27
. No
tched b
lock f
or P
robs
. 3
-15
, 3
-16
, a
nd 3
-17
.
 THE STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENT 1
41

3
-15. How much g reater isthe res
is tance ofthe b
lock ofF ig
.3 -27 ascompa red with
auni
form r ec
tangu lar block wi thout t he notches? T he re
sistance to be de
term ined
i
sthat between t he lef
t a nd ri
ght e nds o fthe block. I ti sas
sumed t hat the block i
s
c
l
amped b e
tween t wo l a
rge high -conduc tivi
ty blocks. Ans
.: 2
.6t ime s
.
3
-16. Ifthe conduct ivity oft he ma terialused forthe b
lock o fFig.3-27 i
s1 0 4mhos/
me
ter, what isthe r es
istance o ft he block?
3
-17. How much g reate r would the r es
istance ofthe block of Fig
. 3-27 be as com-
p
ared with au n
i form r ectangu lar block i fthe he
ight oft he center s
ect
ion isr educed
f
r
om 2 t o 1cm s o that the distances f rom t he c
enter se
ction to the top and b o
ttom
o
fthe bl
ock a re increased t o 4
.5 c m?
B
a
r

1
0cm

Fm
. 3
-28
. B
ar w
ith h
ole f
o
r P
rob
. 3
-
18.

3
-18
. Ar ectangular n
ichrome b ar 10 cm long by 4cm h
igh by 4c m wide has a
h
ole 3cm indiameter lo
cated s ymme trica
lly asshown i
n F
ig. 3
-28
. F ind the r
es
ist-
a
nce o
ft he b
ar a
t 20°C.
3
-19
. Ab a
r and str
ip a re connected as shown in F
ig
. 3
-29a. T he ba
r h as f
i
nite
c
onduct
ivity
, while t
he s
trip conduc t
ivity isas
sumed tobeinf
ini
te. Ifthe end o
ft he

F
-
1
-
1
7mm
B
ar

,
--t
\ B
l
ock
\ Bo
ckpo
sit
ion
e
qu
iva
lentt ost
r
ip

(
b
)
Fm
. 3
-29
. B
ar a
nd s
t
rip f
o
r P
robs
. 3
-
19 a
nd 3
-20
.

b
ar i
sc l
amped a ga
inst al arge
, inf
inite
ly conducting block as in Fig
. 3-29b in
s tead of
c
onnected to the str
ip a s in F
ig. 3-29a, de
termine b y w hat length 1t he bar w ould
n
eed t
o b e leng
thened i no rder t
hat it
s res
istance be the same a s when conne cted to
t
he s
tr
ip? A ns
.: A bout 7mm l onger.
3
-20
. Why i sthe res
istance ofthe barofF ig
.3 -29 l
argerw hen iti
sc onnected tot he
s
tr
ip t
han w hen contact is made wi
th t he b
lock?
3
-21
. D educe the re
lation V •J = 0 b y app
lying the divergence theorem t o

9
6 J•d
e =0
.

3
-22
. Show t
hat t
he def
in
ition o
f current g
iven by E
q. (
3
-1) l
e
ads t
o t
he c
on-
t
i
nuity r
e
lat
ion I d Q/d
t, where Q = po
sit
ive c
harge
.
1
42 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 3

3-23. D emons trate t hatt he s ource o ft he eta energ izing t he coax

iall ine ofF ig.3 -19
i
sa t the l
eft e nd b y s how ing t ha t ift he s ource w ere a t the r i
ght end t he fi
e
ld l i
nes
would be b owed i nt he o ppo site d irection .
3-24. Show t hat, at ac onductor -conductor b ounda ry, c
ri/0
'2 E
,.,/E ,,1 4 1/4 2.
3
-25. Aw ire 2mm i nd iame ter h as a r e
sistance o f 1 .ohm p er 100 m e ters
. Ac ur-
r
ent of2 0 amp i sf l
ow ing i nt he w ire. Wha t ist he field intensity int he wire?
3-26. I
ft here i s asta t
ic s urface c ha rge o n the cu rrent-ca rrying wi re o f Prob . 3-25
w
ith a u n
i form d en s
ity o f 5X 1 0-12 c
oulomb/me te rs
, w ha t are the magn itude a nd
d
irection of the f i
eld i n
tens ity j ust o utside o fthe s urface o ft he wire? The med ium
o
utside oft he w ire i sair.
3-27. The c urrent d i
rec tion a t the b ounda ry surface b etween t wo med ia make s an
a
ngle o f45° w ith r espect t o t he s urface i n medium 1 ;w hat i sthe a ngle b etwe en the
c
urrent direc t
ion a nd t he s urface i n med ium 2 ? T he cons tan ts f
or t he m edia a re as
f
o
llows :
Med ium 1 : C rj = 1
0 2 mho s/me te r
=1
Med ium 2 : 0 2 = 1mho/me ter
e
r2 •2

3
-28
. Ifthe t ota
lc ur
rent density Jin medium 1is1 0 amp/meter'
,w hatisthe s
ur-
f
ace c
harge density a
t the boundary in Prob. 3
-27?
3
-29
. Two l ong, p
aralle
l, zi
nc -p
lated ir
on pipe li
nes have a s
pacing o
f 4m eters
b
etween cen
te rs. T he pipes a
re half b
uried inthe g
round as i
ndicated i
n F
ig
. 3-30
.

4me
ters
P
i
pe l
in
es

FI
G
. 3
-30
. P
ipe l
i
nes f
o
r P
rob
. 3
-29
.

The d
iame ter o
ft he p
ipes i
s50 c m
. The c onductivity o
f t
he ground (s
andy so
il) i
s
1
0-4 mhos/me ter
. W ithoutdrawing afi
eld map , fi
nd the r
e
sis
tance between t
he two
p
ipes p
er me ter o
f length
. H int
: No te the analogy between th
is si
tuat
ion and the
s
tat
ic e
lectric f
i
eld be
tween two paral
lel c
ylindrical c
onductors
.

M' N'

FI
G
. 3
-31
. C
onduc
ting s
e
cto
r f
o
r P
rob
. 3
-30
.

3
-30
. Ac onducting 4
5°sector o
ft h
ickness dh
as i
nne
r and o
uterradi
i r
,a nd r2 a
s
s
hown inFig
. 3-31. Ifthe c
onduc t
ivi
ty is amho
s/meter
, s
how tha
tt he r
e
sis
tance R
b
etween t
he curved e
dges MM ' and NN' isgi
ven b
y
4 , r2
R — i n— o
hms
T
aa r

H
int
: S
et u
p a4
5° s
e
cto
r o
finf
in
ites
ima
l r
adia
l t
h
ickne
ss d
r
.
 CHAPTER 4

THE S
TAT
IC MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF
S
TEADY ELECTR
IC CURRENTS

)
t
' 4-1. I
ntroduct
ion. A s ta
tic e
l
ectric charge has an e
lect
ric f i
e
ld, as
d
i
scussed in Chaps. 1a nd 2
. A n el
ect
ric curren
t, on the other hand
,
p
osse
sses amagne t
ic f
ie
ld. F ori
nstance
, aw ire c
arry
ing acur rent Iha
s
amagne t
ic fi
eld s
urrounding i
t
, a
ssuggested inFig
. 4-1a
. I ft his f
i
eld i
s

F
ie
ld o
r
f
l
ux l
i
ne

W
ire
M
agne
f
i
e
t
ld l
i
n
ic
es
C
ompass
n
eed
les
,
7
(
a) (
b
)
FI
G. 4-1
. ( a
) Magne tic f
ie
ld a
round w
ire c
arrying FI
G. 4-2
. R ight-hand r ule
acurrent. (6) Cros
s sect
ion pe
rpend
icular t
o the r
e
lating d
irection o
ff i
e
ld o r
w
ire. The c urrent i
sflowing o
ut o
f t
he page. f
l
ux line (
f
inger s
) to direc-
t
i
on of current I (t
humb ).

e
xplo red w ith a c ompa s
s, the n eedle a lways o r
ients it
self norma l to a
r
adial l ine originating at the c en ter o f the w ire
. I f one move s in the
d
irection o f the needle, itisf ound t hat t he magne tic fie
ld form s cl
osed
c
ircular l oops around t he wire
.
T
he d irection oft he magne t
ic f i
eld i staken t ob ethe di
rec t
ion indicated
a
s "n o
r th" b y t
he c ompa s
s n eedle , as in Fig. 4 -
1b. T he rela
tion oft he
magne tic fie
ld direction tothe c urren td i
rec tion can bee asi
ly remembe red
b
y m ean s oft he ri
gh t
-hand r u
le. W ith the t humb p ointing in t
he d i
rec-
t
ion o ft he current, asi nFig. 4- 2
, t he fi
nge rs oft he ri
ght h and e
ncircling
1
43
1
44 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 4

t
he wire point inthe di
rection oft he magnet
ic fi
e
ld or li
nes of magnet
ic
f
l
ux.
4-2
. T he Force between C u
rrent-car
rying Wi
res. Ac urrent-car
rying
w
ire p roduces a magne tic fie
ld. I f asecond current
-carrying wire is
b
rough tinto the v
i
cinity o fthe f
i
rst,each w
ire i
ssurrounded b ytwo mag-
n
etic fi
elds
, it
s own and t hatd ue t
ot he o
therwire
. T he re
sulti stha
t a
f
orce acts on t
he w
i res
.

F
ie
lds
o
pposed

(
a)

F
i
eld l
i
nes
Fm. 4
-3
. (a) Magnetic f
i
eld or fl
ux lines a
round t wo w
ires car
rying c
urrents i
n the
s
ame d
irect
ion
. ( b
) R esu
lting f
i
eld around wire 2with i
ncrea
sed magnet
ic fl
ux d
ensi
ty
a
t t
he r
ight o
f t
he wire c
ausing aforce F to the l
e
ft.

Th
is may bei lust
rated w
ith t
he a
i d o
fFig. 4
-3a
. C ons
idert wo wires
1and 2 no
rma l to t
he page w
ith c
urrents f
low
ing out ofthe page (
indi-
c
ated bydotorh ead ofanarrow i
nthe wire
). T he magnetic f
i
eldsoft he
t
wo wire
sa re t
hen asshown. Inordert osimpl
ify t
he f
i
gure,only afew of
t
he f
ie
ld li
nes produced by w
ire 2a
re shown.
SE
C. 4
-3
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
45

A
tt he r
igh to fwire 2t he t wo magne t
ic fi
eldsa re int he s ame d i
rec tion
and a dd to give as tronge r f i
eld, w hile at the lef
t o fw ire 2 t he f i
e
ld s are
opposed a nd resulti n aw eake r f
i
eld . I fthe f i
e
ld l i
ne s a re conside red to
r
epres ent magne tic f l
ux l ines, it may b e s a
id t hat t he magne t
ic f l
ux
d
en si
ty i sg reater to the r ight o f w ire 2 than t o the l e
ft. Th is isi lu
s-
t
rated i n Fig. 4-3b, w here t he magne tic fl
ux d ensity, d e signated b y the
s
ymbo lB ,i sseen tob eg rea tera tt he righto fw ire 2b ecau se the linesa re
more c lo
sely b unched . T here r esult s af o
rce F o n w ire 2 t o the l e
ft as
t
hough t he magne tic flux linesr eac ted o ni tlike stretched r ubbe r b and s
.
I
ft he curren t in wire 2 i sr eversed , the direction o f the f o
rce F i sto
t
he righ t
. T h
is i silustrated i n Fig. 4 -4
, w here the c urren t di
rection i n
w
ire 2i sin
to the p age ( i
ndica ted b ya n Xo rt ailo fa na rrow i nt he wire).
Hence, w ires carrying c urrent s in t h
e s ame direction a r
e a tt
ra c
ted, w hi
le
w
iresc ar
rying c urrents ino ppo site di r
ections are repel
l ed.
I
t i st o be n oted t hat t he f orce F i sperpend icula r t o the c ur rent
d
irection.

c r -
Wir
es )0

C
urr
ent
1 2 e
l
ement
Fm. 4-4
. W iresca
rry
- Fm. 4
-5. The f
o
rce on acur
rent
i
ng currents in o
ppo
- e
lement i
s normal t
o the p
lane
s
i
te d
i rect
ions, c
onta
ining the el
ement and B.

4
-3. Fo
rce on aC u
rrent E
lement
. R e
ferring t
o F
ig
. 4 -5
, the q
uant
i-
t
at
ive re
lation f
or t
he magn
itude o
fthe force o
n acurrent el
ement i
na
magnet
ic fi
eld i
s
dF = IB d
lsi
n 4 1
.
, (
4
-1)
whe
re d F =i nf
inite sima l f
orce o n el
emen t d l(new ton s
)
I= curren t ine lemen t (amp )
B = magne tic flux density (new tons/amp -me ter) (
See Sec. 4
-4)
d
l =l ength o felemen t ( meters
)
=angle b e
tween d i
rection o f c urrent a nd magne tic fi
eld
(
dimen sionless
)
The di
rect
ion oft he f o
rce dFi sn orma ltot he pl
ane c ontaining the e
lement
a
nd B. T he magn i
tude o fthe force, a
sg iven b y (4-1
) , i
spropo r
tionalto
t
he current
, tothe l ength oft he elemen t
,a nd t
ot he magne t
ic f
lux dens
ity
B
. T he quantity B may b er egarded as am easure oft he s
trength ofthe
magnetic fi
eld
. T he f orce isa l
so p roportional to si n 4)so that itisa
maximum w hen t he e l
ement i snorma l toB .
 1
46 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 4

Itisto be noted that (4

-1) applies to acurrent element. T o fi
nd the
f
o
r ce onana ctualc i
rcuit
, itisnecessary tointegrate (4
-1) ove
rt he l
ength
o
ft he c
urrent-carrying conductor, which fo
r as teady c u
rrent must fo
rm
aclosed l
oop or ci
rcuit.
X 4 -4
. The F orce p er Current Elemen t, o
r Magne t
ic Flux Density B.
A conductor of length dl with a c ur
rent Ip osses
ses ac urren
t m oment
g
iven by Idl. T hat is
,

Id
l =c
urrent X l
e
ngth = c
urren
t momen
t

The dimensiona
l re
lat
ion f o
r current momen t i
sQ L/T .
I
n electro
stat
ics t
he el
ectric fi
e
ld intens
ity E isdefined asthe f
orce pe
r
u
nit charge. I n magne t
ic s i
tuations the magne tic f l
ux d
ensity B i s
d
ef
ined ast he f
or
cep e
rcu rrentm om
ent. T hus
,
Nor
th p
ole B i
f4,= 9 0°
, weh ave, f
rom ( 4-1
),

F B = dF f
orce
(
4
-2)
Id
l =c
urren
t momen
t

The unitfor Bisthe newton p

er ampe re-meter
o
r
,a swillbeshown l a
ter, t
he weberp e
rs quare
meter.
.
.—Magnet
ized
need
le E
lectr
ic charge, po
sitive a
nd n egat
ive, can
b
e s eparated
. T he p o
les o
f a magne t, how-
I c
annot b e separated ( s
ee C hap. 5 )
.
u
I S
outh p
o
le A
lthou g has a conseque nc
e an iso
lat
ed ma g -

n
etic po
le isn otp hysicaly real
izab le
,i t
se fect
may bea pproxima ted b y c
onfining our atten-
FI
G. 4-6
. L ong magnetized
n
eedle i
n magnet
ic fi
e
ld.
t
ion t
o t
h e r
eg
ion c
l
o se t
o o
ne p
ole o
f a v
ery
l
ong, magne tized needle. T hus, ass uggested
i
nF ig. 4-
6, the north p o
le of along
, magne t
ized n eedle
, w hen introduced
i
n amagne tic f
ie
ld, w i
ll be ac
ted o n by af orce F. Th is f orce i
sp ropor-
t
i
ona l to Ba nd to the strength oft he pole
, or

F = BQ. n
ewton
s (
4
-3)

where Q
„
,= pole s
t
reng
th. T he p
ole s
t
reng
th Q. ha
s the d
imensions o
f
c
urrent moment (s
ee Chap
. 5) and is e
xpre
ssed in ampere
-me ter
s.
Div
iding b
y Q.
,
F f
o
rce
1
4=— — (
4
-4)
Q
. p
ole

w
here B = f
o
rce per po
le (n
ewton
s/amp -me
ter
)
F=f o
rce (newtons
)
Q
m =p ole s
t
rength (amp-mete
rs)
 SE
C. 4
-5
1 M AGNET
IC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
47

Thus
, Bc an berega
rded eitherasthe f
orce p
eru n
it c
urrent momentoras
t
he force pe
r unit po
le. T he r
elat
ion of (
4-4
) isanalogous to t
hat i
n
S
ec. 1
- 6fo
rt he e
l
ectr
ic fi
e
ld inten
sity E o
rfo
rce perun
itc harge
. T hatis
,
F fo
rce
E— — (
4
-5)
Q c
harge
where E = f i
e
ld intensi
ty ( newton s/coulomb )
F=f o
rce (newton s
)
Q=e l
ectr
ic charge (coulombs )
B
ecause o fthe analogy bet \yen (I-1) and (4
-5), Bm igh ta ppropriate
ly
b
e c a
lled t he magnet
icf i
eld i
nifnsity
. Howeve r, itiscustoma ry t
oc allit
t
he magn eticflux d
ensi
ty.'
)
( 4 -5. T he Flux D ensity Produced b y aC urrent Distribu t
ion. Mag -
n
etic fi
eld sare produced b y el
ectric currents (o
r their e
qu ivalent)
. T he
b
asic relation forthe magne t
ic flux density at apoint P asp roduced b ya
current-carrying el
emen t (see Fig. 4
-7 ) i
s
(i
n
ward)
d
B d
B = kId
l s
i
n 0
(
4
-6)
r2
1
whe
re dB =i nf
inites
ima l fl
ux d ensity at
po
intP
k= c onstant ofproportionality
I= current inelement
F
in. 4
-7. The f
lux d
ensity a
t I' d
l =l ength ofelement
d
ue t o ac ur
ren t el
emen t is
=a ngle b e
tween c urrent d i
rec
-
g
iven by the B
iot-Savart r
ela
-
t
ion (
4-7
).
t
ion a
nd r
adius vector t
o P
r= distance fr
om elemen t toP
T
he q uantity ki s aconstant ofpropo
rtionali
ty g i
ven by

k=

whe
re µ = permeab il
ity of t he m edium. B y d
imensiona l analysis of
(
4-6
) w e f
ind that ph as t
he d imensions o
f flux p
er current divided b y
l
ength. Itwillb eshown inS ec. 4
-15 thatinductance ha
st he dimen sions
o
f flux per curren
t. T herefore p e
rmeabil
ity h as the d imen s
ion s of
i
nductance d
ivided by l e
ng th. T he mk sc unit f
or p
e rmeability i sthe
h
enry per meter.t T he permeability of vacuum isd esignated pp a nd
h
as av a
lue of
X 10-
7 henry/me ter <
1I
t i salso some t
ime s cal
led t he magn e
tic i
nduct
ion. F or a detai
led di
scuss
ion of
magne t
ic u n
itssee,forexamp le, Erik Mil
len,S ome Unit
si nt he GiorgiSys
tem a nd t
he
C
.G.S. S ystem, T rans
. R oy. Inst
. T echn
. (Sto
ckholm), No. 6,1 947.
tR ecal
l t ha
t p ermitt
iv i
ty e h as the d
imensions of capacitance per l
ength and i
s
e
xpressed i nfarads per meter.
 1
48 ELECTROMAGN ETI CS [
CHAP
. 4

The p
ermeab il
ity o
fa i
ra nd a
l
so of mo
stn on
ferrous mater
ials i
snear
ly the
s
ame asf or vacuum.
I
t isassumed i n (4
-6) t
hat the medium h a
s au ni
fo rm permeabil
ity.
I
n efectthis re
str
icts ustononfer
rous media, f
or w
hich j isnear
ly equal
t
o/.
40 (
see Table 5
-1).

1
I
ntroducing the va
lue fo
r kin (4
-6), w
e obtain

8
1
014—
S
civ
e
tvt /
010 µ
Idls
i
n0
(
4
-7)
d
B — 421 .
2
P
r B
I Equation ( 4-7) iso ften r eferred t o as t he Biot-
I S
avar t law. T he d irection o f d B i se verywhe re
i
I n
orma l to the e l
emen t of l e
ng th d l, as s ugges
ted
i
n Fig. 4-7
. I nfac
t, d B form s circu lar loops con-
c
entric with d l
, as sugge sted i nF ig. 4 -
1a.
d
l
I
n c a
se w e wish to k now B a t ap o
in t P, as in
F
ig. 4-8
, d ue to ac ur rent Ii n al ong, straight or

I
c
urved c onducto r con tained i n t he p lane o f the
I
p
age, w eassume t hat t he c onduc to ri s made u p of
e
lement sors egmentso finfinitesima lleng th dlcon-
n
ected i n se
ries. T he t otal flux d en s
ity B a t the
p
oint Pi st hen the s um o ft he c on tr
ibu tion sfrom
FI
G. 4-8. Construc
tion
a
l
lt hese el
emen ts
,a nd i sexpres sed b ythe i n
tegral
f
orca
lculating fl
ux den-
s
i
ty B at ap o
int P d ue
o
f (4
-7). T hus
t
o acurrent Iin al ong
c
onductor.
B = PI f s
i
n 0d
l
(
4
-8)
4
r j r2

where B = f l
ux d ensity a t P( new tons/amp -me ter)
A = permeab il
i ty o fm ed ium ( hen rys/me ter
)
I= c urrent i nc onduc to r ( amp )
dl =l ength o fc urren t el
emen t (me ters)
r= d istance f rom e lemen t t oP( meters)
0= a ngle m easured c lockw ise fr
om t he p os
itive d irection o fcur-
r
enta long d lt od i
rec tion ofr adius v ec
to r re xtend ing from dl
t
oP
The i n
teg rat
ion i sc arried o ut o ve r t
he leng th o fthe c onduc to r
.
Both (4-8) a nd ( 4-1) c on st
itu te the b a s
ic magne tic f i
eld r e
lations as
s
tated i n as implif
ied s calar fo rm . These r elations are r estated i n more
g
ene ral forms i nlate r s e
ction s
.
X 4 -6. Magne tic F lux 1 4,
. The magne tic f l
ux d ensity B o r force per
p
ole i salso a m easure o f t he d en sity
, or n umbe r, of magne tic f l
ux li
nes
p
assing p e r un
it area t hrough a s urface n orma l to the line s
. H ence the
t
otalf lux or numbe ro fl i
ne st hrough ag iven a rea ise qual t ot he product
o
f t he area a nd t he c omponen t o f Bn orma l t o it
. T hus, r efe
rring to
SE
C. 4
-6
1 MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
49

F
ig
. 4
-9
, w
e h
ave
= BA c
osa (
4
-9)

w
here 0. = magnetic f
lux t
hrough a
rea A
'
B = magni
tude o fthe magne
tic f
l
ux densi
ty B
a=a ngle between anormaltothe a
rea A and t
he d
i
ren
tion o
fB
I
tisas
sumed i n (
4-9) t
hat Bi sun
ifo
rm over the a
rea A
.
D
imensiona
lly we have

Magne
tic f
l
ux d
ens
ity X a
rea = magne
tic f
l
ux
o
r

F
orce —f
o
rce X l
eng
th m
echan
ical moment
Xa
rea
C
urren
t Xl eng
th cur
ren
t cur
rent

Thus
, magne
tic f
lux has t
he d
imens
ions o
fm echanica
l momen
t p
er cur
-
r
ent
. T he dimensiona
l symbols f
or magne
tic f
lux (O.
) a
re ML 2/
QT.
Ls
c
N
orma
lt o r— ,'
A
M
agnet
ic
f f
l
ux l
i
nes

A
r
ea A

Fm
. 4
-9
. F
lux l
i
nes a
nd a
rea A
.

T
he mk
sc u
nit f
o
r magne
tic f
l
ux i
sthe w
ebe
r. H
ence
Newton
s n
ewton-mete
rs
Xm
ete
rs' = —w
ebe
rs
Ampere
-mete
r ampe
re

F
or t
he f
l
ux d
ens
ity B w
e h
ave
f
l
ux w
ebers
F
lux d
ens
ity = — o
r
a
rea mete
r'
T
hu s, the magne t
ic flux den si
ty B c an b ee xpre ssed i nw ebersp e rsqua re
metera s w el
l as inn ewton s p er ampe re m eter
.
I
nstead o ff l
ux li
ne s i
ti sf requently mo re conven ient to i magine t hat
t
here a re tubes of magne tic f l
ux, in the same w ay t hat tubes of electric
f
l
ux a re often mo re conven ien t t
han l ines ofe lectric f l
ux (see Sec. 1-18).
At u
beo fm agneti
cf l
ux isd efined asa ni magina ry t ube h av
ing w allse very-
where p aral
lel to Ba nd w ith a con stant total magne tic fl
ux IPm overa ny
c
rosss ection. T he requiremen t that the f l
ux o vera ny crosss ection ofa
t
ube b e ac onstanti s aneces sary consequence o ft he factt hat Bi sp aral
lel
t
o the s i
des of the tube so t hat the fl
ux o ve r the side w al
ls isz ero.
T
he s
ubscr
ipt mi
sused t
odi
stingu
ish magne
tic f
l
ux (
CO f
r
om e
l
ectr
ic f
l
ux (
#
).
 1
50 ELECTRO MAG NETICS [
CHAP
. 4

I
fBi snot un
iform ove
r a n a
rea
, the s
imple p
roduc
t (4
-9) mus
t b
e
r
ep
laced b
y asurface i
n
tegra
l so t
hat
, ingene
ral
, we h
ave
1
/
„, =J
I Bc
os ad
s (
4
-10
)
w
here ds =infini
tesima l e
lement o
fs ur
face area
B = magn i
tude o fB
a= a ngle be
tween n ormal t
od sa nd the d
irec
tion o
fB
T
he in
tegrat
ion i scarr
ied out o
ver the s
urface t
hrough which w
e w
ish t
o
k
now the t
otal fl
ux ik
„
,.
E
quation (
4-10) can also b
e wr
itten as asca
larord otproduct
. T hus
,
i
k
. = fJ
.B •d
s (
4
-11
)
w
here 1
,
1
.
„,= magne t
ic fl
ux ( webe rs)
B = magne t
ic f lux d en s
ity ( webers/me ter2 o r new ton s/amp -
m
e ter)
d
s = av ectorw ith d irection n orma l tothe surface el
emen td sa nd
amagn itude e qua l to the a rea ofds ( meters
')
)
( 4-7
. Magne tic Flux over aC losed S urface. T he fl
ux tubeso f as t
a t
ic
e
lectr
ic fi
eld or
ig inate a nd e nd o n electric charges. O n the other h and,
t
ube s o
f magne tic fl
ux a re c ontinuous, t hat is
, they h ave n o sources or
s
inks. T h
is is af undamen tald iference b etween s t
atic e
lectric and mag -
ne
tic fi
e
ld s
. T o descr
ibe t his c ontinuous n a
ture o f magne t
ic flux tube s
,
i
ti ssa
id that t he fl
ux den s
i ty B i ss o
leno idal
. S ince itiscon t
inuous , as
many magne tic f l
ux tubes mu ste nter av o
lume a sl eave i
t
. H ence, w hen
(
4-11) iscarr
ied o ut ove
r ac l
osed surface, the result mu s
t b e ze
ro, or

9
6 B •d
s =0 (
4
-12
)1

Th
is re
lation may be r
egarded as Gauss
's l
aw app
lied t
o magnet
ic fi
e
lds
[
compa re w
ith (
1-59) f
or e
lec
tric f
i
elds
].
I
tf o
llows, i
n the s
ame manne r as s
hown fo
r Ji n S
ec
. 3-13
, tha
t the
d
ivergence o
f Be qua
ls z
ero. T hat is
,
V •B = 0 (
4
-13
)
B o
th ( 4
-12) a nd (4
-13) a re e
xpre s
sions oft he c on t
inuous n a
ture o fB ,
(
4
- 12) being the rela
tion f or afi
nite volume a nd ( 4-13) t
he re
la tion a t a
p
oin t
.
X 4 -8. The F lux D ensity P roduced b y an I nfinite Linear C onduc to r
.
T
he f l
ux density B at adistance R f r
om at h
in l inearc onductoro fi nf
inite
l
e
ng th with a con s
tan t current Ic an be readily o btained by an a pplica-
t
i
on o f (
4-8)
. T h
is case i sone o f considerable i nteres
t since t he f l
ux
d
ensity at ad istance R f r
om al ong , st
raight w ire i snear
ly the s ame a s
f
or a n i
nf
initely long conduc tor p
rov ided that Ri ss ma
ll compa red w ith

1
Thes
ymbo
l56.i
n
dica
tesa
nin
teg
ralo
ve
r ac
l
osed s
u
rfa
ce.
SE
C. 4
-9] M AG NETIC F
IELD OF A STEA DY CURRENT 1
51

t
he le
ngth of t
he wi
re. It isassumed that the c
onduc to
r diame ter i
s
s
ufi
ciently s
mal
l compared w
ith R so t
hatitcan be neg
lected
.
T
he geometry i
sshown inFig
. 4-
10. W ith the c
urrent Iasindicated,
Batthe ri
ghtofthe w
ire i
sin
to t
he page
. T h
is isa
ccording t
ot he ri
ght-
h
and r u
le. Since dlsi
n 0 = rdo and R = rs i
n 0, (4
-8) in t h
is case
b
ecomes

B =t
g I -
1d0 = A
I frsi
n 0d
0 (
4
-14
)
4
7
r 0 r 4
rR o

whe
re the i
n
tegra
tion i
sbe
tween the a
ngles 0 = 0a
nd 0 = 7, t
hatis
,over
t
he en
tire l
eng
th ofan i
nf
ini
te w
ire. I nteg
rat
ing (4
-14
), we h ave

B = A
I [r— c
os0
] = 4
r
AI t2 4-
( 1
5)
4
wR 0
o
r

B= A
I 4-
( 1
6)
2
7R
where B = f l
ux d ensi
ty ( webers/me te
r2 or newtons/amp -me
ter
)
A = permeab il
i ty o
fm edium (hen ry
s/me ter
)
I= c urrenti nc onducto r (amp)
R=r ad
ia l di
stance ( meters
)
Equation (4
-16 ) gives the fl
ux d ens
ity at aradius R fr
om an i
nf
ini
te (
or
v
ery long) l
inea rc onductorc arrying acurrent I. It isas
sumed t
hat t
he
c
onduc torisi n am edium ofu n
iform p e
rmeab il
ity pt
.

P
B
(inwa
rd)

1
0
=0
F F

R
d
l
t
I
n
f
ini
te li
nea
r
c
onduc
tor 1 Y
1 i
2
I I
1 I
F
ro. 4-
10. Con
struct
ion for f
i
nding f
l
ux Fui
. 4 -
11. Force b etween
d
ensty B n
i ear along
, s
tra
ight w
ire
. two l
ong p
ara
lle
lc onductors
.

4
-9. The F
orce b
etween Two Linear Para
lle
l Conductors
. C
onsider a
l
e
ngth oftwo ve
ry l
ong para
lle
llinea
rc onductorssepa
rated by adi
stance
RasinFig. 4
-11. T he c
onducto
r sare s
i
tuated inairand are i
n areg
ion
1
52 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 4

f
ree from fi
eld s. A ssume n ow t hat conductor 1c arr
ies ac ur
ren t Ia nd
c
onduc tor 2ac urren t I
'i nt he opposi
te direction. The f lux linesdue to
c
onduc tor 1a re into the page atc onductor2 . A pplying the re ason
ing of
S
ec. 4-2 (s
ee F ig. 4-4)
, itfol
low s thatt he
re is af o
rce to the r i
gh ton con-
d
ucto r 2and af orce tot he le
ft on conductor 1 . T hatis
, t he conductors
a
re repel
led. I ft he currentsw ere inthe same d i
rec t
ion, the forcesw ould
b
e reversed a nd t he conducto r
s w ould be att
racted .
Le
tu snow c a
lcu late the magnitude F oft he force on al ength 1ofc on-
d
ucto r 2
. F rom ( 4-
1 ) we have

F=l
'B f
old
l = (
4
-17
)

w
he re /
'=c urren
t inconduc
tor2
B=f l
ux densi
ty at c
onduc
tor 2p
roduced b
y c
urren
t Ii
n c
on-
ductor 1
I
ntroduc
ing the v
alue o
f Bfr
om.(4
-16
) g
ive
s

F,_ m
ol'
(
4
-18
)
2
wR

where F = force on length 1ofc onductor 2( new tons

)
I= curren t i
nc onducto r 1(amp )
I
' =c urren tinc onducto r 2(amp )
R =s epa rat
ion ofc onducto r
s (meters
)
AO = p
ermeab ili
ty o fai
r =4 w X 1 0-
7 hen ry/me te
r
S
ince (4-18) iss ymme tr
ical in Ia nd I'
, the force on al ength 1of c
on-
d
uctor 1i soft he same magn itude as the f
orce F o n c
onduc tor 2
.
Div
iding (4-18 ) by 1yi
elds the f
orce pe
ru nit leng
th one i
therconductor
a
s
F
(4
-19
)
1 2
TR

I
fI' =I
,and i
n
troduc
ing t
he v
alue f
o
rho
, (
4
-18
) b
ecome
s

I21
F = 2X (
4
-20
)

E
xamp le
. Two l ong p
aralle
l wire
s separated by 2c m i
nai
r c
arry c
urrent
sof 1
00
amp
. F ind t
he f
orce F on 1me ter l
ength o
f ac onduc
tor.
S
olu
tion. Eva
lua ting (
4-20) fo
r t
hese condit
ions,

F 0
.
1 n
ewton .
1
%
2 o
z a
voirdupo
is

4
-10
. T he F
lux Dens i
ty P roduced by aC urrent Loop. As a no
ther
a
ppl
icat
ion ofthe f
l
ux density r
elat
ionsofSec.4-5
,l e
tusd er
ive a
ne xpre
s-
s
i
on fo
rt he f
l
ux dens
ity produced b y as
ing
le curren
tloop. A s asimpl
i-
f
i
cat
ion the p
roblem wi
ll b e r
es
tricted t
o f
i
nding B at po
ints o
n the l
oop
SE
C
. 4
-10
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
53

a
xis
. L et t
he-loop beint he x-
y plane w i
th itsc en
tera tthe o
rigin
, a
si n
F
ig. 4
-12
, s
ot hatt he zax
isc o
incidesw ith the loop ax
is. T he loop h
asa
r
adius R a
nd cu
rrent /a nd issitua
ted i na i
r.
At t
he p
oint Po n t
he lo
op axis the inf
inites
ima l f
lux den
sity dB pro
-
d
uced by an i
nf
initesimal e
lemen t o
fl e
ng th dlo fthe loop i
s
, from (4
-7)
,

µ
Idls
i
n 0
d
B — 4 .
2 (
4
-21
)

where 0 = ang
le be
tween dla nd rad
ius v
ecto
rofleng
th r. Iti
sassumed
t
hatt he l
o
op isin am ed
ium o funiform p
ermeab
il
ity A
. T
u he d
i
rect
ion o
f
d
B i snormal to t
he rad
ius vecto
r ofleng
th r,t
hat i
s
, at a
n a
ngle Ew
ith
r
espect t
ot he l
oop or zax
is.
Z
L
oop a
x
is d
Bn
d
B,

0
=90 °
d
l
'

Y
L
o
op wi
th
c
u
rren
t I

V
S= 0
FI
G
. 4
-
12. C
ons
truc
tion f
o
r f
i
nding f
l
ux d
ens
ity B o
n a
x
is o
fcur
ren
t l
oop
.

T
he c
omponen
tdB
,int
he d
i
rec
tion o
fthe za
x
is i
sgi
ven b
y

d
B. =d
Bco
s E= d
B—R (
4
-22
)
r

F
rom F
ig
. 4
-
12 w
e n
ote t
hat

0= 90°
d
l = Rdq
$
r =-
VR
2 ±
z2

I
ntroduc
ing t
hese v
alue
s i
n
to (
4
-21
) a
nd s
ubs
titu
ting t
h
is v
alue f
o
r d
B
i
n (4
-22)
, w
e have

d
B, —4 (
4
-23
)
T
(R1
IR -
4
2 1
-2z
2
)1 "
 1
54 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
Cam
%4

The to
tal fl
ux d ensity B. in the zdi
rection ist hen the integral of (4
-23
)
a
round the entire loop.
The el
ement d la lso produce s acomponent o ff l
ux d ensity d B„ norma
l
t
o the axis to t he lo
op. I ntegrat
ing t h
is component f or all elements
a
round the loop y i
elds zero because ofsymme try. T his may b es een by
n
oting that the n ormal c omponen t d B„ of any elemen t of length dl i
s
c
anceled by the n ormal componen t o
ft he di
ame tr
ically o pposed el
emen t
d
r. H ence
, B .e quals the t
otal fl
ux densi
ty B a tt he point Pa sg iven by

dB 2
/ 2
r AI
R2
B = B.— d
o
4
1-(
R2 z2)
1fo 2
(R 2 z2)
i

T
he po
int Pi
sat a
n a
xia
l d
is
tance zf
r
om t
he c
ente
r o
fthe l
oop
. A
t
t
he c
ente
r o
fthe l
o
op, z= 0
,and

B= (
4
-25
)
2
R

w
here B = f l
ux d en
sity at center ofl o
op (webers/me ter 2)
= permeab il
ity ofm edium ( hen
rys/me ter
)
I= c urrent inl o
op ( amp )
R =r ad
ius ofl oop ( meters)
)
( 4 -11
. T he V ector
, or C ross P roduct
. Al inear current-carry
ing c
on-
d
uctor p
laced i n au n
iform m agne t
ic fi
eld exper
iences a f orce F o
n a
l
e
ngth 1ofc onduc tor that isgiven, fr
om ( 4
-1)
, b y

F=I
Bsi
n 4
)fold
l =I
B1s
i
n 4
1 (
4
-26
)

where F = f orce ( n ew ton s)

I= c ur ren t inc onduc to r ( amp )
B=f l
ux d en s
i ty o ffield ( webe rs/me ter 2)
/= l eng th o fc onduc to r ( meters)
=a ng le b etween Ia nd B
E
qua tion ( 4-26 ) is as calar e qua t
ion a nd r e
late sonly the magnitude sof
t
he q uan t
ities i nvo lved . T he f orce F i sp erpend icular to both Ia nd B.
For examp le, l et the c onduc to r be n orma l to au ni
form magne t
ic fie
ld of
f
l
ux d ensity B a si nF ig. 4 -
13a . I fthe c urrenti nt he conducto risfl
ow ing
o
u t of the p age , i tp roduce s f l
ux l i
ne s
, a s i ndicated, so that the f l
ux
d
en s
ity i sincrea sed b elow t he w ire and w eakened a bove. T he r
esulting
f
orce ist herefo re u pwa rd, as s ugge sted i nF ig. 4-13b.
R
elating the d irection st ot he coo rdina te axes asi nFig. 4-
14a, w eh ave
Fint he p os
itive zd irection w hen Ii sint he positive xd i
rect
ion a nd B in
t
he p os
itive yd i
rec tion. I ft he d i
rection o f Ii sn ot pe
rpendicular tot he
d
irection of Bb uti sass hown i nF ig. 4-14b, the f o
rce F isst
il
li nthe p os
i-
t
ive zd irection w ith a magn i tude g iven b y ( 4
-26), w here 4)equals the
SE
C
. 4
-11
] MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
55

(
a
)

(
b
)
F
la. 4
-
13. F
orce F o
ncur
rent
-car
rying c
onductor i
nun
ifo
rm magne
tic f
i
e
ld.

C
onducto
r o
f
l
e th i
ng
(
a) (
b
)
Fm
. 4
-
14. R
ela
tion b
etween c
urren
t d
i
rec
tion
, f
i
e
ld d
i
rec
tion
, a
nd f
orce
.

a
ngle m easured fr
om t he p osit
ive direction of Itot he posit
ive direction o f
B(c ounterclockwise in F ig. 4-14b)
. W ith 4,m easured i n th
is w ay, the
f
or
ce F i sint he po
sitive zd i
rection ifsin 4,ispositive.
A
l though w ith th
is c onven tion concern ing di
rec tions (4-26
) i sd ef
in i
te
a
nd u namb iguous, a mo re concise and e l
egan t method o fexpre s
sing t he
r
e
lation i sb y means oft he vec
tor, o
r cross product
.
Thec r
ossp roductoft wo v e
ctorsisdefined as ath
ird v e
ctor whose magn itud e
i
s equal tot he p
roduct o f the vec
tor m agnitudes and t h
e sine t?
f the a ngi
t.
b
e
tw een them. T hedi r
ect ion ofO w th
ird rectorisperp e
_nd i
culartot hep lan e
o
fthet wo v
ectorsand ins u ch as en
set ha
t thet h
reevecto r
sf orm aright-hand ed
s
e
t.
1
56 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 4

For e
xample
, the cross product o
f Ai n
to B means t
hat t
he r
esu
lting
v
ector Cisinthe d
irec t
ion that arigh
t-handed s
crew
' would a
dvance if
r
otated i
nthe s
ame di rect
ion as when A i
sturned t
oward B
. T he c
r o
ss
p
roduct o
f Ainto B i
sw ri
tten
Ax B = C (
4
-27
)
I
fAi sinthe pos
itive xd
irec
tion a
nd B inthe p
os
itive ydirect
ion
, then C
i
sinthe pos
itive zdi
rect
ion asinFig. 4
-15
. T hese th
ree v ec
tor
sf orm a
r
i
ght-handed set
. ( No phys
ica
l sign
ifi
cance ishere at
tached t o A
, B
,
a
nd C.
)
z

7
1k
B 1 )
1 I
0
1
i B Y

x x
FI
G
. 4
-15
. A xB = C
. Fm. 4-16
. Ilus
tra
tion f
o
r
Examp
le 1.

Example 1
. V ec
tor A h
as amagni
tude o
f 2unit
sa nd i
sinthe pos
itive xdi
rec
tion
,
wh
ile v
ector B h
as amagn
itude o
f 3un
itsand i
sinthe p
osi
tive yd
irection a
sshown i
n
F
ig. 4
-16
. Tha t i
s
,
A =i2
a
nd
B =j3

where iand jare u

nit vectors i
n t
he x and y d
i
rections
, r
e
spect
ive
ly. Wha
t i
sthe
r
esultant v
ecto
r Ce qua
l to the c
ros
s product A x B
?
Solu
tion
. The magn itude of Cisgiven by

C = AB s
in 0= (
2
)(3
) s
in 9
0° m
.6
The a ngle 0 from A to Bi s
, inthis examp le
, equa
l to 9 0°
.
The d irection o f Cis at ri
ght a ngles to t
he plane c onta
ining ia nd jo r i
n t
he z
d
irection . F ur
the rmore, arotation f r
om ii n
to jw ould cause aright-handed sc
rew
t
o a dvance i n t he po
sitive z direction. The d irection of C i st here
fore in the
po
sit
ive zd irection, a
nd this i
sindicated bythe un
itv ector k. A ccordingly, t
he c
ross
p
roduc t of Aa nd B is

A xB =
-(i
A) x(
jB) = kAB s
i
n 0= k
6 s
i
n 9
0° =k
6 =C
1A r
i
ght
-handed s
crew a
dvances i
nthe d
irec
tion o
fthe t
humb o
f F
ig
. 4
-2 when t
he
s
c
rew i
stu
rned i
nthe d
irec
tion o
fthe f
i
nge
rs.
SE
C. 4
-11
] MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
57

I
fAisn o
t perpendicula
r toB, the angle (
1
)isnot 9
0° a
nd s
i
n 0isl
es
s
t
han u
nity (F
ig. 4-17)
. I n g
eneral, the c
ros
s produc
t of Ain
to B i
s
t
herefore g
iven by

A xB = n
AB s
i
n 0=C (
4
-28
)

w
he re n is au nit vector norma l to the
p
lane c onta
ining A a nd B a nd 0 i sthe
a
ngle between A a nd B. The magn itude
o
f Ci sg
iven by AB sin ct
•and i
srepresented
b
y t he a
rea of t
he rectangle in Fig
. 4 -
17.
I
n w r
iting the s
calar
,o rd o
t,p roduct of
t
wo v ec
tor s(Sec
. 1-10) t
he orderi si mma-
t
e
rial. T hus
,

F
ia.4
-17
. E xamp le o
fcrossp
rod- A
• B =B• A
u
ct (
A xB) w here A a nd B a
re
n
ot n
ormal t
oe ach other
. The do
t p
roduct iss
aid t
o o
bey t
he com-
muta
tive l
aw si
nce t
he o
rder o
fthe ope
r-
a
t
ion can b
e r
eversed w
ithout a
fect
ing t
he r
esult
.
O
n the o
the
r hand, t
he cro
ss p
roduct d
oes not o
bey t
he c
ommu ta
tive
l
aw s
ince
A xB = —B xA
T
here
fore
, i
f
Ax B = C

t
hen
B x A = —C

E
xample 2
. Work out t
he re
lations f
or t
he c
ros
s p
roduct
sof t
he u
nit v
ector
s i
,j,
a
nd k o
fthe r
ec
tangu
lar c
oord
ina te s
ystem.

I
sm. 4
-
18. E
xamp
les o
f c
ros
s p
roducts o
fun
it v
ecto
rs.
 1
58 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
Gawp
. 4

S
olu
tion
. The v
ector p
roducts a
re a
s f
o
llows
:

iX i= (
1) (1
) sin 0
° =0
iX j= k (
1) (1
) sin 9
0° =k (
s
ee F
ig
. 4
-
18a
)
ix k = —j
jx i= —k (
s
ee Fig
. 4
-
18b
)
jxj = 0 (
4
-29
)
jxk =i
kxi = j
k x j= —i
kx k = 0

X 4
-12
. Magnet
ic F
ield Re
lat
ions i
n Vector Notat
ion
. Mak
ing u
se o
fthe
v
ector p
roduct
, (
4-1) may n
ow b
e e
xpressed
' (
see F
ig. 4
-19
) i
n a more
g
enera
l f
or m a
s

dF = I(
d1 xB
) (
4-30
)

where dF = v
ector i
ndicat
ing magn
itude and d
irect
ion o
f f
orce o
n e
le-
ment o
f c
onductor (
newtons
)
I= s
calar magn
itude o
f c
urrent i
n c
onductor (
a mp
)
d
l = v
ector whose magn
itude (
Id
11) e
qua
ls t
he l
ength d
l o
f t
he
c
onductor e
le ment and whose d
irect
ion i
s i
n t
he p
osit
ive
d
irect
ion o
f t
he c
urrent (meters
)
B = v
ector i
ndicat
ing magn
itude and d
irect
ion o
fthe f
lux d
ens
ity
(
webers/ meter 2)

x
Fio
. 4
-19
. d
F =1
(d
1 x B)
. FI
G. 4
-20. Rela
t
1
ion f
orf
\
i
nding B a
t ap
oint P d
ue
t
o acurrent Ii
n aconductor o
fany s
hape.

Equat
ion (
4-30
) c
o mb
ines i
n o
ne e
xpress
ion t
he r
elat
ions b
etween both
t
he magn
itudes and t
he d
irect
ions o
f t
he quant
ities i
nvo
lved
, whereas
(
4-1) r
elated o
nly t
he magn
itudes
.

1F
or av
olume d
i
str
ibu
tion o
f c
urren
t w
e h
ave

d
F = (
J x B)d
v (
4
-31)

whe
re d
Fist
he f
orce o
n t
he v
olume e
l
ement d
v a
t wh
ich t
he c
urrent d
ens
ity i
sJ.
SE
C. 4
-13
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
59

F
or al
i
nea
r c
onduc
tor o
fle
ngth 1i
n au
nifo
rm f
i
e
ld B
, (
4
-30
) b
ecome
s

F=/
(
1 xB
) (
4
-32
)

Equat
ion ( 4
-8) gives t
he magnitude o
f the fl
ux den
sity at ap o
in t a
s
p
roduced b y acurrent Iin as
tra
igh torcurved conduc
torc ontained ina
s
i
ngle plane. A mo re g
enera
l re
lation a
pplying to aconducting wire o
f
a
ny shape,asinF ig.4-20
,c an b
estated w
ith the a
id o
fthe vec
to rproduct
a
s f
ollows,

B=A
i
l (a
i xar d
i
(
4
-33
)
r 2

where B = f l
ux d ens
i ty atP( webers/me ter'
)
= permeab ility ofm edium ( henrys/me ter)
I= c urrent inc onduc tor (amp )
al = unit vector p o
inting in t he p o
sit
ive d irection of t
he cur
ren
t
a
t el
emen t dlofc onducto r (dimen sionless)
a
, =u nit vecto r po
inting from e l
emen t d
lt o point P( dimens
ion
-
l
e
ss)
r= d is
tance f rom d ltoP( meters)
d
l =i nf
inites
ima l e
lemen t ofl ength ofc onduc tor' (mete
rs)
The i
ntegration in( 4-33)i scarr
ied o ut overt he le
ng th ofconductorunde
r
c
onsiderat
ion .
I
ft he cu
rren ti sdistributed throughou t av olume, the fl
ux dens
ity B i
s
g
iven by

B= f
i
f Jxa
,dv
2 (
4
-34
)

where Ji st he current density in av olume e lemen t dv a

t ad istance r.
Equa t
ion s (4-30) and ( 4
-33 ) are the b as
ic magne tic fi
eld re
la t
ion s
. I f
Bi se l
imina ted b etween t he se equa t
ion s, an equa tion can b e obtained
t
hat expre sses the force between t wo c urrent elemen ts (s
ee P rob. 4-16)
.
4
-13. T orque o n aL oop
. Magne t
ic Momen t
. When ac urrent loop is
p
laced p arallel to a magne tic field, forces act on t he l
oop t hat tend to
r
otate it
. T he tangentialf orce times t he radia
ld istance at w h
ich ita c
ts
i
sc al
led t he t o
rqu e
, or m echan ica l momen t
, on t he lo
op. T orque ( o
r
mechanical momen t
) h a
s t he d imen sions o f fo
rce X d istance a nd i s
e
xpressed i nn ew ton-me ters
.

INote t
hat dl l
a
,dl
, where d
l e
qua ls an i
nf
ini
tes
ima l v
ector e
l
emen t
o
f le
ngth po
int
ing i
n t
he d
i
rect
ion o
f t
he c
urren t
. T hus
, another w
ay of wr
iting
(
4-33
) is
B l xa
d r
(
4-33a)
4
1
r r2
1
60 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 4

C
ons
idert he rectangu
larl o
op s hown i
nF ig
. 4-21a w
ith s
ide
s o
flength
l
and dsi
tuated i n amagnetic fi
e
ld ofuni
fo rm fl
ux dens
ity B
. T he l
oop
h
as as
teady current Iassuggested int
he f
igure
. A cco
rding t
o(4
-30) t
he
f
o
rce o
fa ny elemen t o
fthe lo
op i s
d
F = I(
d
1 xB
) (
4
-35
)

I
fthe p
lane oft
he lo
op i
satanang
le /
3wi
th re
spect t
oB , a
sind
ica
ted i
n
t
he c
ros
s-sec
tion v
iew o
fFig
. 4
-21b
, t
he t
angent
ial f
orce i
s

F
, =I
l c
osi
3= I
Bco
s #1
01d
l =I
BIc
os# (
4
-36
)

T
he t
ota
l t
orque o
n t
he l
o
op i
sthen

T=2
F, d—= I
Bld c
os1
3 (
4
-37
)
2
B
ut I
dequa
ls t
he a
rea A o
fthe l
o
op; s
o

T=J
AB c
os1
3 (
4
-38
)

A
ccord
ing t
o (
4
-38) t
he t
o
rque ispropor
tiona
l tothe c
urrent i
nthe l
oop
,
t
oit
sarea
,and t
othe f
l
ux den
sity o
fthe f
i
eld i
nwhich t
he lo
op i
ssi
tuated
.

A
x
is of
r
o
ta
tion

A
x
is of
r
o
tat
ion

(
a
) (
b
)
Fm
. 4
-21
. R
ectangu
lar l
oop i
nfi
e
ld o
f u
nifo
rm f
l
ux d
ens
ity B
.

Now t he p
roductIAi n(4-38)has t
he d
imensions o
fcur
rent Xarea and
i
st he magne
ticm omentofthe loop
. I tsdimensiona
l symbo
lsare QL 2/T
,
a
nd i tisexpres
sed in amperes Xsquare mete
rs. L et u
s d
es
ignate mag-
n
etic momen t by t
he le
tter m. T hen'
m =I
A (
4
-39
)
a
nd
T = mB c
os1
3 (
4-40
)
o
r
T = mB s
i
n7 (
4
-41
)
where 7 = a
ngle b
etween n
orma
l top l
ane ofloop a
nd d
irec
tion o
fB( s
ee
F
ig. 4-
21b)
. I fthe l
oop ha
s Nt urn
s, the magne
tic moment m = NIA.
'Al
though t
he l
oop i
nFig
.4-21 h
as are
ctangu
lar a
rea
,the r
e
lat
ion m = I
A a
ppl
ies
r
egardles
s o
fthe s
hape o
fthe l
oop a
rea
.
SE
C. 4
-14
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
61

I
ft he magne tic momen t isregarded a
s av ector m with di
rec t
ion a
.
n
o rma l tothe plane oft he l
oop and with i
t
sp o s
itive s
ense d
eterm ined b
y
t
he righ t
-hand r ule (f
ingersind i
rection o
fc urrent, t
humb ind irect
ion o
f
a
.), the torque relat
ion o f(4
-41) can beexpressed in amore generalform
u
sing t he vecto
r p roduct. T hus

T = mx B (
4
-42
)

w
here T = torque o
n loop (newton-mete r
s)
m =: t
on = a„IA = magne tic momen t ofloop (amp-mete r
s')
B=f l
ux dens
ity off i
e
ld in wh
ich loop issi
tuated (webe
rs/me ter 2)
T
he t o
rque T iscons
idered to be av ecto
r c o
incid
ing w i
th the axis of
r
otat
ion o f t
he loop as g
iven b y m xB . T he direc
-
B t i
on oft he t
orque on the loop i
so btained by turning
+c
)
,„
m i
nto B
.
— When 7 = 9 0
°, (4
-41) become s

t
i m = (
4
-43
)
A
x
is

Thu
s t
he m agnetic moment of alo
op isp roport
ional
F Q t
othe t
orque,or m echan
ica
l momen t
, on the lo
op per
u
nit o
f magne t
ic f l
ux den
sity
. Magne t
ic momen t,
FIG
. 4-22
. A b ar t
hen
, has t
he dimen sion
s not o
nly of c
urrent Xa rea
magnet h
as amag-
n
etic moment Q.
1.
b
ut a
l
so o
fm echan
ica
l momen
t p
er magne
tic f
l
ux d
en-
s
i
ty. That i
s
,
mechanica
l moment
Magne
tic momen
t — —c
urren
t Xa
rea
magnetic f
lux d
ens
ity

Acurrent l
oop isequivalent init
s efect t
o ashort magnet
ized bar o
r
magnet
ic dipo
le. T h
is isdiscussed i
n more de
tail i
n Chap. 5
. I t may
b
e noted here
, h owever
, that the maximum t orque o
n ab ar magnet o
f
p
ole s
treng
th Q „
,a nd le
ngth 1( s
ee Fig
. 4-
22) i
s

1
T=2
Q„
,B -
2 = Q
„
,1B (
4
-44
)

E
qua
ting t
h
is t
o t
he max
imum t
o
rque o
n al
o
op f
r
om (
4
-38
), w
e h
ave

I
A =Q
„
,1 (
4
-45
)

The magnetic momen t o

f ac urren
t l oop is I
A, so that for abar
magnet t
o be e
quiva
lent t
o t
he lo
op i t
s magnet
ic moment Q„,
1 must be
e
qual t
o IA.
4
-14
. T he So
lenoid. A hel
ical coil
, or so
leno
id, is o
ften used to
p
roduce amagnet
ic f
ie
ld. Letuscalculate t
he f
l
ux d
ens
ity f
ors uch ac
o
il.
1
62 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 4

Let t
he co
il consist ofNt urns oft h
in w ire ca
r rying ac ur
ren t I
. T he
c
oi
lh as alength l and radius R ( F
ig. 4-23a). T he spacing be
tween t urns
i
ss mal
l compared w ith the radius R o fthe coi
l. Ac rosssect
ion through
t
he soleno
id i ss hown i n F ig. 4 -
23b. I f the spacing b etween turns is
s
uficient
ly s mal
l o r ifthe w ire isreplaced b y at h
in c onducting st
rip of
w
idth /N , a nd w ith negligible spacing b etween t urns as in Fig
. 4-23c,
o
ne may c onsider t hat the c urrent in the coi
l p roduce s acurrent sheet
w
ith al i
near curren t density_ I
C = NI/ lamp p er m ete
r.

A
xis

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

X
N
L H H

(
c
)

-
- -
--0
-
2 2
F
ia. 4
-23
. S
oleno
ida
l c
o
il.

T
of ind t
he f
l
ux d
ensi
ty B a
tthe cente
ro fthe so
leno
id, l
et as
e
ction of
t
he co
il ofle
ngth d
x, a
s i
n F
ig
. 4-23c, be r
egarded a
s asing
le t
urn loop
w
ith ac u
rrentequa
l t
o
NI
Kdx =— 1dx (
4-46)

F
rom (
4-24) t
he f
lux d
ensity d
Bat t
he c
enterofthe s
o
leno
id d
ue t
oth
is
l
o
op o
fl e
ngth dx a
t adis
tance xf
rom t
he cente
ris
µ NI R 2
d
B —2
1
(R' ±x2
) d
x (
4
-47
)

The t
otal f
l
ux d
ens
ity B a
t t
he c
ente
r of t
h
is c
o
il i
sthen e
qua
l t
o t
h
is
e
xpre
ssion i
n
teg
rated o
vert
he l
e
ngth o
fthe c
o
il
. T ha
tis
,

B _ ANIR2 f+1/2 d
x
(
4
-48
)
2
1 J—
1/2 (R 2 + x2)1
SE
C
. 4
-
14] MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
63

P
erfo
rming t
he i
nteg
rat
ion
,

B— µN
I
(
4
-
49
)
V4
R
2 +/
2

I
f t
he le
ngth o
f t
he s
o
leno
id i
s much g
rea
ter t
han i
t
s r
ad
ius (
1>> R
)
,
(
4
-49
)r educe
s t
o
B =µN
I =A
K
(
4
-
50
)
1

w
here B= f
l
ux dens
ity ( webers/me ter'
)
µ = p
ermeab ili
ty o fm edium ( henrys/meter
)
N= n umbe r oft urns o n so
lenoid (d
imen s
ionless
)
I= c urrent through s o
leno id (amp)
1= length ofs oleno id (me te
rs) d
K= s heetc urrentd ensi
ty ( amp/mete r) T
op
Equat
ion s (4
-49) a nd ( 4-
50) g ive the flux v
i
ew B
d
d
ensity at the c enter o f t he s o
lenoid. B y
c
hanging the limi
t s ofi ntegration in( 4
-
4 8
)t o
0and 1w e obtain the f l
ux d ensity ato ne e
nd
o
fthe co
il (on the axis) a s S
i
ngle
t
u
rn
µN
I
B— (
4
-
51
) s
i
de
2N
/R 2 + / 2 v
i
ew

F
or 1
>> Rt
h
is r
educe
s t
o B

B _,
NI _1K (
4
-
52
)
— 2
/ — I A
x
is of
r
o
tat
ion

w
hich i
sone
-ha
lft he v
alue a
t t
he c
ente
rofthe S
i
ngle
tu
rn
c
o
ila sg y (
iven b 4
-50)
.
L
et u
s now c
alcula
te the max
imum t o
rque
S
o
leno
id a
x
is
t
ending to rotate as o
lenoid placed in a mag - Fm. 4 . S
-24 oleno
id inf i
e
ld
n
et
ic fi
eld o
fu niform fl
ux dens
ity. The t orque o fun
iform fluxdens
ity B.
i
s maximum w hen t he s
oleno
id a xis i
sn orma l
t
othe direct
ion o f BasinF .4
ig -
2 4
. The a x
is ofr
otat
ion i sat the c
ente r
o
ft he s
olenoid. A s
sum ing that t he so
lenoid iso
f square c ros
s sect
ion ,
t
he tangential fo
rce Fso n asingle st
raight segmen
t of 1t urn isgiven b y

F
, = I
B
dco
s13 (
4
-
53
)
T
he n
etto
rque d o2
ue t t
urn
s, o
ne a
t ad
istance xa
bove the c
ente
roft
he
s
o
leno
id a
nd a
nothe
ra t a
n equa
l d
is
tance be
low, i
sthen

T ,
-
-4
IB
rdc
os# 4
-
(54
)
B
ut c
os #= d
/
2r ;s
o
T = 2
I
d
2B =2
I
AB (
4
-
55
)
1
64 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 4

w
here A = d2 = area of s
o
leno
id . Th is t
orque isindependent o
f the
d
i
stance of t
he t
urns fr
om the cente
r ofthe so
lenoid
. H ence
, t
he t
otal
t
o
rque o n t
he so
lenoid isequa
l t o (4
-55) times N/2
, w here N i
sthe
n
umbe r o
fturns
. T h
is ist
he maximum t orque, T
,„
. T hat i
s
,

T
. = NIAB = m
'B (
4
-56
)

where m ' = NIA = magne tic momen t o f s o

leno id
. T he magne t
ic
momen t oft he so
leno id i sthus N t ime
st he magne tic momen t of asi
ngle
l
oop oft he same a rea A a nd carrying the same c urrent I .
For ab ar magne t to b e equivalent t
o ac urrent solenoid i ts magnetic
moment Q .lw ould need t ob ee qualt othe momen t NIA f ort he s
o
lenoid.
4
-15. I nductors a nd I nductance . A n i nductor' is ad evice for st
oring
e
nergy in amagne tic fie
ld. I t may b ere garded ast he magne tic c
ounter-
p
arto f acapac i
tor, w hich stores energy ina ne l
ectric fi
e
ld. A se xamples,
l
oops, c
oils, and so
leno id sa re inductors
.
The li
ne s of magne tic f l
ux p roduced b y ac ur
ren t in as olenoidal coi
l
f
orm closed l o
op sa ss uggested i nFig. 4
- 25. I ti ssaid thate ach f
lux li
ne

FI
G
. 4
-25
. S
oleno
id a
nd f
l
ux l
i
nes
.

t
hat passe
s through the en
tire so
lenoid asin t
he fi
gure li
nks t
he cur
rent
Nt imes
. I fal ofthe f
lux li
nes li
nk al
l o
fthe tu
rn s
, then t
he t
ota
l m ag
-
n
et
i cfl
ux linkage A(cap
itall ambda) ofthe c
oi
li sequal tothe t
ota
l mag-
n
etic f
lux ik
,
„ through t
he coi
l times the n
umber oft urns
, or

F
lux l
i
nkage = A = w
ebe
r-turn
s (
4
-57
)

S
ince the n
umber ofturns N isdimen
sionless
, fl
ux li
nkage has t
he s
ame
d
imensions as f
l
ux.
By def
in
ition the i
nduc
tanc
e Lo fa n inductor i
sthe ra
tio ofit
s t
ota
l
magne
tic fl
ux li
nkage t
othe cur
rent Ithrough the i
nductor, o
r

L= = (
4
-58
)
T
1An inductor i
ssomet
ime s c
al
led an "
inductance." Howeve r
, iti
su sual p
ract
ice
t
o r
efer to acoi
l or s
o
lenoid as an i
nduc
tor. T his makes f
o
r un
iform usage when we
s
peak, f
ore xample
, ofan induc
torof 1henry i
nductanc
e, ac
apac
itorof 1picapac
itance
,
o
r ares
istor of 1ohm re
sistance
.
SE
C. 4
.
16] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
65

Th
is def
init
ion iss at
isfactory fo
r am edium w i
th a constant pe
rme -
a
bi
lity, s
uch asair
. A s di
scussed inChap . 5
,however, the permeabil
ity
o
fferrous m
edia isn o
tc onstan
t,a nd i
nthis ca
se the i
nductance i
sdefined
a
sthe rat
io ofthe i
nfini
tesimal change i
nf l
ux li
nkage tothe inf
in
ites
ima l
c
hange incurrent producing i
t, o
r

dA
L= d
l (
4
-59
)

I
n li
near media bo
th ( 4
-58) and (4
-59) le
ad to t
he s
ame r
esu
lt. T
he
i
nductance a
s g
iven in (
4-59
) isdi
scussed f
urthe
rinSec
. 7
-16
.
I
nductance h
as the d
imen s
ions o
f

Magnet
ic fl
ux (l
inkage
)
E
lectr
ic cur
rent

T
he u
nit o
finduc
tance i
sthe h
enry
. T
hus
,

webe
r s n
ewton
-me te r
s
H
enry
s =
ampere ampere 2

The dimen s
iona l s ymbo ls f
ori nductance a re ML 2/ Q 2.
4-16. I nduc tance o f S
imp le G eome tr ies. T he inductance o f many
i
nduc to r
s c an b e readily ca
lculated from t heir geome try. A s examp les,
e
xp ressions f or t
he i nductance of along s o
leno id, at oroid, acoax ia
l line,
a
nd at wo-w ire li
ne w il be der
ived i nt his s ect
ion .
'
I
n S ec
. 4- 14 iti ss hown t hat the fl
ux d en si
ty B a t t he end o f along
s
olenoid i sl ess than a t t
he center. T his i sc aused b y f l
ux le
akage n ear
t
he e nd s o
ft he solenoid. Howeve r
, this l eakage i s mostly confined t oa
s
hor t distance a t the e nd
s oft he so
lenoid ( s
ee P rob. 4-10) so that ift he
s
olenoid i sv ery long, one may , t
o ag ood a pprox ima t
ion , take B constan t
o
ve rt he entire interioro fthe so
lenoid a nd e qualt oitsv alue atthe cen ter
(
4-50). The t o
ta l fl
ux li
nkage o f along s oleno id isthen

A = NO
„, = NBA = AN 2/
A (
4
-60
)

T
hus
, t
he i
nduc
tance o
f al
ong s
o
leno
id (
see F
ig
. 4
-25
) i
s

A AN 2A
L— — (
4
-61
)

For the i
nductance o
f other g eometrica
l configurat
ions see, f
o
r example, F . E.
T
erman , "Radio E ng
ineers
' Handbook ," McGraw -H i
ll Book C ompany
, I nc.
, N ew
York, 1943, p
p. 47-64; E
. B. R osa and F
. W . Grover, "Formu lasand T
able s f
or the
Ca
l culat
ion of Mutualand Self
-inductance ," Na
tl.B ur
.S tandards (
U.S
.)B ul
l.,J an
. 1,
1
912 , pp
. 1-237; and "Radio Instrumen t
sa nd Measuremen ts
," Naa. Bur
. Standa rds
(U
.S .
) C i
te. 7
4, pp. 2
42-296.
1
66 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 4

w
here L = i
nductance ofs oleno id (henrys)
A=f l
ux linkage ( weber -turns)
I= current through s o
leno id (amp)
µ= permeab il
ity o fm edium ' (henrys/meter)
N = numbe r o
ft urns o n s o
lenoid (dimensionle
ss)
A = c
ross-
sectional a rea o fso
lenoid ( me
te r
s 2)
1= l
ength ofs o
leno id ( me
ters)

E
xamp le
. C a
lculate t
he i
nductance o
f aso
lenoid o
f 2
,000 tu
rns w
ound uni
formly
o
ver aleng
th o
f5 0 cm on ac
yl
indrica
l pape
rt ube 4cmind iamete
r. The medium i
s
a
i
r.
S
olu
tion. From ( 4
-61) t
he i
nductance o
fthe s
oleno
id is

4
w X 1
0-7 X 4X 1
0 6 X T X4 X 1
0-4
L— 1
2
.6 m
il
lihenry
s (
mh)
0
.5

I
f al
ong s
o
leno
id i
sben
t into a c
i
rcle and closed on itse
lf, at oroidal
c
oi
l, or t
oroid, isobtained. When t he
t
oroid has au niform w inding of many
t
urns, the magne t
ic l i
nes o f fl
ux a re
a
lmo st e
ntire
ly c onf
ined tot he i
nterior
o
f the winding, B b eing s ubstantially
Nturns z
ero outs
ide. I fthe ra
tio R /r (
see Fig.
4
-26) i
slarge
, one may calculate B as
t
hough the toro
id w ere straightened
o
ut in
to a s o
lenoid
. T hus, t he fl
ux
l
i
nkages
0N2h.r2 . N2b.
2
A= Nik„
, = N BA = _ P
2
TR 2
R
FI
G 4
-26
. T
oro
id. (
4
-62)
The i
nduc
tance o
f t
he t
o
roid i
s t
hen

L A AN 2r2
= = (
4
-63
)
I 2R

w
here L = i
nductance o fto ro
id (henrys)
µ= permeability ( uniform a nd constant) of m ed
ium i
nside c
oi
l
(
henrys/me ter)
N = numbe r oft urns o ftoro
id (dimen s
ionless)
r= radius o
fc oi
l ( see Fig
. 4-26) (meters
)
R = r
adius o
ft oroid ( meters)
C
ons
ider next ac oaxial t ransmiss
ion line constructed o
f c
onduct
ing

1I
t i
sto be n
oted that t
his r
e
lation a
ppl
ies o
nly f
or t
he c
ase where t
he med
ium
h
as auni
form, c
onstant permeabil
ity a
s isthe c
ase f
or a
ir o
r va
cuum ( fo
r which
t
i. mo =ti
r X 1
0-7 henry/meter
).
SE
C. 4
.
16] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
67

c
yl
inder
sofrad
ius aand basinFig
. 4
-27
. T he c
urrent o
nthe i
nnercon
-
d
ucto
r isI
. T he r
e
tu rn c
urren
t on t
he o
uter conductor i
sof t
he s
ame

L
ong
itud
ina
l s
e
ct
ion I
n
ner C
ross
c
o
nduct
or s
e
ct
ion

t
a tr f
b

O
ute
r
c
onducto
r
F
lo. 4
-27
. C
oax
ial t
r
ansm
iss
ion li
ne.

magnitude. T
he fl
ux den
sity B a
t a
ny rad
ius risthe same a
s a
t t
h
is
r
adius fr
om a l
ong s
tra
ight c
onduc
tor w
ith the s
ame cur
rent
, o
r

B(
a
t r
) = (
4
-64
)
2
i
rr

T
he to
tal f
l
ux l
i
nkage fo
r aleng
th d o
f li
ne i
sthen dt
ime
s t
he i
n
teg
ral
o
f (
4
-64) f
rom t
he i
nner t
o t
he ou
ter c
onducto
r, o
r

d
µl f b d
r d
id b
A =d ia B d
r =—
2
7 a = —
27 i
n-a (
4
-65
)

H
ence
, t
he i
nduc
tance o
f al
eng
th do
fthe c
oax
ial l
i
ne i
s

L= = i
n-b h
enrys (
4
-66
)
/ 2
7 a

o
r t
he i
nduc
tance p
er u
nit l
e
ngth (
Lid
) f
o
r t
he c
oax
ial l
i
ne i
sgiven b
y

L b
- — i
n- h
enry
s/me
ter (
4
-67
)
d 2
r a

w
he re µ = permeab ility (uniform a nd c
onstant) ofmedium ins
ide coaxial
l
ine ( henry s/me ter
)
b= i
n s
ide r adius ofo uter conductor
a= outside radius ofi nner conductor (i
n same u n
its a
s b)
I
tisa ssumed t hat the c ur
ren ts a
re conf
ined tot he r
adi
i aand b. T hi
si s
e
fectively t
he c ase w hen the w a
lls ofthe conductors a
re th
in.
'
Evaluat
ing ( 4-67) for an air-f
iled li
ne (A = Ao),weh ave

-
d-= 0
.
2ln-
b =0
.46 l
og-
a m
icrohen
rys/me
ter (
Ah/me
ter
) (
4
-68
)
a
Ath
igh fr
equenciest he currentsare e
fec
tively c
onf
ined t
othe
se rad
iib ythe sk
in
e
f
fectsothat (
4-67
)i sal
so app l
icable ath
igh f
requenc
iesto as
o
lid i
nnerconductor a
nd
ath
ick o
uter conductor ofinner radius b
.
1
68 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 4

L
et us c
onside
r fina
lly a two-wire t
ransm
iss
ion l ine a
s ilus
trated i
n
F
ig. 4
-28
. The c onduc to
r radius isa,and t
he spacing b
etween center
s
i
sD . A t a
ny radius rfrom o ne of t
he c
onducto r
s the f
lux dens
ity B
d
ue to t
hat c
onductori sgiven by (4
-64)
. T he t
o tal f
l
ux li
nkage due t
o

L
o
ngi
tud
ina
l s
e
ct
ion C
ro
sss
e
ct
ion
7 2
a

C
onduc
tor
s B

I
I
(
inw
ard)
Fm
. 4
-28
. Two
-wire t
ransm
iss
ion l
i
ne.

b
oth conductor
s f
or al
eng
th d o
f l
i
ne i
sthen dt
imes t
wice t
he i
n
teg
ral
o
f (
4-64) f
rom ato D
, o
r

A = 2
d f D r =M
Bd id D d
r µ
Id i
n D
Tf. r T a (
4
-69
)

H
ence
, t
he i
nduc
tance o
f al
e
ngth do
f t
he t
wo c
onduc
tor l
i
ne i
s

A A
d D
L=—=— i
n— (
4
-70
)
I w a

o
r t
he i
nductance p
er u
nit l
eng
th o
fli
ne (
L/d
) i
sgiven b
y

L D
= I
n—a h
enry
s/me
ter (
4
-71
)

whe
re /1= p e
rmeab ility (uni
fo rm and c onstant) o
f m edium (henrys/
meter)
D =s pacing b e
tween c enter
s o
fc onduc to
rs
a= r adius ofc onductors (i
n s
ame u nits a
s D)
I
t is assumed t ha
t t he current is conf
ined t o ar adius r. This i
s
e
fectively the case when the w a
llsofthe conductorsare th
in.
'
Evaluating ( 4
-71) for am edium ofair (A =A O
, we have

-
(
1-= 0
.4 I
n—r = 0
.92 l
og—
r A
h/me
ter (
4
-72
)

X 4-17
. Ampere's L
aw and H
. A cco
rding t
o (
4-16) t
he fl
ux d
ens
ity B
at adi
stance R f
rom al
ong
, s
tra
ight c
onduc
tor (F
ig. 4
-29
) isg
iven b
y
µ
I
B = 2
T
R(4
-73
)

Equat
ion (4
-71) al
so a pp
lies t
o s
olid conductors a
t high fr
equenc
ies
. F or the
c
ase o
fsol
id c
onductorsa nd s
teady o
rlow-frequency cur
rents,see f
orexample, E
. W .
K
imbark, "Electr
ica
l Transm iss
ion o
f Power and Signa
ls," J
ohn W i
ley & Sons
, Inc.
New York, 1
949
, Sec
. 2-11.
SE
C. 4
-17
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURREN T 1
69

w
here A = p
ermeabil
ity o
fmedium
/= currentinwire
I
fBi snow i
ntegra
ted a
round apa
th o
frad
ius R e
nc
los
ing t
he w
ire o
nce
,
w
e have

B •d
l = 6d
l = mi 2
rIt = (
4
-74
)
2
rR 2TR
or

B •d
l = I (
4
-75
)

The rela
tion (4-75) holdsn otonly int he examp le cons
idered b
ut a
l
so i
n
a
l
l cases w here the integration i
so ver as ingly closed path. Itisto b
e
n
oted t hat the li
ne integral of Bi n (4
-75) h as the
d
imension s off o
rce per p o
le mult
iplied b y distance
o
r of w ork per pole
. H ence the li
ne integral ofB
a
round t he clo
sed p ath inF ig. 4
-29 yi
eld sthe w ork
p
er unit p o
le required t o move o ne pole of al ong
magnetized needle around t his p
ath.
Equation ( 4
-75) may b e made independen to fthe
med
ium b y introducing t he vector H d ef
ined a s
f
olow s
:
H =— B (
4
-76
) F
la. 4
-29
. Rela
tion o
f
A f
l
ux dens
ity B t
o c
ur-
r
ent I
.
A
ccord
ing to (4-76
) H a nd B are vector
s h av
ing
t
he s
ame direct
ion. Th is i
strue fo
r all i
sot
ropic med
ia.
T
he quan
tity H isc
alled the magnet
ic fi
eld H
, the v
ecto
rH, o
rsimp
ly
H
.t I thas the d
imen
sion s o
f
F
lux d
ens
ity _ c
urren
t
/
P
ermeab
ili
ty l
ength
T
he d
imen
siona
lsymbo
lsf o
rHa re Q/TL . In mksc un
itsHi
sexpr
essed
i
n
Webers/meter 2 _ amp
eres
Weber
s/ampe re
-me ter me
ter
I
ntroduc
ing (
4
-76
) i
n
to (
4
-75
) y
ie
lds
s
CH •d
l =I At
r
.ps i
c
tie
t
)(4
-77
)
w
here H = H vecto
r (amp/me ter
)
d
l =inf
inites
ima l e
lement o
fpa
th l
e
ngth (
meter
s)
I= current enc
losed (
amp )
tThe term "magne tic fi
eld in
tensity" has b
een u sed for H
. T h
isn ame
,h owever,
i
snot p ar
ticula
rly app ropriate si
nce iti mp
lie
s t hat H i sanalogous t
o the el
ectric
f
i
eld i
ntensity E
, which isn otthe case s
i
nce inelectr
ic fi
elds Eentersinthe f
orce r
ela-
t
i
ons, whereas in magne t
ic fi
elds i
ti sBthat en
te r
s t he f
orce e
xpress
ions
. T he name
"magnetiz
ing force" iss ometimesu sed fo
r H.
1
70 ELECTRO MAGNETICS (
CHAP
. 4

Th
is rela
tion i
sknown as Am *r's l
e aw. I n w ord s its t
ates that t he l
ine
i
nt
eg ra
l ofH around a s
i
ngl
e clo
sed pa
th i
s e
q ual to t
he c
urrent e
n c
l o
sed.'
I
n the c ase o f asingle w ire the
i
ntegration a lways yield s the cur-
H ren t Iint he wire re
ga rdles soft he
p
ath o fi nteg ration provided o n
ly
t
ha t the w ire i s c
omp letely e n-
c
losed b y t he p a
th. A s i )
lustra-
(a) (
6) t
ions, integ ration around t he t wo
p
a ths at ( a) a nd (b
) i n Fig. 4 -30
y
ields /, wh ile integration a round
t
he p a
th sa t (c
) and (d)y ields zero
Wir
e s
ince these paths d
o n
ot e
nclose
t
he wire.
Examp le 1
. The magn itude o
fHa t
(
c
) (
d
)
aradius of 1 meter fr
om a l ong li
near
F
in. 4-30. Line i
ntegra
lo fHa round c
lo
sed
c
onductor is 1 amp/me ter
. F ind the
pa
ths e quals current i
n wire when p aths
c
urrent inthe wire
.
e
nclose the w i
re, (a) a
nd ( b
), but iszero
So
lution. A ccording t o (4-77
) t he
when t he paths do not enclose the w
ire,
c
urrent in t
he wire isgiven by
(
c) and (d)
.
I= j
'H •d
l =H X2
rR = 2
r amp

E
xamp le 2 . A sol
id c y
lindr
ical conduc
tor of r
adius R h a
s au n
iform c ur
rent
d
ens
ity . D e
rive e
xpres
sions fo
r H both in
side a
nd outs
ide of t
he conductor
. P lo
t
t
he variation of H a
s afunction o
f r
adial d
i
stance f
r
om t he c
enter o
f t
he wire
.
S
olution. S ee F
ig. 4-31a. O u
tside
t
he wire ( r R
) W
ire
Cu
rren
t
H =— (
4
-78
) o
u
to fpage
2
rr
(
a)
I
nside the wi
re the value o
f H a t a
r
adius risd
etermined s
ole
ly b
yt he cur-
r
ent ins
ide t
he radius r
. Thus, in
side
t
he wire (
r<R )
2
1
rR (
b
)
(
4
-79
)
2
i
rr

where l
' = 1(
r/R)' = cur
rent ins
ide
r
adius r
. The
refo
re, i
n
side the w
ire
F
in. 4
-31
. Hi ns
ide a
nd o
uts
ide o
fcur
rent
-
c
arry
ing wire (
Examp
le 2
)
.
H =— (
4
-80
)
2
r/t2

A
t t
he s
urface o
ft he wire r = R
, and (4
-80
) e
qua
ls (
4
-78
). Ag
raph o
fthe v
aria
tion
o
f Hwi
th ri spresented in F
ig. 4
-311
).

Equat
ion (4-75
) isa nothe
r f orm of Ampere
's l
aw and may b
e s
tated thus
: The
l
ine integ
ral of B around a single cl
osed p
ath isequa
l to t
he p
ermeabi
lity of t
he
medium t ime
s the curren
t enc
lo sed.
 SE
C
. 4
-
19] MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
71

X 4 -18. Ampe re's L aw A ppl ied t o aC onduc

ting Med ium a nd Maxwe ll
's
Equa t
ion . Ampe re's law a s d iscussed in t
he preceding section may b e
applied t o the mo re gene ral s i
tua tion of apath ins
ide o f ac onducting
m edium . T hus , suppo se t ha t t he orig
in ofthe coordinates in Fig
. 4-32
i
ss i
tua ted ins
ide ac onduc t ing m edium oflarge ex
ten t
. L et the c
urrent
den s
i ty in the m edium b e J( ampe res pe
r square meter) in the pos
itive
yd irection as s hown . A cco rd ing
t
o Ampere 's l aw t he l ine i n teg ral
o
f H a round t he r ec
tangu la r p a
th
enclo s
ing t he a rea A ( Fig. 4 -32 ) is
equa l to the c u rren te nclo sed . I n
th
is c ase, the c urren t Ie nclo sed b y
t
he p ath isg iven b y the i nteg ralo f
t
he n orma lcomponen to f. 1o ver t he
s
ur face A , or
P
a
th
9
6 H •d
l = J•d
s =/ (
4
-81
)
A

This express
ion is ageneralizat
ion
o
f Ampere 's law a nd con st
itutes
o
ne o f Maxwel 's e quations i n
i
nteg ra
l form. The c o
rresponding no . 4
-32. Rectangular p
ath i
n medium
with c
urrent d
ensity J
.
e
qua tion i n d
iferential form i n-
v
olve s the curl of H a nd i s di
scus
sed i n S ec. 4-23.
)
<
- 4 -19. Magne tos
tatic Potentia
l Ua nd M MF F . A cco rd
ing to (
3-28c)
t
he line i
ntegra
lo fthe sta
tic el
ectr
ic f
i
eld Eca round ac losed pa
th iszero
.'
Tha t i
s
,
fE, •d
l =0 (4
-82)

F
ie
lds o
ft h
is type are c
alled l
ame l
lar and c
an b
e der
ived f
rom are
lated
s
ca
larpotentia
lf unc
t ion
. T hus,E „w h
ich i
sdue t
oc ha
rge
s,isde
rivable
a
s t
he n
egative grad
ien t of asca
lar po
tentia
l V
, or

E
c = —VV (
4
-83
)
B
etween a
ny t
wo p
oin
ts a
long ap
ath i
nthe f
i
e
ld w
e h
ave

2E .
• d
l = V1— V
2 (
4
-84
)

A
lthough t
he s
ta
tic magnet
ic f
i
eld isno
t lame
llar, s
ince magne
tic fl
ux
l
i
nes fo
rm cl
osed l
oops
, itcan b
e tr
eated l
ike a l
amel
lar f
ie
ld ifpath
s of
The symbol E, i
ndicate
s expl
icit
ly a stat
ic el
ectric f
ie
ld as produced b
y electric
c
harges,asdi
stingui
shed from an emf-gene
rating f
ie
ld E., a
s,forexamp le
,in abat
te ry.
I
n C haps
. Ia nd 2o n
ly Ee fi
e
lds were cons
idered, and so fo
r simpl
ici
ty no sub
sc r
ip t
w
as used, i
tbeing unders
tood inthose chapters t
hat E means E .
1
72 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 4

i
ntegra
tion a
re e
nt
irely o
uts
ide ofcur
rent r
egion
sand d
ono
tenc
lose a
ny
c
urrent
. T hus, wh
en no c
urren
t isenc
los
ed,

fH •d
l =0 (
4
-85
)

Unde
r this c
ondi
tion
, H c an then be de
rived f
rom a s
ca
lar magne
tic
p
otent
ial f
unc
tion (
or magneto
static p
otent
ial
) U. That i
s
,'

H = —VU (
4
-86
)

B
etween a
ny t
wo p
oin
ts a
long ap
ath i
n t
he f
i
e
ld w
e h
ave

f 2
H •d
l = U
l — U2 (
4
-87
)

T
he s
ca
lar p
oten
tia
l Uh
as t
he d
imen
sions o
f

Current
X d
i
stance = c
urren
t
D
istance

Hence, Uise
xpres
sed i
n ampere
s.
Return
ing n
ow to afur
ther cons
iderat
ion o
f e
lectric f
ie
lds, w
e h
ave
l
e
a rned f
rom (
3
-29) t
hat i
f em
fs ex
ist i
n apa
th o
fi ntegra
tion,

fE •d
l ='
0 (
4
-88
)

whe
re E = t
otal f
i
e
ld ( vo
lts/mete
r)
'
0 =tota
l emf around path (
volts
)
I
n a magnet
ic fi
eld we may w ri
te a n a
nalogous r
e
lat
ion, based o
n
Ampere
's l
aw, t
hat when cu
rren
t isenc
losed b
y ap a
th o
finteg
rat
ion

fH •d
l =I = F amp (
4
-89
)

where t
he quantity F
, ca
lled the magnetomotance
, magnetomo t
ive fo
rce
,
o
r mm f, i
se qual t
o the cur
ren t e
nclosed
. I fthe p
ath of i
ntegrat
ion i
n
(
4-89) e
nclo
se s anumbero fturns o
fw ire e
ach w
ith ac
urrent Iinthe s
ame
d
i
rec t
ion, (
4-89) may be w r
itten

fH •d
l = NI = F amp
-turn
s (
4
-90
)

where N = numbe r o
fturns ofw ire enc
losed (d
imens
ionle
ss)
I= c urrent i
neach turn (amp )
The p
roduct NI isexp
ressed in amper
e-turns
,a nd t
he mmfinthis c
ase h
as
t
he same un
its.
The a
bove re
la t
ions f
or e
lectr
ic and magne t
ic fi
e
ldsare s
ummar ized i
n
Tab
le 4-
1.
1S
ince V •D = 0 in c
harge
-free r
eg
ions, we obta
in Laplace
's e
quation V217 = 0
.
I
n a magnetic fi
e
ld we a
lways have V •B = 0
; so i
fno curren
t i
senclosed
, we may
w
rite L
aplace's e
qua
tion i
nthe magnetosta
tic p
otent
ial a
s v2U = 0.
SE
C. 4
-19
] MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
73

TABLE 4
-1
CO MPAR
ISON OF ELECTR
IC AND MAGNETIC F
IELD RELAT
IONS

R
ela
tion E
lec
tros
tat
ic f
i
elds Magneto
sta
tic f
i
e
lds

C
losed p
ath fE
. •d
l =0 f H •d
l =0 . No c urrent enc
losed
(
Fig
. 4-33
)
G
radient o
f s
ca
lar E
. = —VV v o
lts/meter H = —VU amp/me te r. I n c
urren
t-
p
oten
tia
l f
r
ee reg
ion
:
2 J:
2
I
ntegra
l b etween E. •d
l = V1 — V2 v
olt
s H •d
l = Ui — U 2 amp. P a
th
two p
oin
ts
a
voids a
l
l c
urrents

C
losed p
ath fE •d
l =1
.
)vo
lts fH •d l =I = F amp . P ath e n
-
c
lose
s c urrents (
F
ig . 4
-34a)
o
r
/II •dl = NI = F amp -turns
.
Path enclose
s current N times (
F
ig.
4
-34b)

(
a)

P
ath of
i
n
tegra
tion

(
0

P
a
th of W
ires
i
n
teg
rat
ion o
flo
op
FI
G. 4
-33
. Path o
f i
nteg
rat
ion en
- FIG
. 4-34. (a
) Path of integ
ration enc
losing
c
l
osing n
o c
urren
t (s
ee Tab
le 4
-1)
. c
urrent I. ( b
) Cros
s sect
ion through 5-turn
l
oop show ing pa
th l i
nking the 5 tu
rns ( s
ee
Table 4
-1)
.

When the integration isrestricted to current-free reg

ion sand t o paths
t
hat a
re n ot closed, the p o
ten t
ial U a nd mm f Fa re the same . The
r
equ
iremen tt hatt he path notl i
nk t he c
urrent can b em etb yintroduc ing
ahypothetical barrier sur
face i n t he magne tic fi
eld through w hich the
p
ath i
sn o
ta l
lowed t op ass
. F ore xamp le,i mag
ine t hat along c
onduc tor
n
ormal to the p age as in Fig. 4 -35 c ar
ries ac ur rent I. L e
t ab a
rrier
s
ur
face be constructed that ex tends f rom the wire a n i
nf
inite di
s tance to
1
74 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. I

T
o i
n
f
init
y
— —— —7 —
B
ar
rier/
s
u
rface

P
a
th ofin
tegr
ation
FI
G
. 4
-35
. C onductor and b
arr
iers
ur
face
.

t
he l
e
ft as s
ugge
sted int
he f
i
gure
. Now the i
nteg
ral o
fHfr
om p o
ints 1
t
o 2y
ieldsthe c
urren
t Ip
rov
ided 2a
nd 1a
re s
epara
ted b
yani
nfin
ites
imal
d
is
tance. T hus

2 H •d
i = U1 — U2 = F1 — F2 = / amp (
4
-91
)

The r
equirement o
f (4
-85
) isst
il
l s
at
isf
ied s
ince t
he l
ine i
nteg
ral o
f H
a
round the cl
osed pa
th 1231 t
hat a
voids c
ross
ing t
he bar
rier i
szero
.
That i
s
,
9
6 H •d
i =0 (
4
-92
)
1
231

Both U a nd F a re s calar func tions . T he p otential Ui si ndependen to f

t
he p ath o fi n
teg rat
ion , tha tis, Ui s asingle-valued f unction o fp osition .
This f ollow sf rom t he f act that t he p ath o fi ntegration n ever comp le tely
e
nc lose s t he c urrent a nd i sr e
s tricted t o cur rent-f
ree r egion s. I f ac ur-
r
en t-car rying w ire ise ncircled more t han o nce b y t
he p a
th o fi nteg rat ion
(mu lt
ip le linking ), the r esult isc alled t he mm fF . I tis mu lt
iple -va lued
s
ince i ts magn itude d epend s o n t he n umbe r of time s the p ath e nc ircles
t
he w ire. H ence F i s n ot
, i n g eneral, i ndependen t o f the p ath o f
i
nteg ra tion .
In F ig. 4 -35 t he b arrier sur face r epresen t s a magne tic e quipo ten tial
p
lane . I fp o
in t 1ist aken a rbitra rily asz ero p o
ten t
ia l, then the p oten tial
o
fp oin t 2o nt he othe rs ide oft he b arrieri sI . H ence , w e may c ons t
ruct
two s urface sasi nF ig.4 -36,o ne w i th U = 0a nd the o ther U = I . O ther
e
qu ipo ten tials urface sa re a l
so d rawn i nF ig. 4-36 for U=/ /4, U =1 /2,
and U = 3 /14.t T he e quipo ten tia l surface s are eve rywhe re n orma l t o
Ha nd e xtend f rom t he s urface o ft he wire t oi nf
inity. T hey d on ote x
t end
i
nto t he i nterior oft he w ire. Howeve r
, i ft he equipo ten t
ia l sur
faces w ere
e
x tended i nto t he w ire ( shown d ashed ) a nd w ere e verywhere n orma l t o

tPoten
tia
l is a mea
sure o
f work p
er some quan
tity
. T he p
otent
ial Uispropor-
t
i
onal tothe w
ork peru n
it magnet
ic p
ole r
equ
ired t
o move amagne
tic p
ole f
r
om o ne
p
oint t
o ano
ther.
SE
C
. 4
-
19] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
75

=I i
4

FI
G. 4
-36
. C urren
t-ca
rry
ing w
ire s
how
ing magne
tic e
quipo
ten
tia
ls (
r
adia
l) a
nd f
i
e
ld
l
i
nes (
c
ircle
s).

(
a)

T
o
roid

(
b
)

FI
G
. 4
-37
. (
a
) L
ong s
o
leno
id. (
b
) S
oleno
id b
ent i
n
to t
o
roid
.

H
, they w
ould m
eet a
t ap
oin
t c
a
lled t
he k
ern
el w
here B a
nd H a
re b
oth
z
ero
.
E
xamp le. Find the v
alue of Hin along s
oleno
id ofleng
th 1and o
fNt urns
, carry-
i
ng acur
rent I(see F
ig.4-37a)
,b yevaluating t
he mm f
. T he d
iameteroft he s
olenoid
i
ssmal c ompared w
ith 1.
S
olu
tion. F or along s
olenoid t
he f
ie
ld ins
ide i
se s
sent
ial
ly un
iform and wil
l notb e
a
pprec
iably changed ift
he so
lenoid i
sben t i
nto ac
irc
le and c
l
osed o
n it
sel
f,f o
rm ing a
1
76 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
Cu m
.
. 4

t
oroid (
asi
n Fig
. 4
-376)
. Then , i
n
tegrat
ing H once a
round apa
th en
tire
ly i
ns
ide t
he
c
oi
l (at ar
adius R
), w
e li
nk a
l
l of t
he t
urns o
bta
ining the mm
f, or

fH •d
l -
=F = N
I (
4
-93
)

L
et t
he magn
itude o
f H i
n
side b
e H. Then (
4
-93
) b
ecomes

s
CH •d
l = I
, f
ill = Ha
irR
=1
,1 =.
V/ (
4
-94
)
o
r
(
4
-95
)

The i
dent
ica
l r
esu
lt w
as o
bta
ined i
n (
4
-50
), a
s may b
eno
ted b
y d
ivid
ing (
4
-50
) b
y µ
.

4
-20
. Fie
ld Cel
ls a
nd Permeabi
lity
. I n S
ec
. 4
-16 t
he i
nduc
tance was
c
a
lculated f
or aun
itl
eng
th oftransmiss
ion l
i
ne c
ons
ist
ing o
ftwo pa
ral
lel

M
eta
l
s
t
r
ips
•
40.5 . °6 e
r
OW 0 0 0 00

(
a
)
k
E
qu
ipo
ten
tia
ls

M
eta
l (
6
)
s
t
r
ips

T
r
ansmis
sion M
eta
l s
t
r
ips
l
i
ne c
e
ll

(
c
)

F
ie. 4
-38
. P a
ralle
l-s
trip t
ransmis
sion l
ine (
a) i
n per
spect
ive a
nd (b
) i
n c
ros
s s
ect
ion
.
(
c
) Magne t
ic fi
e
ld cel (
ortransmiss
ion
-line c
el) w
ith s
tr
ipsofwid
th equa
l t
ospac
ing
.

c
onduc ting w ires
. L et u s cons
ider n ow a t ransmission line of t wo flat
p
aralle
l c onduc t
ing str
ip s as in Fig. 4- 38a and c a
lculate i t
s induc tance
p
er u n
it length. T he str
ips h ave a w id th toa nd a separation 1. E ach
s
t
rip car r
ies ac urrentI. T he t r
ansm ission line isshown i ncros ss e
c t
ion
i
n Fig. 4-38h. T he fi
e
ld b etween t he s tr
ips isu ni
form , except n ear t he
o
pen s i
de s
. I fequipotentials are drawn i nt he uniform f i
e
ld region w ith
aspacing e qual to t
he separation 1o ft he li
ne, w e may regard t he line as
b
eing compo sed of an umbe r off i
eld-
c e
ll t r
ansm iss
ion l i
nes (or tr
an sm is-
SE
C. 4
-20
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
77

s
i
on -
lin
e cel
ls) a
rranged in p
ara
lle
l. E ach t
r
ansm
iss
ion
-line c
e
ll h
as a
s
quare c
ross s
ect
ion as i
n F
ig. 4
-38
c.
The c
urrent i
neach st
rip o
f ali
ne c
e
ll is

(
4
-96
)

w
here / = cur
rent i
nent
ire l
i
ne.
T
hus
, across o
ne c
el
l
Hl =I
' (
4
-97
)

Now t
he t
o
tal f
l
ux l
i
nkage p
er l
e
ngth do
fli
ne i
sgiven b
y

A=B
id (
4
-98
)

The i
nduc
tance o
fth
is l
e
ngth o
fli
ne i
sthen

A B
id
(
4
-99
)
L
° =l
' = Hl =A
d

o
r t
he i
nduc
tance p
er u
nit l
e
ngth i
s

L
o _
(
4
-100
)
d - A

Fo r air A= A o =4 v X 1 0 —7 h enry pe
r mete
r so that a f
i
eld
-ce
ll
t
r ansmission l i
ne w ith a ir as the med ium h
as an i
nduc
tance p
er un
it
l
e ngth of4 7 X 1 0-7 h enry p erm eter
o
r 1 .26 ph per m eter
.
Thus, t he p ermeab il
i ty p o f a
med ium may b e interp re ted a s the
i
nduc tance p e
ru n
it l e
ng th o f atrans-
mission-l
ine c e
ll fi
lled w ith t his me -
d
ium . A nother i nterp retation i s
g
iven i n Sec. 5
-19.
E
xample
. U sing t
he f
i
eld-cel c
oncep
t,
c
a
lcula
te the i
nduc
tance and al
so c
apac
i-
t
ance per un
it length ofthe c
oaxial t
rans-
m
ission li
ne shown in cross s
ect
ion i
n Fig.
4
-39. The l i
ne isair
-fi
lled
.
Solu
tion
. The i nductance p er u nit Outer
conductor F
i
eld c
e
ll
l
ength ofthe coax
ial li
ne isg
iven by
Fm . 4 -39
. Coax
ial t
ransmis
sion l i
ne
L 1LO AO d
ivided i n
to 9.
15 fi
e
ld-ce
ll line
s i n
h
enrys/me
ter (
4
-101)
(
4=T
I71- - T
i p
arallel.

whe
re Lo/
d =i nduc
tance pe
r unit l
eng
th o f t
ransmiss
ion
-line c
e
ll
n=n umbe r o
f l
i
ne ce
lls i
n para
llel
Ao = p
ermeabi
lity o
fair =4 7 X 1 0-7 h
enry/meter (— 1
.26 A
g
h/me
ter
)
1
78 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 4

D
ivid
ing t
he s
pace b
etween t
he c
oax
ial c
onductor
s i
n
to c
urv
ilinea
r s
qua
res
, w
e
o
bta
in 9
.
15 l
i
ne c
e
lls i
n p
ara
lle
l. T
hus

L 1
.
26
0
.
138 p
h/me
ter
-

As ac
heek
, wen
ote t
hatt
he rad
ius o
fthe o
ute
rconductor i
stw
ice t
he r
adius o
fthe
i
nner s
o t
hat f
r
om (4
-68
) we g
et

=0
.46 l
og 2= 0
.
138 p
h/me
ter

which ist he s
ame r e
sult as obta
ined above. E qua t
ion (4-68) isexact fo
r th
is case.
The a ccuracy of the ce
ll me thod depends on t he accuracy of construction o
f t he
c
urv il
inea rsquares
. Iowever , t
he c
el method ( or f
ie
ld-mapp ing method ) i
sappl
ica -
b
le toc onductorc onf
igurations tha
tm ight b
ev ery d ifi
cult t
o handle mathema t
ically.
For af urther d
iscuss
ion of the mapping o
f magne t
ic fi
elds s
ee Sec
. 5-20.
The capac
itance per uni
t l e
ngth of t
he c
oaxial line of F
ig. 4
-39 isgiven by

c
a .i
t
c
o n
e
t
) f
a
rads/meter (
4
-102
)

where C
o/d = c
apaci
tance p er unit l
ength of l i
ne cel
l (s
ame a
s c
apac
itance p
er u
nit
l
eng
th o f f
i
e
ld -ce
ll capacitor
; see S ec
. 2-27
)
n=n umber o f l
ine c
ells i
n p a
ralel
o = p
t ermittiv
ity of ai
r =8 .85 ppf /meter
Thus
d- = 9
- .
15 X 8
.85 = 8
1 p
pf/
mete
r

U
sing t
he e
xact r
e
lat
ion o
f (
2
-82
),

C 24
.2
d = l
og 2 — 8
1 Ad /
meter

w
hich i
sthe s
ame a
s o
bta
ined b
y t
he c
e
ll me
thod
.

4
-21
. Energy in a
n Inductor
. I nductance L h
as the d
imens
ions o
f
magne
tic f
l
ux pe
r cur
rent (f
orce X di
stance/cur
ren
t 2)
. Thus, t
he p
rod
-
u
ctL /2has t
he d
imensions o
fe ne
rgy si
nce
F
orce X d
i
stance
Xc
urren
t' =f
o
rce X d
i
stance = e
nergy
Cur
rent'
Hence we m
igh t proper
ly expect the re
lation for t
he ene
rgy st
ored i
nan
i
nductor t
o involve the product L/ 2,and in Sec
. 7-14 i
twil
l be demon
-
s
trated t
hat th
is isthe ca
se. Mo re specif
ical
ly the magnet
ic ene
rgy W.
s
tored by a
n induc to
r isgiven by
=I
FLP j
oule
s (
4
-103
)
Now
, from (
4-58, L =A
) /I s
o t
hat t
he e
nergy s
tored b
yani
nduc
torc
an
b
e v
arious
ly exp
re s
sed a
s
1
Wr
n = -
2 LP = -
1Al =-
1A' j
ou
les (
4
-104
)
2 2T,
SE
C. 4
-22
1 MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
79

whe re W. = e nergy s tored ( joules )

L=i nduc tance o fi nduc to r (henrys)
I= c urrent t hrough i nduc tor (amp)
A=f l
ux l i
nkages ( webe r- turn s)
4
-22. E ne rgy D ensity i n a S tat
ic Magne tic Field
. The e ne
rgy
po
s sessed b y a n induc tor iss tored i ni t
s magne t
ic f
i
eld. L e
t u s f
i
nd the
d
ens ity o f t h
is e nergy a s af unc tion o f the fl
ux dens
i ty B. C ons
ider a
small u nit c ube o f side l e
ng th A l a nd
A
t
v
olume A v =A t s i
tua ted i n a mag -
n
etic f i
eld a s i n Fig. 4-40a. L et t hin s
hee
ts
meta l sheet s be placed o nt he top a nd
b
ottom s urfaces o fthe c ube,e ach w ith
acur rent A la si ndica ted. A lso l e
ta l
o
ft he s urround ing space b ef il
led w ith
s
uch c ube s as s uggested b y t he c ros s (
a)
s
ection o fF ig. 4-40b. The d irection s
o
f t he c urrent f low o n t he shee ts a re
i
ndica ted b y the circ
le s with d o
t ( c ur-
r
ento uto fp age) a nd circlesw ith c ro ss )

(
cur rent i nto p age). M
eta
l
E ach c ube c an b e r egarded a s as h
eet
s
magnet
ic fi
e
ld-ce
llt
ransm
ission l
i
ne o
f
l
ength (
in
to page
)ofAl
. E ach c
e
llhas o
C
ur
rent
a
n i
n d
i
rec
tions - -
•-B (b
)
AL = uA
l (
4
-105
) 0 0
0 0
The f
ie
ld H i
sre
lated t
o t
he c
urren
t
At b
y — o
-B

HA
l =A
l (
4
-106
)
FIG
. 4
-40. (a) Smal
l cubica
l v o
lume
T
he e
nergy s
tored i
neach c
e
lli
s
,fr
om
i
n a magne t
ic fi
eld
. ( b
) C ro
ss sec-
(
4
-104
), ion t
t hrough reg
ion fi
l
led with many
= 4A
LA/2 j
oule
s (
4
-107
) s
uch c
ubes.

I
ntroduc
ing the v
alue of AL fr
om ( 4
-105
) a nd A l f
r
om (
4
-106
) into
(
4
-107) yie
lds
A wm = 4
,4H2 Al
a= tra p Av (
4
-108)

D
ividing (4
-108) by A
v and tak
ing t he l
imit of t
he r
at
io AW./Av a s A
v
a
pproaches zero
, we o
bta
in the energy pe
r v o
lume, or e
nergy d
ensi
ty, t
v
,
,
o
f the magnetic f
i
eld a
t the po
in t a
round wh ich the c
el
l of vo
lume Av
s
hr
ink s t
o ze
ro. Thus
. A TV 1
w
„, = — =- (4
-109
)
2
1
80 ELECTRO MAGNET1CS [
CHAP
. 4

S
ince H = Bh
i, w
e h
ave

w =12 -,
,- = 1B
2 j
ou
les/me
ter
' (
4-110
)

whe
re w„
, =ene rgy density o
f magne t
ic fi
eld (
jou
les/meter
s)
= p
e rmeability ofm edium (henrys/meter
)
H =Hf i
eld (amp/me te r
)
B=f lux density (webers/meter 2)
T
he to
talene
rgy W „
,s tored b
y a ninductoristhen the i
n
tegra
lo f(
4-1
10)
o
ver the e
ntire ex
tent o
fi t
s magnet
ic f
i
e
ld,or
P
o
le

P
a
th ofpo
le 1 B
2 d
a
r
ound W
,
,,"
' - w d
v = -
1
1 — v j
ou
les
2 2 .
c
onducto
r
(
4
-111
)
>1 4
-23. Cur
l. E quation (4-75
)r e
latesthe l
i
ne
i
ntegralof Baround afi
n i
tec l
osed pa
th,orlo
op,
C
onduc
tor to n/
, where I isthe current enc
losed by t
he
lo
op. T he l
ine i
nteg
ralo f B may b er
egarded
m
ag
net
ize
d
n
eed
le a
s the w ork p er u n
it p ole r equired t o move a
p
ole a round t he c l
osed p ath. F or e xamp le,
t
he w ork p eru n
it p ole r equired t o move al ong
magne tized n eed le o nce a round a w ire , as in
F
ig. 4-41 , equals n /
, w here Ii st he cu rrent in
t
he wire . T he o ther p ole o ft he need le isata
l
arge dis tance a nd i n af i
eld t ha t issub stan t
i-
a
l
ly z ero.
Al
though r e
lation sinvo lving f i
nite p ath sare
u
sefuli nc i
rcuit t heory, i ti sf r
equen t
ly d e s
ira-
b
leinf i
eld theory t ob ea ble tor elate q uan ti
ties
a
t apoin ti ns pace. C ur l,w h
ich i sdiscus sed in
t
his s
ec tion,i ssuch ap oin tr elation a nd c an be
r
egarded a s a n ex tension o f Ampe re
's l aw s o
t
hat ita pplies at ap oin t.
Fm. 4
-41. Long magnetized Conside r as mallp lane a rea i si n ac onduct -
n
eedle n
ear cur
rent
-carrying i
ng m edium w ith ac ur ren tA /f l
ow ing t hrough
c
onductor
.
t
he a
rea and norma ltoit
. T he meaning ofthe
c
urlof B may then beexpressed asf
ol
low s
: T h emagnitudeoft hecur
lo f Bis
e
qual to t
he ra
tio o
f the work per unit magn er
ic po
le (car
ried around t h
e
b
oundary ofthearea
) tothea rea i
sasA sa pproache
sz ero
. F urthe
r, th
ec ur
l
o
fBi s av
ecto
r with adirec
tion normal toth
e p l
ane ofthearea. T hus, t
he
magnitude ofthe cur
l of Bi sgiven by
. /B •d
h l ,
. A
/
m = nm = (
4
-112
)
A
s--
.0 AS ,
1
8-0 a
s

'
r
SE
C
. 4
-23
] MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF A S
TEADY CURRENT 1
81

where J = c urren t densi

ty = A //A s as is- *0
A
/ =c urrent t hrough area As
The direction oft he curl o
f Bi snorma l t o t
he area A s
.
Equa tion (4
-112 ) givesthe tota
l curlo f Bi fJi sn orma ltot he plane of
t
he loop. I f Jisn ot normal to t
he p lane oft he loop, (4-
112 ) gives only
o
ne c omponen t o f the tota
l curl expression, which w i
ll be developed i n
t
he fol
low ing parag raph s
.
S
uppo se that the rectangular coordina te s
ystem s hown i n F
ig. 4 -
42 is
s
i
tua ted inside o
f ac onduct
ing m edium o flarge exten t
. L et the current
d
ensity i nthe m edium b e Ja nd the componen t oft he current density in

. 4-
Fm 4
2. C
ons
truc
tion f
o
r f
i
nding xc
omponen
t o
fcu
rlo
fB.

t
he x d
i
rect
ion J
. T he pe
rmeabil
ity i
su n
ifo
rm a nd e
qua
l to AL T
he
t
ota
l c
urren
tM t hrough t
he s
mal
l area A
yA z (
Fig
. 4-
42) i
sthen

Jz A
yAz =A
/ (
4
-113
)

Th
is current p
roduces amagnet
ic fi
eld
. L et t
he f
lux d
ensity a
l
ong e
dge
1ofthe area a
t t
he yaxis b
eB „a nd t
he f
lux d
ens
ity a
long edge 4a
t t
he
zax
is be Bs. Ifthe fi
e
ld isnot un
iform, i
tsva
lue at e
dges 2and 3may
b
e expressed t
o afi
rs
t approx
ima t
ion by

a
B
z
B
, -I
--4v
i A
y (
4-114
)

a
nd
B
, + 8
1
3, A
z
(
4-115
)
d
z
a
si nd
icated inFig
. 4-42
.
Cons
ider n ow the work p erformed per u nit magnetic pole carr
ied
a
round the per
iphery ofthe a
r ea
. T he t
ota
l w ork ise
qual t
ot he sum o
f
t
he in
cremen tsofw ork a
long each ofthe f
our e dges. Each in
cremen tof
work equa
ls the f
orce per u
nit p o
le (B) multiplied by t
he distance t
he
u
nit pole moves. T he t
otal w ork w
ill b
e calcu lated p
er un
it magne t
ic
1
82 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 4

p
ole moved around the p
ath in acounterc
lockwise direct
ion
, asshown in
F
ig. 4-42. This isthe p
osi
tive di
rection around the path s
ince a r
i
ght-
h
anded s c
rew ro
tated in th
is di
rection will advance in t
he pos
itive x
d
irec
tion . The w o
rk to move the u n
it pole a
l ong edge 1isB„ Ay and
a
long e dge 2i
s
( a
B
,
B
y + —
a
y Ay) A
z

The w
ork a
long e
dge 3i
s
a
B
y
—(
B
.+

t
he minussign ind
icat
ing t
hatthe mo
tion i
saga
instthe f
i
eld
. The w ork
a
long edge 4 is -By A
z. The to
tal work e
qua
ls the s
um of t
hese f
our
i
ncrements and th
is i
sequa
l t
o µtime
s the t
o
talcur
rentthrough t
he a
rea
a
s given b
y (4-113). Thus
,

B •d
l =B
y Ay ± B
yAz ± -,
—
a,— Ay A
Bys z

a
B
y
- B
y Ay — —az A
y z — B
A yA JrA
z =µ yAz (
4
-116
)

The t
erm
s w
ith B
,
,Ay a
nd B
yAz c
ance
l, l
e
aving o
nly t
he d
ife
ren
tia
l
t
erms
. Thus

l = (O
B •d B
. -a
-
8
a-
;) A
yAz =1
.
4
.1y Ay A
z (
4
-117
)

L
et u
s n
ow d
iv
ide b
y t
he a
rea A
y A
z a
nd t
ake t
he l
im
it o
fthe r
a
tio

Wo
rk d
one a
round per
iphe
ry o
farea
A
rea

a
sthe a
rea a
pproache s zero
. B y d
ef
ini
tion t
his i
sthe cur
l o
fB. I
nt h
is
i
n
stance i
tisthe x c omponent o
fthe c
url o
fB , w
rit
ten curl
xB. The
re-
f
o
re, we h
ave
f B •d
l a
B
, a By
im — —AuIy= c u
rlxB (
4
-118
)
Ay P
s--
.0 A
yA z a
y a
z

E
ach t erm in ( 4-
118 ) has t
he d imen s
ions o f permeabil
ity t ime s current
d
ensity.
Equation (4-118 ) would b
et he c
omp lete diferentia
le xp ression forc u
rl
Bifthe cu
rrentf l
ow sonly i
nt he xdirection. Howeve r
,i ft he currentalso
h
as componen ts flowing in the y and zd irections, c
url Ba lso h as c
om -
p
onen ts i
n the se direc
tions
. L e
t us then d erive the d
ife ren tia
l expres-
s
i
ons f or these c omponen ts, c ons
idering n ext the componen t i n the
ydi
rec t
ion. A s
sume n ow that the coordinate system o f Fig. 4-43 isset
u
p inside of ac onduc t
ing med ium o fl a
rge ex ten
t as before a nd that the
SE
C
. 4
-23
] MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
83

c
omponen t of the current dens
ity in the y d
irection isJ . The t
ota
l
c
urrent through the s ma
ll a
rea A xAz i
sJ „AzA z
. L et t
he c
omponent
s
o
ft he magnetic f
l
ux den s
ity a
long the e
dgesoft he area b
easind
ica
ted in
F
ig
. 4 -43. The w ork a ccomplished p er u
nit magne t
ic po
le moved

F
lo. 4
-43
. C
ons
truc
tion f
o
r f
i
nding yc
omponen
tofc
ur
l o
fB.

a
round t
he p
er
iphery o
fthe a
rea i
nthe p
osi
tive d
i
rec
tion i
sthen
a
B.
B•

—B
, A
z ——
a
B, —B x = AJ
, A
xAz (
4-119
)
8x
Th
is r
educe
s t
o

B •d
l = (a
—B x—
a
z a
x A
x A
z = (
4
-120
)

D
ividing bythe a
rea ofthe l
oop AxAzand t
aking t
he l
imit o
fthe r
at
io as
t
he area a
pproaches z
ero y
ields t
he c
omponent o
fthe curlinthe ydi
rec-
t
ion
. Thu s
J
CB •dl aB
. aB
,
=c ur
l.B — (
4-121
)
A
zto
r.° a
z ax
I
n asimi
lar way w
e ob
tain the d
iffe
ren
tia
l e
xpre
ssion f
o
r t
he c
om-
p
onent o
fcurl Bint
he zd
ire
ction' a
s
a
B, a
B.
c
ur
l.B _ =A
d. (
4
-122
)
a
x a
y
Adding V
ector
ially t
he t
hree r
e
ctangula
rcomponen
ts o
fcur
l Ba
sgiven b
y
(
4-118)
, (4
-121), and (
4-122
), we h
ave
c
ur
l B = ic
ur
l.B jc
ur
lyB kc
ur
l.B (
4
-123
)
o
r
.(
aB. a
B,) (
aB, a
B.)
l B = i(3A — —
a
BY) k
c
ur (
4
-124
)
a
y a
z ± 3 az a
x a
x ay
IThe s
tuden
t s
hou
ld c
ons
truc
t t
he f
i
gure a
nd c
onf
i
rm t
he r
e
sult
.
1
84 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 4

The c
ur
l o
f B may a
l
so b
e e
xpres
sed i
nde
term
inan
t f
o
rm a
s

i j k
a a a
c
ur
l B = (
4
-125
)
5
-z
- a
y a
i
B
. B
„ B
.

I
n t
hese e
quations, curl Bise qual to i
ttimes the vec
tor s
um of the
c
omponent c
urrent dens
ities i
nt he t
hree c
oordinate d
irect
ions s
othat we
h
ave
c
url B =n (
iJ , j
J, k
J,) =4 (
4-
126 )
o
r
curl B =4 (
4-
127 )

D
ivid
ing (
4
-127
) b
y 0
, w
e h
ave

c
ur
l H =J (
4
-128
)

Wr
iting o
ut t
he c
omponen
ts f
o
r c
ur
l H a
nd J
,

c
urlH =i + ;(
all z— °H
3 \ + k(al
l
, — al
a
y a
z I ' a z a
x) \az a
y
=iJ
. j
J„ ±k J, (
4
-129
)

I
ti sto b e noted that (4-
129 ) yields three scalar e quations o btained b y
e
quating t he componen ts ine ach oft he three c oordinate direction s
.
The curl of aq uan t
ity i s ap oint function. T here
fo re, acco rding t o
(
4-128) the curlofH h as av alue o n
ly a tpoints w here the curren td ensity
Jisnot zero. A t ap oint ins
ide o f aw ire carrying as teady c urren t, curl
H equals the current density J a t the point, bu t at ap oint ou tside t he
w
ire cur
l H =0 .t
The curl of H may b e ind
ica ted in diferen t w ays. Th ree s horthand
n
otations for the cur
l ofH a re:

c
ur
l H
xH
r
ot H

A
ll t
hree h
ave i
den
tica
l mean
ing
s. Thus

c
ur
1 H = Vx H =ro
t H = J (
4
-130
)

The n
ota
tion r
o
t H iso
ften u
sed in t
he European t
echn
ica
l l
i
terature.
The f
o
rm V xH invo
lve
s the c
ros
s product o
f the o
pera
tor V a
nd t he
tIn t
he c
ase oftime-changing f
ie
lds
, asdiscussed i
nC hap. 7
,the
re may b
e a" d
is-
p
lacement" cur
rent at poin
ts out
side the w
ire, and c
onsequent
ly cur
l Hneed n
ot be
z
ero i
nthis s
i
tuation.
SE
C
. 4
-25
1 MAGNETI C F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
85

v
ector H
. I
n t
he n
ext s
ect
ion i
t w
ill b
e d
e mons
trated t
hat t
his c
ross
p
roduct i
s e
quiva
lent t
o (
4-129
).
>
(• 4 . V xH.
-24 Referr
ing t
o t
he d
iscuss
ion o
n t
he c
ross p
roduct i
n
S
ec. 4
-11
, l
et u
s s
how t
hat t
he c
ross p
roduct o
f t perator V i
he o nto H
,
itten V xH
wr , i
sequa
l t
o t
he c
url o
f H
. To d
o t
his ite V a
, we wr nd H
o
ut i
n t
er ms o
f t
heir t
hree r
ectangu
lar c
o mponents a
nd t
ake t
he i
ndi-
v
idua
l p
roducts
. Thus

Vx H

ixi a
t
i
z jxi — a
-
F H
. +kxi a
—H
.
a
x a
y _ a
z
a
H
, a
H
, a
H
,
+
ixi +jxj +kxj
a
x a
y a
s
a
l
—is j-
Ikkxk a
m
,
+ixk + x
a
x a
y a
z (
4-131)

I
ntroduc
ing t
he v
alues o
f t
he c
ross p
roducts f
or t
he un
it v
ectors a
sgiven
i
n (
4-29
), Eq
. (
4-131) b
eco mes

a
H, a
H a
H .a
H a
Vx H =
a
y
.az +k -1
a
x
!—
-
az
—j
a
x
1 +1 H
a
y
(
4
-132
)

Co
llect
ing t
er ms
,

V xH = aH
, a
H
.) ▪ ;(
aH, _a
l) ±k (
aH, _
aH) (
4-133)
a
y a
z j \a
z a
x a
x a
y

Th
is i
sident
ica
l w
ith t
he e
xpress
ion f
or c
url H i
n (
4-129
). We c
onc
lude
,
t
herefore
, t
hat t
he c
ross p f V i
roduct o nto H e
qua
ls c
url H o
r, more
g
enera
lly
, t
hat t perator V xa
he o ppl
ied t
ovector f
unct
ion y
ields t
he c
url
o
f t
hat v
ector
. perator V x may
The o , a
ccord
ing
ly, b
e r
egarded a
s t
he
c
ur
l op
era
tor
.
4
-25
. examp
les o
f C
url
. I
n t
his s
ect
ion f
our e
xa mp
les a
re g
iven t
o
i
l
lustrate t
he s
ign
ificance o
f c
url
.

Example 1. Ar ectangular tr
ough carr
ies water i
n the x di
rection. As ect
ion o
f
t
he tr
ough isshown i n Fig
. 4-44a, t
he vert
ica
l direc
tion co
inciding w i
th t he za
xis
.
The w
id th o
f the t
rough isb. F ind the c
url o
f the ve
loci
ty v o f the water f
or t
wo
a
ssumed condit
ions:
a
. T he v
e
locity i
se ve
rywhere u ni
form and equal t
o acon s
tan t
, that is
,

v= i
K (
4
-134
)

where i= un
it vector i
np os
itive xd irect
ion (
dimension
less)
K = aconstant (meters/sec)
Atop view o
fthe t
rough isshown i nFig.4-44b w
ith t
he po
sit
ive xdi
rec
tion d
ownward.
The fa
ct t
hat the ve
loc
ity vi sc ons
tant i ss
uggested b
y the ar
rows o
funi
form l
ength
a
nd a
l
so b
y t
he g
raph o
fv,a
s af
unc
tion o
f yi
nFig
. 4
-44c
.
1
86 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 4

b
. The v
eloc
ity var
ies fr
om z e
ro at t
he e
dges o
f t
he t
rough t
o a max
imum a
t t
he
c
enter
, t
he quant
ita
tive varia
tion b
eing g
iven b
y

v=i
K s
i
n T
Y (
4
-135
)

whe
re K = a cons
tant ( meter
s/ sec)
b= width of t
rough ( meters)
The s
i
nusoida
l var
iation of viss uggest
ed by t
he a
rrows i
nthe t
op v
iew o
fthe t
rough
i
n F
ig. 4
-44e a
nd also by the g
raph o f v.a
s afunc
tion o
f yinFig
. 4
-44f
.

V
e
rt
ica
l
o
r za
x
is

T
rough

(
a
)

T
op v iew
.
. /o
ftr
ough

(
e
)

y—
6

v
, (
f
)
y y

Vx
v '
c
7
xv =c
) (
d
) (
g
)
0 b

0 b
FR
I
. 4
-44
. Wa
ter t
rough f
or E
xamp
le 1
.

S
olu
tion
. a
. Equa
tion (
4
-134
) may b
e r
eexpre
ssed

v= i
v
. (
4
-136
)

where v
. =c omponent o
f ve
loci
ty in xdirect
ion. Thus v. =K . Now t he cur
l o
f v
h
as two te
rms invo
lving v
., namely
, a
y ./az and av
,/ay
. S ince v
.is aconstant, b
oth
t
erms are z
ero a
nd hence v x v = 0everywhe re i
nthe t
rough (
see F
ig
. 4-44d).
SE
C
. 4
-25
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
87

b
. E
qua
tion (
4
-135
) may b
e r
e
expres
sed

V— i
v
.
Thus

v
. .Ks
i
n li (
4
-137
)
b

S
ince v
,isnot af
unct
ion o
fz,t
he deriva
tive ay./az -=0. Howeve
r, v
.is af
unc
tion
o
f yso t
hat
aV. Kr r
y
(
4
-138
)
8
-1
/ 'T c s T
o
a
nd we have f
o
r t
he c
urlo
fv
K r 7Y
V x v = —a. — c os — (
4
-139
)
b b

wher . .u
e a ni
t v e
ctor i n posit
ive zd irection (k m ight a
lso be used, but it
.isc on-
v
enient here t
o avoid c onfusion with t he constant K ). T hat is
, at the le
ft of the
c
enter o
f the t
rough t he c ur
l of vi si n the negative zdirect
ion ( downwa rd in Fig.
4
-44a)
, while t
othe right oft he center itisint he posit
ive zdi
rection. T he v
ariat
ion
o
ft he c
ur
l of vacross the trough isp resented graph icaly i
nF ig
. 4-44g.

Ap hy sica li nterpre ta t
ion o ft he c urlo f vi nt he a bove e xamp le may b e
o
bta ined w ith t he a id o ft he c url -me te r
, o r p addle-whee l, d ev
ice ' ofF ig.
4
-45 . I ft his d evice i si nse rted w ith i t
ss haftv er
tica lin to the trough w ith
t
he a ssumed s i
nuso ida l v ariation f or t he v elocity o f t he
wate r (Examp le l b), i tw ou ld s pin c l
ockw ise w hen a t t he '
--Ho
lder

l
ef
t o f the c en te r oft he t r ough ( position 1i n Fig. 4- 44e)
a
nd w ou
ld s pin c oun terc lockw ise w hen a t the right o ft heS haf
t I
c
en te roft he t rough ( position 2i nF ig.4 -44e), corre spond -
i
ng t o nega tive a nd p o s
itive v alues o fc ur l
. A tt he cen ter
o
ft he t r
ough ( po s
i t
ion 3i nF ig.4 -44 e
)t he cur lm ete rw ou ld
n
ot r otate s ince t he f o rces o n t he p add les a re b alanced .
This c or
re spond s to t he c ur l of vb eing z e
ro. T he r ate of F xa. 4 -4 5.
r
ota tion o f t he p add le-whee l s ha ft i sp ropo rtiona l to t he P addle w hee
l
c
url o f va t t he p oint w here i ti si nserted . T hus,i tw ou ld f or mea suring
r
ota te faste st n ear t he e dge so ft he t rough . A ta ny p oint c url.

t
he r ate o fr ota t
ion i sa lso amax imum w ith t he shaftv er t
ica l(ra thert han
i
nclined t o the v ertical ), ind ica ting t hat V xv i sint he zd irection . I tis
a
ssumed t ha t t he p add le w heel i ss ma l
l e nough s ot hati tdoes n ota ppre-
c
iably a fec tt he flow a nd a lso tha ti ti ss malle nough t oi ndica te close
ly t he
c
ond ition sa t ap o
in t.
I
ft he c url m ete r w ith s ha ft v er tical i si n
ser ted i nw ater w i
th u niform
v
eloc ity, as a ssumed i n E x
. l a
, i tw ill n ot rotate ( curl ve qua ls z ero).
E
xamp le 2
. Ar e
ctangulartrough o
fwidth bcarr
ies wa
terinthe xdirect
ion
. T he
v
e
locity isun
iform o ve
r hal
f the t
rough (
0 < y< 6 /2) a
nd equa
l to v1 a
nd a
l
so un
i-
f
o
rm o ver t
he other half (
b/2 < y < b
) b
ut equal to asma
ller ve
loc
ity vs. At t
he

1H
. H. S
ki
lling
, "Fundamen
tals o
f E
lect
ric Waves
," 2
d e
d
., J
ohn W
iley & S
ons
,
I
nc
., New York, 1
948
, p
.24.
1
88 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 4

c
enter o
f the tr
ough ( y =b/2) t he velocity changes a brupt
ly from vi to v. The
v
ariat
ion ofthe veloc
ity a
s afunction of yi ssuggested by the a
rrows inthe top v
iew
o
ft he t
rough i
n Fig. 4
-46a a
nd also i
si ndicated i
nt he graph of F
ig. 4
-466. F ind t
he
c
url of v.
So
lution. The c ur
lo f viszero e
ither s
ide o
fthe
c
enter oft he t
rough since t
he ve
loc
ity isa cons
tant
T
o i
n t
hese r
eg
ions
. Howeve
r, a
t t
he c
enter o
f t
he
pvi
ew
o
ftr
ough 11 " (
a) t
rough t
he v
eloc
ity c
hange
sfr
om v1t
o v2. That i
s
,

v
, F
or y < V
. = vi

b
2 F
or y > V
. =V
,

I
fthis change isp erfect
ly a brupt, a
y./ay i
si nf
ini
te
a
t the c enter o f the t r
ough a nd hence V x v is
i
nf
inite
. I t is more p lausible to s
uppose t hat v.
(
b
) c
hange s at ar apid b u
t f i
nite r
ate a
t t he c
enter of
t
he trough. Thus , ifw e a ssume v t o va
ry at a
c
onstant rate o ver as mall zone ofwidth Ay at t
he
c
enter of the t rough, a s ind
icated by the dashed
V2

Ay
l
i
ne in Fig. 4-466, w e have int h
is z
one that

VXV (
c
) aV. V V
2
(
4
-140
)
a
y A
y
/-6
1 .
FIG
. 4-46
. T rough with w a
ter There
fore i
nth
is z
one
o
f t wo d
ife rent v
eloc
ities fo
r
a
V. VI V2
Example 2. V x v = —a
. =a
. (
4
-141)
Ay

That i s
, inthe zone ofw idth Aya tt he c
enter oft he t
rough t he c url o
f vh as ac onstan t
magn itude of (vi — v3)/Ay a nd i
sz e
ro ei
thers ide. Th isv ariat ion isshown g raphica l
ly
i
nF ig. 4-46 c
. The c url o
f vint he cent
er zone h as t
he direct ion o fthe posi
tive za xis.
This may a lso be noted f r
om t he fact t
hat ac url meter at t he center ro
ta tes coun ter-
c
lockw ise ( s
ee Fig. 4-46a) a nd a ri
ght-handed s crew turned i n this manner a dvances
i
nt he p osi
tive zd irection (out of the p
age).
E
xamp le 3 . R efer r
ing t o Fig. 4-47a, ac yl
indrical c up o f r ad
ius R i s rotated
a
round i t
s v ert
ical
, o r z,a x
is fr ps
. The c up c onta
ins w ater. F ind the c ur
l of t he
v
elocity vo ft he wa ter for two assumed condi tions
:
a
. No s l
ippage , so that the water has an angular veloc
i ty ve t hat ispropor t
iona l to
t
he r adius r. Thus
v
e = 2
wfr me
ter
s/sec (
4
-142
)

Th
is t
ype of var
iat
ion i ssuggested by the a
rrows in t
he t
op view o
f t
he c
up in Fig.
4
-476 and a
lso i
sshown b y the graph o
f Fig
. 4-47c
.
b
. S
lippage i
spresent s
uch that the w
aterh as a
na ngu
larveloc
ity v
etha
tisinver
se ly
p
ropor
tional t
o the rad
ius r. T hus
,

2
wf
v
e — meter
s/sec (
4
-143
)
r

Th
is t
ype of v
aria
tion i
silus
tra
ted by F
igs. 4
-47e a
nd I
.
S
olu
tion
. a . This p
roblem has c
yl
indr
ical symmetry
, a
nd h
ence i
tis mo
st c
on-
v
enient t
ouse c
urla
sexp
res
sed i
ncy
lindr
ica
l c
oord
inates (
s
ee Append
ix;a
l
so F
ig
. 4
-56
SE
C. 4
-25
] MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
89

V
er
t
ica
l or
za
x
is

C
up

(
a
)

T
op v
iew
o
fcup

(
e
)

t
.
„ t
'
a
(
f
)

4
rj,
C
'xv
Vx
v ‘Vx v=
0 (
g
)

FI
G
. 4
-47
. Wa
ter r
ota
ting i
n ac
yl
indr
ica
l c
up (
Examp
le 3
)
.

w
ith P
rob. 4-30
). On ly two te
rms invo
lve t
he 0component o
fthe v
ector
. The f i
rst
o
ne (
av e/
az
) iszero s
i
nce ve i
sassumed no
t t
ov ary i
nthe zd
i
rect
ion
. The s econd o
ne
i
s

1(
)ry
.)
a
. (
4
-144
)
r a
r

where a
, =unit v
ector i
n pos
itive zd
i
rect
ion
. I
ntroduc
ing t
he v
alue o
f ve g
iven i
n
(
4-142)
, we h
ave f
or the c
ur
l of v
V xv = a
.4
,rf (
4
-145
)

Hence, t
he cur
l of viscon stant t
hroughout t
he cup. Th i
s isindicated by the g
raph
i
nF ig. 4
-47d
. The magn itude o
f v x vis47
11
, and it
s di
rection isthat o
ft he pos
itive
zax
i s
. Ac url meter in
troduced in the cup (w
ith axis normal to the water s
urface)
w
ould r o
tate counterc
lockw ise and a
t the s
ame rate regardless o
f its p
osit
ion in the
c
up.
1
90 ELECTRO MAGNET1C
S [
CHAP
. 4

b
. I
ntroduc
ing (
4
-143
) i
n (
4
-144
), w
e o
bta
in

1a
(
27f)
V xv a
, — 0 (
4
-146
)
r Or

Hence, the cur

l o f viszero throughout t he cup a s indicat ed i
n Fig. 4
-47g. Ac ur
l
meter introduced ( wi
th a x
is n orma l to the w ater s ur
fa ce) would n o
t r otate
. I n
g
eneral, any vector which isa n inverse f
unction o f the radius (a
s vi nt h
is problem)
h
as zero curl
.
Examp le 4. C onsider f
inal
ly ac ur
rent-carry
ing c onduc torofr ad
iu s Ra sshown i n
c
ross se
ction inF ig. 4
-48a
. T he current isuni
fo rm ly distribut
ed so that the curren
t

(
a
)
He

(
b
)

(
c
)
VXH

0o rR
F
la. 4
-48
. C
onduct
ing w
ire (
Examp
le 4
)
.

d
ens
ity ji
s ac
onstant
. T
aking t
he a
xis o
fthe w
ire i
nthe zd
i
rect
ion
,

J=a
,.1=a
. —/ amp/mete
r (
4
-147
)
TR
'
where I = tota
l curren t in c
onductor ( amp )
. F ind the c
ur
l of H b
oth i
ns
ide a
nd
o
utside ofthe wire
.
Solu
tion. T he variation o
f Ha s af unction o
fr ad
ius was wo
rked o
ut f
o
r th
is c
ase
i
n Examp le 2of Sec. 4-17. T he var
ia t
ion found for H i
sshown i
nthe g
raph o
f F
ig.
4
-486. S ince H isentirely i
nt he 0direct
ion, we have
H a
elh (
4
-148
)
where H o = / ZITo
utside conductor
Ho = (I/2rR 2)rin
side conductor
Us
ing the expre
ssion f
or cur
l inc y
lindr
ical c
oord
inate
s (
s
ee A
ppend
ix)
, w
ehave
V xH 0 o
uts
ide c
onduc
tor (
4
-149
)

V xH a
s J i
n
side c
onducto
r (
4
-150
)
 S
ze. 4
-27
] MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
91

Hence
, t
he c
ur
l of H h
as a v
alue o
nly where t
here i
scurrent
, b
eing ac
ons
tanti
nthe
c
onducto
r a
nd ze
ro ou
tside (
s
ee Fig
. 4-48
e).

)
(4-26. Maxwel
l's Fi
rst C ur
l E
qua
tion
. T
he r
e
lat
ion d
er
ived f
r
om
Ampere's l
aw i
nSec
. 4-23 t
hat

Vx H =J (
4
-15
1)'

i
so ne o f Maxwe ll
's equa tions. E qua tion ( 4
- 151 ) is adifer entiale xp res-
s
ion a nd r elates the f i
eld H t o t he c urren t d ensity J a t ap oint. T he
c
or respond ing e xpression i n integ ral f orm, a s g i
ven b y (4-81), r e
la tes H
a
round af ini
te cl
osed p a
th t o t he t ota
l c urren t p a
ssing t hrough t he a rea
e
nc losed .
Thus f ar
,w ehave encounte red t hre eof Maxwe l
l's four equa tion sa pp ly-
i
ng a t ap oint. T hey a re V •D = p , V •B = 0 ,a nd (4-151). T he f our th
r
e
la t
ion , (7-60), i
sa l
so a n equa tion i nvolving c ur
ls o tha t (4-151) may b e
r
efe rred to a s Maxwe ll's f i
rst c url e quation a nd ( 7
-60) a s the second .
)
( 4 -27 . S ummary o f O pera t
ions I nvolving V . We h ave d iscussed f our
o
pe ra t
ions i nvolving the o pera to rV( delo rn ab la), name ly, the g rad ien t
,
d
ivergence ,L aplacian,a nd c url. A lthough t he L aplacian c an b er esolved
i
nto t he d ivergence o f t he g rad ient ( V 2f = V •V f)
, t his ope ration i sof
s
uch i mpor tance a s to w ar ran t li
s ting i tsepa rately. L et u ss ummar ize
t
hese o perations with t heir diferen tial equiva len ts inr ec
tangu larc oo rdi-
n
a tes. L et fr epresent a s calar f unction a nd F a v ecto r f unc tion.

G
rad
ien
t

g
rad f = V
f = i— a
f ± j—af+ (
4
-152
)
a
x a
y a
z

G
rad
ient o
pera
tes o
n as
ca
lar f
unc
tion t
oyi
eld av
ecto
r f
unc
tion
.

D
ive
rgen
ce
a
F a
F O
F
d
iv F = V •F = —2--
I
---t -
I
- ' (
4
-153
)
a
x a
y a
z

D
ive
rgence o
pera
tes o
n av
ecto
rfunc
tion t
oyi
eld as
ca
lar f
unc
tion
.

L
apla
cian

d
iv (
g
rad.° = V •(
82/
a +v
VD = rf = -
a2f
( ,
2
.+-
ei
af 2
(
4
-154
)

'Equation (4
-151) is aspecial form of t
he more g
eneral r
elat
ion given in (
7
-127)
.
The more genera
l e qua
tion ha s an addit
ional te
rm involv
ing the d
isplacement cur
-
r
ent dens
ity. However , ad isplacement current i
sp re
sent only f
or time -
chang
ing
f
i
elds s
o that f
or st
eady fi
elds, as cons
idered here
, (
7
-127) reduces t
o (4-151
).
 1
92 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
C
lue
. 4

The Lap
lac
ian o
pera
tes o
n as
ca
lar f
unc
tion t
o y
ie
ld a
nothe
r s
ca
lar
f
unct
ion.
'

C
url
=i(
aF
. a
Fz) .(
aF
,
c
ur
I F =VxF
a
y a
z J a
z O
x
(
a
F a
Fz
+k a
x ——)
8
y
(
4
-155
)
o
r
i j k
a a a
V xF = (
4
-156
)
O
x 5
- O
z
F
. F
, F
,

C url o pera tes on av ec tor f unction t oy ield a no ther vec tor func t
ion.
)
( 4 -28 . A C ompa rison o f D ivergence a nd C url
. Whe reas d ivergence
opera te so n av ectorf unction t oy ie
ld as calarf unction,c urlo peratesona
v
ector f unc t
ion t o yield a v ecto r function . T here isa no the r important
d
ife rence . R eferring t o t he d iferen tial r e
lation f o
r t he d ivergence in
(
4- 153 ) , w en ote thatt he dife rentiation w i th respec tto xi sont he xc om-
ponen t o ft he f
ie
ld, t he dife ren t
ia t
ion w ith respec t to yi so n the yc om-
ponen t, e tc. T herefo re, to h ave dive rgence t he field mu s
t v ary in mag-
n
itude a l ong al ine h aving t he s ame d irection a s t he fi
eld.'
Re fer ring t othe relation f orc urli n( 4-155 )
,w en ote
,o nt he otherh and,
t
ha t t he d iferentiation w ith r espect t o xi son t he ya nd zc omponen ts o
f
t
he f i
eld, t he diferen tiation w ith respec t t o yi so n t he x a nd z c om-
ponen t s, etc. T herefo re, to h ave c ur
l t he f i
e
ld mu st va ry in magn itude
a
long al i
ne n orma l to the d irection o ft he fie
ld .'
Th is c ompar ison i si lus trated i nF ig. 4 -49. The f i
eld a t (a) isevery-
whe re i nt he yd irection . I th as nov ariation i nt he xo r zd i
rections but
varie s i n magn i
tude a s af unc t
ion o f y . T he refore this f i
eld h as d
iver-
1I
nrec
tangula
rc oo
rdina
tesiti
sal
so p
os
sib
let oin
terp
rettheLap
lac
ian o
f av
e
cto
r
f
u
nction a
st h
e vec
tor sum oft
he L
ap
lac
ians o
ft h
e thre
e sc
ala
r c
omponen
ts o
fth
e
v
e
ctor. T hu
s
V
2F VW : jV 2F
, kV2F,
H
ow ev er
, i n n
o o ther coo rdinate sys
tem i st h
is simple i n
terp r
etat
ion poss
ib le
.
T
2hisisan ece
ssary butn o t asuf
f
ici
en tcondi
tion tha
t av ectorf i
e
ld hasdiv
ergen ce
.
F
ore xamp l
e, th
e Df i
e
ld du e t o ap
ointc h
argei sra
diala nd vari
esa s1/
r2buth asn o
d
i
verg encee x
ceptatt hech arg e
. I fLhowever
,t hefi
eld isev
erywh eei
r nthe ydi
rec
tion,
a
sinF ig.4-49a,and var
ieso nly as afunc
tion o
fy ,th
en thi
sf i
e
ld doesh av
ed i
vergen c
e.
3Thisi sal
so anecessa
ry b utn o
t as uf
ici
entc ondit
ion that av ectorfi
e
ld hasc ur
l.
F
ore xamp le
,t he Hf i
e
ld o utsideo f alo
ng wir
ev ari
e sinm agn i
tud ea s1/rand hasa
d
i
rection normalt ot h
er adiu sv e
ctor;yet Hh asnoc url inth
i sregion. If
,h owev er
,
t
h
ef i
e
ld ise v
erywhe
rei nthe yd i
rect
ion,a sinFig
.4 -496
,a nd v a
rie
so n
ly as af
unction
o
fz,t hen th
isf i
e
ld doesh av ec ur
l.
SE
C. 4
-28
1 MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
93

g
ence butn o c
url. T he fi
e
ld at (b
) isal
so everywhe re int he yd
irection
.
I
th asnov ar
iat
ion inthe xa nd ydi
rect
ions b utd oesvary in magnitude a
s
afunct
ion ofz. T herefore
, th
is fi
eld ha
s c u
rl b ut n
o divergence
.
Le
tu sn ow d
iscussthe si
gnif
icance o
fo perations i
nvolving v two times
.
F
ir
s t c
onsider the d
ivergence ofthe c
url of av ector f
unction. T hat i
s
,

V •(
V xF
) (
4
-157
)

w
here F i
sany v
ecto
r f
unc
tion g
iven i
nre
ctangu
lar c
oord
ina
tes b
y

F= j
F, k
F.

I
fwef i
r
sttake t
he c
ur
lo fF
,w eobta
in a
nothe
rv ec
tor. N
ex ttak
ing t
he
d
ive
rgence o
fth
is v
ector
, t
he r
e
sult i
sid
ent
ical
ly ze
ro. Thus

V •(
V xF
) 0 (
4
-158
)

T
his may b
e proved by c
arry
ing ou
t the opera
tions i
nd
ica
ted. This i
s
l
e
ft a
s an e
xercise f
o
r the reade
r (s
ee Prob. 4-28
). In words (
4
-158
)

, 1
0. . 1. . .
. A.

. 4. - 11.

.... - -1. - 1. - I.

.
.11. - -.4. . -
... - I. -1
1.

-I
I. - 0. -
4 - .
1 -

.-1
v. - 1. - .
.
... .
4 - .
1 - .
1.-
...

- N. - -1.

- 1. - -..

V ect or f
i
e
ld w
i
th d
i
verg
ence V
ec
tor f
i
e
ld w
i
th c
u
rl
(
a) (
b
)
Fm
. 4
-49
. E
xamp
les o
f f
i
elds w
ith d
ive
rgence a
nd w
ith c
url
.

s
tates t
hat th
e div
ergence of th
e cur
l of av e
ctor funct
ion iszero
. A s a
c
orol
lary we may say that ifthe d
ivergence of avector f
unct
ion iszero
,
t
hen it mu
st be t
he cur
l o fsome other vec
tor func
tion.
Forexample
, the d
ive rgence o
f Bisa lways ze
ro everywhere
. T ha
t is
,

V •B = 0 (
4
-159
)

There
fore
, Bc an b
e e
xpres
sed as t
he cur
l o
fsome o
ther v
ecto
r f
unc
tion
.
Le
t us de
signa
te th
is o
the
r vec
tor func
tion b
y A
. T hen

B = Vx A (
4
-160
)
1
94 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 4

The function A i
n (
4-160) i
sc a
lled t
he v
e
cto
r po
ten
tial a
nd i
sdiscu
s sed i
n
more detail i
nthe n
ex t s
ec
tion.
Let us cons
ider a
nother operat
ion i
nvo
lving V t
wice
, name
ly, the cu
rl
o
ft he gradient o
f asca
larf unct
ion f
. T hat i
s
,

V x(
Vf) (
4
-161
)

Tak
ing f
ir
st t
he g
rad
ient o
f fand t
hen t
he c
ur
l of t
he r
esu
lting v
ecto
r
f
unct
ion
, the r
e
sul
t i
sfound t
o bei
dent
ica
lly z
e
ro. T hu
s

V x(
Vf
) =0 (
4
-162
)

The st
ep sare l
e
ftt othe readerasa ne xercise (s
ee Prob.4 -
29). I nwords
(
4
- 162) st
atesthatthec urlofthegradiento f asca
lar func
tion isze
ro. Asa
c
orolla
ry a ny v
ector funct
ion, which ist he gradient o
fs ome sca
lar f
unc-
t
i
on , has no c
ur
l.
For example
, w e r
ecall f
rom (1-33) that the stat
ic el
ectric f
i
eld d
ue to
c
harges Ec isde
rivable as the g
radient of as ca
la r p
otential V
. Thu s

E
. = —VV (
4
-163
)

I
tfo
llow
s, t
here
fore
, t
hat t
he c
ur
l o
f Ec i
sze
ro, o
r

V xEc = 0 (
4
-164
)

I
f av ector fi
e
ld h a
s n o c
url, i
ti ssaid tha t t
he fi
eld isl ame
llar
. T hus
t
he e lectric fi
e
ld Ec islamellar. T he fl
ux t ubes ofsuch f i
eld
s are di
scon -
t
inuou s
. T hey or
iginate on p os
itive charge s (a
s sources) and termina te
o
nn ega tive charges (a
ss i
nks). O nt he other hand,i fav ectorfi
eld hasn o
d
ive rgence s uch asB , itissa
id tha t t
he fie
ld iss o
lenoidal
. I tsflux tubes
a
re c ontinuou s, having no sources or sinks
.
F
ina l
ly l et us cons
ide r t
he r e
lation ( i
nvo lv
ing V t w
ice) of the diver-
g
ence o ft he g
radient of ascalarf unction f. Th isi sthe L ap
lacian oft he
s
cala r func t
ion. T hus
V •V
f = V2f (
4
-165
)

The dife
rentia
l expres
sion for the Laplac
ian in r
e
ctangula
r c
oord
ina
tes
i
sg iven i
n (4-
154). I n genera
l, the L ap
lacian o
f asca
lar i
snot z
ero
.
For example
, the L
aplacian ofthe el
ectric s
cala
r p
oten
tial Vi
s

V2V = — (
4
-166
)

Th
is i
s Poi
sson's equation (2
-149)
. I f t
he c
harge d
ens
ity p i
s z
e
ro,
V2V = 0
,w hich i
sL ap
lace's e
quat
ion.
SE
C. 4
-29
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
95

4
-29. T
he Vecto
r Po
ten
tial
. A cco
rding to (
4-34
) t he magnet
ic f
l
ux
d
ensi
ty B a
t apo
int Pp
roduced b
y acurren
tdis
tribution,a
si nFig.4
-50
,
i
sgiven b
y

B= 4
1
5 f
if Jxa
t d
v (
4
-167
)
1
7
r
7 r2
w
here B = f
lux d en s
ity ( webe rs/
me te r
')
= p
e rmeab ili
ty o f m edium
(
uni form )( henrys/me ter)
J= cu rren td ensity a
tv olume
e
lemen t (amp/me ter 2)
a
, =u nitv ectori ndi
rec t
ion of
V
o
lume el
ement d
v
r
ad iu s v ector r( dimen - i
n
side c
o
nduc
tor
s
ion less)
r= rad iu s v ector from v o
l-
ume e lemen t to p o
in t P
(me ters) Cu
rrent-ca
rry
ing
dv =v olume e lement (meters') c
o
nductor
By ca
r rying o u tthe i n
tegrat
ion o ver
t
he ent i
re v olume o ccupied by t he
c
urrent-ca r
ry ing c onduc tor t
he total FI G. 4-50. C
onstruction f or f i
nding
f
l
ux d ensity B a t Pd ue to the cur- f l
ux d
en s
ity B a
tP .
r
ent iso btained .
I
n S ec. 4-28 w e noted tha
t since the d
ivergence o f Bi sa lway sz ero,it
s
hould b e p ossible to expres
s Ba s the c
url o
fs ome othe rv ecto r
. Thu s
f
rom ( 4-160) w e can w r
ite
B= Vx A (
4-168 )
w
here A i
scal
led a v
e
cto
r poten
tia
l s
i
nce i
tis ap
oten
tia
l f
unc
tion t
hat i
s
a
l
so avecto
r.' Ifwe also make

V •A = 0 (
4
-169
)

Ai
scomp
lete
ly d
ef
ined
. T
aking t
he c
ur
l o
f (
4
-168
) y
ie
lds

V xVx A = Vx B = 4 (
4
-170
)

B
yt he v
ectori
den
t i
ty f
ort
he c
ur
l o
fthe c
ur
l o
f av
ecto
r (
s
ee A
ppend
ix)
e
qua
tion (4-
170
) become
s
V •A
V( ) — = 4 (
4
-171
)
I
ntroduc
ing t
he c
ond
ition o
f (
4
-169
), t
h
is r
educe
s t
o
V2A = -4 (
4
-172
)
1Thep
oten
tia
l f
unct
ion V f
r
om which t
he e
l
ectr
ic f
i
eld B
.can be d
erived (
by t
he
r
e
lat
ion E
. = — VV) i
s as
ca
lar q
uant
ity
, and h
ence V i
s as
ca
lar p
ot
ential
.
1
96 ELECTRO MAGNET1CS (
CHAP
. 4

o
r i
nte
rms o
fthe t
hree r
ectangu
lar c
omponen
ts o
f Aa
nd J

v 2
A2, jvi
ty kV2A
. = —
tt(Li z j
J„ k
J,) (
4
-173
)
E
qua
tion (
4
-173
) i
sthe v
ecto
r s
um o
fth
ree s
ca
lar e
qua
tions
. H
ence
,
v 2A . = 1

v2 A y =
(
4
-174
)
v2 A y

E
ach o
f t
hese r
e
lations h
as t
he s
ame f
orm as P
oisson
's e
quat
ion (4
-166)
o
r (
2
-149)
.' The refo
re s
olu
tions t
o t
he t
hree equat
ion
s of (4
-174
) are

A = fi t!
!d v
r

A
„ = fff d
v (
4
-175
)
4
r r

A =-
L̀
-1 fff d
v
r
T
aking t
he v
ecto
r s
um o
fthe c
omponen
ts f
o
r Ai
n (
4
-175
) g
ive
s

A = kL- d
v (
4
-176
)
r
A
ccording to (4-
176 ) t he vector poten tial Aa t ap o
in td ue t
o ac urrent
d
istribut
ion ise qual to the ratio Pr i nteg rated o vert he volume o ccupied
byt he c
urrent dist
ribu tion, whe re Ji sthe c urrentd ensity ateach v o
lume
e
lemen t dv and ri st he distance f rom each v olume e lement to the p o
int
P where A isb e
ing e valua ted (see Fig
. 4 -50). I ft he currentdist
r ibution
i
sk nown , Ac an be found . Know ing A a t ap o
in t
, t he fl
ux dens
i ty B at
t
ha t po
int ist hen obta ined b y taking t he c url of Aa s i
n (4-
168). I tis
l
e
ft a s an exerci
se for t he studen t to show t hat tak ing the cur
l o f Aa s
g
iven in (4-
176 ) yie
ld s Ba s in (4
-167) ( see Prob . 4-35).
F
rom ( 4
-168 ) we n ote that Ah as the d imen sions o f
magnet
ic fl
ux f
orce
Magne
tic f
l
ux d
ens
ity X d
i
stance —
d
istance c
urrent
F
rom (
4
-176
) Aa
l
so h
as t
he e
quiva
len
t d
imens
ion
s o
f
c
urren
t v
olume
P
ermeab
ili
ty X X . =p
ermeab
il
ity X c
urren
t
a
rea d
istance
Hence, t
he vecto
r p o
tent
ial A c
an be e
xpres
sed i
n w
eber
s per meter
,
n
ew tons per ampere
, or hen
ry-ampe
res per me
ter
. The dimens
ional
s
ymbo ls f
o
r Aa re ML/TQ.
I
tf olowst hat (4
-172) may b
ec aled P
oisson's e
qua
tion f
ort
he v
ecto
rpotent
ial A
.
I
n current-
free regions J 0
, and (4-
172) reduces t
o VIA 0
, wh
ich i
sL ap
lace
's
e
quation fo
r the vector p
otent
ial
.
SE
C. 4
-29
] MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
97

A
sa ni
lus
trat
ion o
fthe u
t
ili
ty o
fthe v
ecto
rpo
ten
tia
l Al
e
tusc
ons
ide
r
t
he f
ol
low
ing e
xample
.
E
xample
. C ons
ider a s
hort c
opper w
ire o
f le
ngth 1and a c
ros
s-se
ctional a
rea a
s
i
tuated i
n a
i
r co
incident w
ith t
he zax
is at t
he or
igin a
s s
hown in F
ig. 4
-51. T he

L
i
ne of
m
agne
tic f
l
ux

X
Fl
a. 4
-51
. C ons
truction f
or f
i
nding t
he v
ector p
o
ten
tia
l Aa
nd f
l
ux d
ens
ity B d
ue t
oa
s
hort c
urren
t-carry
ing wi
re.

c
urrent d ensity j i si n the positive zd i
rec tion. A ssume t he hypo thet
ical s
i
tuation
t
hat Ji su niform t hroughout t he w ire and c onstant w ith respect t o t
ime. Find the
magne t
ic f l
ux d ensity B e verywhere a t alarge di
s tance from t he wire,using t
he v
ecto r
p
oten t
ial t oo btain t he so
lution.
Solu
tion . The v ector potential Aa t any p oint Pp roduced b y the w
ire i
sgiven b y
(
4-176), where t he r at
io J/r isintegrated throughout t he v o
lume o ccupied bythe wire.
S
ince w ew ish tof ind B o nly at al a
rge distance rf r
om t he w ire
,i ts uf
icesto f
ind A at
alarge distance . S pecif
ical
ly the distance rs hould b el arge compa red with t
he l
ength
o
ft he wire ( r> 1 )
. Then ,a ta ny p o
int P t he d
i stance rt od iferen tpartsofthe wire
c
an b e conside red c ons tant and ( 4
-176 ) written as

A = Z N Jd
r (
4
-177
)

Now Ji
seve
rywhe
re i
nthe zd
i
rect
ion a
nd a
l
so i
sun
ifo
rm. T
hus J= k
J.
, a
nd

i
f k f
„22i
fJ d
sdl k 11
/
2
—1/2
Id
l (
4
-178
)
a

where I = J
,a = cur
rent in wi
re. C omplet
ing t
he i
n
teg
rat
ion i
n (
4
-178
) a
nd s
ub-
s
t
ituting t
h
is re
sul
t in (
4-177)
, w e o
bta
in

A =k =k
A, (
4
-179
)
4
wr
1
98 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 4

where A = v
ector p
otent
ial a
t di
stance rfrom w
ire (
weber
s/meter
)
k=u nit v
ector i
n po
sit
ive zdirect
ion (
dimens
ion
less)
A
'
) =p ermeab il
ity ofa ir (
4r X 1 0-7 henry/mete r)
/= c urrent i n wire (amp)
=l ength o fw ire (meters)
r= d i
s tance f r
om w ire ( meters)
Equation ( 4-179 ) gives the vector p otential Aat al arge d
istance fr
om t he w
ire. I t
i
se verywhere i n t he p os
itive zd irection a s i
ndicated b y the un
it vector k and is
i
nversely propor t
iona l to the di
stance rf rom the wire. I t i
sn ot a f
unct
ion of ang
le
(
0 or 0i n F
ig . 4-51) .
Having f ound t he vector poten t
ial A, t he f
l
ux d ens
i ty B i
so bta
ined b y t
aking t
he
c
url of A. I n rectangu lar component s the cur
l of Ai sgiven by

it
aA, 8
A 0) , .(
aA, a
A, , a
A„ aA, ,
„„,
v xA — I
C —— V
I
-11
61
.
1)
ka
y —a
z a
z a
y)
— — — )
aZ aX

S
ince A h
as o
nly a zc
omponent
, (
4
-180
) r
educe
s t
o

vxi
t -1 - -j - (
4
-18
1)
8
1
, a
x

Now r -
Vx 2 + y2 -
I z2. The
refore

a
A, p
oll a(
x
o y
l = pa
/ y
(
4
-182
)
ay 4
r 4
a
nd
".
ax
A
o
r
t
4„
.5
a , +y
;kr
- 2 ± P
oi / X (
4
-183
)
47r rs

I
ntroduc
ing t
hese r
e
lat
ions i
n (
4
-181) a
nd n
oting t
he g
eomet
ry i
n F
ig. 4
-51
, w
e h
ave

V xA = +i — p
on (
4
-184
)
4
i
-r' r -r 4
Tr2 r
o
r
p
oi
/ sin 0
B = V x A -act
, (
4
-185
)
47
7.2

w
here B = magne t
ic fl
ux density ( webers/meter 2)at di
stance rand a ngle 8
ac
t,= u
nit vector in 4
)direct
ion ( see F
ig. 4
-51) ( d
imensionless)
=angle between axis ofw ire and rad
ius v ector r(dimensionless)
A
so = p
ermeab il
ity ofa ir (= 4 r X 10-7 h
enry/mete r
)
/= current in wire (amp)
/= l
ength ofw ire (meters
)
r= distance fr
om w ire to point where B i
sb eing e
valuated ( meters)

A
ccording to (4-185), the flux-den s
ity B p roduced b y the wire i
s
e
verywhere in t
he direc
tion . T ha t is
, the l
i
ne s o
f magnet
ic fl
ux form
c
l
osed ci
rcle
s concentric with the za xi
s. T he planes o
f t
he ci
rcles a
re
p
ara
lle
l to t
he xi
-y p
lane . O ne s
uch l i
ne of magne t
ic fl
ux a
t adistance r
f
r
om t he or
igin isindicated i n Fig
. 4- 5
1. A
ccording to (4-1
85), B i
s
a
l
so proport
ional to s
i n 0a nd inversely proportional t
o r2. By w ay o
f
SE
C. 4
-29
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 1
99

c
ompa ri
son, the vector poten t
ial Af r
om w hich B i so btained i se very-
where inthe zdirect
ion, isinversely proport
iona l t
or ,a nd isindependent
o
fa ngle. T he magn itude and d i
rection o
fb oth B a nd A a re i
lus t
ra ted in
F
ig. 4-52a for points in t
he y -z plane at af ixed r adius r. T he v ector
p
otential Ai sshown b y d
ashed a rrow s
. I tise verywhere i nt he zd irec-
t
i
on a nd o
f constan t magni tude. T he f
lux d en s
ity B i sn orma l t o the
y
-z plane,being inthe negative xd i
rection a
tp ointsf o
r wh ich yisp osit
ive
a
nd int he pos
itive xd i
rect
ion a tp ointsfo
rw hich yi snegative
. T he flux
d
ensity B is amax imum i n t he x-y pl
ane and i sz e
ro a t the zaxis.

no. 4
-52. (a
) V e
ctor p
otentia
l A( dashed a
r
rows) a nd f
l
ux d
ensi
ty B (
s
olid a
rrows)
a
t ala
rge di
stance i
nthe y-
zp lane f
rom ashort c
urrent e
l
ement
. ( b
) Cor
responding
p
olar p
atte
rns fo
r Aa nd B.

The v a
riation o fthe magn itude o f Ba nd A i salso e fectively p resen ted
a
s af unction of 0b y ap olar d iag ram , orp at
tern , a
si nF ig. 4-52b. H ere
t
he r adius vecto rf rom the c en te r ofthe d iagram t o ap oint o n the c urve
i
sp ropor tionalt ot he magn itude o fthe q uantity a tt hata ngle 0f rom t he
za x
i s. T he B p attern is af igu re ofe igh t with a max imum a t 0= 9 0°
,
while the A p attern is acircle. B o
th p atternsa r
ea rb itrarily adjus ted to
t
he s ame max imum v a
lue. I ti sto ben oted t hata lthough t he diag rams
i
n F ig. 4-52b a re shown f o
r t he y -
z plane , they a l
so a pply t o any p lane
t
h rough t he or
ig in that isp ara llel to the za x
is or axis o ft he wire.
A
l though t he r e
sult of ( 4-
185 ) c ou
ld h ave b een w ritten d own a lmo st
d
irec tly from ( 4-167), withou t u sing the v ector p o
ten t
ial e xplic
i t
ly , the
above e xamp le servest oi lust ra te the manne ri nw hich t he v ectorp oten-
t
ialc an bea pplied. Emp loy ing t he v
ec torp oten t
iali nt he a bove examp le
i
sa nalogous to u s
ing a 1 0-ton s team h amme r to crack aw a
lnu t
. How -
2
00 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 4

e
ver, on many p roblems o f amo re dif
icu l
t n ature t
he v ector p otential is
i
ndispensable
.
4
-30. A C ompa r
ison o f S
ta t
ic Electric and Magne t
ic F ields . I t i s
i
nst
ruc t
ive toc ompa re elect
ric and magne tic fi
eldsand t on o
te b oth their
d
iferences and t he
ir similarit
ies. Ap art
ial c omparison i sg iven i n th
is
s
ect
ion, involving relat
ions d eveloped int he fi
rst f
our chap te r
s f or st
atic
f
i
elds. Ac ompar ison ofr e
lations fo
rn on stat
ic fi
eld
si sgiven inS ec
. 7-25.
I
n mak ing a c ompa rison i tisp o
ssible to s e
e cer
ta in a nalogie s
. F or
e
xamp le, we have n oted ine lectr
ic fi
e
ld s that Ei sinvolved i n the force

TABLE 4-2
A CO MPAR
ISON OF STATIC ELECTRIC AND
MAGNETIC F
IELD EQUAT IONS

De
scr
ipt
ion o
fequa
tion E
lec
tric f
i
e
lds Magne
tic f
i
e
lds

F
orce F = QE d
F =/
d
i xB
F=Q
,
,B

B
asic r
e
lat
ions fo
r lame
llar V xE
. =O
t V •B = 0
a
nd s
o
lenoida
l f
i
e
lds

D
erivat
ion f
rom s
ca
laro
rvec
- E
. = —vV B —vxa
t
or p
oten
tia
l
V= 1 —
, I 2
id
v A= -
A 1-1 (
/,
'
tiff(
' v r 4
i
• ,
,r

R
ela
tions f
o
r Da
nd H
D =,
E H = —B
A
4
D =p
, H = —
/
2
7r
It
V •D = p VX H =J

E
nergy d
ens
ity IB2
W. = if E S W.. = 7
4

C
apac
itance a
nd i
nduc
tance c =Q L. A
.7
V

C
apacitance and i
nductance C L
p
er un
it l
eng
th o
f acel
l i
f ." a= P
C
losed p
ath o
fin
tegra
tion fE •d
l =1
) III •d
l = F = NI
fE
, •d
l =0 f H •d
l = 0(
no current e
nclo
sed
)

D
erivat
ion f
r
om s
ca
lar p
oten
- E
, = —VV H = —VU (
i
ncu
rren
t-f
ree r
eg
ion
)
t
i
als

E. i
sthe s
tat
ic el
ectr
ic f
i
eld i
nten
sity (
due to c
harges
). E (wi
thout sub
scr
ipt
)
i
mpl
ies t
hat em
f-producing f
i
e
lds (
not due t
o c
harge
s) may al
so b
e p
resent
.
SE
C. 4
-30
1 MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 2
01

r
ela tion s
, w hile i n magne t
ic f i
eld s Bi si nvo lved i n t he f orce r ela tion s
.
H ence , B may b e c ons ide red a s t he magne t
ic q uan tity t hat i sa nalogou s
t
o t he e l
ec t ric f i
eld i n
tens ity E . F urthe rmo re, i n ac apac ito r D i s
d
irec tly r e
la ted t o t he e l
ec tric c ha rge o n the p l ate s ( D =p ,) a nd i si nde-
p
enden t o f t he m ed ium , w h
ile n ea r al ong c u rren t-ca rry ing w ire H i s
d
irec tly r ela ted t o t he c ur ren t ( H =I /2TR ) a nd i si ndependen t o f the
med ium . T hu s, Da nd H may b e r ega rded a s a na logou s q uan t
i tie s.
In s ome o the r i nstance s w e may n ote a n a nalogy o f H t o E . F or
e
xamp le, t he l i
ne i nteg ral a round a c losed p ath o ft he t otal e l
ect ric f i
eld
i
nten sity E y ield s t he e mf ( 5E •d l = 1 .
)), w hile t he l ine i ntegra l o f H
a
round ac l osed p a
th y ield s the mm f (fH •d l =F ). F u rthe rmo re ,c om-
p
a ring t he d ive rgence r e
la tions V •D = 0 a nd V •B = 0 f or c ha rge -free
s
pace , w e n ote ama thema tica ls imi lari ty o fBt oD . I ft hisa nalogy o fH
t
o Ea nd B t o Di sp ur sued , i ti sp ossible t o a ch ieve af orma l, or ma the-
ma t
ica l, symme try b etween many o ft he e l
ec tric a nd magne tic fie
ld e qua-
t
ion s. Howeve r,e lec tric a nd magne tic f i
eld sa r ef undamen tally d ife rent,
a
nd t he f ir
s ta nalogy o f Bt o Ea nd H t o Dh a s mo re p hysica ls i
gn ificance .
S
ta tic e l
ec tric f i
elds a re d ue t o e lec tric c ha rge , as cala r q uan tity, w h
ile
s
ta t
ic magne tic f i
eld s a re d ue t o e lec tr
ic c urrent , av ec to r q uan tity .
InT able 4 - 2 many o ft he e l
ec tric a nd magne t
ic f i
eld r e
la tions d eve loped
i
n t he f i
rst f our c hap ters a re s ummar ized . T he a na logy o f Bt o Ea nd
H t o Dw ill b e noted i n many o f t he e quat ions , wh ile t he o ther a na logy
may b eo bse rved i n af ew o ft he r ela tions . T he f i
rstc olumn d escribe st he
n
a tu re o f t he r elation , the s e cond c olumn g i ves t he r elation f or s t a
tic
e
lect ric f i
eld s, a nd t he t hird c olumn g ive s t he c orre spond ing r e
la tion o r
r
e
la tions f or s tatic magne tic f i
eld s. T he r e
la tion s a pply t o st atic a nd
s
low ly t ime -va rying s i
tua tion s. T hey a lso a pply i n mo re r apidly t ime-
v
a rying s itua tions w i th t he e xcep tion o ft hose r e
la tions i nvolv ing t he c ur
l
o
rt he l i
ne i nteg ral ( H = —v U a l
so d oe sn ot a pp ly i nr apid ly t ime -va ry-
i
ng c ase s)
. S ee T able 7 -2 f or t he c o rre spond ing mo re g ene ral r e
la t
ions
t
ha t a pply i nt ime -va rying c a se s
.

PROBLE MS

4
-1. Al i
near conductor c arries ac urrent of 100 amp i nt he posit
ive xd irection. I f
t
he fl
ux d ensity everywhere i suniform w ith a magn itude B = 2 w ebers/me ter' and
h
as a direction p arale l t
o the x-y p lane a nd a t an a ngle of 45° with re spect to the
xaxis
, fi
nd t he magn itude a nd direction of the f orce o n a2 -me ter l
ength o f the con-
d
uctor. An s
.: 282.8 n ew tons i nt he p os
itive zd irection.
4
-2. At hin li
near c onductor si
tua ted ina ir h as a c urrent of 1 0 amp. Wha t isthe
f
l
ux density p roduced b y asection oft he conducto r 1cm l ong at ad i
stance o f 2meter s
n
orma l to the 1cm s ection?
4
-3. Ac urrent of 100 amp f l
ows i nt he posi
tive zd irec t
ion i n along wire c o
inc ident
w
ith the za x
is as shown i n Fig. 4-53
. Ar ig
id s quare -f
rame l oop of 1t urn c arr
ies a
c
urrent of 1 0 amp. The l oop isi n the y-z p lane w ith i ts center at the o rigin (see
2
02 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 4

F
ig
. 4
-53
). T
he l
oop i
s 1met
er s
qua
re. F
ind t
he
magn itude and direction o f the f orce on the l oop.
An.
,
.: 8X 1 0-4 n ewton i np os
itive y-di rec t
ion.
4
-4. At h
in l i
near c onducto r s i
tuat ed i n air h as a
cur
rent o f 50 amp . Wha t i s H d ue to as e
c t
ion o f
t
he c onductor 2 m e ters long a t ad istance o f 5 0 c m
norma l to t
he center oft he 2-me ters ect
ion?
4
-5. The f l
ux density B i se verywhe re uni form a nd
i
n t he posit
ive x direc t
ion. I f B = 1w ebe r/met er 2,
,,
, f
ind t he t
otalflux over ap lane a rea o f 2m ete rs 2when
'
x t
he a rea is(a) para
llelt ot he y- zplane ; (b) p aral
lelt o
t
he x -zplane; (c
) paralleltot he ya x
is and a ta na ngle
o
f 4 5° with re
spect t o the xa xis.
F
la. 4
-53
. L oop a
nd w
ire f
o
r
Ans
.: (a) 2w ebers; ( b
) 0 ; ( c
) 1.
414 w ebe rs
.
P
rob. 4
-3. 4
-6. C ons
ider a s quare a rea w ith corne rs at t he
o
r
igin (0
, 0)
, and a
t (
xi,0
) (0
, y2)
,a nd (xi,y2). IfBn orma l t o the area i sgiven b y

B = 3s
i
n (-
7 2
) s
i
n (Ir y
) w
eber
s/me
ter
'
x
i Y
t

f
i
nd the t
otal magnet
ic f
lux over t
he square area.
4
-7. At h
in li
nearconductor ofleng
th l and carrying ac urrent /isc
oincidentwith
t
he yax
is. The med ium surrounding the c
onducto ri
sair
. O ne e
nd ofthe condu
ctor
i
sat adis
tance ylfr
om the origin a
nd the other end at adistance y2. Show thatthe
f
l
ux dens
ity due to t
he c
onductor at ap oint o n the x a
xi
s a t adis
tance x1 fr
om the
o
rig
in i
s
B = 4P
°_
1 r 1
2 y
l
‘
1
11
-X1 LV" 1
'+ y
s
' Vx
12+ Y
id
Note t hat i ft he c enter o f the c onductor c oincides w ith t he origin ( —yi =1 1) and i
f
x1 > 1 ,the e xpre ssion reduces t o B =i sol/47x ii.
4-8. Two l ong t hin pa rale lw iresseparated b y 1c mi na irc arry curren tsof1 00 amp
i
n o ppos ite direct ions. F ind t he magn itude a nd dire ction o f the fo
rce o n a5-meter
l
eng th o fo ne w ire.
4-9. Au niform c yl
indr ica l coil
, or so
leno id, of 1,000 t urns i s5 0 cm l ong and 5c m
i
nd iame ter. I ft he c o
ilc arries ac urrent of 10 ma, f i
nd t he flux density ( a
)a tthe c
en-
t
er o ft he coil; (b) o n the a x
is a t one end oft he coil
; ( c
) o nt he axis hal
fway b etween
t
he c enter a nd e nd o ft he c oil.
4
-10 . C alculate a nd p lo t ag raph o f Ba s function o fp os
ition a long t he ax
is ofthe
s
oleno id o f Prob . 4 -9 from t he center of the solenoid t o ad istance o f 50 c m beyond
o
ne e nd .
4
-11 . As oleno id 2 0 cm l ong a nd 1cm i nd iamet e r h as au n
iform w ind ing of 1,
000
t
urns . I ft he soleno id i sp laced i n au n
iform f i
eld of 2w ebe rs/me ter'f l
ux d ensi
ty and
ac urrent o f 1 0 amp i sp as sed t hrough t he solenoid w inding , w hat ist he max imum
(
a) f o
rce o n t he s olenoid ; ( b) torque o n the so
leno id?
An.
,
.: (a) F =0 ; ( b) T =i r
/2 new ton -meters
.
4
-12 . S how t hat t he f l
ux d ensity at ap oint P o n t he a x
is o f au n
iform s o
lenoid i
s
g
iven b y
B . 0 N I (. II + OA
0-T. I
4r )

where DI = s
o
lid a
ngle subtended f
r
om the p
oint Pby t
he l
e
ft end o
f t
he s
o
lenoid
(
equals 2
r ifP isat the le
ft end o
f t
he s
o
lenoid
) and 0
2 =sol
id ang
le s
ubtended
 MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 2
03

f
rom t he point P b y the right end o f the solenoid ( e
quals 2rifP i satt he r
ighte nd
o
f t he solenoid)
. Not e tha t a
t the c enter of al ong slender s
oleno id ill —t, < 4 7
s
o tha t B = µo( N I/1
)
4-13. ( a
) What i sthe max imum t orque o n as quare loop of 100 turnsin af i
e
ld of
un
ifo rm f l
ux density B = 3w ebers/met ers? T he loop is10c m o n aside and carr
ies
acu rrento f 6amp . ( b) Wha tist he magnet ic moment o fthe loop? ( c
) Wha t isthe
magne tic moment o ft he solenoid o fP rob. 4-11?
4-14. Wha t i
st he maximum t o
rque o n as ma
ll coi
l of magnetic momen t 10 -'amp-
mete r
's i
tuated n earthe center of al ong air
-fi
lled solenoid of 1
,
000 t urns/me terwith a
c
urr ent of 1amp?
4
-15 . What i st he magne tic moment o f acoilo f 10turnsa nd area of 100 cm'carry-
i
ng ac ur
ren t o
f 1amp?

d
F
d
/1
'
Curren
t
e
lement 1

F
ro. 4
-54
. R
ela
tion o
fcur
ren
t e
l
ement
sfo
r P
rob
. 4
-
16.

4
-16
. Refer
ring t
o F
ig
. 4-54
,show t
hat t
he f
o
rce b
etween t
he t
wo c
urrente
l
emen
ts
s
i
tuated i
nair i
sgi
ven by
d
F 1
.
4
0/2 d
i
: I
,d1
1 a
l x(
a
, xa
,
) (
1
)
4
1
-11

w
here dF =f orce on el
emen t 1d ue to current 19 ine l
ement 2( newton s)
-permeab il
ity o fair (henry/mete r)
d
11 a
nd d
l, =l engths ofc urrent e
lemen ts 1a nd 2 ,respect
ive
ly ( meters
)
1
,a nd /2 = c
urrents ine l
ement s 1a nd 2,r espectively (
amp )
r= distance between e l
emen ts ( meters)
a
l =u nit vector ind i
rection o fcur rent Ita nd inel
emen t 1( d
imen s
ionles
s)
a
, =u nit vector ind i
rection o fcur rent 12 inelement 2( d
imen sionless
)
a
, =u nit vector i n di
rection f r
om e lement 2 t o 1( dimensionless)
2
04 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 4

S
how f
urther t
hat d
F =a
pdF
, where d
F i
sgiven b
y

d
F =i
dF
i _A
012d
1
2 I
idlis
in 0
2 s
i
n 0
1
4
1
-r 2

w
here 02 = a
ngle b
etween az a
nd a
. (
s
ee F
ig
. 4
-54
) a
nd 01 = a
ngle b
etween al a
nd
az x a
„ a
nd
a
l x(as xa,
)
az
,— s
in 02 s
in 0
1

where a p =u nit v
ector ind irection of f
o rce d F
.
Itist oben oted t
hat these e quations give the f orce onelement 1d ue t
ot he presence
o
f element 2 ,b ut n
ot v
ice v ersa. Tha t i s
, they a re not symme tr
ical with r e
spect t o
e
l
ement s 1a nd 2. However ,w ith two closed c i
rcu its t
he force,asgiven b ya ni n
teg ral
o
f ( 1
), isthe same for both c ircuits
. Thus , in the c ase of actua
l c i
rcuit
s N ewton 's
t
hird law, that to e
very action t here isa n equa l (and o pposite) r
eaction, issati
sfied.
4-17. Two l oopsare a
rranged a ss hown i nc rosss ect
ion inF ig
. 4
-55. I fthe separa -
t
ion s i sl a
rge c ompared w i
th t he size of t he
Cr—L oop 1 i
L
oop 2 l
oop s, show t ha
t the t o
rque T o n lo
op 2d ue t o
l
oop 1i sg iven b y

.
1 2
,
r8.
whe
re m = magne
tic moment o
f l
oop 1 a
nd
FI
G
. 4
-55
. L
oops f
or P
rob
. 4
-17
. m
' = magnet
ic moment o
floop 2.
4
-18
. Ca
lcula
te t
he i
nductance of au
nifo
rm,
5
,000-turn soleno idal c o
il 5 0 cm l ong a nd o f 1cm r adius . The med ium i sa ir
.
4
-19. C alcu late the inductance o fa n air-f
il
led t oro
ida l c o
il of 10 cm 2 c ros s
- sectiona l
a
rea with amean r adiu so f6 0 cm. The t oroid h a s au niform w inding o f 10,000 t urns .
4
-20. F ind H a tthe c enter of ac ircular 1 00-turn c oil 1me ter ind iame ter s i
tua ted i n
a
ir and carrying a c ur rent o f 10 amp .
4
-21. Two i d
entical 1 00-turn c ircular c oi
ls 1 me ter i n diameter h ave t he ir a xes
c
oinc
ident a nd a re spaced 1mete r a part, form ing a "H elmho ltz p air." B oth c arry
1
0 amp i n the s ame s ense . C a
lcu late a nd p lo t the v ariation o f H a long t he a x
is o f
t
he coils fr
om t he cent er o f one c oil to the c ent er of the o ther. A lso c alcu late a nd
p
lot the varia tion of H , a long the a xis of as ingle 100 -turn c o
il 1me ter i n diame te r
,
d
ue t o ac urrent I i n t he c o
il. L et the s ingle c oil be s i
tuated h alfway b etween t he
c
oi
ls oft he H elmho ltz p air and wi th itsa x
is c oinciden tw ith t he axis oft he p ai r. A lso
l
et Ih ave such a v a
lue t hat H a t t he center o ft he single c oi
l i sthe s ame a s H f rom
t
he He lmho ltz p air a t t his point . A ssume t hat t he c oils h ave n egligib le c ros s
-
s
ect
iona l area s o tha t e ach may b e represen ted b y at hin s ingle-turn l oop.
4
-22. At r ansm ission l ine consist s o
f t wo l ong, t h
in p arallel conduc tor s that c ar ry
c
urrent s o
f 1 0 amp i n o pposite direc t
ions. The c onductor s are s paced a d is tance 2 s
a
par t. D raw a f i
e
ld map f or ap lane n o rma l to the w ires
. S how b o
th H l ines a nd
l
i
nes o fequa l magnet ic potential
. I ndica te the v alue ofp otential foreach equipo ten-
t
ia
l l i
ne. L et the li
ne j o
ining t he w ires b e aribitrarily taken t o have zero potent ia
l.
(
Compare t his map w ith F ig
.2 -21 f o
rt wo p aralle
ll ines ofcharge s paced adis
tance 2 s
.)
4-23. Neg lecting e dge e fects
, c a
lcu late t he i nductance p er u n
it length o f ad -c
t
ran smiss
ion l ine consist
ing o f t wo p arallel conduct ing s tr
ips 3 0 cm w ide s
itua ted in
a
ir
. The s eparation e verywhere b etween t he st
rip s is 2cm .
4-24. A n air-f
il
led c oaxial d-c t r
ansm ission l i
ne h as a n inner conductor of circular
c
ross sect
ion ( diameter = 3cm ) s i
tuated s ymme trically inside of an outer conducto r
o
fs quare crosss ection (s
ide d imens ion 5cm ). F ind t he inductance per unit length
o
f line.
 MAGNETIC F
IELD OF A STEADY CURRENT 2
05

4
-25. Al ong, s t
raight t ubular conductor o f c
ircular c ross s e
ction w ith a n outs
ide
d
iameter of 5 cm a nd w al
l thickness of 0 .5 c m carries a direc t current o f 100 amp .
F
ind H ( a
) just inside t he w al
l oft he tube ; (b) j
ust o utside the w a
ll oft he tube; ( c
)
a
t ap o
int int he tube w all hal
fway b e
tween t he inner a nd o uter surface s
.
4
-28. At oroida l air
-filled coil has au niform w ind ing o f 5,000 t urns. I fthe coil
c
ross s
ect
ion is1 5 c m 2,the mean r adius 1me ter, and t he curren t 2amp , f i
nd (a) the
i
nductance oft he coil
; ( b) the energy st ored b y t
he magne t
ic f i
eld oft he c o
il; (
c) the
magnet
ic energy d ensity i nside the coi
l.
4
-27. A transm ission l i
ne c ons
ists of t wo parallel conduc t ing st r
ips 3 0 c m wide
s
i
tuated ina i
r w ith a u niform s eparation o f 2cm. T he l i
ne c arr
ies ad irect cu
rren t
o
f 100 amp. N eglecting e dge efects, f i
nd t he magne tic ene rgy d ensity a t ap o
in t
b
etween the st
r ips.
4
-28. Prove t hat V •( V xF ) =0 ,w here F is av ector func tion given b y

F=i
F. j
F„ k
F,

4
-29
. Prove that V x ( vf
) =0 ,where fis ascalar f
unction.
4
-30
. D eve
lop c url B i n c
yl
indr
ical coordinates by a pplying t
he p
rocedure o
f
S
ec
. 4-23 t
o t
hree s
i des ofthe v
olume shown inF ig. 4
-56.
4
-31
. For steady c ur
rents J = v xH . S how t hat

V •J = 0
r
A9
4
-32
. F
or s
ta
tic f
i
e
lds E
, = -VV
. S
how t
hat

v xE
, =0

4
-33. Given t hat B = V x A , show that v •B = 0 .
4
-34. D erive (4-185) fo r the f l
ux density due to asho rt
l
i
near c onducto r using the v ector potentia
l a nd spherical
0
c
oordinates. H int
: C onver t A , in
to i ts spher
ical c om - r (
rft,r)A0
p
onen ts
, and t hen apply c ur
l Ai nsphericalcoordinates (see
Fm.4-56. V o
lume el
e-
Appendix).
ment f
or Prob. 4-
30.
4
-35. S how t hat the c url of vector potentia
l Aa s given
i
n (4
- 176) yields the flux dens ity B as in (4
-167). H in t
: N o
te the vecto
r i d
ent
ity:

V x(
fF
) =(
Vf
) xF f
(V x F
)

where fis as calar function a nd F a vector function.

4
-36. Find t he curl oft he vector function A = i x2y2 j
zi
.
4
-37. Av ector f i
eld isg iven by F j
x 2. Find t he c u
r l o
ft he c u
rl of F.
Ans.: - j6x.
4
-38. IfH h as only a zc omponent g i
ven b y H, = 3c os Et
x + 6s in -y
y amp/met er,
whatisthe e
xp ress
ion f orthe currentd ensity J
? The f ie
ld i sst
eady w ith respectt otime .
4
-39. Av ector f ie
ld G = j( s
in x) 2. Find (a)t he curlo fG; ( b
) the value oft he curl
o
f Ga t x= 7 /4. Ans.
: ( a) ksin 2 x; (b
) k.
4
-40. A v ector f unction F = i 2
x j
3xy 2z
. ( a) F ind t he c u
rl o f the curl of F .
(
b) Evaluate t he curl oft he curl of Fa t the po
int x = 2 , y= 2 , z= 2 .
4
-41. If t he v ector p otential A =1 5
(x 2 + y2 -I z2) 1 w
- ebe r/me ter
, w hat i s the
r
e
lation for the f l
ux d ensity B 7
4
-42. Prove t hat V x H 0
, where H i sthe f i
e
ld o utside of al ong, straigh t w
i re
c
arrying ac ur rent I.
4
-43. Av ector f unction F = i x +j xy kn.
. F ind t he cur
l o f F.
4
-44. Wha t i sthe flux d ens
ity at the center of as quare l oop of 10t urns c a
rrying a
c
urrent of 1
0 amp? The l oop isina ira nd is 2me ters o n as ide.
 CHAPTER 5

THE S
TAT
IC MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF
FERROMAGNET
IC MATER
IALS

5
-1 . I n troduc t
ion . Magne t ic f i
elds a re p resent a round a c ur rent-
c
a r
ry ing c onduc to r. They a l
so e x
is ta round amagne tized o b
jec ts uch a s
a
n i ron b ar magne t. A lthough t he f i
eld o ft he i r
on b ar isn o t p roduced
byc ur ren tc i
rcui tso ft he type c on sidered i nC hap . 4,w e may r ega rd c u
r-
r
en ts a s t he c ause . Howeve r, i n t he b ar t he c urrent c ircu its a re of
a
tom ica lly s mal
l d imen sion s. I n c on tra st to t hese m ic
ros cop ic c ircu its
,
t
he c i
rcu i ts c onside red i nC hap . 4a r e o fm acros copics i
ze.
Ane l
ec tron r evo lv ing i ni t
so rb ita round t he n ucleus o fa n atom f o
rm s
at iny e lec tric c ur rent l oop. S ince a c ur rent l oop h a s a magne tic f i
eld
a
nd a l
l a toms h ave r evo lving e lec trons w e m igh t suppo se t ha t a l
l s ub-
s
tance s w ou ld e xh ib it magne tic e fec ts. Howeve r
, s uch e fect s a re v ery
weak i n mo st ma te rials. T he re i s ag roup o fs ub stance s,h oweve r,i nclud-
i
ng i ron, n ickel, a nd c oba lt, i n w hich magne tic e fect s are v ery s trong.
The se s ub stance s a re c alled f e
r romagn et i
c ma t e
rials. B oth t he o rbital
motion a nd t he e lec tron s pin ( or r ota tion o ft he electron a round i ts o wn
a
xis) c ont ribu te t ot he magne tic e fec t, t he s p
in b eing p a
rticu la rly i mpor-
t
an t. Th is e lect ron , o r c ha rge , mo tion i se qu ivalent i n its e fec t t o an
e
xceed ing ly t iny c urren t l oop . T hi s t i
ny l oop i si n e fect a m inia ture
magne t o r magne tic d ipo le w ith magne tic moment ( Q.l) e qua l t o t he
moment ( IA ) oft he c ur ren tl oop. A lthough t he momen to fe ach a tom ic
c
u r
ren t l o op i sv e ry s ma ll
, t he c omb ined e fect o fb i
llions o ft hem i na n
i
ron b a r resu lts i n as trong magne tic f ie
ld a round t he b ar
.
5
-2 . B ar Magne ts a nd Magne tic P oles. I f an i r
on b ar magne t is
f
reely s uspended , i tw i
llt urn i nt he e arth's magne t
ic f i
eld sot ha to ne e nd
p
oint sn orth . Th ise nd i sc alled t he "n orth -seek ing p ole" o ft he magne t
o
r s imp ly i ts nor th p ole. T he o the r e nd o f the magne t h a
s ap ole o f
o
ppo site p ola r
ity c al
led as ou th p ole.'
A
ll magne t
ized b odie sh ave b o th an or th a nd as outh p ole. T hey c an-
n
o t b e i sola ted. F or examp le, c on s
ide r t he long magne tized i r
on r od of
F
ig. 5 -la. Th is r od h as an or th p ole a t o ne e nd a nd as ou th p ole a tt he

1I
ti ss
ome t
imes c
onven
ient t
o c
a
ll ano
rth p
o
le ap
osi
tiv
e p
o
le a
nd a s
outh p
ole a
n
ega
tiv
e po
le.
2
06
SE
C. 5
-4
1 MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2
07

o
the r
. I ft he rod isc ut inhalf, new polesappear a
si nF ig
. 5-lb so t
hat
t
he re a
re two magne ts. I feach o f t
hese i
scu t i
n ha
lf, w e o
b ta
in four
magne t
sa si nF ig. 5
-1c, each with an or
th and asouth pole. T he r
eason
f
or this i
st ha t the ultimate s ource o
f the f
erromagnetism i s a moving
e
lectron or a tom ic current circuit
which act
s like at iny magne t w i
th N
(
a)
an orth and as outh p o
le. T here-
SN
f
ore, even i f the c utting proce ss (
6)
c
ould bec on
tinued t oa tomic d
imen - N SN SN SN
(
C)
s
ions a nd a s ing le i ron a tom i so- F io. 5
- 1
. N ew p olesa ppea ra teach p oint
k
ited , i tw ou ld s t
ill h ave a n orth o fdivision o f ab ar magne t.
a
nd as outh p ole.
T he f act t ha t magne tic p o
le s c anno t b e i sola ted , w he rea s elec tric
c
harge s can, i sa n i mpo rtant p oint o fdiference b etween e l
ec tric cha rges
a
nd magne t ic p oles.
5-3. Magne tic Ma terials. A ll ma teria
ls s how s ome magne tic e fect s.
With t he excep tion o f the f e
rromagne tic g roup t he se e fect s are w eak .
D epend ing o n t heir magne t
ic b ehav ior, sub s tance s c an b e c lassif
ied a s
d
iamagn e
tic
, p a ramagn e
tic, and f erroma gnetic. I n d iamagne tic ma te r
ia ls
t
he magne tiza tion ( see S ec. 5-7) i so pposed t o t he a pp lied f i
eld, wh ile i n
p
aramagne tic ma terials t he magne tization i si nt he s ame d irect ion a s t he
f
i
eld. T he ma ter ialsi nb o
th g roup s, howeve r, s how o nly w eak magne t
ic
e
fec ts. Ma teria ls i nt he fer
romagne t
ic group , o n t he o ther h and, s how
v
ery s trong magne tic e fec t
s. T he magne t
iza tion i si nt he s ame d irec tion
a
s t he f i
eld, t he s ame a s for p a ramagne t ic ma te ria ls.' Mo st of t his
c
hap ter d eal s w ith t he magne tic f i
elds oft he f erromagne tic ma terials.
An umbe r o fs ub stance s are c lassif
ied in T ab le 5 -1 a cco rding t o the ir
magne tic b ehav io r. Many s ub stance s show s uch w eak magne tic e fect s
t
hatt hey are c alled " nonmagne t
ic." Howeve r, v acuum i st he o n
ly t r u
ly
n
onmagne t
ic m ed ium .
5
-4 . R ela tive P ermeab il
ity
. I n d eal
ing w ith many m edia, i ti so ften
c
onven ient t os peak o ft he re
la tive p ermeab il
i ty Mr d efined a s

A
i
r = (
5-1 )
M
o
w
here A, =-re
la t
ive p
ermeab il
ity ( d
imens ionless)
=permeabil
ity (henry s/me ter
)
0 =p
µ ermeabil
ity ofv acuum ( 47 X 1 0-7 henry/meter
)
I
tist o be no
ted that the r
elative permeab il
ity i s adimens
ionles
s ratio.
The r
e
la t
ive permeabi
lity ofv acuum o rfr
ee space isunity b
y def
ini
tion .
T
he rela
tive permeabil
ity ofd iamagne tic substance s i
ssl
ight
ly le
ss than
1
, whi
le for paramagnetic s
ub stances itiss l
igh t
ly greater t
han 1. T he
F
erromagne
tic ma
ter
ials a
re s
ome
time
s c
l
assed a
s "
strong
ly p
aramagne
tic
."
2
08 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 5

r
elative p ermeab il
ity o f t he f erromagne tic ma te rials i sg enerally much
g
reate r than 1a nd i n some s pec ia
l al
loy s may b e a s large a s 1m ill
ion .
The re
la tive p e
rmeab i
lity o fdi amagne t
ic a nd p aramagne tic sub stances
i
sr e
la t
ive ly c onstan t and i ndependen t o
f t he app lied f i
eld much a s t he
r
e
la tive pe rmittivity ofd ielec tric substancesi sindependent o ft he appl ied
e
lectric f i
eld i ntensity. However , the r e
la t
ive p e rmeab ility o f f erro-
magne tic ma te r
ials v ar
ies o ver a w ide range f o
r d iferent a pplied f i
eld s
.
I
ta lso depend s o n the prev ious h i
story oft he s pecimen ( s
ee Hy stere sis
,
S
ec. 5 -
13). Howeve r, the max imum r e
lative p ermeab ility i s arela t
ive ly
d
efinite q uan tity f or ap articula r fe
rromagne tic ma ter
ia l a l
though i n
d
ife rent ma terials the max imum may o ccur at d iferent v alues o f t he
a
pp l
ied f i
eld. T his subject i scon s
idered in mo re d etail inS ec. 5-12.
I
n T able 5 -
1, t he re
la tive p e rmeab i
lit
ie s ji
,are l i
sted f or an umber o f
s
ub s
tance s. T he s ubstance s a re arranged i n orde r o fi ncreasing p erme -
a
bili
ty , and t hey a re also c la s
sified as to group t ype. T he v alue g i ven
f
or t he ferromagne tic ma terials i sthe max imum r elative p ermeab ility.

TABLE 5
-1

S
ubs
tance G
roup t
ype R
elat
ive p
ermeab
ili
ty µ
,

B
ismuth D
iamagne tic 0
.99983
S
i
lve r D
iamagne tic 0
.99998
L
ead D
iamagne tic 0
.999983
Coppe r D
iamagne tic .
999991
Wa ter Diamagnetic .
999991
Vacuum Nonmagne tic 1(by def
ini
tion)
A
ir Paramagnetic 1
.0000004
A
lum inum Paramagnetic 1
.00002
Pal
lad ium Paramagnetic 1
.0008
2
-81 P ermaloy p owder ( 2 Mo, 8
1 N
i)t F
er romagnetic 1
30
Cobalt Ferromagne t
ic 2
50
N
icke l Ferromagne t
ic 6
00
F
er roxcube 3 (Mn -Zn-fer
rite) Ferromagne t
ic 1
,500
Mild S teel (0
.2 C) Ferromagne t
ic 2
,000
I
ron ( 0.2 i mpur
ity) Ferromagne t
ic 5
,000
S
il
icon i r
ons ( 4Si) Ferromagnetic 7
,000
7
8 P erma lloy (78.5 Ni
) Ferromagne t
ic 1
00,000
Purif
ied i ron (0
.05 impurity) Ferromagne t
ic 2
00,000
Superma l
loy ( 5 Mo, 79 Ni) Ferromagne t
ic 1
,000,000

tP
ercentage c
ompo s
ition. R ema
inde
r i
sir
on a
nd i
mpur
itie
s.
U
sed in power t
ransformer
s.

5-5
. The Fo rce between Bar Magnets and Cou lomb's Law
. A lthough
amagnetic pole canno t b
eisola
ted
, ane quivalent efect may b
eo bta
ined
w
ith two very l ong
, u n
iformly magne
tized need les a
s in F
ig
. 5
-2. H e
re
t
wo north pole s ofstrength Q„
,iand Q m2 a
re separated by adi
stance r.
SE
C. 5
-5
1 MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2
09

I
f t
his d
istance i
s sma
ll c
o mpared w
ith t
he d
istance t
o t
he s
outh p
oles a
t
t
he o
ther e
nds o
f t
he magnets
, t
he efect o
f t
he s
outh po
les may b
e
n
eglected
. Under t
hese c
ond
itions i
t was f
ound by Cou
lo mb t
hat t
he
f
orce b
etween t
he n
eed
les s
uspended i
n a
ir i
spropor
tiona
l t
o t
he p
roduct
o
f t
he p
ole s
trengths a
nd i
nverse
ly p
roport
iona
l t
o t
heir s
eparat
ion r
.
The q
uant
itat
ive r
elat
ion i
s k
nown a
s Cou
lo mb
's l
aw f
or magnet
ic p
oles

-(
4
.1 +
42.
1 'Ka p
-4 r
A
a
,
. ;

M
agnetized
need
les

FI
G
. 5
-2
. Two l
ong magne
tized n
eed
les u
sed i
nde
term
ining C
oulomb
's l
aw.

a
nd i
n t
he mksc s
yste m i
sexpressed by

POQ m1 Qm2
F = a
„ 4
r r
2
(
5-2
)1

where F = f
orce (
newtons
)
a
,
. = un
it v
ector a
long l
i
ne j
oin
ing p
oles
m
o = p
er meab
ility o
f a
ir (
4w X 1
0-7 h
enry/ meter
)
(
2.1 a
nd Q
.2 =s
trength o
f n
orth p
oles o
f n
eed
les (
a mp
- meters
)
r= d
istance b
etween p
oles (meters
)
As s
uggested i
n F
ig. 5
-2, t
he f
orce i
soutward (
repu
lsive
) i
fthe two p
oles
a
re o
f t
he s
a me k
ind
, but t
he f
orce i
sinward (
attract
ive
) i
fthe p
oles a
re
un
like
.
1I
n o
rder t
o a
chieve c
omplete mathemat
ical s
ymmetry wi
th Cou
lomb
's l
aw f
o
r
e
l
ectr
ic c
hange
s, C
oulomb's l
aw f
or magne
ts issome
time
s wr
itten

1 (4
,1(42
F.
=a,
4
t
ra o r2

where or
i
,
t, and Q *
„„ are f
i
c t
itious magnetic cha rges e
xpressed inw ebers
. T h
is pro
-
c
edu re
, howeve r
, leads t
oi ncons
istencie
s. S ee E rik Ha
lle
tt,S ome Unitsinthe Giorg
i
S
y s
tem a nd t he C.G.S. System, T rans
. R oy
. I nst
. 7'
echn
. ( S
tockho
lm )
, N o
. 6, 1947
.
S
ee a l
so J. A. Stratton
, "E lectromagne t
ic T heory," McG raw -Hil Book C ompany,
I
nc., New Y ork, 1941, p
.2 42.
2
10 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 5

D
ivid
ing (
5
-2) b
y Qm 2
,we o
bta
in t
he f
o
rce p
er u
nit p
ole a
s

Q
t
ral
— a
.
, r•
T r
2 (
5-3)
Q
in2

From (
4
-4) t
he f
o
rce p
er u
nit p
ole i
s am
easu
re o
f t
he f
l
ux d
ens
ity B
.
Thus
Qm
B=a
,
.Tr T2 (
5
-4)

whe
re B = f
l
ux den
sity a
tdis tance rf
r
om p
ole o
fst
reng
th Q
„
, (
new
tons/
amp-me
ter o
r w
ebers/meter 2)
.
E
xamp le. Find the flux dens
ity at adis
tance o
f 10 cm in a
i
r from a n or
th p ole
w
ith a st
rength o
f 1,000 amp me ters. Also f
i
nd the f
orce on a
nother nor
th p o
le of
e
qual s
trength a
t t
hi
s d i
stance. A s sume t
hat t
he s
outh po
les a
re a
t alarge distance.
S
olu
tion. F rom (5-4) the magnitude o
f t
he f
lux d
ens
ity is

B = Q
„
, 4
r X 1
0-3 1
03
= 1
0-2 n
ewton/amp
-met
er
4
7 r2 4
r 1
0-2

S
ince t
he po
le i
sp o
sit
ive
, t
he d
irec
tion o
f Bisrad
ialy away f
rom t
he p
ole
. Ano
the
r
p
ole o
fe qua
l s
trength a
t t
h
is p
oint i
sacted o
n by af
orce o
f magn
itude

F=QB 1
0g X 1
0's = 1
0 n
ewtons

The d
irect
ion o
f t
he f
orce F i
sthe s
ame a
s f
o
r t
he f
l
ux d
ens
ity B
.

5
-6. Magne t
ic D ipoles a nd Magne t
iza t
ion
. A c
co rding to ( 4
-45) a
l
oop ofarea A with current Ih as amagne tic moment ofI A. T he fi
e
lds
a
t al a
rge d
istance from t h
is lo
op are i
dentica
l with those of amagne t
ic
d
ipo
le o fpo
le st
reng th Q „
, a nd le
ngth 1as inFig. 5
-3 provided the mag-
n
etic momen t of the bar i
se qual to tha
t o f t
he
M
agne
t l
oop, that is
, p
rovided
A
r
ea A
Q
„
,1 =/
A (
5
-5)
L
o
op A
lthough i n the case of a n a c
tua l magne t .the
v
alue o fthe p o
le s t
reng th Q„
,a nd pole separation 1
FIG
.5 -3
. B ar magnetof
moment Q „
,1 a
nd e qu
iv- may b e indefin ite
, t heir p roduc t, or ma gn et
ic
a
lent c urrent l oop of mom ent Q„
,1
, i s ad ef
ini
te q uan t
i ty a nd iss
uf icient
moment I A. t
os pecify the fi
eld sof amagne ta t al a
rge distance
f
rom i t
.
I
t w as Ampe re's theory t ha t the p ronounced magne t
ic e fects o f an
i
ron b aro ccu rred w hen l arge numbe r so fatom ic-s
ized magne tsassocia ted
w
ith t he i r
on a tom sar eo riented int he same d irec
tion s ot ha tthei
re fects
a
re a dditive. T he precise n ature oft he tiny magne t si sno ti mportan ti f
we confine o ur a t
tention t o reg
ion s c ontain
ing l arge n umbe rs of them .
Thu s
, t hey may b e regarded a s t i
ny magne ts or a s min iature cur rent
l
oop s
. I n either case, iti ssuf i
cient t od esc
ribe t hem b y thei
r magne t
ic
moment , wh ich c an be e xpressed e i
the r as Q.
1 o ra s I A
.
SE
C
. 5
-6
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNET
IC MATERIALS 2
11

C
onside rthe long i
r
on rod s
hown inc r
o s
ss ect
ion inF ig. 5
-4
. A ssume
t
ha t a
ll ofthe a
tom ic magnet
s are u
niform ly d
istr
ibu ted th
roughou t the
r
od a nd a re o
r
ien ted in t
he same di
rection as sugge s
ted in the fi
gure.
This state o
fa fairs may be d
escr
ibed as o ne o
fu ni
form magne t
ization.
The e fect of the atomic magnets (or magne t
ic dipo le
s) can b e con-
A
x
is o
fro
d

-
-
(- .
.:
•
1 = 1 1=
— 1=
1 =
1 1= 1=1 1 = = 1 = JILL)
1 a = =1 =1 C M =1
= 1 lil
l =1 L
i = 1=
=1
3 = I 1 = 1=
=
1
1
.

a
—• —

A
r
ea 4
k / I
F
ro. 5
-4
. Un
iform
ly magne
tized r
od w
ith e
l
ementa
l magne
tic d
ipo
les
.

v
enien
tly d
escr
ibed by aquant
ity c
al
led the magne
tiza
tion M
, which i
s
d
ef
ined a
s t
he magnet
ic d
ipole moment p
er un
it vo
lume.' T hus

m Q
.1
m = = (
5
-6)

w
here m = Q .1 =n et magne tic (
dipole
) moment i nv o
lume v.
B
y r e
garding the separa
tion b e
tween t he p o
les o
f a magnetic dipole
a
s avector1,pointing fr
om t he s
ou th o
r negative p
ole tothe n
o r
th pole,
a
sinF ig
. 5
-5, t
he dipole momen tmi s avecto
ro f magnitude Q
.1w ith the
d
i
rection o
f1 .
I
fthe vo
lume vi nc
ludes the ent
ire rod oflength 1and
a
rea A
, w
ehave M
agne
tic
d
ipo
le
M =— = 7
)
A
l A (
5
-

Hence, magne tizat

ion h as the dimensions o
f both mag-
n
etic dipole momen t per v o
lume a nd of magne t
ic p
ole
s
trength p e
ra rea (Q V/TL = Q /TL). I tisexpres
sed i
n 1
.
4 —A x
is of
amperes per m eter
. d
ipo
le

The magne tic p o

le strength per u nit a
rea may b e
r
egarded a s ap o
le surf
aced ensi
ty pa. T hus
, atthe e
nds Fro. 5- . Mag
5 -
n
et
ic dipole.
o
ft he lo
ng, u n
iform ly magne t
ized i
ron rod t
here i
s ap
ole
s
urface den si
ty e qual to the magne tizat
ion M . T hat i
s
,

P
am T
— Qm A
f (
5
-7a
)

The va
lue ofM i n (5-6
) isa n ave
rage for t
he vo
lume v. T odefine M
a
t apoint, i
tisconven ient toassume t hat t
he i
ron r
od has ac
ontinuou s
d
ist
ribut
ion o f inf
initesimal magne tic dipo
les
, t ha
t is
, ac ontinuou s
magnet
ization, whereas the dipoles actua
lly a
re of d
isc
rete
, fi
ni
te s i
ze.
Never
theless
, the assump tion of continuous magnet
izat
ion le
ads t o no
The magne
tizat
ion M isana
logous t
o t
he e
l
ectr
ic po
lar
iza
tion P (
Sec
. 2
-3)
. The
p
olar
izat
ion P p
/v = Q
I/v
, where p Q I =net d
ipo
le moment i
nthe vo
lume v
.
2
12 ELECTRO MAGNET1C
S [
CHAP
. 5

a
pprec
iable er
rorprovided thatw er e
s t
ricto ur a
ttent
ion tov o
lumes con
-
t
a
ining many magnetic dipoles
. T hen, assuming continuous magne
tiza
-
t
i
on, t
he va
lue ofM at ap ointc an b
ed efined a
st he ne
td ipo
le moment m
o
f asmal
l volume Av divided b y t
he v o
lume w ith the lim
it t
aken as A
v
s
hr
inks t
o zero a
round the p o
int. T hus

M = l
im —
m
A amp/me
ter (
5
-8)
z
w
-o hV
I
fM isk nown as afunc
tion o
fpos
ition i
n an onun
iform
ly magne
tized
r
od
, the t
o
ta l magne
tic moment o
fthe rod i
sgiven by

m=f
vM d
v amp
-me
ter
s2 (
5
-9)

whe
re t
he i
n
teg
rat
ion i
sca
rried o
ut o
ver t
he v
olume o
fthe r
od
.
Example
. I f t
he long
, un
iformly magne tized r
od o
f Fig
. 5
-4 ha
s N
' e
l
emen
tal
magnet
ic dipo
les o
f moment Am, f
ind the magnet
izat
ion o
fthe b
ar
.
S
olut
ion. F rom (5
-6) t
he magnetiza
tion is

N
'
M = —
v =a
A"' Am

where M = magne tization (amp/meter )

N" = N '/v = n umber ofe lementaldipo
les per unit v
olume (meter
ss)
a= u ni
t vector indirection o
fr od a
xi
s, poin
ting from the s
outh to t
he n
orth
po
le (dimen s
ionless)
I
nt his c
ase t
he magne tizat
ion M i sb
oth anaverage value a
nd al
so t
he va
lue anywhere
i
nt he rod s
ince the magne t
iza t
ion isassumed uniform.

5
-7. U n
iformly Magne tized R od a nd E quivalent Soleno
id. I n
stead
o
f rega
rding t hat the magne t
izat
ion o f the r od magne t o
f Fig
. 5-4 is
c
aused byt i
ny ba r magne
ts or magnetic d
ipo les, wecan cons
ider
,a sdone
b
y Ampe re, t
ha titisproduced b yminiature c urrent l
o
op sasinFig. 5-6
.1
That i
s
, inp l
ace ofe ach d
ipole ofFig
. 5-4 t here is ac
urrent l
oop i
nF ig
.
5
-6, t
heir magnetic moment s be
ing equal. T hus
Q
„
,1
' =I
A' (
5
-10
)
w
here Q
„
,1
' = magnetic moment o
f e
lementa
l magnetic d
ipo
le o
f po
le
s
trength Q„
, a
nd l
eng
th l
'
IA
' = magnetic moment o
f e
quiva
lent c
urren
t loop o
f a
rea A
'
w
i th c
urrent /
A
ssum
ing t
hat t
here a
re n l
oops i
n as
i
ngle c
ros
sse
ction o
fthe r
od (
a
sin
e
nd v
i
ew i
nF ig
. 5
- 6
), we h
ave
n
A' =A (
5
-11
)
where A
' =a
rea ofel
ementa
l l
oop
A =c
ros
s-sec
tiona
l a
rea o
frod
1I
t i
sas
sumed t
hat t
he r
od i
sun
ifo
rmly magne
tiz
ed.
SE
C. 5
-7
] MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2
13

Fu
rthe
r, l
etusas
sume t
hatthe
re are N s
uch s
e
tso
flo
opsi
nthe l
e
ngth o
f
t
he r
od (
see s
i
de vi
ew i
nFig
. 5-6
). T hen

nN = N
' (
5
-12
)

w
here n = n
umber o floops in ac
ros
s se
ction o
frod
N =number o fsuch sets o
flo
ops
N
' =t ota
l n umber ofloops i
nrod
I
tfo
llows t
hat the magnetiza
tion M ofthe r
od i
sgiven b
y

m N
'IA ' N
In A
' NI
m = = = —1 = K
' (
5
-13
)
l
A 1 A

whe
re K' =equ
ivalent s
hee
tcur
ren
tdens
ity o
nthe o
uts
ide s
urface o
fthe
r
od (amp/me
ter
).

S
i
de v
i
ew Un
iformly
E
nd v
i
ew
magnet
ized rod

nl
oops
Nuts A
rea A
o
flo
ops
na
. 5
-6
. Un
iform
ly magne
tized r
od w
ith el
emen
tal c
urrent l
oops
.

Refer
ring t
o the e nd view oft he r
od inF
ig. 5-
6 , i
tist o b
e noted t
hat
t
here are equal a nd o pposite
ly d i
rected c
urrents w herever loops a
re
a
djacent sothatt he currents have non e
tefectw ith t
he except
ion ofthe
c
urrents at the periphery o f the
r
od. A s a r e
sult t here i s the )
e
quivalent o
f ac u
rren ts hee
tf l
ow -
i
ng around t
he rod ass uggested in ))1
(a)) )) ) )
F
ig. 5-6 and a l
so F ig. 5-7a. Th is
s
heet has al i
nea r current d ensity 0 r
.
- y\+-'sV ,1 :\ 1.\
K
' amp p erm eter. A l though t he
s
ets ofcurrent l oopsa res hown f o r I LL /
c
lar
ity i n F ig. 5 -6 w ith a l arge (
b)
s
pacing, t he a ctual s pacing i so f F lo. 5-7
. (a) Uniform ly magnet
ized rod
a
nd (b
) equiva
lent solenoid
.
a
tom ic dimen sions s o that macro -
s
copical
ly w e c an a ssume t ha
t t he c u
rrent s heet isc on
t inuous.
Thistype o f ac urren ts heeti se fectively w hatw ea l
so h ave inthe case
o
f as o
leno id w ith many t urns off ine wire, as in Fig. 5- 7h
. The a ctual
2
14 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 5

s
hee
t c
urrent d
ens
ity K f
o
r t
he s
o
leno
id i
s

NI
K = 7 - amp/me
ter (
5
-14
)

where N = n umbe r oft urns i

ns olenoid (dimensionless)
I= c urrent through each t u
rn ( amp)
=le ngth ofs o
lenoid (me ters
)
The sheet current density K may b e expressed either in amperes p
er
meter or i
n ampe re
-tu rns per meter.
Ifthe so
lenoid ofF ig. 5-
7b isthe same l eng
th a nd diameter as t
he r
od
o
fF ig
.5 -7a
,a nd ifK = K ', t
he so
leno id isthe magne t
ic equiva
lent o
fthe
r
od.
At the center of al ong, sl
ende r soleno
id t he magn itude of t
he fl
ux
d
ensity B is
, from (4-50),

NI
B =1
.
4 0-- = A 0K w
eber
s/me
ter2 (
5
-14a
)

A
t t
he c
ente
r o
f ap
ermanen
tly magne
tized
, l
ong
, s
l
ende
r r
od

B = moK
' w
ebe
rs/me
ter2 (
5
-14b
)

I
fthe r
od i
sin
side t
he s
o
lenoid
, the magnitude o
f Bat t
he c
enter o
fthe
r
od i
s
B = Ao(
K K
') w
ebers/mete
r2 (
5-
14c)

whe
re K'isn o
t, ingene
ral, the s
ame as i
n (
5-
14b). In (
5-14b
) K 'isd
ue
o
nly to p
ermanent magne tizat
ion, whi
le in (
5-
14c) i
tal
so include
s t
he
i
nduced magnetiza
tion (
see Sec
. 5-11
).
Examp le. Au n
ifo
rm ly magnetized r od 20 cm l
ong and with a c
i
rcular c
ros
s-sec-
t
i
ona l area of 1
0 cm' has apole strength of 100 amp-meter
s. F ind the e
quivalent
s
heet c
ur rent d
ens
ity K'
. A lso fi
nd t he cur
rent Ir
equired f
or a1,
000-turn s
o
lenoid of
t
he same s i
ze t
o be magnet
icaly e quivalent.
So
lution. F rom (5
-13)

K
' = Q
.I 1
00 X 0
.2
v v 1
0-1
X0
.2 = 1
0 6 amp/mete
r

F
or t
he s
o
leno
id t
o b
e e
quiva
len
t w
e p
ut K = K
', o
r

NI
K =K
' = 1
0
'

f
r
om wh
ich
=K
'l
=1
0 'X 0
.2
—2
0 amp
I
03

5
-8. T
he Magnet
ic V
ecto
rs B
, H
, a
nd M
. E
qua
tion (
4
-76
) s
ta
tes
t
hat
, ingenera
l,

H = o
r B= 1
.
4H (
5
-15
)
SE
C. 5
-8
1 MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2
15

whe
re H = H f i
eld, or v
ector Ht (amp/mete r)
B=f l
ux dens
i ty (webers/meter'
)
= permeabi
l ity o
fm edium (henry
s/me ter)
I
n non
ferromagne tic media µ issubstant
ial
ly t he s
ame a
s t
he p
erme
-
a
bil
ity o
fv acuum µ0. H ence, innonferromagnetic med
ia

(
5
-16
)

I
n fer
romagnet
ic media p i
sno
t equa
l to WI,and H i
sdef
ined by a
mod
ifi
ca t
ion o
f (
5
-16
) thatinvo
lves t
he magne
tiza
tion M
. T hat i
s
,

(
5
-17
)
M
o

w
here M = magne
tiza
tion o
ffe
rromagne
tic ma
ter
ial (
amp/mete
r).
F
rom (
5-
17)

B m
o
(H M
) = 0(
1 ±:
7
6 H (
5
-18
)

B
yc omparison o
f(5
-18
) w
ith (
5
-15
) i
tfo
llow
stha
t,i
ngene
ral
,the p
erme
-
a
bi
lity i
sgiven b
y'

(
5
-19
)

I
n isotrop ic m edia M a nd H a re in t he same d irec t
ion s o t hat t heir
quot
ient i s ascala r
, a nd h ence µ i s ascalar. I nn onisotrop ic med ia,s uch
a
s crys tal
s, M a nd H a re, ing ene ral
, n ot int he s ame d irect
ion , a nd pi s
not as calar b ut b ecome s an ine-component q uan t
ity, o r t
enso r
. O n
ly
when H i sp a
ralle l to ac ry stal a x
is of an oniso tropic m edium w ill bo th
M a nd H b e i n t he same d irect
ion a nd µ a s calar. H ence, ( 5-17) i s a
g
enera l relation, wh ile (5-15) i s a mo re c oncise e xpre ssion, w hich, h ow -
e
ver, h as as imp le s ignif
icance o n ly for isotropic m edia o r certain s pecial
c
ases in n oniso t
rop ic m edia, that i s
, w hereve r M , H, a nd B a r
e p ara
llel.
As ingle iron c rys tali sn on
iso tropic, b ut mo sti ron s pecimens c onsisto f
a
n a ggrega te o f n ume rous c rystals orien ted a t r andom s o tha t macro -
s
copically s uch s pec imens may b e treated a s though t hey w ere is o
trop ic.
I
n such c ase s (5-15 ) c an a l
so b e a pplied a s as trictly mac roscop ic, o r
l
arge-scale, r e
lation .
S
ince V •B = 0 ,w e h ave, o n taking t he dive rgence o f (5-
17 )
,
V
• H = —V• M (
5
-20
)
tH i
ssome
time
s c
a
lled t
he "magne
tiz
ing f
o
rce
."
1The ra
tio M/H i
s adimen s
ion less quantity and i
sca
lled the magn
eti
cs usceptib
il-
i
ty that i
s M/H x. T herefore, f
rom (5-19) µ " (1 x„
,). T he ana
logous
e
l
ectr
ical quant
ity i
sthe e
lectr
ic s uscept
ibil
ity. S ee f
ootnote c
oncern
ing Eq . (2
-19),
p
.51.
 2
16 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 5

I
ft he d ivergence o f av ector f i
eld isn o t zero
, t he fi
eld h a
s as ource , or
p
lace o fo r
igin. We r ecall f
r om t he p o
lar ized d i
electric case ( Sec
. 2 -33)
t
hat V •P = p , which indica tes that t he p o
larization fie
ld o riginate s on
t
he p olarization charge ( of appa rent v olume d ens ity pp)a t the d i
electric
s
urface. I n an a nalogous manne r
, ( 5-20 ) indica tes that t he H f ield
o
rigina tes w here the magne tization f i
e
ld M e nd s and t hat t he H f ield
e
nd s w here the M f i
eld origina tes. Th is o ccur
sa tt he ends oft he rod in
F
ig. 5 -4.
'
T he dimens ions o f (5
-20 ) a re current p er a
r ea ( amp/me ter') or p ole
s
treng th per v o
lume ( amp -me ter s/me ters 3). T hu s
, div H o r div M h as
t
he d imens ions ofp ole volume d ensity, a nd w e may w ri
te

V
• H = —V •M = p
m (
5
-22
)

where p . =p ole vo
lume d ensity (amp -me ters/mete r
s).
The lo
ca t
ions w here V •H , or V •M ,i snotz ero may b eregarded asthe
l
ocations o ft he magne t
ic p o
le s o
f amagne t
ized o b
jec t
. T hus the po
les
o
f au ni
fo rmly magne t
ized r od, a
s inF ig. 5-4
, are at the end fa
ces ofthe
r
od.'
T
he q uan tity p. islike the polarization v olume d ensity p in that i
t
c
anno t be iso
la ted and, in this r
espect, isf i
ctit
ious. B y assuming that
pm exis
ts i n al ayer of small but fi
nite thickne ss at the ends of a mag-
n
etized r od, V •H o r V •M may b e la
rge b ut not inf
inite
.
F
o r au niform ly magne t
ized r od, as in Fig. 5-4
, w e have, fr
om ( 5
-7),
t
hat

I
M
I = = (
5
-23
)

where Q
. =p o
le strength oft he rod (
amp-meters)
A =area ofr od (meters')
M =m agnetization ofr od medium (amp/me ter
)
=p o
le surface densi
ty a tends o
frod (amp -meter
s/meter
')
T
he magnet
ization M h as the dimensions o
f cur
rent per l
ength (
amp/
m
e ter
). Equivalent d imension s are magnetic moment p er v
olume
S
ince H —VU
, w
e h
ave
, f
r
om (
5
-20
),

V2U = V •M (
5
-21)

This ind
icates tha
t t he magnet ic p ot
en tia
l Uf or amagne tized object isrelated to the
s
ource of the magnetiza tion.
2I
n ordinary magne ts with f l
at ends t he magne tizat
ion t ends t o be n onuniform
n
ear t he edges
. Ent irely u n
iform magne t
ization isp oss
ib le in spherically or el
lip-
t
i
ca l
ly shaped magne tic objects. However , t
he assump tion ofu niform magne t
iza t
ion
i
s ag ood approxima t
ion f or al ong homogeneous r od magne t, si
nce t he magne t
iza t
ion
i
sn early un
iform o ver a l
l oft he r od except near the edges at t
he e nds ofthe rod. I n
a
ctual magnet s with f l
at e nds t he e fect
ive s eparation between t he pole centers is
s
l
ightly les
s than the p hysical l e
ng th ofthe magne t
.
SE
C. 5
-8
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNET
IC MATERIAL
S 2
17

(
amp-mete
rsVmeter 3) a
nd po
le s
urface densi
ty (amp-meters/me
ter 2)
.
I
tfo
llow
s tha
t t
he pole st
reng
th o
f au n
ifo
rm ly magne
tized r
od i
sgiven
b
y
Q
. = iM
i A =P
=4 (
5
-24
)
T
aking t
he c
ur
l o
f (
5
-18
), w
e h
ave

V xB = Ao V X H + µ
0 V xM (
5
-25
)
o
r
V xB = /
2
0
.1 -
I
-It
o V XM (
5
-26
)
Where there isn o magne tizat
ion, (5-26) reduces to V xB - =poJ as in
(
4-127). T he c ur
l o f M h as t
he dimens ions of cur
rent density (amp/
meter'
) and represents t
he e qu
ivalent current ofdensity J
'( amp/me ter
')
f
lowing,forexamp le,i n avery th
in layera round the c
ylindr
icalsurface o
f
au n
iformly magne t
ized rod. T he l
inearc urren
t density f
orthis s
heeti s
K' (amp/me ter
) g iven by'
K
' =J ' Ax (
5
-27)
w
here A
x =t h
ickne
ss o
f l
ayer o
f c
urrent o
f ave
rage d
ens
ity J
'
. Thus
(
5
-26) b
ecomes
V xB = Ao(
J + J
') (
5
-28)
where J = a
ctual c ur
ren t dens
ity, as i
n ac urrent-carrying wire (amp/
meter')
J
' =e qu ivalent current d
ensity
, as at the surface of a magnet
ized
bar (amp/me ter
')
The f
lux density B isa lways t
he resu
lt of ac urrent or it
s equ
ivalent
.
For e
xample, the magn itude of Bat t
he center of al ong
, slender i
ron r
od
s
urrounded b y al o
ng s o
lenoid i
s
, from (5-14c),
B = mo(
K + K
') w
ebe
rs/me
ter
' (
5
-29
)
where K = s
hee t c
urrent density due t
o solenoid c
urrent (
amp/me ter
)
K' =e quiva
lent sheet current d
ensity due t
o magne t
ization ofrod
(
amp/me ter)
I
n many cases we can conven ient
ly express Bdirect
ly in t
erm s of t
he
c
urrents p
roducing itas in (
5-29). I n general
, we can a
lso expres
s Bi n
t
erms ofthe vecto
r potential A, which i
n turn isre
lated to t
he currents
.
Thus
B = Vx A (
5
-30)
I
fbo
th c
onduc
tion c
urren
ts a
nd magne
tiza
tion a
re p
resen
t,

A = A
° f J ±'' d
7 v (
5
-30a
)
4
i
r r

'For acur
rent s
hee
t ofinf
initesimal th
ickness K
' may b
e def
ined a
s i
n (5
-27
) with
A
z— • 0and J'-, 0. However , w e wi
ll assume t
hat A
x i
s smal
l but f
i
nite
, w
ith M
v
arying cont
inuous
ly over t
his layer
.
2
18 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 5

where J = V xH ( amp/me ter)

J
' = V xM ( amp/me ter)
To ilustrate f
urther the sign
ificance ofB, H, and M , t
hree s
i
tuations
w
ill beana lyzed i
nt he f
ollowing e xamples
. T hese s
ituat
ionsinvolve an
a
i
r-fi
lled toroidalcoi
l (F
ig.5 -8a), amagne t
ized ir
on ring o
fthe s
ame shape
a
s the co
il (Fig. 5
-8b), a
nd t he i
ron ring w
ith t
he toro
idalcoilwound over
A
i
rco
re I
r
onr
i
ng I
r
on ri
ng
w
i
th winding

A
rea
A

(
a) (
b) (
c
)
F
ro. 5
-8
. a) T oro
ida
l co
il w
ith gap
. ( b
) Pe
rmanen
tly magne
tized i
r
on r
i
ng w
ith
g
ap. (c) I
ron
-cored t
oro
ida
l co
il w
ith g
ap.

i
t(F
ig. 5
-8c
). I
n a
l
l t
hree c
ase
s t
here i
san
arrow g
ap a
sind
ica
ted i
nthe
d
raw
ings
.

Examp le 1. R eferr
ing to Fig
. 5-8a, atoroidal coi
l has ar ad
ius R a nd across-sec-
t
ional a rea A = Tr 1. The coil ha
s av ery n ar
row g ap as shown i n the gap detail in
F
ig. 5-9a . The c o
il is made of many turns N o f f
ine i
nsulated wire with ac ur
rent I .
Draw g raphs showing t he v
ariat
ion ofB, M, H ,a nd µalong the line ofradius R att he
g
ap ( cente r l
i
ne of co
il)
.
So
lu tion. Neg lecting the smal efect o
ft he narrow gap, Bi ssub stantialy uni
fo rm
a
round t he ins
ide of the ent
ire toro
id. S ince li> r ,it
s magn itude is, fr
om ( 4-50),
g
iven a pp rox
ima te
ly b y
oN I
P
B = u
oK w
eber
s/mete
rl (
5
-31)
2
TR

where K = magn i
tude of li
near sheet cur
rent d ensity (
amp/mete r
). Ag raph oft he
magn i
tude B along the c
enter line o
f the co
il at the gap i
sshown in Fig
. 5-96
.
No f e
rromagne t
ic mat er
ial isp re
sent so that t he magnet
izat
ion i sneg
ligible and
M = 0a s i
ndicated in F
ig. 5-9c
. I tfollows that V •M = 0a nd also V •H = 0 .
Since M = 0 ,w e have
, from ( 5
-17) and (5-31), tha
t

H _
1 = uoK . K NI
' amp/me
ter (
5
-32
)
p
i
) P
o 2
rR

There
fore, t
he magn
itude of H isconstant and e
qua
l to t
he s
hee
t current d
ens
ity K
o
f the c
oil w
ind
ing as ind
icated i
n Fig
. 5-9d
.
The permeab
ili
ty everywhere i
s po (
Fig. 5
-9e
). This a
l
so f
ol
low s f
r
om ( 5
-19) s
ince
M =0 .
SE
C
. 5
-8
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2
19

I
tistoben oted t
hat B i
scont
inuous (no abrup
tc hanges) a
nd t
hatinthis c
ase H i
s
a
lso c
ont
inuous si
nce t
here i
snof e
rromagnetic mate
rial p
resent
. B oth B a
nd H have
t
he s
ame di
rection e
verywhere inthis c
ase
.

G
ap (
- T
o
ro
w
i
id
nd
ing

(
a)
C
en
ter l
i
ne
o
fco
i
l

A
i
rco
re

7 -
M=0

(
d)

#
o
d
u (
e)
0
F
in. 5
-9
. Magnitudeso
f magne
tic quan
tit
ies a
l
ong t
he c
o
ilc
ente
r l
i
ne a
tthe g
ap i
na
t
oro
id (s
ee F
ig
. 5-8a
) (
Example 1
).

Examp le 2
. C onsider now that t
he t
oroidal c
oi
l of Examp le 1isrep
laced b y an
i
r
on r ing o
ft he s
ame s i
ze and al
so w
ith agap ofthe same d
imen sions
, assugge
st ed in
F
ig. 5-85a nd Fig
. 5-10a
. A ssume t
hat t
he ring h
as au n
iform permanent magne ti
za -
t
i
on M t hat isequal in magnitude t
o Kfor the t
oroid in Examp le 1
. D raw graph s
s
how ing the va
riation o
fB , M, H, a
nd V •H along the c
enterline o
fthe r
ing att he
g
ap.
S
olution
. The r i
ng h as an or
th p ole at t
he l
e
ft si
de ofthe gap and as outh po
le at
t
he ri
gh tside
. N eglect
ing t he small efect o
fthe narrow gap, Biss ubs
tantial
ly uni-
f
orm around t he i
nt
erior oft he en
tire ring a
nd a
lso across t
he gap
. I tisdue ent
irely
t
o t
he e qu
ivalent sheet current density K ' o
n t
he surface o
f the ri
ng. F rom ( 5
-13),
K
' =M . T hus
B = goM = A hoK' webers/meters (
5-32a)
2
20 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 5

where M a
nd K' a
re, a
ccord
ing t
o t
he s
tated c
ondi
tions
, e
qua
l to K f
o
r t
he s
oleno
id
i
nE xample 1
. H ence
, Bi st
he s
ame i
nb oth e
xample
s. It
s va
lue a
t t
he g
ap i
silus-
t
rated i
n F
ig
. 5-
106.

N
or
th p
o
le

G
ap S
outh
p
o
le

(
a)
C
enter l
i
ne
ofri
ng H

-
I
ron r
i
ng

(
b
)

K'
.
1 (
c)
0

(
d)

-
14
I I
—1
I I
4 I I
I

(
f
)
1

F
lo. 5
-10
. Var
iation o
f magne
tic q
uan
tit
ies al
ong the c
enter l
i
ne a
t t
he g
ap i
n a
p
ermanent
ly magnet
ized i
r
on r
ing (
s
ee F
ig. 5
-8
11
) (Example 2
).

I
n t he r
ing
, M K'
, but ou
tside the r
i
ng and i n t
he g
ap M = 0. S uppose t
hat
t
he change inM fr
om z ero t
o K'att he g
ap o
ccurso ver as
hortd
is
tance A
xr atherthan
a
s as quare s
tep f
unction. T he graph f
or M isthen as s
hown i
n F
ig. 5
-
10 c
.
Outside t
he r
ing and in t
he gap M = 0; 80

H =— = K
' amp/me
ter (
5
-33
)
SE
C. 5
-8
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2
21

I
ns
ide t
he r
i
ng

H = —B — M amp/mete
r (
5
-34
)

o
r a
pprox
imate
ly
H = K'— K'= 0 (
5
-35
)

The exact value of H isn ot zero' but i

ss mal
l a nd negative
. The v ar
iat
ion of H
a
cross the gap i
si lus
trated in Fig. 5
-10d
.
From ( 5
-19) the permeability in t
he r
ing islarge and negat
ive because H issmall
c
ompared w ith M a nd i
sn ega t
ive. I n t
he ai
r gap µ = mo. The v ar
iation o
f µacross
t
he gap issuggested in F
ig. 5-10e.
According to (5
-22) t
he d ivergence o
f H equals the n
egative d
ivergence of M
, and
t
his equals t
he apparent pole volume densi
ty p, i
nt he r
ing on b
oth sides o
f t
he gap.
Thus
V •H = —v •M = p
„
, (
amp
-met
ers/mete
rs) (
5
-36
)

This i
szero e verywhere except a
t the layers o
f a s
sumed t h
icknes
s Ax at the gap.
Assuming t
hat M c hangesl i
near
ly in magnitude overthis t
h
icknessand a
ssuming also
t
hat Az i
sv ery s ma
ll compared wi
th the cross
-sectiona
l diameter (
2
r) o
f the r
ing
, w e
have o
n the center l
ine
dM K
'
V •M = (
5
-37a
)
d
x 4
1
,
x
o
r

V •H ±K
' =
-- (
5
-376
)
Ax

where the uppersi gn infr

ont ofK 'app l
ies i
fM d ecreases a
nd H increases i
np roceed-
i
ng across Azi n ap o
sit
ive di
rection (
from le
fttor ight)
. The v ar
iation of V •H along
t
he center l i
ne i
si lustrat
ed in Fig
. 5-101. H ence the pole v
olume d ensity p
„, has a
va
lue o n
ly i nthe layer
so fassumed thickness Aza tthe si
desoft he gap. Th is l
ocates
t
he p o
les oft he r
ing magne t a
t the s
ides o
fthe gap, and, fo
r t
his reason, t
he ir
on s ur
-
f
aces of the gap a
re c a
lled "pole f
aces."
From ( 5-7a)
p
.
„, =M =K
' (
5
-38a
)

where p
.. i
sthe pole surface den
sity a
t t
he po
le f
aces (
see F
ig. 5
-10a)
. The p o
le s
ur-
f
ace d
ensity i
sexpressible in ampere
-meters p
er s
quare mete
ro rin ampe
res p
er me
ter.
Assuming t
hat p,
, extend s over ath
icknes
s Ax o
ft he p
ole fa
ce, we h
ave

P
.m
—x = Pm (
5
-386
)

where =a pparent pole vo

lume d ens
ity at ap ole face (
amp -meters/meters or
amp/mete rs
).
Since K' i
nt his e
xample equals Ki nExamp le 1,B and H i
nthe gap have ident
ical
va
lue s i
nb o
th e xamples
. I n the gap, t
he d
irect
ionso f Band Hare the s
ame. I nt he
i
ron ring B i
st he same as i
n the t
oroid o
f Examp le 1
,b ut H i
ss mal
ler and isal
so in
t
he o ppo
site d
irection
. An H d i
rection o
pposite t
othato f Bi
scharacter
istic o
fcondi-

The above a
nalys
is i
sapp
rox
imat
e s
i
nce i
tneg
lect
s t
he e
fect o
f t
he g
ap. S
ee
S
ec. 5
-25
.
22 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 5

t
i
ons i
ns
ide o
f ap e
rmanent magne
t. For s
imi
lar r
eason
s t
he d
i
rec
tion o
f Ei
n
side o
f
ape
rmanent e
lec
tret' i
soppo
sed t
o D
.

VX M=
K
' K G
ap VXH=J

C
enterl
i
ne (
a)
o
fc o
i
land r
i
ng
V•H=

I
r
on ri
ng
N
or
th p
o
le-
-'1 S
ou
th p
o
le w
i
th
w
ind
ing
L
x-9
11
4--
1414
-Lx
5
,
u0K
(
b)

4
K
(
c)
0

5
K
(
d)

(
e)

4
K

(
f
)
V
•11=
.v
. m =p. 0

6
,
z
Fm. 5
-11. Var
iat
ion o
f magnet
ic quan
tit
ies a
l
ong c
o
il c
ente
r l
i
ne a
t t
he g
ap i
n a
n
i
r
on-cored t
oro
id (s
ee F
ig
. 5
-8c
) (Example 3
)
.

Examp le 3
. S uppose now t hat t
he ir
on ring of t
he previous example has w ound
o
ver itthe t
oroidalcoi
lo fE xamp le 1w
ith the gap i
nthe toroid c
oincid
ing wi
th t he g
ap
i
nthe r i
ng as shown in Fig. 5
-8ca nd a
lso inthe gap deta
il of F
ig. 5-Ha. T he com-
b
ination const
itutes an iron-cored t
oro
id a s cont
rasted w i
th the air
-cored t
o roid of
Examp le 1
. L et the shee
t current d
ensity fo
r the t
oroid winding be Ka sint he fi
rs
t
'A p
ermanen
t el
ec
tre
t, o
rsimply an e
le
ctre
t, i
s adie
lec
tric b
ody t
hat i
spermanent
ly
p
olar
ized i
nthe a
bsence o
fa n app
lied e
lec
tric f
i
eld
. I ti st
he e
l
ect
rica
la na
logue o
fa
p
ermanent magne
t. S ee f
ootno
te, p.4
9.
SE
C
. 5
-8
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2
23

e
xample. F urther
, le
t t
he induced magnet
ization added t
othe p
ermanen
t magnet
iza-
t
i
on inthe r
ing yield a t
o
tal un
iform magnetization (p
ermanent a
nd i
nduced
) that i
s
e
qual i
n magn i
tude to 4K. D raw graphs show ing t
he v
aria
tion o
f B
, M, H, and
V •H a
long the c
enter l
i
ne oft he r
i
ng at the gap.
S
olu
tion
. I n t
his c
ase t
he tota
l magnetizat
ion

1
W K
' 4K amp/met
er (
5
-39
)

Neg
lec
ting t
he s
mal efect o
fthe n
arrow gap
,the f
lux d
ensity i
ssubstantialy u
niform
a
round t
he i
ns
ide o
fthe ring a
nd a
cross t
he g
ap. F rom (5-14
c) and (5
-39) i
tisg iven
b
y
B =uo(K K
') = 51.
4
0K webers/meter (
5-40)

a
s i
lus
trated inFig. 5
-11b
.
I
n t
he ring M 4K and in t
he gap M = 0 a
s shown i
n F
ig
. 5
-11c
. I t i
saga
in
a
ssumed that M changes l
inea
rly o
ver as
hor
t d
istance A
x a
t t
he p
o
le face
s.
I
n t
he gap

H = — = 5K (
5
-41)
M
o
I
n t
he r
i
ng

H — —M (
5
-42
)
;
s
o
a
nd s
o w
e h
ave v
ery n
ear
ly t
hat

H 5K — 4K = K (
5
-43
)

The v
ariat
ion o
f Hac
ros
s t
he g
ap i
sdep
icted i
n F
ig
. 5
-
11d
.
I
n t
he gap M
o. In t
he r
i
ng

A A
o (1 + m
o (1 + 4K\ 5o
KI m (
5
-44
)

The var
ia tion o fA iisshown i nF ig. 5-
11e.
The d
ivergence o fHo rp o
le v o
lume d ensity p,
,i sgiven b ythe negat
ive oft he d
iver-
g
ence ofM . T his has av alue of ± 4K/Az o ver the assumed p ole th
ickne s
s t aatt he
p
ole f
aces. T his i silustrated i n F
ig. 5-11f
. T he fact that V •H = p „, a
t the pole
f
aces i
sa lso i ndicated i n Fig. 5-
11a. E lsewhere V •H 0
.
The pole s urface d ensity pU
,, i
nt h
is examp le ise qual to 4K.
I
n this e xamp le, Ba nd H h ave the same direction b oth inthe gap and int he r
ing.
I
n the ri
ng , h owever , Hi sw eaker t han inthe g ap.
I
n this e xamp le, the toroid h as as heet current d ensi
ty of K ( amp/me ter)
, and
t
he ri
ng h as a n e quivalent sheet current density around i t
s curved surface o
f

K
' = 4K (
amp/mete
r)

I
nside aw
ire o
ft he t
oro
ida
l co
il v xH = J (
amp/meter 2)a
ssugge
sted i
nFig
. 5
-11a.
E
lsewhere v x H 0
. A tthe c
urved s
ur
face o
fthe r
i
ng v x M = J'(amp/meter
').
E
lsewhere v x M = 0.

I
n the l
as
t two examp les i
nvo lv
ing fer
romagne tic mater
ial iti
st o b
e
n
oted tha
tt he magnet
iza t
ion, or M, li
nes o
rig
inate, orhave the
ir s
ource
,
o
n asouth (
negative)pole and end on
,o rhave as asi
nk, anorth (
pos
itive
)
p
ole
. The H l ines, o
n the other hand, or
iginate
, as i
n Examp le 2
,o n a
2
24 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 5

n
orth pole and end o
n asouth po
le. T hus
, V •H has ap
osi
tive v
alue a
t
anorth p o
le, wh
ile V •M has apos
itive v
alue a
t asou
th po
le.
As afinal e
xample le
t u
s compare the f
i
e
ld s a
round as
o
lenoid a
nd the
e
quivalent permanently magnet
ized rod
.

E
xample 4
. Along, u
niform s
o
lenoid
, asinFig. 5
-12a
, iss
i
tuated i
nai
ra nd has N
I
amp
-turn
s and al
eng
th 1. Ap ermanently magnet
ized i
ron r
od, a
s i
n F
ig. 5
-12
e, has
S
o
uth M
agne
ti
zed r
o
d ,
No
rth
S
o
leno
id V
xH=.
1 po
l
e VX M=JV Ple
o
A
x
is B— .M=0 1
H L
aj A
x
is (
e
)
l
h V•H=-
17•M
V
•H= - V
•M=-
p„,-
.
1.
-

ti
n

( M=0 (
c
)
(
g
)
(
d)
(
h)

F
ia. 5
-12
. S
oleno
id a
nd e
quiva
lent p
ermanen
tly magne
tized r
od s
how
ing f
i
elds a
long
a
xis (
Examp
le 4)
.

t
he same d imensions as the s
olenoid and has a u
niform magne t
ization M equal t
o
N
I/1f or the s
olenoid
. D raw graphs showing t
he varia
tion ofB, M, and H a
long t
he
a
xes of the s
o
leno id and the r
od. A lso s
ketch t
he configura
tion of t
he f
i
elds f
or t
he
t
wo cases.
S
olution. Since the rod and so
lenoid h
ave the s
ame d imension
s and

M ' =K =N1
K I

t
he two a
re magne
ticaly equ
ivalent
. The B f i
elds f
or bo
th are t
he s
ame everywhere
,
a
nd the H f
i
elds f
or bo
th are t
he same o
utside the s
oleno
id and rod
. A ssuming t
hat
t
he t
oroid i
slong c
ompa red w
ith it
s d
iameter, t
he fl
ux dens
ity a
t the c
enter i
snea
rly
g
iven by
N
I
B = p
o u
o
ic (
5
-45
)
A
t t
he e
nds o
fthe s
o
leno
id
B =l
u oK (
5
-46
)

The magni
tude o f Ba t o
ther lo
cations along t he so
lenoid a x
is can be o bta
ined from
(
4-48
) with as u
itable change i
nl imits
. The v ar
iation of Ba long the s
olenoid ax
is is
s
hown graphically in F
ig. 5-
126. The v aria
tion a long the rod axis i
st he same (Fig
.
5
-12f
).
Fo
r the s
olenoid case M = 0 e verywhe re (Fig. 5-12
c). I n the r
od the magne t
iza-
t
ion M isassumed t o be un
iform as in Fig
. 5-12g.
Fo
r the solenoid ease H = B/A 0 e
verywhere s o that H=Ka t the center and
H=I FKat t he ends. The v ariation of Ha l ong the solenoid axi
s iss hown in Fig
.
SE
C. 5
-8
] MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNET
IC MATERIALS 2
25

5
-12d
. Out
side t
he r
od, Hi
sthe s
ame a
s f
or t
he s
o
leno
id. I
ns
ide t
he r
od

H = (
B/m 0)— M

s
ot hatthe var
iation i
sass ugges
ted inFig. 5
-12h
. I tisassumed t hat M change
sf r
om
0to Ko ver ashortdistance dza tthe ends o
fthe r
od. The d irect
ion ofHi nt he rod
i
so ppos
ite to t
hat fo
r B.
Ins
ide the wires o
f t he s
olenoid winding vx H =J a s indicated i
n Fig. 5-12a.
On the c
ylindr
ical s
urface ofthe rod v x M =J ' as s
uggested in Fig
. 5
-12e. I n the
s
olenoid c
ase v •B = 0a nd v •H = 0e verywhere
. I n the r
od case V •B = 0e very-
where, b
ut v• H = —v . M =p „
, at t
he end f
aces o
f t
he rod.

Af
i
e
ld M f
i
e
ld Hf
i
e
ld

M f
i
e
ld z
e
ro
S
o
leno
id
(a
i
rco
re)

(
6)

R
od
S eN

(
d
) (
f)
(
e
) —M

P (
g)
F
la. 5
-13. Fields o
f so
leno id and equivalent p
e rmanent
ly magnet
ized rod. The B
f
i
elds a
re t
he s ame f
or b o
th s o
leno
id a nd rod [
see (
a) and (
d
)]. T he M fi
eld i
szero
e
verywhere except i
n
side the rod [
see (b
) and (
e)
]. The H f i
e
lds a
re the s
ame out
side
b
oth s
oleno
id a nd r
od b ut are d
iferent in
side [
s
ee (c
) and (
f)
].

The B , M, a nd H f i
e
lds for the two ca
ses are sketched in F
ig. 5
-13. I t i
st o b e
n
oted t hat i
nside the rod H isdirec
ted from the north pole t
o t
he south p
ole. S ince
M and B h ave, in general
, diferent di
rections i
n t he rod
, µ l
oses it
s s
imp le scalar
s
i
gnificance in t h
is case
. H ere H can be obta
ined b y v
ector a
ddit
ion, us
ing ( 5-17).
A
s a n examp le, H at the point P i
n Fig. 5
-13f i
so btained by the v
ector addit
ion o f
B
/a o and — M a s i
n Fig. 5
-13g.

Magnetic polesa lways a ppeari npai

r s
. T hey c
anno tbei so
lated. I n
t
his sense
, they a re ofan a pparent, o
rf i
ct
itious
, nature. Howeve r
, they
a
rer ealint he sense thatt hey actasthe centersofforce nearthe end sofa
magne t as inthe a bove examp le.
A
lthough t he magne t
iza t
ion i s b
ased o n the actua l magne t
ization
phenomenon , i t is o
ften s impler and mo re conven ient to ignore t he
mechan ism o f the phenomenon a nd use the permeab i
lity µ to descr
ibe
t
he c haracter
is t
ic s o
f the magne t
ic m edium. T h
is i sp a
rticular
ly t rue
2
26 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 5

whe re µ c an be t reated a s as cala r

. I n this case i sd eterm ined exper i
-
menta l
ly f rom as amp le o
ft he ma teria l
. Howeve r
, since µ i snot ac on-
s
tant f or f e
rromagne tic ma terials b u t af unc t
ion o f H , and a l
so t he
p
rev ious h i
story o f the samp le, t he m ethod s for dealing w ith ferromag -
n
e tic ma te r
ials r equire specia l con sidera t
ion ( see Sec. 5-11 a nd fol
low ing
s
ec tion s
).
5-9. B ounda ry R e
la t
ions . I n as ingle m edium t he magne t
ic f ie
ld
i
sc on t
inuous . T ha t is
, t he f i
eld, i fn ot constan t, change s only b y an
i
nfin ites
ima l amount i n a n i nfinite sima l d i
stance . Howeve r, at t he
bounda ry b etween t wo dife rent m edia , the magne tic f i
eld may c hange
a
brup t
ly b oth i n magn i
tude a nd d irec t
ion. I t isi mpo rtant in many
p
rob lems t ok now t he re
lation sfo r magne t
ic fi
eld sat ab oundary . T hese
bounda ry r e
lation s are discu ssed i nt his section.
I
ti sc onvenient t o analyze t he b oundary p rob lem i n t wo pa r
ts, con -
s
ide ring s epara tely t he r e
lat ion o f f i
elds n orma l to t he b ounda ry a nd
t
ang en t to the b ounda ry
.
T aking u p fi
rs tt he re
la t
ion o ff i
eld s n orma l to the b ounda ry, con s
ider
two m edia ofp ermeab ili
ties mia nd Ay s epa rated b yt he z-yp lane ass hown
i
nF ig. 5-14. S uppo se thata n i mag ina ry b ox isc onstruc ted, ha
lfi ne ach

M
edium 1
A
L
.

M
edium 2
A
i
r
Bm2
X

FI
G
. 5
-14
. C
ons
truct
ion f
o
rdeve
lop
ing c
ont
inu
ity r
e
lat
ion f
orn
orma
lcomponen
tofB
.

medium, o f area AxA y and h eight Az

. L e
t B .1 b e t he a verage c om -
p
onent o f Bn ormalt othe top oft he box i
nm ed ium 1a nd B n2 the average
c
omponen to f Bnorma ltot he b ottom oft he b ox inm ed ium 2 . B . 1isa n
o
utwa rd n orma l (
posit
ive), wh ile B .2 isan i nwa rd n o rma l ( negative).
By Gaus s
's law for magnetic fi
eld s (4
-12), the t otal magne t
ic f l
ux o ver a
c
losed sur
face i sz
ero
. E xp ressed i notherw ord s, the integ ralo ft he out-
ward norma l componen t o
f Bo ver ac l
osed s urface i sz ero. B y mak ing
t
he he
igh t Azo fthe box a
pp roach z ero
,t he con tribu tion o ft he si
deso ft he
b
ox tot he surface i
ntegra
l b ecome s z
ero even t hough t he re may b e fi
nite
c
omponent s of Bn o rmal to t he sides
. T here fore t he s urface i ntegral
SE
C
. 5
-9
] M AGN ETIC F
I ELD OF FERRO MAGNET
I C MATERIAL
S 2
27

r
educe
s t
o
B
.,A
x y— B n2 4
1X y =0 (
5
-47
)
o
r
B n i = B n2 (
5 48
)

A
ccording to(5
-48)theno rmalcompon en
to ftheflux d
ensity B i
scon
tinuous
a
cros
s the b
oundary b
etween two media
.'
Turn
ing now to t
he re
la t
ion for magnetic f
ie
lds tangent to t
he bound-
a
ry, le
t two media of p
ermeab il
ities µI a
nd E2 be separated by aplane
b
ounda ry as i
n Fig
. 5-15. C onsider arectangular p ath
, half i
n each
1
. -1
1.
T
•
••••••
M
ed
ium 1
A
y

.
:
•
:t
inea
rdens
ity .
• ••• ••
FI
G. 5-
15. C
onstruct
ion f
or d
evelop
ing c
ontinu
ity r
e
lat
ion f
o
r t
angen
tia
l c
omponent
o
fH .

medium , o
fl e
ngth A x p ara
llel to t
he boundary a nd o
flength Ay normal
t
ot he boundary. L ett he average va
lue ofHt angen ttothe boundary i
n
medium 1b e 1/1,and t he average va
lue ofH t angent tothe boundary i
n
medium 2b e H 12. A ccording to (4
-77) the i
ntegral o
fHa round ac lo
sed
path equals the c ur
ren t Ie nc
losed. B y making the p a
th length Ay
approach zero
, t he contribution of t
hese segmen ts o
f t
he p a
th becomes
z
ero even though a f i
nite fi
eld may e x
ist normal to t
he b
oundary . The
l
ine in
tegra
l then r educes to
/ 1,A
1 x — H 12 A
x =I ampe
res (
5
-49
)
o
r

/ 1,—
1 H 12 = —/ = K amp/me
ter (
5
-50
)
A
x
where K isthe l
inear dens
ity ofa ny curren t f
lowing i
na n i
nfin
itesimally
t
hin sheet a
t the sur
face.2
According t
o (5-50) t
he change i
n th
e ta ng
ential componentofH a cros
sa
b
ounda ry i
sequali n magnitude toth
e she
e t cur
ren t d
ens
ity K ont h
e bound-
a
ry. I ti st
ob en oted that Ki snormal t oH , thatis
, the d
i
rection ofthe
c
urrent shee
t in Fig. 5
-15 isn o
rma l t
o t he page.
T
his r
elat
ion a pp
lies a
t t
he boundary o
fany two med
ia f
or b
oth s
tat
ic a
nd time
-
c
hang
ing fi
elds
.
2I
f Jisthe c
urrent dens
ity i
n ampere
s p
er s
qua
re meterin at
hin s
hee
to ft
hicknes
s
A
y'
, then K isdef
ined b y
K JA
y' amp/me
ter (
5
-50a
)
w
here J ca
s A
y' 0
.
2
28 ELECTRO MAGNETICS

I
fK =0
,then (
5
-50
) r
educes t
o
'

1
-
11 = H
i2

A
ccording t
o (5-51a) th
e t
ang
ent
ial c
omponen
ts ofH a
re c
on
tinuousac
ross
t
h
e boundary b
etween two m
edia p
rov
ided t
h
e bounda
ry h
as n
o cu
rren
t she
et
o
finf
init
esimal th
ickne
s s
.
I
f H2 = 0, (
5-50) becomes
Hu = K
2 (
5
-51b
)

w
here K 2 = shee
tcu
rrentdens
ity (
amp/me ter
)i n med
ium 2a tbounda ry.
When m edium 1i sair and medium 2
N
ormal t
o
b
oundary i
s a c onductor
, ( 5
-51b) is approxi-
mated athigh fr
equenciesbecause the
M ium 1
ed s
kin efect r
est
ricts t
he cur
rent in the
c
onduc tor t
o av ery th
in layer a
ti t
s
B
ounda s
urface (
see Chap. 1
0).
To i
lustrate t
he a
ppl
icat
ion o
fthese
M
edium 2 b
ounda ry condit
ions, l
et u
s c
onsider
t
he fo
llowing examples
.
F
i
eld l
i
ne
Bo rH E
xample 1. C onsider a p
lane b oundary
be
tween t wo media of permeab i
lity µi a
nd
F
ro. 5 -16
. B oundary b etween two
A
2a sinFig.5-
16. F ind the r
ela
tion between
med
ia o f d
iferent p
ermeabil
ity s
how -
t
he a ng
les al a nd at. A ssume t hat the
i
ng change i n di
rec
tion of magnetic
media are is
otropic with B a nd H i n t
he
f
i
eld l
ine,
s
ame direct
ion.
S
olution
. F rom the b
oundary r
elation
s,

Au = 5
n2 a
nd Ho = l
in (
5
-52
)
F
rom F
ig
. 5
-16
,
B
„, =/
31 c
os a
l a
nd B
„ 2 = 52 c
os at (
5
-53)
a
nd
l
in = H Is
in a
l a
nd 1
-
1
, 2 = H2 s
i
n a
: (
5
-54
)

where Bi = magnitude o
f Bin medium 1
B2 = magnitude o
f Bin medium 2
= magn
itude o
f H in med
ium 1
H 2 = magn
itude o
f H in med
ium 2
Subst
itut
ing ( 5
-53) a
nd (
5-54
) into (5
-52
) a
nd d
ivid
ing y
ie
lds

t
an al
(
5
-55
)
t
an a
: A
L2 A
i
r2

where 1
42 = r
e
lat
ive p
ermeab
il
ity o
f med
ium 1 (
d
imens
ion
les
s)
=re
lat
ive p
ermeab
ili
ty o
f med
ium 2 (
d
imens
ion
les
s)

1Equations (
5-50
) a
nd (5-51a
) app
ly at t
he b
oundary o
f any t
wo media (
that i
s
,
t
wo media ofany pe
rmeab
ili
ties,pe
rmitt
ivi
tie
s,and c
onduct
ivi
tie
s)forbo
th sta
tic a
nd
t
ime-changing f
i
e
lds.
SE
C. 5
-9
1 MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNET
IC MATERIALS 2
29

Equa
tion (5
-55) gives t
he re
lation b
etween t
he ang
les a
l a
nd a2 f
o
r
Ba
nd H li
nes a
t the boundary be
tween two med
ia.
'
E
xample 2
. Refe
rring t
o F
ig. 5
-17
, l
et med
ium 1b
eai
r (
A
ir -
=1)a
nd med
ium 2b
e
i
to
n w
ith ar
e
lative p
ermeabi
lity o
f 7
,000
.

(
a
) (
to
)
Fm
. 5
-
17a a
nd b
. Bl
i
nes a
t a
i
r-s
tee
l b
ounda
ry.

a
. I
f Binthe i
ron i
sin c
ident normal
ly on t
he boundary (
as =0), f
ind am.
b
. I
f Bin t
he i
ron i
sn early t
angent t
o t
he s
urface a
t an a
ngle am = 8
5°
, f
ind al.
S
olu
tion
. a. From (5-55)
an al =
t t
an as — 1 4
t
an a2 (
5
-56
)
A
4
+2 7
,000

When am = 0 , al = 0, so that the B l i

ne in a
ir i
sa lso normal to the b oundary (s
ee
F
ig. 5-17a ).
So
lut ion. b . When as = 8 5°
, w e have, from ( 5-56)
, that t an al = 0 .0016 or
al = 0.1°. Thus , the direction of Bi na i
r isalmost normal to the boundary ( wi
thin
-
Ay°
) e ven t hough itsdirection int he i
ron isnea
rly t
angent tothe b ounda ry (w
ithin 5
°)
(
see Fig. 5 -
17b )
. A ccording ly
, for many p ract
ical purposes t
he direction o
f Bo r H i
n
a
ir or o t
he r m edium o f l ow relativ
e p er
-
meabi
lity may b e taken a s n orma l to th
e
P
ole*:
:*
b
ounda ry o f am edium h aving ah igh re
lativ
e
p
ermeab i
lity. Th is p
rope rty isrem in
iscent
o
f the o ne f or Eo rDa t the b oundary o fa
c
onductor .
A
i
r g
ap
The proper ty that Bo r Hi nairi s
s
ubstantia
lly n o rmaltothe bounda ry
o
f ah ighly p ermeab le med ium h as .•
.A
•r
.Ma
ture

impor
tant a pplicat
ions in mapp ing (
c
)
magnetic fi
eld s
. F or examp le
, t h
is F la
. 5-17c
. F
ield li
nes at a
ir g
ap o
f d-
c
p
roperty perm i
ts one top redic
tt hatmach ine.
t
he magne t
ic f i
eld l
inesa tthe ai
rg ap b etween t he i
ron pole a nd armature
c
ore of asimp le two-pole d-c mach ine may b e assugge sted inF ig
.5-17c.
The mapping o f magnetic fi
elds isdiscussed f u
rther inS ec
. 5-19.
This re
lation a ppl
ies on
ly ifBa nd H h ave the s
ame di
rec t
ion (A asca
lar
). I n
t
he absence o f magne t
izat
ion, as in a
i
r, Ba nd H h ave t
he same direct
ion. When
magnetiza
tion i spresent, a
s in aso
ft i
ron e
lectromagnet, Ba nd H al
so tend t
o have
t
he same direction
. Howeve r
, this i
sn o
t t
he situat
ion in ap ermanent magnet.
2
30 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 5

5
-10
. Tab le o
f Boundary Rela
tions f
or Magnet
ic Fi
elds
. T ab
le 5-
2
s
u mmarizes t
he b
oundary r
ela
tions f
or magne
tic f
i
eld
s deve
loped i
nSec
.
5
-9
.
TABLE 5
-2
BOUNDARY RELATIONS FOR MAGNET
IC F
IELDSt

F
ie
ld
B
ounda
ry r
e
lat
ion C
ond
ition
c
omponent

No
rma
l B.
, = B.
, (
1
) A
ny t
wo med
ia

No
rma
l w
ill
., =A
g
r
2H.
2 (
2
) A
ny t
wo med
ia

T
angen
tia
l H
i, —H
t2 =K (
3
)$ A
ny two med
ia with c
urrent s
hee
t o
f i
nf
in
i-
t
e
simal t
h
icknes
s at b
oundary

T
angen
tia
l H
,, m
.lig, (
4
) A
ny t wo med
ia w
ith n
o c
urren
t s
hee
t a
t
b
oundary

T
angent
ial Hu = K
4 )t 1
(
5 12 =0. A lso medium 2h a
s acurren
tshe
et
o
f i
nf
in
ite s
ima l t
hickness a
tboundary. l
in
a
nd K 2 a
re normal to e
ach o
ther

$These r
e
lat
'ons app
ly fo
r both stat
ic and t
ime-vary
ing fi
e
ld s (s
ee C
hap. 7
).
$Note t
hat al
though K a nd the components of H are measured p
ara
lle
l to the
b
oundary, t
hey a
re normal t
o each other
. Thus , invecto
r notat
ion (5
) i
sexpres
sed
b
y K =n x H , where n = u
nit vecto
r normal t
o the b
oundary.

5
-11. F er romagne t
ism . Magne tic e f
fec ts i n mo s
t s ub stance s a re
weak. However , ag roup o fsub stances k nown a sf erromagne tic ma te r
ials
e
xh ibits strong magne tic efec ts ( s
ee S ec. 54 ). T he permeab ility o ft hese
mate r
ia lsi sno t ac ons tantb uti s af unction b o
th o fthe a pplied f i
eld a nd
o
ft he p revious magne tic h
i story o ft he spec imen . I nview o ft he v ariable
n
a ture o ft he p ermeab il
ity o ff erromagne tic ma terials
, s pecial c on sidera-
t
ion oft he
i rp roper tiesi sn eeded . T h
is isg iven int he fo
llow ing s ection s
.
I
n f erromagne tic sub stance s the magne tic efects are p roduced b y the
motion o f the e lectrons o f t he i ndiv idua l atoms . T he n e
t e fec t i sto
make a n atom o f af erromagne tic s ub s
tance a ct l i
ke a m inia ture b ar
magne t. I n af e
rromagne tic s ubstance s uch a s iron the se atom ic mag -
n
e ts o ver a reg ion o f many a toms t end t o o r
ient t hem selve s p arallel to
e
ach o ther, wi th n orth p oles p oin t
ing o ne w ay. Th is region i sc alled a
magne tic d oma in a nd i s s pon taneous ly magne tized. T he s ize o f a
d
oma in d ep end s o n c ondition s b ut u sually c ontains m illions o f a tom s
.
I
n s ome s ub stance s t he shape a pp ear s to b e li
ke al ong, slende r r od w ith
at ransver se d imen sion o fm icro scop ic size b ut lengths o ft he o rder o fa
mil
lime ter or s o. T hus, ad oma in a cts like a sma l
l, bu t no t atom ically
small, b ar magne t.
SE
C. 5
-11
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNET IC MATERIALS 2
31

I
n an u nmagne tized i r
on c rystal the doma in
s a r
e parallel t
o the d i
rec-
t
ion ofe a sy magne tization, b ut as many h ave north poles pointing o ne
way as t he other s o that the exte rnal fi
eld ofthe crys
ta l iszero
. I n an
i
ron c rystal t here a re six direction s of easy magne tization. T ha t is
,
t
here i s aposit
ive a nd n egative direction along each o
ft he three mu tually
p
erpend icu lar c rystal a xes ( F
ig. 5 -18)
.
Therefore t he p o
larity o fthe doma ins i
n N S N
.4—S S-0. N
a
n u nmagne tized i ron crystal may b eas
N S N S
s
ugge sted b y the high ly schema t
ic d ia
-
t I f 4
g
ram o f Fig. 5 -19a. As i
ngle N r epre
- S N S N
s
ents ad oma in w ith an orth pole poin t
ing (
a)
S-6.
1
4 1
44—S S N
o
ut ofthe page a nd as i
ngle S ad omain
w
ith asou
th p o
le p o
inting ou
to fthe p
age. S N
I
fthe c
rystalisp laced in amagnetic f
i
eld N S '
I f
N
. S
p
aral
lel t
o o ne of the di
rections ofeasy
magnet
ization,the d omains wi
th pola
rity
o
pposing o r perpend icu
lar to the fi
eld
X S—
0. N S —I
. N S—, N S—
1. N

S--
0.N S -1.
1,4 S -4"N S --0.
N

(
b
)
S—
w-N S-
0.N S --
I.N S—
A.N

A
l
S—
I.N S-
-*N S-
--0
.N S —
>•N

x A
ppl
ied m
agnet
ic f
i
e
ld
F
ia. 5-18
. Six d
irec
tions o
f easy F
lo. 5
-19. (
a) Domain po
lar
ity i
n
magne
tizat
ion i
n an ir
on c
rys
tal
. a
n u nmagne t
ized iron crys
tal
.
(
b
) C ondit
ion af
ter c
rysta
l iss
atu
-
r
ated by a magnet
ic f
ie
ld di
rec
ted
t
o the r
i
ght.

b
ecome u nstab le and afew o fthese may r o
ta te sotha tthey h ave the s
ame
d
irection a s the f i
e
ld. W ith f u
rthe r increa se of the fi
eld mo re d omains
c
hange o ve r
, e ach asa nindividua lu nit
,u nt
ilw hen a l
loft he domainsa re
i
nt he same d i rect
ion, magn eti
c saturation isr eached a ss ugge s
ted b yFig.
5
-19b. T he c rysta
l isthen magne tized t o a max imum e x
ten t
. I ft he
majority o f the d omains retain their directions afte r t
he a pplied fi
e
ld i s
r
emoved , the s pecimen iss aid to be perman ently m agnet
i zed. H eat and
mechan ical shock t end t
o return t he crystalt ot he orig
ina lu nmagne tized
s
tate. I n fa
c t, ifthe t
empe rature israised s ufic
ien tly h
i gh,t he domains
t
hems e
lves a re d emagnetized a nd the ferromagne tism d isapp ears. T h
is
i
sc a
lled the C urie po
int (abou t 70 °C f ori ron).
2
32 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 5

The magne t
ization w h
ich appears o
nly in the pre
sence o f an appl
ied
f
i
eld may b espoken ofa sthe i
nduced magnet
ization a
sd i
stinguished from
t
he p e
rman ent m agne
tizat
ion, which is present in the a b
sence o f an
a
pplied fi
eld
.
5
-12. Magne tizat
ion C urves
. T he permeability p
.of Its ubstance i
s
g
iven b y
B
µ = -
7 =m
1 om
, (
5
-56a)

where B = magn itude off l

ux d ens
ity ( webers/me ter 2)
H = magn i
tude o ff i
eld H ( amp/me ter)
A
o =p ermeab i
lity ofv acuum ( 47- X 10- 7 amp/me ter)
p
, =r elative permeab ility ofs ubstance (d
imens ion less
)
The p ermeab il
ity µ o r the r a
tio B /H isn ot ac onstan t for fe
rromag-
n
etic ma teria
ls. T herefore, t o i
lustrate the re
lation o f Bt o H, agraph
s
how ing B ( ordinate) as af unc t
ion ofH ( absc
issa ) isused . T he l
ine o
r
c
urve s how ing B a s af unction of H o n such a B -H c hart iscal
led a
magneti
za t
ion c urve (s
ee F ig. 5-21a
). I ti sto be n oted t hat µi snot t
he
s
l
ope o f the c urve, w h
ich i sg iven by d B/dH , b ut ise qua l to t
he rat
io
B/H.

S
econda
ry

F
l
uxme
ter

C
ross s
ec
tiona
l
a
rea A
Ir
on r
i
ng
Fm
. 5
-20
. R
owland
-ring method o
fob
tain
ing magnet
iza t
ion c
urve
.

To mea
sure a magnetiza
tion c urve for an ir
on sample
, at hin, cl
osed
r
ing may be c
ut f
rom the s
amp le
. Au ni
form p r
imary winding isplaced
o
ver the ring
, fo
rming a n iron-co red toroid as in F
ig
. 5 -
20. I f t
he
n
umbe r o
f ampere turns i
nt he toroid is NI, t
he v a
lue o
f H a ppl
ied to
t
he ri
ng is
NI
H = —1 amp-turns/me te
r (
5
-57)

w
he re 1= 27
-R and R e
qua l
st he mean rad
ius ofthe ri
ng ort o
roid. T his
v
alue of H appl
ied to the r
ing may b e c
al
led the "magne tizing f
orce
."
H
ence , i
ngenera
l, Hi ssometimesc a
lled bythisname. T he f l
ux d
ensi
ty
Bint he r
ing may be r
egarded as t
he resu
lt o
ft he applied fie
ld H and is
m
ea sured by p
lacing another (
secondary) co
il ove
r t he ring, as i
n Fig.
SE
C
. 5
-
12] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2
33

5
-20, and connect
ing i tto af l
uxme ter
.' F o
r ag iven change in H, p
ro-
duced by changing the toroid current I,there is achange in magnetic
f
l
ux 1,
G
„, t
hrough the ri
ng. B oth H a nd B a
re subs
tantial
ly u n
iform inthe
r
ing and n egl
igib
le o uts
ide. T herefore the change in flux vim = BA,
where A i
st he c
ros
s-sect
iona larea ofthe r
ing, and the r
e
sulting change i
n
t
he fl
ux density B in t
he ring isgiven by

B = w
ebe
rs/me
ter 2 (
5
-58
)
A
--

where 0
„
, i
smeasured b
y t
he f
l
uxmeter
. T hi
s ri
ng me
thod o
fmea
sur
ing
magnet
izat
ion c
urves w
as u
sed b
y Rowland i
n 1
873
.
At yp
ical magnetiza
tion curve fo
r af er
romagne t
ic ma teria
l isshown
b
yt he so
lid c
urve inFig. 5
-21a. The s pecimen inthis c
ase w a
s in
itial
ly
u
nmagnet ized
, and the c
hange w a
sn oted in BasHw asi n
creased f
rom 0 .
By way of comparison, f
our dashed li
nes are al
so s
hown i n Fig. 5
-21a,
c
orre
spond ing t
o constant r
elat
ive permeab i
lit
ies (
A
ir)o f 1,10
, 100, and
1
,000
. T he re
lative permeabil
ity a t any point o
n t he magne t
iza t
ion
c
urve isgiven by

Mr = —B =7
.
9 X 1
0
'—H (
d
imens
ion
les
s) (
5
-59
)

where B = o rd inate o ft he p oin t ( webe rs/me te r')

H =a bscis
sa o ft he p o
in t ( amp/me te r)
Ag raph o ft he r e
la t
ive p ermeab ility µ , as af unc tion oft he a pp l
ied f i
eld
H, correspond ing t o the magne tiza tion c urve i n F ig. 5-21a, i sp resen ted
i
n F ig
. 5 -21b. T he max imum r elative p ermeab ility, a nd t he refore t he
max imum p erm eability, i sat t he p oint o n t he magne t
iza tion c urve w ith
t
he l a
rges t rat
io of Bt oH . T his i sd e
signa ted "max A t" i to ccur sa t the
p
o int of t angency w i
th t he s traigh t l ine o f s teepe st slope t hat p asses
t
hrough t he origin a nd a lso intersect s the magne tiza t
ion c u
rve ( dash -dot
l
ine in Fig. 5-21a )
.
The magne tization c u
rve f o r air o r v acuum w ould b e given b y the
d
a shed line forµ , = 1( a
lmo st coinc ident w i th t he H a xis) inF ig. 5-21a.
The dife rence i nt he ord ina te B b etween t he magne t
iza t
ion c urve o ft he
f
erromagne t
ic s amp le a nd t he o rdina te a t t he s ame H v alue o n t he
r = 1l
F
i i
ne i se qualt ot he magne tiza tion M o ft he f e
rromagne tic ma te r
ial
t
ime s Mo
.
The magne t
iza t
ion c urve s hown i nF ig . 5- 21a i sa ninitialm agn etization
c
ur v
e. T hat is
, the ma te rial isc omp letely d emagne tized b efo re the f i
eld
Hi sa pp
lied . A s Hi si ncreased , the v alue o fBr i
ses rap idly a t fi
rsta nd
t
hen mo re s l
ow ly. A t s uff
iciently h igh v alue s o f H t he c urve t ends t o

IT
he f
luxme
ter ope
rate
s on the emf i
nduced i
n t
he s
e
conda
ry when t
he magne
tic
f
l
ux t
hrough i
tchanges (
see S
ec
. 7-
19).
2
34 ELECTRO MAGNET1
CS [
CHAP
. 5

2
S
a
tur
ation
l
#,=1000

e
re m r
te

44
,
••
=100
squa

M
ax.#
nw
B i rs/
ebe

(
a
)

5
000 1
0
,000
H i
namp
s/me
ter

4
00

3
00

2
00

c 1
00
(
b
)

, I ,
00 5
000 1
0
,000
H i
namp
s/me
ter
Fm. 5
-21
. (a) Typical magne
tizat
ion c
urve a
nd (
b
) c
orre
spond
ing r
e
lat
ion o
fre
lat
ive
p
ermeabil
ity t
o appl
ied fi
eld H.

b
eco me f
l
at a
ssuggested by F
ig. 5
-21a
. Th
is c
ond
ition i
sca
lled m
agn
eti
c
s
a
tura
tion
.
The magnet
izat
ion c
urve s
tart
ing a
t t
he o
rig
in has a f
in
ite s
lope c
alled
t
he i
n
itia
l p
erm
eab
ili
ty. There
fore t
he r
elat
ive p
er meab
ility c
urve i
n
F
ig. 5
-21b s
tarts w
ith a f
in
ite p
er meab
ility f
or i
nfin
ites
i ma
l f
i
elds
.
The i
nit
ial magnet
izat
ion c
urve may b
e d
ivided i
nto two s
ect
ions
, (
1)
t
he s
teep s
ect
ion a
nd (
2) t
he f
l
at s
ect
ion
, t
he po
int Po
f d
ivis
ion b
eing o
n
t
he upper b
end o
f t
he c
urve (
Fig
. 5
-22
). The s
teep s
ect
ion c
orresponds
Sz
e
. 5
-
12] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNET
IC MATERIALS 2
35

t
o t
he c
ond
ition o
feasy magn
eti
zation
, w h
ile t
he f
lat s
e
ction c
orre
spond
s
t
o t
he c
ond
ition o
fdifi
cul
t, orhard, magnet
iza
tion
.

E
asy H
ard m
agne
tiz
ation
m
agne
t
izat
ion

J i

B
a
rkhausen
s
t
eps

FI
G
. 5
-22
. R
egions o
f e
asy a
nd h
ard magne
tiza
tion o
f i
n
itia
l magne
tiza
tion c
urve
.

O rdinar i
ly a p iece o f iron c ons ists n ot o f as ing le c rystal b ut o f a n
a
gg regat eo fs mal
lc ry stalf ragment sw ith a xe so rien ted a tr andom . The
s
i
tua tion i n as ma ll piece o fi r
on may b e r epre sented s chema tically as i n
F
ig. 5 -23. H ere a n umbe r ofc rys tal f r
agment s a re s hown , each w ith a
n
umbe ro f magne t ic doma ins ,r ep resen ted i n mo stc a se sb y as malls qua re.
The b ounda ries b e
tween c rystal f ragmen ts a re i nd icated b y t he heavy
l
i
ne s, a nd d oma in b oundar ie s b y t he l igh t l ines wh ich a lso indica te t he
d
irection o ft he c rys tala xes. I n F ig. 5 -23a , n o t o nly i st he piece o firon
u
nmagne tized , b u t a l
so t he i nd ividua l c ry stal f ragmen ts a re u nmag -
n
etized . The d oma ins i ne ach c ry stala re magne t
ized a long t he directions
o
fe asy magne tiza tion , t hat i s
, a long t he t h ree c ry sta l a xes.' Howeve r,
t
he p olarity o fa djacent d oma ins i so ppo site s ot ha t t he t otal magne t
iza -
t
ion o fe ach c rysta l isn egligible.
With t he a pplica tion o f a magne tic f i
eld H i n t he d irection i ndicated
byt he a rrow ( F
ig. 5 -23 ) s ome d oma ins w ith p ola ritie so ppo sed t oo rp er-
p
end icu lar t o the a pplied f i
e
ld b ecome u ns tab le a nd r otate q uickly t o
a
no ther d irection o fe asy magne tiza t
ion i nt he s ame d i
rec tion a st he fi
eld,
o
r mo re n ea r
ly s o. T hese c hange s t ake p lace o n t he s teep p art of t he
magne t
iza tion c urve . T he r esul t
, a fter a ll d oma ins h ave c hanged o ve r
,
i
sa s sugge s
ted i n F ig. 5 -
23b . Th is c ond ition c or respond s rough ly t o
t
ha ta tt he p o
in t Po nt he magne tiza tion c u rve ( Fig.5 - 22).
I
ron c
rys
tal
lize
s i
nthe c
ubic s
yst
em w
ith t
hree mutua
lly p
erpend
icu
lar a
xes
.
2
36 ELECTRO MAGNE'
l
'ICS [
CHAP
. 5

Ad oma in may c on ta
in m ill
ions o fa toms , a nd s ince i tf lops f rom o ne
d
irect ion o f easy magne tiza tion t o anothe r i n a n i nte rva l mea sured i n
t
hou sandths o f as e cond , the mag -
U
nmagnetized
netiza tion p roceeds b ys t
eps r athe r
t
han i n a s moo th, c ont inuous
manne r. T hese s teps a re c alled
Barkhau sen s t
ep s orj ump s. T he
s
tepped c ha rac te r
is tic c an b e o b
-
s
erved b ys ens itive m ea suremen ts
.
A much e nla rged p o rt
ion o f t he
magne tiza tion c urve s how ing t he
Ba rkhaus en s t eps i sp resen ted i n
(
a) F ig .5 - 22. T he B arkhausen j umps
a
r el a
rge sto nt he s teep p ar to ft he
P
art
ly magne tiza tion c urve .
magne
tized
With f urthe ri ncrea se i nt he a p-
p
lied f i
eld, t he d i
rec tion o f mag -
n
e tiza tion o f t he d oma ins n ot
a
lready p ara lle l t o t he f ield i s
r
ota ted g radua lly t owa rd t he d i
-
r
ec tion o f H . T h
is i ncrea se i n
magne tiza tion i s mo re d if icu lt,
a
nd v ery h igh f i
e
lds may b e r e
-
(
b) q u ired t o r each s atura t
ion , w he re
App
lied f
ie
ld a
l
l d oma ins a r e magne t
ized p a ral-
l
e
lt ot he f i
eld ,a si nd ica ted i nF ig.
5
-23c . T his a ccount sf ort he f l
at-
n
e ss o ft he u ppe rp ar to ft he mag -
n
et iza tion c urve .
T h
is p icture o f t he magne tiza -
t
ion p roce s s i sa n o ve rsimp lified
o
ne , b uti ta ccoun ts q ualita tive ly
for many o f t he i mpor tan t p he-
n
omena . A no the r p henomenon ,
which w as n ot m en tioned , i st he
c
hange i n s ize o fd oma ins d uring
t
he magne tiza tion p roce ss. No t
FI
G. 5-23. Success
've stage sof magne tiza-
o
nly d o d oma ins c hange i n s ize,
t
i
on o f ap o
lycrystall
ine s pecimen w ith
i
nc
reas ing fi
e
ld.
b
u t t he e ntire s pec imen c hanges
i
n l eng th d uring magne t
iza t
ion .
Th
is e ffect i s c a
lled m agne tos
t ric
tion.
5-13 . Hys teres is
. I f t he f i
eld a pplied t o as pec imen i s i ncrea sed
t
os atura tion a nd i st hen d ecreas ed, the flux d ens ity B d ecrea se s
, b ut n ot
SE
C. 5
-13
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2
37

a
s rapidly as itin
creased along t he i n
itial magnetizat
ion curve. T hus,
when H r eaches ze
ro, there i s ar esidua l f
lux densi
ty, o
r remanenc e, B,
(
Fig. 5-24
).
In order to r
educe B t o zero, an egative fi
eld —H , must b e applied
(
Fig. 5-24
).' T h
is iscal
led t he co e
rci v
ef orce
. A s Hi sf
urthe rin
crea sed
i
n the n egative di
rect
ion, t he s pecimen b ecome s magnet
ized w ith t he
o
ppo s
ite polar
ity, the magnetiza t
ion a t fi
rstb e
ing easy a
nd t hen hard as
s
aturation is approached. B r
ing ing t he fi
eld to zero again leaves a

F
l
ux densi
ty B
(
web
ers/met
er 2)

R
es
idua
l
f
l
ux d
ens
ity

C
oerc
ive (
amp
ere
s/m
ete
r)
f
o
rce

H.

F
in. 5
-24
. Hysteres
is l
o
op.

r
esidual magne t
ization or flux density —B r,a nd to reduce B to zero
, a
c
oe rc
ive force -FH , must be a ppl
ied. W ith furtherincrease infi
eld
, the
s
pec imen a gain becomes satura ted with t he or
iginal po
larity.
The phenomenon w hich c ause s Bt o l ag beh
ind H , so that the mag-
n
etization c urve for i
ncreasing a nd decrea sing fi
elds isnot the same, i
s
c
alled hysteresi
s, and the loop t raced out b y the magne t
iza t
ion curve i
s
c
alled ah ysteres
isl o
op (Fig. 5-24). I ft he substance iscarr
ied tos a
tura-
t
ion a t both e nds of the magne t
ization c urve, the loop i s c
a
lled the
s
aturation, or m a
jor, h
yster
esi s lo
op. T he r e
sidual fl
ux density B,o n t
he

B
y r
ever
sing t
he b
attery p
olar
ity (
F
ig. 5
-20
).
2
38 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 5

F
lo. 5
-25
. Hys
tere
sis l
oops f
or s
of
t a
nd h
ard magnet
ic ma
ter
ials
.

F
lo. 5
-26
. (
a
) Hy
stere
sis l
oop
. (
b
) C
orre
spond
ing p
ermeab
ili
ty c
urve
.
SE
C. 5
-13
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2
39

s
aturation loop iscal
led t he retentivi
ty,'and the c oercive force Hc o n t
h
is
l
oop isc a
lled the coerc
i v
ity. T hus, the r
etentivity o f asubs tance i st
he
maximum v a
lue w h
ich t he r e
sidua l fl
ux d en sity c an a ttain a nd the
c
oercivity the maximum v a
lue wh ich the coe
rcive f orce can at tain
. F or
agiven specimen n op o
int sc an b er e
ached o nt he B -H d iagram o uts
ide o
f
t
he saturation hysteresis loop, b ut any pointi nside c an.
In "soft
," ore as
ily magne tized, ma ter
ials the h ysteres
is loop i sth
in a
s
s
ugge s
ted i n Fig. 5-25
, w ith a s ma
ll area enc losed . B y w ay of com-
p
arison, the h ys
teresis loop o f ah ard magne tic ma terial isa lso s
hown,
t
he area enclosed in th
is c ase being g rea
ter.
B

R
eten
tiv
ity —

N
ormal
m
agnet
izat
ion
c
urve

C
oerc
ivi
ty

S
a
tura
tion l
o
op

F
ic. 5
-27
. N
orma
l magne
tiza
tion c
urve w
ith r
e
lat
ion t
o h
yste
res
is l
oop
s.

Turning o ur attention t o t he permeab ili

ty i ,c ons
ider t he h ys
teresis
l
oop ofFig. 5-26a. T he correspond ing graph o f µas afunc t
ion o fHi sas
s
hown i n Fig
. 5 -26h. A t H =0 ,i tisa ppa rent that µb ecomes i nf
inite.
On the other h and, w hen B = 0 , µ = 0. Under s uch c onditions
, t he
p
ermeab il
ity i s b
ecome s m ean ingless
. T herefore the use o f µ mus t be
c
onfined to s i
tuations w here i thas sign
ificance , as
, for examp le, to the
i
n
itial magne tization c urve. I tist o ben oted that the term "max imum
p
ermeab il
ity" s ign
ifies s pecif
i ca
lly the max imum p e
rmeab i
lity f o
r a n
i
n
itial magne tization c urve a nd notf o
r ah ysteres
is loop or othe rtype of
magnetization curve.
IT
he term "re
tent
ivity" i
sal
so somet
imes u
sed t
o mean t
he r
at
io o
fthe r
e
sidua
l
f
l
ux dens
ity B
,t o t
he maximum fl
ux d
ensi
ty B.
.
2
40 ELECTRO MAGNETICS r
CHAp
. 5

Anothe rt ype o f magne t

iza tion c urve f o
rw hich j .h as ad ef
inite m ean ing
i
st he n orma lm agne ti za
t ion c ur ve
. Th is curve i st he l ocus o ft he tips o fa
s
eries o fh y ste res
is l oops, o b tained b yc ycl
ing t he f i
eld H o vers ucces s
ive ly
smaller r ange s. T hus , a ss hown i nF ig. 5-27, t he f i
eld i schanged s lowly
o
ver t he r ange + H I,o btain ing t he s atura t
ion h ys te resis loop. T he f ie
ld
i
sn ex t c ycled s lowly s eve ral t ime s o ve r ar ange ± H 2, o btaining a fter a
f
ew r eve rsals ar epea tab le h yste resis l o op ofs mallers i
ze. T his p roces si s
r
epea ted f or s ucce ssively s maller r ange s inH , ob tain ing as erie s o
fl oops
o
fd ecrea sing s i
ze . T he c urve p as sing t hrough t he t ips oft he se loops i s
t
he n orma l m agn etization c urve ( Fig. 5 -27). Th is c urve i su sefu l since i t
i
sr eproduc ib le a nd i sc harac te r
istic o f t
he p ar
ticu la r type o f f e
rromag -
n
etic ma te rial. T he n o rma l magne tiza tion c urve i sa ctually v e ry sim i
la r
i
ns hape t ot he i n
itial magne tiza tion c urve.
5
-14. E ne rgy i n a Magne t. As pecimen o f iron w ith residua l mag -
n
etiza tion c onta ins e ne rgy s i
nce w o rk h asb een p er fo rmed i n magne tizing
i
t
. T he magne t
ic e nergy w „
, p er u n
it v o
lume o f as pecimen b rough t t o
s
atura tion f rom a n o r
ig ina l
ly u nmagne t
ized c ond it ion i sg iven b y t he
i
nteg ral o ft he initial magne t
iza tion c urve e xpres sed b y

w
, = Hd
B j
ou
les/me
ter
' (
5
-60
)

T
he d
imens
iona
l r
e
lat
ion f
o
r (
5
-60
) i
s

Q Al _ M
T
L TQ — LT2

whe re M / LT 2h ast he d imens ions o fe nergy d ens ity w h

ich i se xpress ed in
t
he mksc s ystem i nj oules p e r cub ic m eter . T hus, t he a rea be tween t he
c
urve a nd the B a x
is is am ea sure o ft he ene rgy d ens ity . T h
is isindica ted
i
n F ig . 5 -28a f or an e asily magne tized, ( magne tica lly s o
f t
) s ub stance
which h as b een c arr
ied t o the p oint Pi nt he magne tiza t
ion p roce ss. A
magne tically h ard subs tance t ake s mo re w ork t o magne tize
, a sind ica ted
b
y t he l arger s haded a r ea i n F ig. 5 -
28h . O n b ring ing H t o z ero s ome
e
ne rgy i srelea sed , a
s i ndica ted b y t he cr ossha tched a reasi nF ig. 5 -28.
I
fH i sincreased a nd d ecrea sed s ot hatt he magne tiza tion of as pecimen
r
epea tedly t race so ut ah yste resis l o
op a si nF ig. 5- 29a , the area e nclo sed
b
y t his l oop r ep resents t he e ne rgy p e ru nit v olume e xpended i nt he mag -
n
e t
iza t
ion -demagne t
iza tion p roce ss in o ne c omp le te c ycle
. I n g ene ra
l
t
he s pec imen r etains s ome e ne rgy i ns tored magne t
ic f orm ata ny p ointi n
t
he c ycle. Howeve r, ing oing o nce a round t he h yst ere s
is loop a nd b ack
t
ot his p o
int , a t w h
ich t he e ne rgy w ill aga in b e t he s ame , energy p ropo r
-
t
iona lt othe a r ea oft he lo op i sl o
st. T his e ne rgy i se xpended i nstre ss
ing
t
he c ry stal f ragmen ts o f t he s pecimen a nd a ppea rs a s h eat. I f no
hyste resis w ere p resen ta nd t he initial magne tiza tion c urve w ere retraced ,
SE
C
. 5
-
15] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2
41

t
he ar
ea of t he l
oop wou ld be z
ero (
Fig
. 5-29b)
. T he magne
tizat
ion-
d
emagnetization proces
s c ou
ld then be accomplished w
ith no lo
ss of
e
nergy a
s h eat i
n the specimen, a
ssum
ing t ha
t eddy cur
rents (
see Sec
.
7
-18) a
re negl
igib
le.

(
a)

(
a)

(
6
)

(
b
)

FI
G. 5
-28
. E nergy dens
ity areas f
or (a
) F
la. 5-29. Energy l
os
t in magnet
izat
ion
s
of
t and (
6) hard magnetic mate
ria
ls, c
ycle ispropor
tiona
l to a
rea e
nclosed b
y
h
ysteresis l
o
op.

6
-16. P ermanen t Magne ts
. I n many a pplica t
ion sp e
rmanen t magne ts
p
lay a ni mpo rtant p art. I ndealing with p ermanent magne tst he se
ction
o
f the h ysteresis loop i n the second q uadran t of the B -H d iag ram i so f
p
articu lari n
tere st
. I fthe loop is asatu ration o r ma jor hyste resis loop,
t
he s ection i n t he s e
cond q uadrant i sc alled t he d emagn et
i zation c urve
(
Fig. 5 -30a ). T h
is c urve is ac haracteris t
ic c urve for ag iven magne tic
material. T he i n
tercep t of the curve w ith t he B a x
is i sthe max imum
p
o s
sible r esidua l fl
ux d ensity B,
, o rthe re tentivity, for the ma ter
ial, and
t
he i ntercep t w ith t he H a x
is i sthe max imum c oerc
ive f o rce, or t he
c
oerciv ity. I t i s usually d es
irable t hat p ermanent magne t mat erials
h
ave a h igh r eten t
ivity, b ut ita l
so isi mpor tant tha t the c oercivity b e
l
arge i no rder t hat the magne t wil
l not b e easily demagne t
ized .
2
42 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAp
. 5

I
n Fig . 5 -30b
, t hree demagne t
izat
ion c urves a re s hown. C urve 1
r
epre
sen ts ama ter
ial having ah igh re
tentivity b ut low coerc
ivity, w hi
le
c
urve 2 repre sents a material which i
sjust t he reverse, t
ha t i
s
, ith as a
l
ow r
eten t
iv ity and high c
oe rc
ivity. C urve 3r epresents ama teria
lw hich
i
s ac
omp rom ise be
tween t he othert wo
,h aving relatively high r
etent
iv ity
a
nd coercivity.

R
eten
tiv
ity

S
aturat
ion
h
ysteres
is
l
oop
D
ema
gnet
iz
at
ion
c
ur
ve

(
a
)

_
C
o
erc
iv
it
y

(
6
)

Fm
. 5
-30
. D
emagne
tiza
tion c
urve
s. (
B i
spo
sit
ive a
nd H i
snega
tive
.)

The maximum BH p roduct , a bbreviated BH .,.

., i
salso a quan t
ity of
impo r
tance f or ap ermanen t magne t. I n f a
ct, itisprobab ly t he bes
t
s
ingle "f i
gure o fmerit," o r cr
iterion, forj udging the q
uality of ap erma-
n
ent magne t ma terial
. R e
fe rr
ing t o F ig. 5-30b, i
t is a pparent t ha
t
BH . i sg reater f
orc urve 3t han f o
re ither curves 1or2. T he max imum
BH p roduc t for as ubs tance i ndicates the max imum e nergy d ensity (i
n
j
oules perc ubic meter ) int he magne t
. A magne tatth
is p o
in tdeliversa
g
iven f l
ux with am inimum o f magne t
ic ma teria
l.
Since the product BH h a st he dimens ions ofe ne
rgy density, itissome-
t
imes c al
led t he e
ne rgy p rodu ct and i t
s max imum v alue t he m aximum
e
nergy produ c
t. T he p roduc t BH f ora ny p o
int Po nthe demagne t
iza t
ion
SE
C. 5
-16
1 MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIAL
S 2
43

c
urve i spropor t
ional to t
he ar
ea o f t
he shaded rectang
le, as shown in
F
ig. 5-30a.
F
igure 5
-31 show sthe demagnet
ization curve f
orA ln
ico 5
,w hich isone
o
f t he b
est p e
rmanen t magnet ma ter
ials
. Th is isan al
loy con ta
ining
i
ron, cobalt
, nickel, a
luminum, and c opper. Ac urve s
howing t he BH
p
roduct i salso presen
ted. T he maximum BH p roduct isabout 36,000
j
oules perm eter'a nd o
ccursat af
lux dens
ity ofabou t 1webe
rp e
rm ete
r'
(
see pointP )
.
1
.
4

1
.
2

2
w0.
8

4:
10
.6

g0
.
4
-
1
2
g0.
2
r
z

0 0 6
C
D 0
§ § 0 0 0
6 6 60 C
D 6 6 6
m •
-
• r
n
I I

BH pr
oduc
t
(
ampe
res/me
ter
) (
j
oule
s/mete
r')
no
. 5
-31
. Demagne
tiza
tion a
nd BH p
roduct c
urve
s f
o
r A
lnico 5
.

Adi s
cus s
ion c oncerning the operat
ing p oint ofp e
rmanen t magnet
s is
g
iven inS ec
. 5 -
26.
5
-16. T able o f P ermanen t Magne tic Ma terials
. R epresen
tative
mate
rials forp ermanen t magne ts a
re given inT able 5-3
. T he mater
ials
a
re li
sted in the order ofi n
creasing max imum BH p roduc
t, which
, inc
i-
d
ental
ly ,isa l
so the chronologicalorder oftheir d
iscovery. T he c
ompo s
i-
t
ion o
ft he materials isgi
ven i nper cen
t.
TABLE 5
-3
PER MANENT MAGNET IC MATER
IALS
Retent
ivi
ty , Coer
civ
ity
, BH,
,,
Ma
ter
ial
w
ebe rs/meter' amp/mete
r j
oule
s/mete
ra
Chrome s teel (98 F
e, 0
.9 Cr
, 0.6 C
, 1
.0 4
,000 1
,600
0
.4 Mn )
Oxide (57 F e
, 28 0, 1
5 Co) .
2 7
2,000 4
,800
A
ln ico 2 (55 Fe
, 12 Co, 1
7 Ni, 1
0 Al
, .
7 4
4,800 1
3,600
6C u)
P
la tinum c obal
t (77 Pt
, 2
3 C o
) 0
.4 2
00,000 3
0,400
A
ln ico 5 (Mcomax ) (5
1 Fe
, 24 Co, 1
4 1
.25 4
4,000 3
6,000
Ni, 8Al
, 3C u)
 2
44 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 5

5
-17
. D emagne tizat
ion. Ab ar of fe
rromagnet
ic mate
rial t
hat has a
r
esidual f
lux density tends tobecome d emagnet
ized s
pontaneous
ly. The
p
henomenon i si lustrated byF ig
. 5-32
, w h
ich s
hows abar magnet
ized s
o
t
ha t an o
r th pole i sat the le
ft and a
s
outh p o
le a t t
he r ight. T he orienta- I
r
on k
e
epe
r
t
ion of as ing
le d oma in i
si ndicated
,
a
nd i tisevident t hat the e
xternal fi
e
ld
o
ft he ba
r magne t o pposes t
his domain

(
a) (
b)
FI
G. 5-32
. D emagne
tiza
tion e
fect o
f b
ar Fm. 5-33
. U
-shaped magne
t w
ith
magne
t fi
eld
. a
nd wi
thout k
eeper
.

and, h ence, w ill tend t ot urn i t

,o rr eve rse itsp ola rity, a nd t he reby p a rti
-
al
ly d emagne t
ize t he b ar
. T he t endency f o
r t his d emagne tizat ion i s
r
educed i ft he magne ti sint he f orm o f aU a si nF ig. 5 -33a , s ince i n t h
is
case the re isb ut li
t t
le d emagne tizing f i
eld a long t he s ide o ft he magne t
.
T he demagne tizing e fect c an b e s t
ill furthe r reduced b y m eans o f as o
ft
i
ron keep erp laced a crosst he p olesa si nF ig.5 -33h.
The p roces s o fr emov ing t he p ermanen t mag -
n
etiza t
ion o f as pecimen s ot ha tt he r e sidua lf l
ux
d
ens ity i sz ero u nde r cond itions o fz ero H f i
eld i s
c
alled demagne tization ord ep erm ing. I ti sevident
t
ha t Bc an b e reduced t oz ero b yt he a ppl ication
o
ft he coe rciv ef orce He,b ut o nr emov ing t h
is f i
eld
t
he r e
sidua lf l
ux d ensity w illr ise tos ome v alue Bo
ass ugge sted i nF ig. 5 -34. A lthough i tm igh tb e
pos s
ible t o e nd u p a t B = 0a nd H = 0 b y in-
creasing H t osl
igh tly mo re t han t he c oerc ive f orce
Fm .5-34. Partialh yster-
e
sis l
oop. an d t
he n decre a
si n g i
t t
o z
ero a
s s
ug ges te d by t
he
dashed l ines, t he p roce ss r equire s a n a ccura te
know ledge o f B a nd H a nd t he h ysteresis l oop.
Al onge r b ut mo re simp ly a pp lied m ethod i sc alled d emagne ti zation o r
d
epe rm ing b y r eversals. I n t his m ethod , H i s b rough t t o as maller
maximum amp litude o n each r eve rsal so t hat e ven tua lly t he s pec imen i s
l
e
f t i n ad emagne tized s t ate a t z ero f i
e
ld a s s ugges ted b y F ig. 5 -35.
A
lthough s uch a d emagne tiza t
ion p rocedure c an b e c omp le tely c arried
o
ut i n a ma t ter o f seconds w ith a s mall magne tic s pec imen s uch a s a
watch ( using a - c fi
elds), many s econds o r e ven m inute s may b e requ ired
f
or each r ev
er sal f or large magne tic o b
jec ts becaus e of t he s low d ecay o f
t
he i nduced e ddy c urren ts a nd t he r e
luc tance o f t he d oma ins t o
SE
C
. 5
-
181 MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGN ETIC MATERIA
LS 2
45

c
hange po
lar
ity
. T
he ma
tte
r o
f e
ddy c
urrent
s i
sdi
scus
sed f
ur
the
r i
n
S
ec
. 7-
18.

FI
G
. 5
-35
. D
emagne
tiza
tion b
y r
ever
sals
.

5
-18. The Magnetic Circu i
t. R eluctance a nd P ermeance . A n el
ec -
t
r
ic ci
rcuit f
orms acl
osed p ath orcircuit th
rough w h
ich the current fl
ow s.
Magnetic fl
ux tubes are c ontinuous a nd f orm c l
osed p aths
.' H ence ,
b
y analogy, we may cons
ide r that as i
ngle flux tube i
s am agn e
ticcircuit,
a
l
though n oth
ing isactually fl
ow ing. O r al
l oft he f
lux tubes of amag -
n
et
ic circu
it, t
aken i
np a
rallel
, may b e considered as a magne t
ic circuit.
Cons
ider fi
rs
t an e
lectr
ic c i
rcuit carrying ac urrent I. B y Kirchhof 's
l
aw the to
tal emfinthe circuit isequa l t
o the total IR drop. Thus
'
O
r =I
Rr v
olts 5-
( 6
1)

w
here '
O
r =t ota
l e m
f (volts
)
RT = t
ota
l res
istance (ohms
)
F
rom (5
-61) t
he to
tal re
sistance i
s
VT
Rr = T (
5
-62
)

C
onside
r now a magnet
ic c
ircuit
. C or
respond
ing to t
he r
es
istance o
f
a
nelec
tric c
i
rcu
it a
sg iven b
y (5-62
), w
e may, byana
logy, d
ef
ine aq uan
-
1The c
ont
inuous nature of s
teady c
urren
ts i
n an e
lect
ric c
ir
cu i
t i sexpres
sed by
V •J .
•0,where J .
=current d
ensity
. The ana
logous magne
tic r
elation i
s V •B = 0
.
2
46 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
Ow ,.5

t
i
ty f
o
r t
he magne
tic c
i
rcu
it c
a
lled t
he r
e
luc
tanc
e (
R
. T
hus

F r
61 T (
5
-63
)

whe
re 612.= t
ota
l re
luctance o
f magnet
ic ci
rcuit
FT = t
ota
l mm f o
f magnet
ic ci
rcuit (
amp )
=fl
ux th
rough magne t
ic c
ircu
it (webers)
I
n gene
ral, t
he t
ota
l fl
ux 1,
t
,
„
,in amagne t
ic ci
rcuit i
sgi
ven b
y

=f
f B •d
s w
ebe
rs (
5
-64
)

where B = fl
ux d
ensity (
webers/me ter'
)
d
s =e l
ement ofsur
face ( meter
s')
The i
ntegra
tion i
scarr
ied out o
vert he c
ross
-sect
iona
larea o
fthe f
l
ux tube
o
rt ubes t
hatcons
titute t
he ci
rcuit
. I fBi sun
iform o
verthe e
nt
ire c
ross
s
e
c t
ion,
= BA w
ebers (
5-65)

w
here A = cros
s-sec
tiona
l area ofc
ircu
it ( me
ter
s 2)
.
R
eluctance has t
he dimensions of c
urrent per magne
tic f
l
ux, o
r i
n
d
imensiona
l symbols
Q TQ _ Q2
T ML 2

The r
elat
ion (22/ML 2 h
as the d
imens
ions o fthe r
ec
iprocal o
finductance
.
Thus the u
nit f
or r
eluctance i
sthe r
eciproca
l henry
.
The rec
iprocal of re
luctance (Risc a
lled the p
erm eanc
e 6 3,w
hich is
e
xpressed i
nh enrys
. H ence, f
rom (5
-63),

1
(
P
r = = (
5
-66
)
r

where (
Pr = t
ota
l permeance ofcircuit (
henrys)
.
The tota
l mmf of a magnet
ic ci
rcuit is
, f
rom ( 4
-90)
, equa
l to t
he l
i
ne
i
ntegra
l ofHaround t he c
omplete ci
rcuit
, and th
is inturn i
sequa
l t
othe
ampere-
turns e
nclosed
. T he
refore
, ( 5
-63) becomes

1 FT fH •d
l NI
= 1
/henry
s (
5
-67
)
W
r O
m
whe
re NI = ampe re-turns.
The above d
iscuss
ion conce rn
st he t
ota
lreluc
tance of ac
ircu
it. Letu s
c
ons
ide r next t
he re
luctance o f aport
ion of a magnet
ic ci
rcuit
. In an
e
l
ectric ci
rcuit
, the r e
sistance Ft b
etween two points
, having no emfs
b
etween t hem, i
sgiven b y
V
R= ohms (
5-68
)
SE
C. 5
-18
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2
47

where V = potentia
l d
iference between t
he point
s (volt
s)
/= c urrent i
nci
rcuit (amp)
I
nt he a
nalogous magnet
ic case
, the r
e
luctance 61between two p
oin
ts i
n a
magnet
ic ci
rcuit isg
iven by
U
6
1= 1
/henry
s (
5
-69)

w
here U = magne
tic po
tent
ial d
iference between t
he p
oint
s (
amp
).
F
rom (
4-87
) f
or Ua nd (
5
-64) f
or I
,
„
, we have
/
2 H. d
l

6
1- h (
5
-70
)
ffB •d
s

w
he re H i
si ntegrated b
etween the two p
oints (1and 2
) between which
w
e w ish t
o f
ind the magnet
ic potent
ial d
iference U.
When the circu
it has aun
iform cross s
ec
tion ofarea A a
nd the f
i
e
ld is
u
niform, (
5-70 ) r
educes t
o
H
I I
4
2=— =— 1/henry
s (
5-71)
BA µ
A
w
here a = r
e
luctance between po
in t
s 1and 2 (
1/henrys )
/= d
i
stance between po
in ts 1a
nd 2 (meters
)
A =cross
-sec
tional a
rea o
f magnetic c
i
rcuit ( me
ters')
A=permeabili
ty o f medium c ompr
ising t he circuit (
hen
rys/
mete
r)
T
he pe
rmeance 6'between the p
oints 1and 2isgiven b y
1 A
A
6
) 1=T
=1
( he
nrys (
5
-72
)

Re
luctances in s
er
ies are addit
ive in the same way that resistances in
s
er
iesare addit
ive. F or r
e
luctance sinp aral
lel t
he r
eciprocal ofthe total
r
e
luctance isequal to the sum oft he r
eciprocals o
fthe individual reluc-
t
ances
. F or r
eluctances i
n p ara
llel i
tisu sual
ly more conven ient to use
p
ermeance, the t
otal permeance b e
ing equal to t
he sum oft he ind
ividua l
p
ermeances.
E
xamp le 1
. F ind the re
luctance and permeance be tween t
he e
nd softhe r
ectangu-
l
a
rb lock ofiron shown i nFig
.5 -36a
,a ssum ing t
hat Bi suni
form throughou
tt he b
lock
a
nd n orma l t
o the ends. T he permeab i
lity of t
he block isun
iform and has avalue
A
s
i =5 00µ0
, where $10 i
sthe p
ermeability ofv acuum.
S
o
lu tion. The r e
luctance oft he b
lock i sfr
om (5-69)

/ 0
.1
6
1= = -1
.
06 X 1
0
' r
e
cip
roca
l h
enry
s
µA 5
00 X 4
7 X 1
0-7 X 1
5 X 1
0-4

The p
ermeance (
Pist
he r
e
ciproca f (
l o S
t
;so
1
a
>- 1
. 0 4- 9
06 X 1 .
4 X 1
0-, h
enry
2
48 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CRAP
. 5

(
a)

1
0cm

B
l
ock 2 B -
0. 3e
r
n

4
3cm /
42 ' H2 •-s
" 5c
m
1
r
i
!"
2
0cm 10 CM
(
b)

2c
m

4c
m

2
0cm

Fu
r. 5
-36
. R
ectangu
lar i
r
on b
lock
s.

E
xamp le 2. Find t he t otal re
luctance a nd permeance b e
tween the ends of t
he
a
eri
es -connected r
ectangu lar iron b locks s hown i n Fig. 5-36b, a
ssuming that B i s
un
ifo rm t hroughout the b locks and n ormal to the ends
. The p ermeabi
lity of e
ach
b
lock i su ni
form, the value i nblock 1b eing Ai = 5
t 00a o a
nd inblock 2
, a2 = 2
,000
/40
.
Solution. The r eluc
tance 6 11 o
f block 1i sgiven in Examp le 1
. The reluctance o
f
b
lock 2i s

£
2 0
.2
6
1
2 - =2
,000 X 4
r X 1
0 -TX 1
5 X 1
0-' -0
.53 X 1
06 r
ec
iproca
l h
enrys
4
A 2.
1

The t
ota
l r
e
luc
tance M
r e
qua
ls t
he s
um o
f t
he i
ndiv
idua
l r
e
luctance
s; s
o

(
1
2, = 6
1 -
161
2 = (
1
.06 0
.53
) X 1
0' = 1
.
59 X 1
06r
ec
iproca
l h
enrys

The t
ota
l p
ermeance
1 1
=6
.3 X 1
0-6 h
enry
(
P
r -6
1T - 1
.
59 X 1
06

Examp le 3
. F ind t he t ota
l reluctance a nd permeance b e
tween t he e nds o f t he
p
aralle
l-conneded rectangu lar ir
on b locks shown i n Fig. 5-36c, assuming t ha t B i s
u
niform i n e
ach block a nd n ormal t o t
he ends. The p ermeab ility o
f each b lock i s
u
niform, the va
lue i n b
lock 1b e
ing al = 5 00A0 and inblock 2b eing A2 = 2, 0 0 0 A°.
So
lutit
on. Since t he blocks are in para
llel
, iti s more conven ient t
o calcula te t he
t
otal permeance f
irs
t. The p ermeance Mi o fblock 1i s

ali
t' 5
00 X 4
r X 1
0-7 X 2
0 X 1
0-4
6
,1 -6
.28 X 1
0-6 h
enry
0
.2

The p
ermeance o
fblock 2i
s

PM: 2
,000 X 4
r X 1
0 -TX 1
0 X 1
0-4
0
.2 - 1
2
.6 X 1
0-6 h
enry

The t
ota
l p
ermeance e
qua
ls t
he s
um o
f t
he i
ndiv
idua
l p
ermeances
; s
o

(
P
r = (
P
i + 6
'
2 = (
6
.28 + 1
2
.6) X 1
0-6 = 1
.
89 X 1
0-6 h
enry
SE
C
. 5
-
191 MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIAL
S 2
49

T
he t
ota
l r
e
luc
tance i
sthen g
iven b
y

1 1
r 1
.
89 X 5
.
3 X 1
04 r
e
ciproca
l h
enry
s
(
P 1
0-6

I
nt he above e
xamp les,itisassumed tha t Band µ a
re uni
form t hrough-
o
ut each block. I tf o
llows that H ( = Bh.t
) isal
so uni
fo rm a nd tha
t the
e
nd s urfaces ar
e e quipotent
ials. F or instance
, i fH is 1,000 amp p er
meter
, t he magnetic potent
ial diference between the ends oft he bar i
n
E
xamp le 1( F
ig. 5
-36a ) i
sU = H 1 = 1,000 X 0.1 = 100 amp . T he fl
ux
d
ensity B = -µill =5 00mo X 1,000 = 6.28 X 10- ' weber p e
r s quare
meter
. T he t
otal fl
ux ii
„
, through the block isthen e
qual t o BA, where
Ai sthe area ofthe block. T hus
,

4
'
,
, = BA = 6
.
28 X 1
0- 'X 1
5 X 1
0-4 = 9
.
4 X 1
0-4 w
ebe
r

I
n E xample 2 (F
ig. 5
-36h) itfo
llow s f
rom the bounda ry condition f
or
t
he normal component o f B that the fl
ux dens
ity ist he same i n b
oth
b
locks
. S uppose t
hatiti sequal to 1weber per s
quare m eter. T hen i
n
b
lock 1, H I= Bh il = 1
/500At
o =1 .59 X 10
' amp p e r m eter
, a nd the
p
otent
ia l d
iference Ul between t he end fa
ces of block 1 i sg iven by
Ul = H all= 1.
59 X 10' X0 .1 =1 59 amp. I n b
lock 2,

B 1
-3 02 a
.97 X 1 mp p
er m
ete
r
A
2 2
,
000
ASO
a
nd t
he p
oten
tia
l d
ife
rence U2 b
etween t
he e
nd f
a
ces o
fblock 2i
s

U2 = H 21
2= 3
.97 X 1
0
' X0
.
2 =7
9
.4 amp

The t
ota
l p o
tent
ial diference U acro
ss b oth b
locks i
st hen g iven b
y
U = Ui ± U 2 = 1
59 -I
-7 9
.4 = 238
.4 amp .
I
n Example 3 (F
ig. 5
-36c) i
tfo
llows from the bounda
ry c ondition f
o
r
t
he t
angent
ialcomponen tso fHthat Hi sthe s
ame inboth blocks. S up
-
p
ose t
hat i
ti se
qual to 1
,000 amp p
er m e
ter. T hen inblock 1,

B1 = mil = 5 ,000 = 0
00po X 1 .
628 w
eber p
er s
qua
re m
ete
r

a
nd t
he magne
tic f
l
ux i
nbl
ock 1i
s

I
P
m 1=1
31/
11 =0
.
628 X 2
0 X 1
0-4 = 1
.
26 X 1
0-1 w
ebe
r

I
n block 2, B2 = 1
.211 = 2,
000A 0 X 1,000 = 2
.52 webers per squa
re
m
eter
, and t
he fl
ux i
nb l
ock 2i s 0.2 = /3
2/
12 = 2
.52 X 10-'weber
. T he
t
o
tal fl
ux t
hrough b
oth blocks inp ara
lle
l isthen g
iven b
y

=I
P
„
,i -
I1, 2 = (1
P
. .
26 ± 2
.
52) X 1
0
'4 = 3
.
78 X 1
0-8 w
eber

5
-19
. Magne t
ic F
ield Mapping. Magnet
ic Fie
ld Cels
. The examples
i
nthe preced
ing s
e
ction i
lustrate h
ow t
he r
eluctance o
rpermeance may
2
50 ELECTRO MAGNET1CS [
CHAP
. 5

b
ef ound fors ect
ions of amagne t
ic ci
rcuit thath ave au n
i form crosss e
c-
t
ion and u niform f i
eld
. I n t wo
-dimen sional problems w here the fi
eld
a
nd c r
oss section are nonun i
fo rm the magne tic fi
eld configurat
ion , and
c
onsequen t
ly t he re
luctance o r permeance , can also be found p rovided
t
he permeab i
lity may b e considered constant. G raphical fi
eld-mapp ing
t
echniques such asa re e mp
loyed i nSecs
. 2 -27 a
nd 3 -16 are appl
icable to
s
uch si
tua t
ions .
The fo
llowing b asic properties a
re use fu
l in magne tic fi
eld mapp ing:

1
.T he fi
eld ( H orB ) l i
ne s a nd t he magne tic p otentia
l ( U) li
nesi nter-
s
ect at r i
ght a ngles.
2
. A
t t he b ounda ry b e
tween a ir a nd iron ( or other high-permeab ili
ty
medium ) t he fi
eld l ine s on t he a i
r s i
de o f t he bounda ry are sub -
s
tantially p erpend icula r to t he b oundary s urface
.
3
. The b ounda ry b etween a ir a nd i ron ( or othe r high-permeab i
lity
medium ) may b e r ega rded a s a n equipo ten t
ia l w
ith r e
spect to t he
a
irs i
de o ft he bounda ry b utn ot
,i ng enera l
, w ith r
espectt ot he ir
on
s
ide
.
4
. I
n au niform f i
eld t he p o
ten tial v a
riesl inea r
ly with distance.
5
. A magne t
ic f l
ux t ube i sp ara
l lel to the fie
ld, a nd the magne tic fl
ux
o
vera ny c rosss ection o ft he tube i s acons tan t
.
6
. Magne tic f l
ux tubes a re con t
inuous .

W
ith the
se propert
ie s i
n m
ind a t
wo-d
imens
iona
l magnet
ic f
i
eld may
b
edivided i
nto magnetic f
l
ux t
ube
sa nd t
hen b
yequ
ipoten
tia
ls i
n
to mag-

E
qui-
p
o
tentia
ls

W
alls o
ffl
ux t
ube
FI
G
. 5
-37
. Magne
tic f
i
e
ld c
el.

n
e
ticf i
eld c e
ll
sw ith s
idesthata re s
quareso rcurvil
inears quares, u
sing the
t
r
ial-and -error me thod descr
ibed inS ec
. 2-27 i nconnection with el
ectric
f
i
e
ld mapp ing.
Am agn eticf i
eld c
el
l isb ounded on two sides by equipotent
ia l s
urfaces
a
nd o n t wo o thers by the si
de w a
lls o
f af l
ux tube. F o
r instance
, t he
s
i
des of t he magne t
ic fi
eld ce
ll in F
ig. 5-
37 a re t
he w al
ls of af l
ux tube,
w
hile t he t op a nd b o
ttom s ur
faces are e quipotent
ials. T he fi
eld is
SE
C
. 5
-
19] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNET
IC MATERIA
LS 2
51

p
aral
lel t
o the s
ides a
nd norma
l to t
he t
op and b
ottom sur
faces
. T he
p
ermeance of amagnet
ic f
i
e
ld ce
ll
, a
sm ea
sured b
etween t
he e
quipoten
tial
s
ur
faces, i
s
, fr
om ( 5
-72
),

Ai
d .d
F =7 = p
,
24
6,0 = -
- h
enrys (
5
-73
)

a
nd t
he p
ermeance p
er u
nit d
epth i
s

(
P
o
= h
enry
s/me
ter (
5
-74
)

where &= p ermeab i

lity o f c e
ll m edium ( henry s/me ter). T hus, t he
v
alue of µf or am edium i se qua l to t he p ermeance p e
r u n
it depth o f a
magnetic f i
eld ce
ll oft hat med ium . F ore xamp le, amagne t
ic fi
eld c e
llin
a
ir has a p ermeance p er u nit d epth o f 47 X 1 0- 7 henry p er m ete r
, or
1
.26 Ahp er meter. T hus,ifd in F ig. 5-37 e qua ls 1me tera nd t
he m edium
i
sair, the p ermeance o fthe c ell is1.26 A h.
Any f i
eld cel
l can b es ubdiv ided i nto s malle rs qua re-ended c el
ls w ith as
many cells i np a
ra l
lel asi ns eries. H ence t he p ermeance p er unit d epth
o
fa ny fi
eld c e
ll,large o rs mall,e xactly s qua re o rc urvil
inea r
,i sequa lt oµ.
A
ll cells w i
th t he same f lux t hrough t hem may b e d efined as m agne t
ic
f
i
eld ce
llso ft he same kind . I tf o
llows t hat t he magne tic p otential difer-
e
nce acro ss al
l cells oft he same k ind i st he s ame.
To ilu strate some o f the princ ip
le s o f magne tic f i
eld mapp ing , l e
t us
c
onsider t hree examp le s involv ing th ree v ariations o f at wo-d
imens ional
p
roblem .
Examp
le 1. A magne
tic c
ircu
it h
as an a
i
r gap o
f n
onun
ifo
rm s epara
tion a
s s
ug-
g
ested i
nFig
. 5
-38a
. The ir
on h a
s aun
iform d
epth di
n
to t
he page o
f 1meter
. The

(
a
) (
6
)
FI
G
. 5
-38
. Magne
tic f
i
e
ld i
nai
r g
ap (
Examp
le 1
)
.

g
eome
try o
ft he g
ap i
sid
ent
ical w
ith t
he r
eg
ion between i
f and g i
nthe c
apac
ito
r o
f
F
ig
. 2
-24
. F ind t
he p
ermeance o
fthe a
irgap, n
eglect
ing fr
ing
ing o
fthe f
i
eld
.
2
52 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 5

So
lut ion. I t may b e assumed t hat the i r
on p ermeab il
ity i s much greater t han )40
s
o that t he fi
eld l
ines in the g
ap w i
ll b e pe
rpend icular to the air
-iron bounda ry, a
nd
t
his bounda ry c
an bet reated as amagne t
ic e quipoten tia
l. S ince the geome try oft he
g
ap ist he s ame as that f
or the capacitor in Fig. 2-24, the fi
eld map i n Fig
. 2 -24 may
a
lso s
erve i nt he p
resent case, no
ting t hat the fi
eld lines he
re a re B or Hl i
nes a nd the
e
quipo ten t
ials a
re surfaces of e
qual magne t
ic p otential Ua s s hown i n F
ig. 5-38b.
With t he except
ion o fthe ce
lls i
nt he rema inde r fl
ux tube a l
l oft he f
i
eld cel
ls are of
t
he same k ind , a
nd t he p
ermeance o ft he ai
rg ap isg iven int e
rms o fcels oft he s
ame
k
ind b y
N
— t
r
o (
5
-75
)

where N = number of f
ie
ld c
el
ls (o
r fl
ux tube s
) in p
a ra
llel (
d
imensionle
ss)
n=n umber of f
ie
ld c
el
ls inser
ies (d
imens ionless
)
6
'
0 =p ermeance o
fo ne c
el
l (henrys
)
The remainde
r flux t
ube has c
e
lls in s
eries, wh
ile the othe
r fl
ux tubes h
ave 4
.
Hence t
he remainder t
ube i
s
4
— = 0
.43

o
fthe w
idth o
f af
u
llt
ube
, a
nd N = 1
5 0
.43 = 1
5
.43
. The t
o
tal p
ermeance o
fthe
g
ap i
sthen
1
5
.43
6
'
r — 6
,0 = 3
.866,0
4

S
ince t
he d
epth o
feach c
e
ll i
s 1me
ter
, t
he p
ermeance o
fone c
e
ll i
s

6
'
0 =p
od = 1
.
26 X 1 = 1
.
26 p
h

a
nd t
he t
ota
l p
ermeance i
s

= 3
.86 X 1
.
26 = 4
.86 p
h

I
t isa ssumed i n t
his examp le tha t there isn o fr
inging of the fi
eld
. F or an a ctual
g
ap t he re w ould b e fr
inging a t t he e dges, and the actual permeance o f the g ap
would b e somewha t la
rger t han given a bove.
Examp le 2
. L et the problem o f the a bove examp le be modifi
ed to t hat shown i n
F
ig. 5-39. He re the gap oft he fi
rst examp le isrep
laced b yiron and the iron po
le s by
a
i
r. The i r
on may b e r
egarded a s parto f amagne tic ci
rcuitofi r
on extend ing further
t
o the left and to the right as sugge s
ted b y t
he dashed line
s in Fig. 5-39. The i ron
e
xtends t o ad epth of 1me ter norma l to the page, with t
he cros
s sect
ion a ta ny d epth
i
dentical to that in Fig. 5-39. A ssume t hat the ir
on h a
s au niform p ermeab ility µ
which is much larger t
han 40. F ind the pe
rmeance b etween the sur
facesind
icated b
y
t
he d a
sh -dot li
nesi f a
nd pg
.
S
olu
tion. The f ie
ld map forthis problem isthe same asfor Examp le 1(F
ig. 5
-38b
)
e
xcep t that the fi
e
ld a nd equ
ipotential li
nes are i
nterchanged as shown in F
ig. 5
-39
.
I
ti sassumed t ha t pisso much greater than 40 t
hat inthe i
ron the H fi
e
ld at t
he a
ir
-
i
ron b ounda ry iss ubs
tan t
ialy p ara
llel to the boundary as indicated by the map
.
The total pe
rmeance b etween i
f and g i s
, fr
om ( 5
-75),

6
'= 1
5
.44
3 =0
.259 X4
4 X 1

=0
.259 X 1
.
264
4, =0
.326p
, p
h

whe
re mr m
. r
e
lat
ive p
ermeab
ili
ty o
f i
r
on.
SE
C. 5
-19
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNET
IC MATERIA
LS 2
53

E
quiva
lent c
u
rrent
A
i
r A
d
o s
hee
t (ou
t o
fp age)

E
qu
ipo
ten
tia
ls
. •
•
..
. •.
I •
. •
•.••..
.....
•
•
. .•• .
•
• ••• 1
4.
.•:
:
•• :
* .:
.: •
' .
'
...
:•
..
'
.
..• ....
...
..
I
r
on b
a
r •
• . •• •
. .
•
• .•••••.
•

E
qu
iva
len
tcurren
t
A
i
r /40 s
hee
t (i
n
to p
age)
F
io. 5
-39
. I
ron b
ar o
f n
onun
ifo
rm c
ros
s s
ec
tion w
ith i
n
terna
l f
i
e
ld (
Examp
le 2
)
.

E
xamp le 3. L et t
he problem of the p
receding example b e modif
ied t
o that o
f a
t
wo-str
ip transmiss
ion l
ine hav
ing the s
ame cross s
ection a
st he gap o
f Example 1and
t
he i
ron c
ircuito
fE xample 2
. A ss hown i
nF ig. 5
-40 the t
wo conducting s
tr
ips e
xtend
n
ormal to the p
age with asheet o
fs t
eady current f
l
ow ing outward on t
he uppe
rs t
rip

S
heet c
ur
rent
Kamp./mete
r
(
ou
t ofpage)
1

C
onduct
ing
s
t
r
ip

C
onduct
ing
st
r
ip
E
qu
ipo
ten
tia
ls

S
heetcu r
rent
Ka mp
./me te
r
(i
n
to page)
F
ro. 5
-40
. C
ros
s s
ect
ion o
fst
rip t
ransm
iss
ion l
i
ne (
Examp
le 3
)
.

a
nd a
n e
qua
l c
urrent f
l
owing i
nwa
rd o
n t
he l
ower s
t
rip
. The med
ium i
n wh
ich t
he
s
t
rips are lo
cated isai
r. N eg
lect e dge efe
cts. Find the i
nduc
tance of a1-mete
r
l
eng
th of the l
ine
.
S
olu
tion. N eg
lect
ing edge e fect
s,' the f
ie
ld map be
tween the s
trip
s isiden
tica
l
w
ith t
ha t f
or t
he ir
on ci
rcuit i
n Fig. 5-39
.

I
fthe conducting st
rips are e
xtended an i
nf
inite d
istance to the l
e
ft a nd right
, a
s
s
uggested by the dashed li
nes in F
ig. 5
-40
, the f
ie
ld configurat
ion isprecisely as i
ndi-
c
ated. The f ie
ld b etween the st
rips i
sproduced b y t
he c ur
rents on the s tr
ips. In
Examp le 2the f
ie
ld int he i
ron may be r
egarded a
s due to an equ
ivalent cur rent s
hee
t
a
t the sur
faces of t
he ir
on b ar n
ormal to t
he page (F
ig. 5-39)
.
2
54 ELECTRO MAGNETICS 5

I
feach ce
ll i
n the map i
sregarded a
s ast
rip tr
ansmis
sion li
ne w
ith s
heet c
urrent
s
a
long i
ts u
pper and l
ower s
urface
s, t
he i
nductance L
ofor aleng
th dof 1m e
terofthe
s
i
ngle-
cell l
i
ne (
norma l t
o t
he page i
n F
ig. 5
-40) i
s
, f
rom (4-
100), g
iven b
y
Lo = pod = 1
.
26 i
s
h

The t
ota
l i
nduc
tance L
rof ame
ter l
e
ngth o
fthe l
i
ne i
sthen
4
L
r = X 1
.
26 0
.326 µ
1
1

A
t any p oin t on e i
ther strip in Examp le 3w eh ave the b ounda ry con-
d
ition t hat the tangen t
ial component o fH i sequa l in magn itude to the
l
inear sheet c urren t density K a t the p o
int, t hat is
, He = K . S ince the
a
ve rage H f i
eld f or any c e
ll ofthe s ame k ind i sinverse
ly p ropo r
tional to
t
he c e
ll width , itf ollows t hat the l i
near c urrent d ens
ity K a t the le
f t
,
where t he s
trip s pac ing iss ma
ll
, i sf our time s the density a t the ri
gh t
,
where the spac ing isl a
rge, the spacing r at
io b e
ing 4 . T he variat
ion i nK
a
long t he st
rips i st he same a sf o
r t he change d en s
ity Po int he capacitor
p
rob lem o fFig . 2-24.
I
n conclusion t he i mportant p roper t
ies o f an accurate magne t
ic fi
eld
map in as i
ngle m edium o fu niform p ermeab ility may b es ta
ted a sf o
llows:
1
.T he permeance 6 '0 ofa ny magne tic fi
eld c e
ll ist he same.
2
. T he permeance p er unit d epth o fa ny magne tic fi
eld cellist he same
a
nd ise qual to the p ermeab i
lity A o ft he med ium .
3
. T he re
luc tance ao o fa ny magne tic f i
e
ld c ell isthe s ame.
4
. T he reluctance -depth p roduct f or a ny magne t
ic f i
e
ld c e
ll i sthe
s
ame a nd i sequa l t o the r eciproca l of the p ermeab i
lity µ for the
med
ium .
5
. T he magne tic potent ial d iference a cro ssa ny magne t
ic fie
ld c e
ll o
f
t
he s
ame k ind ist he s ame a nd ise qua l to ' ,,
R o.
6
. T he magne tic fl
ux 0 „
, th rough a ny magne t
ic f i
e
ld c el
l oft he same
k
ind ist he s ame.
7
. T he magne tic fl
ux 0 „
, o ve r any c ross s e
ction o f af l
ux tube i sthe
s
ame.
8
. T he average f l
ux d ensity B i na ny c el o fthe same k ind isinve r
sely
p
ropo r
tiona l t
o t he w idth o ft he c e
ll or flux tube.
9
. T he ave rage f i
e
ld H i n a ny cel
l o ft he same k ind i sinversely pro-
p
ort
iona l to the c e
ll w idth .
1
0
. T he magne t
ic e nergy s tored i n a ny c el
l o f the s ame k ind i sthe
s
ame.
1
. T he average magne t
ic e nergy d ensity ina ny cel
lo fthe same k ind i
s
i
nversely p ropo r
tiona l to t he area o ft he end o ft he cel
l. ( This i
s
t
he a
rea t ha t a
ppear si nt he fi
eld map . )
5
-20
. C
ompar
ison o
f F
ie
ld Maps in E
lectr
ic, Magnet
ic, a
nd Current
C
ases. G
raph
ical f
i
e
ld mapp
ing wa
s discus
sed in S
ec. 2
-27 f
or e
lect
ric
SE
C. 5
-20
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATER
IALS 2
55

f
i
eld s, i nS ec. 3 -
16 f o rc ur ren ts i nc onduc to rs, a nd i nS ec. 5 -19 a nd a lso t o
s
ome e xtent i nS ec. 4 - 20 f or magne tic f i
elds . T he t echn ique i ss im ila ri n
a
llt hese c as es. O fp a rticula rs ign ificance i st he f actt ha t af i
eld map f ora
c
erta in t wo -dimens iona l g eome try may b ea ppl ied t on ume rous p rob lems
h
av ing t h
is g eome t ry. A ni lus tra tion o ft his w asp rov ided b y t he t hree
e
xamp les i nS ec. 5 - 19, i nw hich t he f i
eld map o fF ig. 2 - 24 f or ac apac ito r
y
ielded t he s olut ion f or t he p ermeance o f t he v olume w ith t he f ield
a
pp l
ied b oth t ransve rsely a nd l ongitud ina l
ly . T he map a lso g ave t he
i
nduc tance o f ac onduc ting - strip t ransm is sion l ine.
The s ame map c an, i na dd ition , s upp ly t he v alue o ft he c onductance o f
aconduc ting b arw ith t he c urrent f l
ow ing t ransve rse ly a nd w ith t he c ur-
r
ent f low ing l o ngitud ina lly. T he s ame map c an a lso b e a pp lied t oh ea t-
a
nd f l
uid -f
low p rob lems .
T
o s umma rize , s ke tche s a re g iven i n F ig . 5 -41, s how ing s ix d ife rent
p
rob lems o ft he s ame g eome try f or w h
ich s o
lut ions a re s upp lied b y o ne
f
i
eld map . T he a ctua l map i ss hown i nF ig . 5 -41a , b eing om i tted i nt he
o
the rs ke tche s. T he g eome try o ft he p rob lems i st ha t o ft he c apac ito ro f
F
ig. 2 - 24, w hich w as a lso u sed i nt he p rob lems o fF ig s
. 5 -38 t o 5 -40 .
I
n F ig . 5 -41a t he map r epre sen ts t he e lec tric f i
eld i n ac apac ito r w ith
t
he f i
eld t ransve r se. I n Fig . 5 - 41b t he map r epre sents t he e lectr ic f ie
ld
i
n ac onduc ting b a rw ith c ur rent f l
ow ing t r ansve rsely , w hile i nF ig . 5 -41c
t
he c ur rent f l
ows l ong itud ina lly . I n F ig . 5 -41d t he map r ep re sen ts t he
magne tic f i
eld i n t he a ir g ap b e tween t wo i ron p ole f ace s
, w hile i n F ig.
5
-41e i tr epre sent st he magne tic f i
eld i na ni ron b arw ith t he f i
eld a pp lied
l
ongitud ina l
ly . I n F ig. 5 -41f t he map r epresent s t he f i
eld b etween t wo
c
onduc ting s trips a cting a s at ransm is s
ion l i
ne w ith c ur ren t f low ing
n
o rma l t o t he p age . F or e ach c ase t he c apac itance , c onduc tance ,
p
ermeance , ori nduc tance p er u nit d epth ( no rma l t ot he p age ) i sg iven , a s
a
pp ropr ia te f ort he p a rt
icu la rp rob lem . F ring ing o ft he f i
eld i sn eg lec ted
i
na ll c ase s.
I
ti sa lso o fi nt ere st t o c ompa re t he s ign ificance o ft he c ells ( squa re o r
c
urv il
inea r) o f t he f ield maps f or t he d ife rent p rob lems w e h ave c on -
s
idered . T hus , t he c apac itance p e r u nit d ep th o f a n e lec tric f ie
ld c e
ll
e
qua ls t he p erm it tiv ity eo ft he m edium ; t he c onduc tance p er u nit d ep th
o
f ac onduc to r c e
l l e qua ls t he c onduc tiv ity f o f t he m edium ; t he p er-
meance p er u n it d ep th o f amagne tic f i
eld c ell e qua ls t he p ermeab ility µ
o
ft he m ed ium ; a nd t he i nduc tance p eru nit l eng th o f at ran sm is sion l ine
c
ell e qua ls t he p ermeab il
ity µ o f t he m edium . T hes e r ela tionsh ips a re
s
umma rized i nt he l astc o
lumn o fT able 5 - 4
. T his t able a l
so h a sc olumns
h
eaded F low l i
ne s, F low t ube s
, a nd E quipo ten tia ls. B y f l
ow l ine s a re
mean t t he l i
ne s
, s uch a s f i
eld l ine s
, t ha t a re a na logous t o t he l ines o f
f
low o f af l
uid i n t he a nalogous f l
uid -f
low s i
tua tion .' U nde r f low l ines
1
Se
edi
scus
sion o
ffl
uid mappe
rs i
n A
ppend
ix.
 A
i
r Low
H
igh p
o
tent
ial
I
n
f
ini
te c
onduc
tiv
ity'
p
o
tentia
l
p
l
ate H
igh
p
o
tentia
l
Equ
i—
p
o
tentia
ls I
n
f
in
ite /
C
o
ndu
ct
ing c
o
nduc
ti
vi
ty:
b
a
r
L
ow
p
o
tent
ial /In
fin
ite
p
l
ate c
onduct
ivi
ty

71
C
APAC
ITOR P
LATES C
ONDUCT
ING B
AR (
cur
ren
ttr
ansve
rse) C
ONDUCT
ING B
AR (
cur
ren
t l
o
ngi
tud
ina
l)

1
ANDYIVOUID T
4
3
C
apac
itance/
uni
tdep
th= cf
a
rads/me
ter C
onduc
tance/
uni
tdep
th= o
'mhos/me
ter C
onduc
tance/
uni
tdep
th= 1-5% c
rmhos/me
ter

(
b
) (
c
)
H
igh A
i
r L
ow m
agne
tic p
o
ten
tia
l C
urren
t s
heet
m
agne t
ic ( (
outofpage)
H
igh magnet
ic p
o
tential io C
onduct
ing
po
tent
ial (st
r
ip A
i
r

e
Il
A
i
r H

D
S
C
onduct
ing
s
tr
ip
.L
ow magne
tic:
-i'
•••
•
• 1
- -
-
Curren
t sheet
•
-
:
•
:'
.po
tent
ial • •
• (i
n
to page)

A
IR G
AP B
ETWEEN P
OLE F
ACES I
RON B
AR C
ONDUCT
ING S
TRIPS
4
P
ermeance/
uni
tdep
th =1V-
,u 0 h
enrys/me
ter P
ermeance/
uni
tdep
th =1
-54z ,
uhen
rys/me
ter I
n
duc
tance/
uni
tdep
th= 1
543 h
enrys/me
ter

(
d
) (
e
)
FI
G -41. A
. 5 pp
lica
tion o
f o
ne f
i
eld map t
o s
i
x s
i
tua
tions
.
SE
C. 5
-21
] MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIAL
S 2
57

a
reli
sted t
he quant
itieshav
ing t
he d
i
rec
tion offl
ow l
inesand u
nder f
l
ow
t
ube
s the quan
tit
ies equa
l t
o t
he t
ota
l f
lux t
hrough atube
.

TABLE 5-4
IMPORTANT F
IELD- MAP QUANTIT
IES

Equ
ipo- Value o
fce
ll
F
ie
ld F
low l
i
nes F
low t
ube
s
t
ent
ial
s (
peru n
itdep
th)

E
lectr
ic Do
r E E
lect
ric f
l
ux I
, V(
vo
lts
) Perm ittivity e
(
f
arad s/me t
er)
C
urrent Jo
r E C
urrent I V(
vo
lts
) Conduc tivity Cr

(
mho s/me te
r)
Magne
tic Bo
r H Magne
tic f
l
ux 0
. U (
amp
) Permeab il
ity a
(
hen rys/
me ter)
H
eat T
empe ra
ture Hea
t p
er t
ime T
empe
ratu
re Therma l con-
g
rad
ient duc t
iv ity
F
luid f
low (non- V
eloc
ity Ma
ss p
er t
ime V
eloc
ity p
o- Dens ity
t
urbu
lent; in- t
ent
ial
c
ompres
sible
)

Examp le. A pp
ly the above a nalog
ies to find t
he capacitance of a
n air c
apa c
ito
r
b
y ar e
sis tance measuremen t
.
So
lution. The c apac
itor plate
s are imme rsed i
n alarge tank fi
l
led wi
th al iqu
id of
u
niform c onductivity a
,a nd the d-
c res
istance R is measured between the p
lates
.
In g
enera l
, the conductance G of acerta
in g eometry isgiven by

G=
.ad—
n (
5
-76
)

w
here N = number ofc e
lls inpa
ralle
l
n=n umbe r o
fc e
lls ins
erie
s
d=d ep
th ofcells
A
n actua
l c
apacitor w
ith t he s
ame geomet ry h
as t
he s
ame f
i
e
ld c
onf
igu
rat
ion (
c
om-
p
are F
igs
. 5
-41a and 6
); so the c
apacitance

C e
od—
n (
5
-77
)

where N a
nd n a
re t
he s
ame a
s i
n (
5
-76
). H
ence
, o
n d
iv
iding (
5
-77
) b
y (
5
-76
),

C= = (
5
-78
)
o
R

where C = capacitance ofactual capacitor (f

arads)
e
o =p erm it
tivity o
fa i
r ( 8
.85 X 1 0- '
2farad/meter
)
=c onduc t
ivity o
fl i
qu id (mhos/me ter)
= 1/G = m easured re
sis
tance ( ohms)
Thusknowing a( which a
lso can be measured with are
ctangu
larvolume),the c
apaci
-
t
ance o
fa n a
ir capacitor c
an be o bta
ined from ( 5-78
) by are
sis
tance mea
su remen
t.

5
-21
. Fie
lds o
f Curren
ts near an A
ir-I
ron Boundary
. A no
ther t
ype
o
fproblem no
t d
iscus
sed prev
ious
ly isthat i
nvo
lving acur
rent-ca
rry
ing
2
58 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 5

c
onduc
tor situated near a
n ai
r-iron b
oundary. T h
is si
tuat
ion may.be
t
r
eated a
naly t
ically b
ythe me
thod ofimages.
' T he imagesa
re s
uch t
hat
b
oundary conditions a
t t
he a
ir-
iron s
urface a
re s
a
tisf
ied.
I
mage-% (-
W
ire i
nai
r
re /

A
i
r

i
a
o

(
a
)
I
mage

FI
G
. 5-4
2
. Magnet
ic f
i
eld l
i
nes (
N
shi
t a
rrows
) a
nd e
quipo
tent
ials f
or c
urrent-carry
ing
w
ire i
n a
i
r n
ear a on b
n i
r ounda
ry.

Two caseswil
l beconsidered. I n t
he fi
rstcase the conductor
, orw ire,
i
sin ai
r a t adi
stance 8from a plane air
-iron b oundary as sugge
sted i n
F
ig. 5
-42a. I n the s
e
cond c ase t
he wire i
si niron at adistance sfrom a
p
lane a
ir-iron b
oundary ass hown inFig. 5-
43a. T he current i
nthe w ire
i
n bo
th c ases i
sI. T he i
ron isassumed toh ave au niform fin
ite perme -

1Th
is me
thod wa
s a
ppl
ied i
nthe c
ase o
fan e
l
ectr
ic f
i
e
ld i
n S
ec
. 2
-26
.
SE
C
. 5
-21
1 MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIAL
S 2
59

ab
ili
ty i si
nb oth c
ase s
, as omewha tdubious assump tion inv i ew ofthe w ide
r
ange ina ppl
ied fi
eld H t o which iti ssubjected. I n b o
th c ase
s t he wire
i
sp ara
llel to the b
ounda ry s o that the problems are t wo-dimen siona l
.
Treating fir
st t
he c ase w here the wire isi nair
, let an i mage c onduc to r
w
ith curren tI 'besitua ted at ad is
tance sb elow the b ounda ry i
nt he i ron,
a
s in Fig. 5-42a, a
nd a s econd i mage with c urrent I" b e situated a t t he
w
ire ina ir
. O nthe a i
rs ide oft he bounda ry the f
ie
ld i sgiven b y Ia nd I '
,
b
oth assumed t obei na ir
,a nd ont he ir
on side by Ia nd I "
, b oth assumed
t
o b e in iron. T he magn itude s and d i
rections of t he c urrents i n t he
i
mage s mus tb esuch ast os at
isfy the boundary c onditions a tthe a i
r-iron
s
urface
. A ssuming, ap riori, that al
l curren t
s are outwa rd, w e h ave a t
a
ny p o
int o n the a
ir side o ft he bounda ry

H „ = 8 (I — r
) (
5
-79
)
2
7
0•2

a
nd a
t t
he s
ame p
oin
t o
n t
he i
r
on s
i
de o
fthe b
ounda
ry

H g2 = — 8 (I + I" ) (
5
-80
)
2
7r2

S
ince H
il = li n
g i
tfo
llow
s t
hat

I
' = —I" (
5
-81
)
O
n t
he a
i
r s
i
de w
e a
l
so h
ave

Bn
i = 2
1
.
1:2(
I±I
'
) (
5
-82
)

a
nd o
n t
he i
r
on s
i
de

B .2 = 27
.
r
2 .(
I+ I
") (
5
-83
)

S
ince B
,1 = B .2
, i
tfo
llow
s t
hat

i
g _ 1
4 - A
L
0 1 (
5
-84
)
L ± PO
a
nd

i
n — P — 10 j (
5
-85
)
A± A
o

Thus,i ft
he ir
on has ahigh permeab i
lity (a> > AO, the f
i
e
ld o nthe airside
o
ft he boundary istha
to ft wo para
llel conductorsw ith near
ly e qual c
ur-
r
ents (Ia nd I
') f
low
ing i nthe same d irect
ion ina ir
. O n the iron side o
f
t
he b oundary the f
i
eld istha t o
f av ery s ma
ll current (
sum o f Ia nd I")
a
ssumed t o b
e in i
ron
. T he fi
eld a nd equipoten t
ial l
ines fo
r t h
is case
(A l
arge) a
re as s
ugges
ted i nF ig
. 5-42h.
2
60 ELECTRO MAGNET1CS [
CHAP
. 5

I
n t
he se
cond c ase
, where the w
ire isint
he iron medium, le
ta n image
c
onductorwith current /
'b esitua
ted at ad
istance sabove the b
ounda ry
i
nai
r, asinF ig
. 5-
43a, and asecond image w
ith cur
rentI " besi
tuated at
t
he w
ire i
nt he i
ron
. O nt he a
irside o
fthe b
oundary the fi
e
ld isgiven by

Fm. 5
-43
. Magnetic fi
e
ld (w
ith a
rrows
) a
nd e
quipo
ten
tia
ls f
or c
urrent
-ca
rry
ing w
ire
i
niron n
ear a
n a
i
r b ounda
ry.

/and I
"
, b
oth a
ssumed t
obeinair
, a
nd o
nthe i
r
on s
ide b
y /and /
'
, b
oth
a
ssumed t
o b
e i
n ir
on. It may b
e s
hown f
or t
h
is c
ase (
see P
rob
. 5-
34)
t
hat

r,- A
" (
5-86
)
A -r A
s
SE
C. 5
-22
1 MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2
61

a
nd

— P —I Oj (
5
-87
)
± Lo

Thus, ifthe ir
on h as a high p ermeab il
ity ( A> > A
o ),the f i
e
ld o n the i ron
s
ide ofthe bounda ry ist ha to ft wo p aral
lel conduc torsw ith n ea r
ly e qua l
c
urrents (/a nd / '
) f l
owing i no pposite direct
ions i n am edium o fp e
rme -
a
bil
ity A. On t he air side oft he b ounda ry t he f
i
eld i st hat of ac urrent
a
lmo stt w
ice /a tt he wire l o
cation b ut a s
sumed t ob ei na ir
. H ence t he
p
resence o f t
he i ron r esults in af i
eld o n the air side o f the b ounda ry
n
early double tha tw h
ich w ould beo btained ifn oiron w ere presen t
. T he
f
i
eld and equipo tentiall ines fort h
is c ase (A l
arge) are ass ugges ted i nF ig.
5
-43b.
'
I
ti stob en oted i nb oth o ft he above c ases that close tot he w ire itself
t
he fi
eld conf
igura t
ion i ss ymme trical, the same a s for a n iso
la ted linear
c
onduc tor
.
5
-22. G apless C ircuit
. C on s
ider t he magne t
ic c ircuit o f ac losed
r
ing ofiron ofu niform c rosss e
c t
ion A a nd m ean length 1 . S uppo se tha t

(
a) (
b
)
FI
G. 5-
44. C
losed i
r
on r
i
ng (
a
) w
ith u
niform w
ind
ing a
nd (
b
) w
ith c
oncen
tra
ted
w
inding.

acoi
l ofinsulated wire i
sw ound uni
formly around the ri
ng and that we
w
ish toknow h ow la
rge the product (NI) o
ft he numberoft urns a
nd the
c
urrent mus t be t
op roduce af l
ux dens
ity B int he r
ing
.
The c
oil o n the r
ing in Fig. 5
-44a fo
rm s at o
roid
, that is
, asoleno
id
c
lo
sed on itsel
f. F rom ( 4-50) t
he fl
ux dens
ity B inthe toro
id is

µNI ANI
B= = w
ebe
rs/me
ter
' (
5
-88
)
1 2
711
1F
or amore de
tai
led d
iscus
sion ofthe magnetic f
i
elds o
fconductor
s near i
r
on sur
-
f
a
ces se
e, f
or e
xample, S
. S
. Attwood
, "E lec
tric and Magnet
ic Fie
lds," 3
de d
., J
ohn
W
iley & S
ons, I
nc
., New York, 1
949, Chap. 15
.
2
62 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 5

w
here µ = p
ermeab il
ity (assumed uniform) o
f med
ium i
n
side o
f t
oro
id
(
henrys/me ter)
N =numbe r oft u
rns ( d
imens
ion le
ss)
I= current (amp)
1= mean length oftoroid (
meters)
R=m ean radius o
ft oro
id (meters
)
D
ivid
ing by µ, we have

NI = H
1 amp
-turns (
5
-89
)

I
f ace
rtain fl
ux d
ens
ity B i
sdes
ired i
nthe r
ing
,t he c
orre
sponding H v
alue
i
staken fr
om aB -H curve f
orthe r
ing ma
teria
l and the r
equ
ired n
umber
o
f ampere-turns c
a
lcula
ted fr
om (5-89
).

Examp le 1
. A n i
ron r
ing h
as acros
s-sectional a
rea A = 10 cm'a nd amean l
ength
1= 60 cm. F ind the number of ampe re-
tu rns requ
ired t
o produce a f
lux d
ensi
ty
B = 1w eber/meter
.' F rom a B -H c urve for the ir
on, H = 1,000 amp/meter at
B = 1weber/me ter
s.
S
olu
tion. F rom ( 5
-89
)

NI = 1
,
000 X 0
.6 = 6
00 amp
-tu
rns

The coil c
ould be 100 t urns wi
th a curren t of 6amp o r 1,000 t urns with a current
o
f0.6 amp . The c oi
l may b e un
iformly d is
tributed a round the r ing as in Fig
. 5
-44a
o
rconcen trated i
n as mal sector a
sinFig. 5-44b. Wi th auniform ly distr
ibu ted w
ind -
i
ng the magne t
ic fi
eld i sc
onfined tothe ring. However , wi
th t he concen trated w
ind -
i
ng there issome f
lux d ens
ity inthe a
iro utside oft he r
ing. Th is fl
ux is aleakage flux
,
h
aving e scaped f
rom t he pr
incipal magnetic circuit formed b y the iron ring. Ow ing
t
ot he la
rge permeab i
lity ofi r
on compared w ith tha tofair
,t he e fect ofleakage fl
ux in
t
he case of aconcentra ted winding may i n many c a
se s b
e neglected .

T
he required n
umberof ampe
re-turns c
an a
lso b
efound b
yc a
lcula
ting
t
he re
luctance of t
he r
i
ng ci
rcu
it. T h
is i
silust
rated b
y the f
ol
lowing
e
xample.
E
xamp le 2
. F ind the number o
f ampere-
turns r
equ
ired f
or t
he r
ing o
f E
xamp
le 1
f
or B = 1w eber/meters by f
i
rst e
valua
ting t
he r
e
luctance o
fthe r
i
ng.
S
olu
tion. F rom (5-70)
.
g
r H •d
l
6
1 = (
5
-90
)
BA
We a
l
so h
ave
f
i
l•d
l -H
I = NI (
5
-91
)

S
ubs
titu
ting (
5
-91) i
n (
5
-90
) y
ie
lds
NI = MBA (
5
-92
)
where
, f
r
om (
5
-71)
,
l
6
1 .
.— (
5
-93
)
µ
A

S
ince H . 1
,
000 amp/me
ter when B - 1w
ebe
r/mete
rs,

B 1
i
s = Ti = 1
,
1
: ,
)- 1
0-3 h
enry/meter (
5
-94
)
SE
C. 5
-23
] MA GNET
IC F
IELD OF FER ROM AGN ETIC M ATERIALS 2
63

I
tist
o b
e n
oted t
hat t
he r
e
lat
ive p
ermeab
ili
ty f
or t
hi
s c
ase i
s

1
0-3
A
r —7
95 (
5
-94a
)
/
A
IN 4
2
- X 1
0-7

I
ntroduc
ing (
5
-94
) i
n (
5
-93
) a
nd a
l
so t
he v
alue o
f 1a
nd A,t
he r
e
luctance o
fthe r
i
ng i
s

0
.6
6
1 = 0- X — 6X 1
06 1
/henry
s (
5
-95
)
1 1 1
0-3

Hence
, f
rom (
5
-92
) t
he r
equ
ired n
umbe
r o
f ampe
re-
turns i
s

NI = (
RBA .
• 6X 1
03 X 1X 1
0-3 = 6
00

a
s o
bta
ined i
n E
xamp
le 1
.

5
-23. Magne t
ic Circu i
t with Air Gap . Let an
arrow a
i
r gap o
f t
h
ick-
n
ess gbec ut i
nt he i
ron r i
ng ofSec. 5- 22 a
sshown i
nFig
. 5
-45a
. The gap
d
eta
i lispresen ted inF ig. 5
-45b. B yt he
c
ontinu
ity o fthe n o
rma lc omponen to fB
t
he fl
ux d ensity in t he gap ist he s ame
a
s in the iron, i ffr
ing ing i sneglec ted.
Neg
lecting the fr
inging i nvolvesb ut li
ttle
e
rro
rw here t
he g ap i
sn a
rrow ,asa ssumed
h
ere
. T he fi
e
ld H . i nt he gap i
st hen

(
5
-96
)
AO
(
a)
wh
ile t
he f
i
e
ld H i
n t
he i
r
on i
s
H
i =_
1
3 = B =H
, (
5 _
97
)

A
rA0 A
r

f
r
om w
hich G
ap d
e
tai
l:
Ho
= (
5
-98
)
Hi
The numbe r of ampe re-turn s r
equired
t
o produce a certa
in f lux dens ity B ina (
b)
magnetic ci
rcuit w ith g ap
, a s i
n F ig.
5
-45a,i s ap
roblem f o
r wh ich the so
lution
may be obta
ined directly. F orins
tance ,, j H

a
ccording to (
4-90) the line integralo fH
F
ia. 5
-45
. Iron r
i
ng w
ith a
i
r g
ap.
o
nce around the magne tic circuit equals
t
he to
ta l mmfF , o
r ampe re-
turns e nclosed.
' Tha ti s
,
IH •d
l =F = NI (
5
-99
)
E
xamp le
. L et t
he i
ron r
ing o
f F
ig. 5
-45 h
ave a c
ros
s-sectiona
l a
rea A = 10 em
s,
a
n air g
ap of w
idth g = 2 mm
, and a mean l
eng
th 1= 27rI
t =6 0 cm, i
nc
lud
ing the
1Th
is re
lat
ion for a magne
tic c
i
rcu
it i
sana
logous t
o K
irchhof
f
's v
oltage l
aw (
Sea
.
3
-
10 ) f
or a
n el
ectr
ic ci
rcuit
.
2
64 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 5

a
i
r g
ap. F
ind t
he n
umbe
r o
f ampere
-tu
rns r
equ
ired t
o p
roduce a f
l
ux d
ens
ity

B 1w
ebe
r/me
ter2

The i
r
on ring i
sthe s
ame a
s c
ons
ide
red i
n S
ec. 5
-22 e
xcep
t t
hat i
thas a
n a
i
r g
ap.
S
olu
tion
. F rom (5-99
)

NI = .
0
C H •d
l H
i(1 —g
) + H9g (
5
-100
)

whe
re H
i =H f
i
eld i
nir
on
H
. =H f
i
e
ld ingap
F
rom aB-H curve f
or t
he i
ron
, Hi = 1
,
000 amp/me
ter
, a
nd f
r
om (
5
-98
) w
e k
now H
.
i
n t
erms o
f H
i. Hence (5-
100) b
ecomes

NI = —g
) u
,g
] (
5
-101)

where a, =7
95 = re
lat
ive p
ermeab
ili
ty o
f i
r
on r
i
ng a
t B 1w
ebe
rime
ter 2 [
s
ee
(
5-94a)
]. There
fore
,

NI = 1
,
000
[(0
.6 — 0
.002
) + 7
95 X 0
.002
] =2
,
188 amp
-turns

The i
ntroduction of t
he nar
row a i
r gap makes itn ecessa
ry to in
crease the ampere-
t
urns f
rom 6 00 to 2
,188 t
o mainta
in the f
l
ux density at 1w ebe
rimete r 2.
The above problem may also be s
o
lved b y c
alculating the t
otal r
eluctance o
f the
magnet
ic ci
rcu i
t. Thus , f
rom (5-
100) we have

µ
A µ
oA
NI = I
l
i(1 — g
) ,Hog (
5
-102
)
A
,
4 m
oA
a
nd
NI = BA(
ti
ti 6
1) (
5
-103
)

whe
re R
i = (
1—g )/
1
.A = reluctance o
f ir
on p
art o
fci
rcu
it
R
, =g/u 0A = r
e
luctance ofair g
ap

I
nt he a bove p roblem , Bi sg iven a nd the required NI f ound . T he con-
v
erse problem w here NI i sg iven a nd t he r
esulting B ist ob ef ound c annot
b
e solved d i
rec t
ly s ince i n ( 5-103 ) t here are t wo u nknown s B a nd µ.
Howeve r, w ec an assume av alue o f Ba nd ca
lcu late the total NI a si nthe
a
bove e xamp le
. I f NI i sc a
lcu lated i n this w ay f or several a ssumed
v
alueso f Ba nd ac urve p lot ted o f Bv s. t
otal NI , t
he a pprox ima te v a
lue
o
f B may b ei nte rpola ted for a ny g iven NI .
5
-24. Magne tic G ap F orce . R eferring to F ig. 5-
45 , the e fect o f t
he
magnetic f i
e
ld i st oe xertf orce s w h
ich t end toc l
ose t
he a i
rg ap. T hatis
,
t
he magne tic poles o fo ppo s
ite p olarity att he sides o
ft he gap area ttracted
t
o each o ther. S uch f o
r ces a s a re p roduced b y magne t
ic f i
elds f i
nd
a
pplication i n n umerous e l
ect romechan ical d evices
. I n t h
is s e
c t
ion a n
e
xpress
ion f or the f o
rce b etween magne tic pole pie
ce si sd eveloped.
The d ensity o fe nergy s tored i n amagne t
ic f i
eld i
s, fr
om ( 4-110),
1B2
= j
ou
les/me
ter
s (
5
-104
)

I
fthe g
ap i
ss ma
ll
, w e may a
ssume au n
ifo
rm f
i
e
ld i
nthe a
i
r g
ap. T
he
t
o
tal e
nergy W
„, s
tored in t
he g
ap i
sthen
SE
C
. 5
-
25) MAGNET
IC F
IELD O
F F
ERROMAGNET
IC MATER
IALS 2
65

B2A
g
W
„, =t
v
„
,Ag — j
ou
les (
5
-105
)
2
µo
where A = a rea ofg ap
g= width ofg ap
S
uppo se now thatt he ir
on ring i
nF ig. 5
-45 i
spe
rfec
tly f
l
exib
le s
othatthe
g
ap mu st be held open b y af orce F as in F
ig. 5
-46
. I f t
he f
orce i
s
i
ncreased so as to i
ncrease the gap b y a
n
i
nf
t
inite
ime t
sima
he c
l amoun
ur
ren t t
td g,w h
i
hrough t
le a
tt
he co
he s
i
l i
ame
sin-
-
19
1-
c
reased t o main ta
in t he flux density B
c
onstan t
, the energy s t
ored in the gap is
i
ncreased by the inf
inites
ima l amoun t
F
dW
„, =—
BM d
g j
ou
les (
5
-106
)
2
i.
t
o
Equation (5-
106 ) has t
he dimensions o f
e
nergy. B ut e
nergy may a
lso b
eexp re
ssed kI
•
-
•
Gap
a
sf o
rce times dis
tance, w
hich inthis case F
io
. 5-46
. For
cesatai
rgap
.
i
sF d g
, where F is the a
ttract
ive f orce
b
etween the p o
les. Itisequalin magn itude t
othe force r
equ
ired t
ohold
t
hem a part
. T hus

Fd
g =—
B
2A d
g

o
r
B2A
F= (
5
-107
)
2
t
io

w
here F = a
ttrac
tive force (newtons)
B=f l
ux density ( webers/meter 2)
A =area ofgap ( meters 2)
=Permeability ofa i
r (41
- X 10- 7 h
enry/me
ter)
D
ivid
ing by t
he gap area A y i
elds the pres
sure P
. T hat i
s
,

F B2
n
ewtons/me
ter
' (
5
-108
)
A 2
A0

5
-25. Permanen t Magne t with G ap. S uppose fi
r st that ac l
osed i
ron
r
ing is magnet
ized tosatura t
ion w i
th au n
iform toroidalc oilw ound onthe
r
ing. When t he co
i l i
sremoved , the fl
ux densi
ty i n the iron isequal t
o
t
he retentiv
ity (s
ee Fig. 5-
48 )
. I f
,h owever, t
he system h a
sa na i
rg ap a
s
i
n Fig. 5-47
, the fl
ux density h as as ma
ller va
lue a s given b y ap o
int P
which li
es somewhe re on the demagne t
ization curve ( F
ig. 5-48) (s
ee al
so
S
ec. 5 -
15). F urther informa tion i sneeded to l o
ca te this point
. T h
is
2
66 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 5

may b
e obta
ined a
s fo
llow
s: F
rom (
5
-99
) t
he l
i
ne i
n
teg
ral o
f H o
nce
a
round amagnet
ic c
i
rcu
it i
s

•d
l = NI (
5
-108a
)
S
ince NI = 0
,
SH •d
l =H
.(1 —g
) ,
g =0
o
r
H1(
1— g
) = —
11 0g (
5
-109
)
where Hi = H fi
e
ld i nthe ir
on
1= 2wR = total le
ngth of magnet
ic ci
rcu
it (
including gap)
g= width o fgap
H. =Hf i
e
ld i ngap
T
hus Hi and 10 a re i
n oppos
ite d
irec
tions a
s indicated in F
ig
. 5-47
. I f
l
e
akage is neglected, B i s un
ifo
rm a round the c ircu
it. Mu l
tiplying
+/
3

R
eten
tiv
ity

D
emagnet
izat
ion
c
urve

S
hear
ing
l
i
ne

C
oer
civ
ity

FI
G. 5
-47
. P e
rmanent
ly magne
- FI
G. 5-48
. Demagne
tiza
tion c
urve
s f
o
r p
er-
t
i
zed r
i
ng wi
th ai
r g
ap. manen
t magne
t.

(
5-
109) by Ao a
nd s
o
lving f
o
r the r
a
tio B
/Hi
, o
r t
he p
ermeab
il
ity o
fthe
i
r
on, we o
btain
1— g
i; =— Po g (
5-
110)

This rat
io oft he f l
ux density B toth e fi
e
ld Hii nthe i r
on givest he s
lope of
aline ca
lled t he shearing lin
ea ss hown i nF ig. 5
-48 . T he in
tersection of
t
his li
ne w ith t he d emagne t
ization c urve determines t he p o
sit
ion o f the
i
ron o n the magne tization curve (poin t P)
. Th is l o
cation is afunc t
ion
o
ft he ratio oft he ir
on p ath leng
th ( 1— g )t o t
he g ap length g.
I
n mo s t pe rmanent magne t a pplications
, w here i t des
ired t hat B
r
ema in re
la tively c onstant, amode rate demagn etizing f i
e
ld i sapplied to
t
he iron, mov ing t he posit
ion oft he iron toP' (Fig. 5-48). O nremov ing
t
he fi
eld, the i r
on move s to the po
in tP " o n t
he s hearing li
ne. T he ri
ng
magne t isn ow s aid to be stabi
liz
ed, a nd w hen fi
eld s le
ss than about t he
SE
C. 5
-26
] MAGNET
IC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIAL
S 2
67

d
iference ofHb e tween p ointsP'a nd P "a reapplied tothe ring a
nd then
r
emoved , the i ron w i
l l always r e
turn t o approximately the p o
int P ".
Under these cond itions t he iron move s along a minor hysteres
is lo
op a s
s
uggested b y the d ashed l i
ne s i
nFig. 5- 48.
5
-26. C ompar ison o fE lectric a
nd Magne t
ic Re
lations Invo
lving Pola
r i-
z
at
ion a nd Magne t
iza t
ion . I t i
si ntere s
ting to compa re the magne tic
r
e
lations w here magne tiza t
ion M i sp resent wi
th t he c
orresponding elec-
t
r
ic re
lations w he re polarization P ispresent (s
ee C hap. 2)
. T h
is isdone
i
nT able 5-5
.
TABLE 5
-5
CO MPARISON OF EQUAT
IONS I NVOLVING POLAR
IZAT
ION P AN D
MAGNETIZATION M

D
escr
ipt
ion o
fequa
tion E
lectr
ic c
ase Magne
tic c
ase

D
ipo
le moment r
e
lat
ion
s P = p = Q
1
v v

F
lux d
ens
ity D =(
to 4
- 1)

,P
P
erm
itt
ivi
ty a
nd p
ermeab
ility e= t
o-rk

R
elat
ion to po
lar
iza
tion c
harge v •P = p
,
d
ensity and to equ
ivalent
c
urrent d
ens
ity

P
ois
son
's e
quat
ions —e v
st/ = v •M = —V •H

1 fp — V• P d
v
S
cala
r a
nd v
ecto
r p
oten
tia
ls V =— A= P
° P ±VX M d
v
4
Teo f
p r 4
7
r

PROBLE MS
5
-1. A magne t
ized n eedle o f 10 amp -me te rs magne tic momen t i ssituated i n au ni-
f
orm magne tic f i
eld o f 2w eber/me tersf l
ux d en s
ity. F ind t he t o
rque To nthe n eedle.
Ana.: T =2 0n ew ton-met ers
.
5
-2. An eed le of magne t
ic momen tQ .
'Pp ivot sf r
eely a bout i tscen terp oint. A ssume
t
hatt he cen tero ft he needle i slocated a tt he origin and t hat t here is amagne t
ic fie
ld
o
f fl
ux d ensity B i n t he positive y d irect
ion . Wha t a ngle 0d oe s the n eedle assume
w
ith respect t o the y a xis if as hort b ar magne t of moment Q ,,
,1 isp laced c oinciden t
w
ith the xa xis at al arge distance rf rom t he origin?
5
-3. Au ni form ly magne tized b arw ith av olume o f 1,000 c m h
3 as amagne tic momen t
o
f 800 amp -me terss. I ft he f l
ux d ensity B = 0 .1 w ebe r/me ters i n the b ar
, find t he
v
alue of Hi nt he b ar.
5
-4. Ab ar magne t in au n
if o
rm magne tic f i
e
ld i sa cted o n o n
ly b y at orque, the re
b
eing no t ransla t
iona l fo
rce o n the magnet . I n an onun if orm f i
eld, h oweve r, there is
anet t r
ans la t
iona l force. F ind t he max imum v a
lue o f t his force o n au ni
fo rmly
magnetized b ar magne t 1cm l ong w ith amagne tic momen to f 1amp -me te & s ituated
2
0c mfrom o ne p ole of av ery long magne th aving ap o
le s treng th of1 ,000 amp -me ters.
5
-5. Two f er
romagne tic med ia a re separa ted b y ap lane b ounda ry. Med ium 1h as
are
lative p ermeab i
lity o f5 00 and med ium 2ar e
la t
ive p e rmeab il
ity o f5 ,000. I ft he
magnetic fi
eld d i
rec tion in med ium 2i sata na ngle of8 0° wi th resp ect to the n orma l
2
68 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 5

t
o the boundary, f i
nd t he ang
le al between t he f i
e
ld d irect
ion a nd the n orma l to the
b
oundary i n medium 1 . Ans
. al = 2 9
.6 °
.
5
-6 . Ift
he d i
rection o ft he magne t
ic f i
eld in air near the plane surfa ce of al arge
b
lock of ir
on is1 0 ° fr
om t he n ormal to the surface, f i
nd the a ng
le of t he fi
eld w ith
r
espect to t
he norma l i
nt he iron. T he relat
ive p ermeab i
lity ofthe iron is1 ,000.
5
-7 . Magne t
ic f i
eld line
s o n the ai
r side of a n ai
r-iron b oundary are u sua l
ly s ub-
s
tantial
ly norma l to the boundary . Why i sthis not the ca se i
n Fig. 5
- 43b?
5
-8. As mal
l b ar magnet w ith a magne tic momen t o f 200 amp-me ter s 2issi
tuated
p
arallelto avery l ong wire ca
r rying asteady c urrento f 100 amp . I ft he ba r magne t
i
s 1mete rfrom t he wire, fi
nd t he t
orque o n the bar magne t
.
5
-9. T he f
lux d ensity in af e
rromagne tic med ium o fl arge extent and p ermeab ility
I
AisBa s shown i n Fig. 5-49
. Two c avities are cut i n the m edium a s ilustrated.

/
Cav
ity 1

F
in. 5
-49
. C
avi
tie
s f
o
r P
rob
. 5
-9
.

Cavity 1i ss haped l i
ke at hin d i
sc , wh i
le cav ity 2i sl ong a nd needlelike. T he cavit
ies
a
re air fi
l
led . ( a) Wha ti st he magne t
ic f i
e
ld H 1a tt he c enterofc avity 1? ( b
) Wha t
i
st he magne tic fi
eld H 2 att he c ente ro fc avity 2 ? ( c) Wha ti sthe ratio o
f H 1t o H 2?
5
-10. S how t ha t atthe c enter o f al ong,u niform ly magne t
ized b aro fu n
iform c ros
s-
s
ection area A t he magn itude o fHi sg iven c lose
ly b y 2M AI T
/I, w here M = magne t
i-
z
ation a nd 1= l ength ofb ar.
5
-11. S how t hatt he permeab ility µa tthe c ente rof al ong,permanen tly magne tized
r
od o f u niform magne tiza tion i sg iven b y pol — ( 1
-1 2/2A)j
, w he re 1= l ength a nd
A =c ross -sec tiona l a
rea o fr od.
5
-12. Ac oppe r conductor o f r adius 5 cm i se nc
lo sed b y aconcen tr
ic iron tube of
i
nner r adius 1 0 c m and o uter rad ius 1 5 cm . I ft he t otal current i n the c
oppe r con-
d
uctor i s1 00 amp a nd p = 5 00 f o
rt he iron t ube, fi
nd B a nd H a t r adi
i of2.5, 5,1 0
,
1
2.5, 1 5
, a nd 2 0 cm. A s sume t ha t the c urrent d ens ity i n t
he c onducto r isu n
iform
a
nd a lso t ha t p,.int he iron t ube i su niform .
5
-13. S ke tch t he var
ia tion o f Ba nd H a s af unction o fradiusf rom 0 t o 25 c m f
or
P
rob . 5-12.
5
-14. S how t ha tat al arge d i
s tance rf rom ab ar magne tofdipo le momen t Q .
1 the
magne tic p o ten t
ial U =( Q„
,1 cos 0 )/(42-r 1)
,w here 0i st he angle b etween the b ar ax
is
a
nd t he r ad ius v ector ofl eng th r . I tisa ssumed t ha t r> 1 .
5
-15. S how t ha t a
t al arge d istance rf rom ab ar magne tofd ipole momen t Q .
It he
f
lux density B h as an angu la r componen t
B uol
f
j
./sin 0
e= '
4
11
.3
 MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2
69

a
nd ar
adia
l c
omponen
t
B
, poQ
.1 co
s 0
2
1-
ra

where 0isthe angle b

etween t
he ba
r ax
is a
nd the r
adiu
s v ecto
r o
f le
ngth r
. I t i
s
a
ssumed that r> 1 .
6
-16. Show that a
t ala
rge d
i
stance f
r
om asing
le-
turn wire l
oop o
farea A w
ith c
ur-
r
ent /the f
lux dens
ity B h
as a
n angu
lar c
omponent

B
s p
o/A s
in 0
4
1
-r 8
a
nd ar
adia
l c
omponen
t
= uo/
A cos 0
2
Tr 3

where 0i st he ang le b etween t he axis o ft he l oop a nd t he r ad iu sv e cto ro fl eng th r . I t

i
sa ssumed t ha t ri s much g rea ter t han t he d iamet er o ft he l oop.
5
-17 . A magne tized r od 1cm i nd iame ter a nd 2 0 cm l ong h as au niform magne ti-
z
ation o f 1,000 amp/me te r
. F ind t he magne tic moment o ft he b ar.
5
-18 . Au niform ly magne tized r od 2cm i nd iame tera nd 5 0c ml ong h as amagne tic
momen to f 1 0
,000 amp -me ters'. F ind t he e qu iva len ts heet c urren td en s
ity K ' a t t he
s
urfa ce oft he r od.
5
-19 . A ssum ing t ha tt he d emagne t
iza tion c urve o f ac ertain f er romagne tic ma te rial
i
sas t
ra igh tl i
ne,w hati st he max imum BH p roduc ti ft he r eten tivi ty i s 1w ebe r/me te r'
a
nd t he coe rcivity i s20,000 amp/me ter? P rove t hat t his i st he max imum v alue .
6
-20 . A ccord ing t o L ord R ay le
igh t he b ottom p ar t o f t he n o rma l magne tiza tion
c
urve i sg iven b y B µa l cH 2,w here p i i st he i n
it ia l p ermeab il
i ty ( at H =0 ,
B 0
)a nd ci sac ons tant . A s sume t ha tt his r ela tion a pplie st ot he i n
itial magne tiza -
t
ion c urve o fa n i ron s pec imen . Wha ti st he e xpre ssion f ort he e ne rgy d en si
ty i nt he
i
ron a fter t he f i
eld i sraised f r
om H = 0 t o H = H I? A ssume t ha t the s pecimen i s
i
nit
ia l
ly u nmagne tized.
5
-21 . A ni ron r i
ng h as au niform c ros s-sect iona la rea o f 1c m'a nd amean r ad iuso f
1
0 c m. The r ing i scon t
inuous e xcep t f or as ingle a ir g ap 1mm w ide. F ind t he
numbe r o f ampe re-turns r equ ired o n t he r ing t o p roduce a f lux d ensity B = 0 .5
webe r/mete r' i n t he a ir g ap. N eg lect f ring ing . When B = 0 . 5i n the i r
on , t he
r
elative p ermeab ility o ft he i r
on A . = . 3 00.
5
-22 . Find t he t otal r eluc tance measured b etween t he e nds o f t wo p arallel i ron
bar
s,e ach 1b y 1cm i nc ros ss ection a nd 1 0c ml ong ,i fo ne b arh as ar elative p ermeab il-
i
ty of5 00 a nd t he o the ro f 1,000 .
5
-23 . Find t he r eluctance a nd p ermeance b e tween t he e nd s of a n iron b ar h aving
t
he d imens ions s hown i nF ig .3 -27,a ssum ing au niform r e
la tive p e rmeab il
ity o f5 ,000 .
6
-24 . How much g rea te r i st he r e
luctance o f t he b lock o f Fig . 3 -27 a s c ompa red
w
ith au ni
form r ectangu la rb lock w i thou tt he n o tches? The p ermeab ility i sas sumed
t
ob e the s ame i nb oth c ase s.
5
-25 . Find t he p ermeance p er u n
it d ep th b e tween t he e nd s o f ab lock o f i ron o f
un
ifo rm p ermeab ility i th av ing t he c ros s-sec tiona l d imens ions s hown i n Fig. 3 -28 .
5
-26 . Find t he p ermeance p er unit d ep th b etween t he t op a nd b o
t tom f ace s o f a
b
lock o fi ron o fu n
iform p e rmeab il
i ty µ h av ing t he c ros s-sec t
iona l d imen sions s hown
i
n Fig . 3-28 .
5
-27 . Ac yclotron magne th ast he d imens ions s hown i nF ig. 5 -50 . T he p ole p iece s
a
re c ylindr ical w ith t ape red e nds . T he d iame ter a t t he g ap i s 1me te r and t he g ap
w
id th 0 .15 me ter a s indica ted . A pprox ima tely h ow many ampe re -turn sa re r equ ired
2
70 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 5

i
neach ofthe two windings s
hown top roduce afl
ux dens
ity of 1w eber/me terlinthe
a
irgap? A ssume t hatthe magnetis made ofir
on with acon
s tantr e
lative pe
rmeab i
l-
i
ty o
f3,000 and that t
here i
sno fr
ing
ing a tthe gap
. A lso neglecta ny le
akage along
t
he magnetstructure. A s af
urthersimplif
icat
ion take t
he e
fe ct
ive length ofsec
tions

4
0
.
5 m

0
.
1
5m1
1
.
8 m

2
.
8 m

0
.
5 m

0
.
5 m 0
.
5 m 1
-
* -1
.2 m -
0.
1
3
.
8 m 2m

Si
d
e v
i
ew En
dvi
ew
(a) (
b)
F
lo. 5
-50
. C
yclo
tron magne
t f
o
r P
rob
. 5
-27
.

a
s t he length measured a long t he c en ter l ine ( da shed l ine i n Fig. 5 -50a )
. T ake t he
d
iame ter ofthe tapered section o ft he p oles a s t he a ve rage d iame te r.
5
-28 . A n e
l
ectromagne t c onsists o f aU -shaped i ron y oke a nd i ron b ara ss hown i n
F
ig. 5 -51
. At h
in c oppers heeto nt he t op o ft he b arp reven t sa ni ron -to-
i ron c on tact
b
etween t he b ar a nd y oke . I f t he magne tic f l
ux
t
hrough t he c i
rcu it i s0 .01 w eber a nd t he y oke-ba r
c
on tact a rea i s1 00 c m2p e r p o
le, w ha t ist he w e
igh t
which t he y oke w il s uppo r t (inc
lud ing t he w eigh t of
t
he b a r
)? N egle ct t he e fec t of a ny f r
ing ing o f the
f
i
eld .
6
-29 . ( a
) I ft he con ta ct a rea o fthe e lectromagne to f
P
rob . 5-28 i sr educed t o 5 0 c m'b y mean so ft ape red
s
ections o n t he y oke, w hat i st he w eigh t w hich t he
y
oke w ills uppor t? A s sume t ha t the t otal f lux i nt he
c
i
r cu it ist he s ame a s b efo re a nd n eg lectt he e fecto f
a
ny f ring ing o f t he f i
eld . ( b
) I n pra ctice w ha t pre-
v
en ts t he a ttrac tive f or ce f rom i ncrea s
ing i ndefin itely
a
s t he c on tact a rea i sr educed?
6
-30 . Wha t i st he c on ta ct p ressu re i n P rob s. 5 -28
a
nd 5 -29a?
F
la. 5-51. E
lectromagne t 5
-31 . Ar ing magne t w i th a n a ir g ap 1mm w ide
f
or P rob. 5-28
. h
as a u n
i form c ro ss s ec tion o f 10c m 'a nd ar ad ius of
2
0 c m. I f t he f l
ux d en sity i n the g ap i s 1w ebe r/
meter l
, f i
nd t
he f o
rce tending t o c l
ose t he g ap
. N eg lec t fringing.
5
-32 . Show tha t the permeab ility o f ap ermanen t magne t w ith a ir g ap may b e
e
xp ressed b y p= — A 0(6)1
7
/6 ), whe re A go =p ermeab ility o fa ir, 6)
, p
ermeance o fa ir
g
ap, a nd 6' p
ermeance o ft he e mp ty s pace o ccup ied b yt he magne t.
 MAGNETIC F
IELD OF FERRO MAGNETIC MATERIALS 2
71

5
-33. A l ong conduc ting t ube of negl
ig ible wa ll th
ickness c ar
ries al ongitudinal
c
urrent of u ni
form s heet dens ity K = I/ (2
irR )
, where I = t otal c u
rren t and R
r
adius of tube. F ind H i n
side t he tube ( r <R ), at r= R , a nd o utside the t ube
(
r>R )
. Wha t bounda ry r e
la t
ion isobv iously satisf
ied at r R ?
5
-34. R eferr
ing t o Fig. 5
- 43a, show tha t to s a
tisfy the bounda ry cond it
ions t he
i
mage c ur
rents I'a nd I"a re r e
lated t
o the cur rent Ii nthe wire int he iron by (5-86)
a
nd ( 5
-87).
5-35
. Al ong, t
hin linear c onductor carrying a c urrent Ie xtend s along the plane
b
ounda ry b e
tween 2 med ia
, a ir and i
ron. A s
sum ing t hat t
he p ermeab ility Lo f the
r
on i suniform , s
how t hat the H f i
e
ld ina ir at ar adius rfr
om t he c onductor i s

µ I
Ho
A + A
o w
r

wh
ile i
nthe i
r
on a
t ar
adius rf
r
om t
he c
onductor i
tis

= _° I
_
"
,
P -
r J
r
*
 CHAPTER 6

CHARGED PART
ICLES I
N E
LECTR
IC AND
MAGNET
IC F
IELDS

6
-1. Introduction. I n th
is chap ter the mo t
ion o f charged p articles
i
n vacuum i n the presence ofelectr
ic a nd magne tic f i
e
ld s i
sc onside red.
I
tisa ssumed tha tthe veloc
ity ofthe p art
icles iss mal
lc ompa red with t he
v
elocity ofli
ght and t hat t
he efect o fthe p ar
ticles o n e
ach o ther can b e
n
eglected.
6
-2. C harged P art
icle in aS tatic E lectric Field. L et ap ar
ticle o f
c
harge et beplaced in au ni
form e l
ec tr
ic fi
eld E. S ince E ist he f
orce p er
u
nit charge (newtons p er c
oulomb )
, t he force F o n the part
icle is
F=e
E (
6
-1)
The f
orce i
si nthe same di
rec t
ion ast he f
ie
ld i
fthe charge isp
ositive and
o
pposite t
othe fie
ld ift
he charge isnegative
. I ft he p
art
icle i
satr e
sta nd
t
he f
i
eld isapplied, t
he p
article i
saccelerated un
iformly inthe d
irect
ion of
t
he f
ield
. A ccording t
o N ew ton's se
cond l aw the f
orce on ap art
icle i
s
r
e
lated to i
ts ma ss a
nd accelerat
ion b y
F=m a (
6
-2)
w
here F = f
orce (newtons
)
m = mass (kg)
a= accelerat
ion (mete
rs/
sec 2)
T
here
fore t
he accele
ra t
ion o
fthe p
artic
le i
s

a= eE
—

The v
e
loc
ity v o
fthe p
art
icle a
f
ter at
ime ti
sthen

v= a
t =—
e E
t

w
here v = v
e
locity ofp a
r t
icle ( mete
rs/sec
)
e= charge ofp article (coulomb s
)
m = ma s
s ofp article (kg)
E=e l
ectric f
ie
ld i ntensity (volt
s/me te
r o
r n
ewtons/cou
lomb
)
=time (sec
)
tThe s
ymbol ew
illbeused t
od e
signa
te the c
harge o
f apa
rtic
le in
stead o
f qs
i
nce e
i
s more c
ommonly emp
loyed i
nd ea
ling w
ith the c
harge o
f apar
tic
le.
2
72
SE
C. 6
-2
1 C
IIARGED PARTICLES 2
73

T
he f
i
e
ld i
mpa
rtse
nergy t
othe c
harged p
art
icle
. I
f(6
-3)i
sre
exp
res
sed
a
s
m
a =e
E (
6
-5)
i
thas t
he dimensions o
ffo
rce
. I nteg
rat
ing th
is f
o
rce o
ver t
he d
i
stance
moved y
ie
lds the ene
rgy W a
cqu
ired. T hus

W = m f1
2 a
•dl = —
e f12 E
•d1 (
6
-6)

The l
i
ne i
ntegra
l of Eb e
tween two p
oin
ts, 1and 2
, may b
ere
cognized a
s
t
he po
tent
ial diference V b
etween t
he poin
ts. Substi
tut
ing a = dv/d
t
a
nd dl = vdt
, (6-6
) becomes
W = m 12 v
•dv = e
V (
6
-7)
or
W = im (
2 2_
v 12
v )=
, e
V (
6
-8)
w
here W = e
nergy a cquired (jou
les)
v2 = v
elocity at point 2,or f
ina
l v e
lo c
ity ( meters/sec)
v1 = v
elocity at point 1,or i
nit
ial velocity ( me
ters/sec)
e= c
ha rge on partic
le (cou
lomb s)
V= potent
ial diference between p o
int s 1a nd 2 (vol
ts orj
ou
les/
c
ou lomb)
I
fthe p
art
icle star
t s f
rom r e
st, t
he in
itial veloc
ity isz ero so
W =e
V = im
v2 (
6
-9)
w
here v= f
i
nal v
eloc
ity. E quat
ion (6-9
) has t
he d
imens ions o
fene
rgy
.
T
he d
imens
ional r
ela
tion i
n mksc u
nits is
m e
ter s2
Jou
les = cou
lombs X vo
l ts = ki
log
rams se
conds
2

Thus the energy acquired by apartic

le ofcharge estar
ting f
rom r
estand
p
assing through ap ot ent
ial d
rop V i sgiven e
ither by t
he p
roduc
t ofthe
c
harge and t he p
otential d
iference orbyo ne-halfthe p
roductofthe ma
ss
o
ft he part
icle and the square o
f the fi
nal v
elocity
.
Solv
ing ( 6-9
) fo
r the veloc
ity,

2
eV
v= m
ete
rs/sec (
6
-10
)
m
The ene
rgy acqu ired b y a n electron (e= 1 .
6 X 10- '
9 c
oulomb) in
"
fall
ing" through a p o
ten t
ial diference of 1v olt i
s 1
.
6 X 1 0-
19 j
oule
.
T
his amoun tofenergy i s aconvenient unit i
nd es
ignat
ing the e
nerg
ies o
f
p
artic
les a
nd isca
lled o ne ele
ctron vol
t.
I
n the c
ase of an electron e= 1 .
6 X 1 0- '
9coulomb a
nd m = 0 .91 X
1
0-" k gso t
hat (6
-10 ) become s

v= 5
.
93 X 1
06 -
Vr7 me
ter
s/sec (
6
-11
)
2
74 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 6

Thus , if V = 1v olt
, the v elocity o fthe electron is5 .9 X 108 m e ters per
s
ec, o r 5 90 km p er sec
. I ti sa pparent t hat ar elatively s mall v o
ltage
impa rts av ery large velocity t o a n electron. I f V=2 ,500 v olts
, t he
v
eloc ity i s 3X 1 0 m ete r
s p er s ec
, o r about o ne-tenth t he v elocity of
l
ight. A s m ent
ioned i n S ec. 6-1, the a bove r e
lat
ions a re b ased o n t he
a
ssump t
ion t ha
t t he par t
icle v elocity i ss mall compa red w ith t ha t of
l
ight. T his isbecauset he ma s so f apartic
le a pproaches a ninfinite v a
lue
a
s t he veloc i
ty a pproaches t ha t oflight (relativ
ist
ic e fect)
, w herea s the
a
bove r elations are based o n ac onstant ma ss. A ctual
ly, h oweve r
, t he
mas s increas e isof negligible c onsequence f or mo s
t a ppl
ica t
ions u nless
t
he v e
locity i sat lea
st 1 0 p e
r c ent that ofl ight
. T he re
lation b e
tween
t
he mas s m o f the particle a nd i t
s ma ss mo atl ow v e
locit
ie s (rest ma ss)
i
sg iven b y
H
to
m — (
6
-12
)
V1 — (
v2/
c2)

where v= v elocity o fp art

icle ( meter s/sec)
c= velocity o flight ( 3 X 1 08 m eters/
sec)
I
ft he ve
locity iso ne-tenth tha to fl igh t
, the ma s
si sonly one-hal
fo f 1per
E c
ent grea ter t han t he re
st ma ss.
I
ft he p article h a
sa ni n
itialv eloc
ity w h
ich isnot
paral
le l to t he f i
eld direction, a s a
ssumed a bove,
v
t
he pa rtic
le d escribes ap a rabolic pa
th ( F
ig. 6
-1).
F T he deflection o fa n e
lectron b y atransverse e
lec-
F
lo. 6
-1
. P ath o
f p oa- t ric field i s d iscussed i n al a
te r s
ection on t he
t
i
vely charged pa
r t
icle cathode -ray t ube .
i
nel
ectr
ic f
i
e
ld.
6
-3. Charged Par
ticle i
n aS
tat
ic Magnet
ic F
ield
.
F
rom ( 4
-30
) the f
o
rce F o
n acur
ren t e
lement of le
ngth d
li n aun
iform
magne
tic f
i
eld i
s
d
F =d l( I xB) (
6-
13)

whe re I= c urrent (a vector ind

icating magnitude a nd d
irect
ion of t
he
c
urrent
)
B=f l
ux density
This ist he f
undamen tal moto requa t
ion ofe
lectr
ical machinery. Ita l
so
a
pp lies t o moving c harged p art
icles in t
he a bsence of any m e
tall
ic
c
onduc tor.
The current Iin ac onductor ori n abeam ofi ons or e
l
ectrons c
an be
e
xp ressed interms o fthe current densi
ty J
,t he charge (
volume) d
ensity
p
,t he b eam area A, and the veloc
ity v by
I= J
A =p
vA (
6
-14
)
S
ubs
titut
ing (
6
-14
) f
o
r Ii
n (
6
-13
),
d
F =p
A d
lv xB (
6
-15
).
SE
C. 6
-3] CHARGED PARTI CLES 275

B
ut p
A d
l =d
q
, t
he c
harge i
n al
e
ngth d
loft
he b
eam
. T
hus

d
F =d
q vxB (
6
-16
)

F
or as
i
ngle p
art
icle o
fcha
rge e
,we h
ave

F=e
v xB (
6
-17
)

C
onsidern ow t he mo
tion of apar
ticle ofcharge ei
n aun
iform magnet
ic
f
i
e
ld offl
ux d ensity B
. T he v
eloc
ity o fthe pa
rtic
le i
sv. F rom Newton
's
s
e
cond law the f o
rce on t
he part
icle isequal tothe p
roduct o
fit
s massm
a
nd it
s acce
le ra
tion a(= d v/d
t). T hus

m
a =evx B (
6
-18
)
o
r

a= —
e vxB (
6
-19
)
m

According t o ( 6-19) the a ccelerat ion i sn o

rma lt ot he plane con ta ining t he
part
icle p a
th a nd B . I ft he direc t
ion o fthe particle p ath (ind ica ted b y
v
) i sn o
rma l t o B , the a ccelera t
ion i s a max imum . I ft he par ticle i sat
r
est, the fi
eld h as n oe fect. L ikew ise, i fthe part
ic le path i si nt he s ame
d
irection asB ,t here i sn oe fect,t he p article c
ontinu ing with t his v elocity.
Only w hen t he p ath o rt he v e
loc ity vh as acomponen t n orma l t o Bd oes
t
he f i
e
ld h ave a n effec t
.
I
f amagne t
ic f i
eld o fl arge ex ten t i sa t r
ight ang les to the d i
rec tion o f
motion o f ac ha rged p art
icle, the p article is
d
eflected i nto a c ircular p ath. S uppo se ® 0
e o
t
hati n a f ie
ld -free r egion a p ositivelyv + v P
c
ha rged p article i s mov ing t o t he r i
gh t a s ® 0
i
ndicated i n F ig. 6 -2 a nd t ha t w hen i t
r
eaches t he p oint P a magne tic f i
e
ld i sa p- e 0
p
l
ied . T he d irec t
ion o f Bi sn o rma lly o ut-
ward from t he p age. A ccording t ot he c ross B
(out)
0 0 0 0
p
roduc t of vi nto B i n ( 6
-19 ) t he a ccele ra-
Fm. 6 -2
. P ath o f p osit
ively
t
ion a i s d ownwa rd s o that t he p article c harged p a
rtic
le i n magne t
ic
d
escribes ac ircle int he clockw ise d i
rec tion f i
eld
.
i
n the plane o ft he p age.
L
et us d eterm ine t he r adius R o f t he circ
le. T he magn itude o f the
f
orce F ( r
adia l
ly i nwa rd) o n the p article i s
, by (6
-19 ),

F=m
a =e
vB (
6
-20
)
T
his f
o
rce i
sal
so g
iven b
y
=m
v2
F (
6
-21
)
I
t
2
76 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 6

E
qua
ting (
6
-20
) a
nd (
6
-21
) y
ie
lds

m
y'
(
6-22
)
R
or

R="
'
i
f
-3
-
(
6
-23
)

whe
re R = r adius o fp article ( mete rs)
m = ma s s ofp art
icle ( kg)
v= velocity o fp ar t
icle ( me ters/see)
e= cha rge ofp ar
ticle ( coulomb s)
B=f l
ux d ensi
ty ( webe r
s/me ter'
)
T
hus , t
he la
rge r t he velocity o f t he p art
icle or t
he la
rger i
ts mass
, the
g
reater t
he r
ad ius. O n the o therh and , the l
arge
r the cha
rge orthe f
lux
d
ensity
, the sma ller the radius .
The numbe r o f revolutions p e r s econd o f t
he pa
rticle i
n the c
i
rcular
p
ath iscal
led t he frequency fo ft he p art
icle. T he fr
equency is

v eB
r
ps (
6-24
)
f =2
TR = 2
a
rm

E
xample. A nel
ectron has ave
loc
ity o
f 1
0 4 me
ters/
sec normal t
o amagne
tic f
i
eld
o
f 0
.1 weber/me
ter
s flux d
ensi
ty. Find t
he r
ad ius o
f the e
l
ectron pa
th a
nd al
so it
s
f
r
equency.
S
olu
tion
. F rom (6
-23) t
he rad
ius

0
.91 X 1
0 -s
°X 104
R = 1
.6 X l
ir " X 1 =5
.7 X 1
0-7 me
ter
0-s

T
his i
s av
ery s
mal
l c
i
rcle
. The f
r
equency

1
0
'
f— 2
7
r X5
.7 X 1
0-7 .
22.8 X 1
0s r
ps

I
ft he p article i nt he a bove e xamp le had ani ni
tial v e
locity component
p
aral
le l t
o Ba s w e
ll a s p erpend icular toB , the p ar
ticle w ould move i na
h
el
ical pa th w ith t he a xis o ft he hel
ix p ara
lle
l t o B.
To ilus tra te a pp l
ica tions o f the r e
lations o f this a nd the p receding
s
ec
tion , the o pe rat
ion o f t hree electronic or ionic d evices isdescribed in
t
he nexts e ct
ions . T hese d ev
ice sare the cathode -ray t ube,the cyclotron,
a
nd t he ma ss s pectrog raph ( P
rob. 6 -5
).
6
-4. T he C athode- ray T ube.' A c a
thode -ray t ube i s ad evice for
o
bserving r apid v o
ltage v ariations. I n ac athode -ray t ube (Fig. 6-3) a
b
eam o fel ectrons i s emit ted f r
om ac athode,i saccele rated b yane lectrode
A
,a nd i mp inge so n af luo rescen ts c
reen. B ym eans o fe i
ther at ransverse
e
l
ectric or at ransver se magne tic fi
eld the beam may b ed ef
lec
ted s ot hat
IS
ome
time
s c
a
l
led aB
raun t
u
bea
f
terC
ar
lF.B
raun
.
SE
C
. 6
-4
] CHARGED PARTICLES 2
77

i
tstr
ike s t
he screen at ad i
stance yfrom t he undeflected po
sition
. T he
s
poto nt he s
creen i sv
isib
le, and t
he particularu sefulne s
soft he c
athode-
r
ay tube isthat, because ofthe sma
ll inertia oft he elect
ron beam, itcan
f
o
llow v ery r
apid c hangesint he a
ppl
ied d eflect
ing f i
eld. T h
is is asome-
wha
t o vers
implified descr
iption of aca
thode -ray tube b ut w
il
l sufice f
or
t
he f
ollowing brief analys
is ofsome ofi t
s c haracteristics
.

C E
. A
+ + v

Ti
- d
'
'
'
V
a
( D
e
fle
ct
ing p
l
at
es S
cr
een
FI
G
. 6
-3
. C
athode
-ray t
ube wi
th e
l
ectro
sta
tic d
ef
lec
tion
.

The pos
itive a
cce
lera t
ing po
ten t
ial V
. i
sappl
ied t
o t
he el
ectrode A
.
T
his produces an a
ccelerat
ing f
ie
ld E. t
hat i
mpart
s ave
loc
ity v.to t
he
e
l
ectrons.
' F rom (6
-10)

v
.= (
6
-25
)
la

A
fter a n elec tron leaves the accelerating e l
ect rode
, i t main tains this
v
elocity v.
Letus cons ider the efectofelectrostatic d
eflection with two p lates a
ta
p
otential dife rence Vd a s i
n Fig. 6-3. T he p ath of an el
ec tron i n the
t
ransverse deflecting fi
eld is aparabola. N eglec t
ing fr
inging o ft he fi
e
ld
a
t the edges o fthe plates
, the e
lectron iss ubjected to the def
lec ting fi
e
ld
Ed fo
r ad is tance 1o r fo
r at ime t= / v.
. T he fi
eld Ed p roduce s a n
a
ccelera
tion a .i nt he yd i
rect
ion w h
ich, from ( 6-3), i
s

eV
,
'
(
6
-26
)
av= WI

Thus
, t
he e
l
ect
ron a
cqu
ires a v
e
loc
ity c
omponent t
h
,in t
he y d
i
rec
tion
g
iven b
y
_, eVal
(
6
-27
)
V' =' =t
r
ul
y.

1Actua
lcathode-ray t
ubesu sual
ly have severa
la ccelerating e
l
ectrodesi n at
andem
a
rrangement. T hese s
erve the d ual purpose o
f a ccelerat
ing the elec
trons and of
f
ocus
ing them. The v a
lue of V .used in (
6-25
), int he case o
fan a
c tualtube,shou
ld
b
e the to
tal e
ffe
ctive acce
lerating vol
tage. Th is iso f
ten caled t he el
ec
tron b
eani
v
o
ltage
.
2
78 ELECTRO MAGNETICS (
CHAP
. 6

T
he d
ef
lec
tion a
ngle a (
F
ig. 6
-
3) i
sthen

v
„ e
Vd1
a= a
rc
tan — = a
rc
tan i
ndv.
2 (
6
-28
)
v
.
Or

Vd/
a =a
rctan 2V
ad (
6
-29
)

B
utf
r
om t
he t
ube g
eome
try
, a
s
sum
ing x>
> 1
,the a
ngle a i
sal
so g
iven b
y

a =a
rc
tan 2 (
6
-30
)
x

a
nd s
o
, e
qua
ting t
he a
rgumen
ts i
n (
6
-29
) a
nd (
6
-30
),

Vdi
x
m
eter
s (
6
-31
)
Y — 2
Vad

w
here y = d
eflec
tion distance at screen ( meters)
Va = d
eflect
ing p otential (
volts)
1= length ofd ef
lecting pla
te s ( meters
)
x= distance fr
om d ef
lect
ing p lates tos c
reen (
meter
s)
V
. =a ccelerat
ing p otentia
l (volt s
)
d= spacing ofd efl
ec t
ing plates ( meters)
S
olv
ing f
or t
he v o
ltsp er m eter o
fd eflection (rat
io Vd/
y)
, wehave

Vd 2
Vad
v
ol
ts/me
ter (
6-32
)
Y = l
x

Examp le 1
. Ac athode-ray t ube with elec
tros
ta t
ic def
lec
tion ha
s an acce
lerating
v
oltage V .
, =1 ,
500 v ol
ts, ad ef
lecting-pla
te spacing d = 1 c m
, ad ef
lect
ing-plate
l
ength 1= 1c m
, and ad i
stance x = 3 0c mfrom def
lect
ing pla
testothe s
creen. Find
t
he v o
ltage Vd r
equired to def
lect the spot by 1cm o n t
he sc
reen. Neglect fr
inging
o
ft he fi
e
ld.
Solu
tion. From ( 6-32
)

Va 2X 1,
500 X 1
0-2
1
0
,000 v
olt
s/me
ter
y 1
0-2 X 3
0 X10-2 —

o
r

= 1
00 v
ol
ts/cm
y

Toi nc
rea se the s
ensitivity, thati s
,tod ecrease t
he numbe ro fv olt
sp er
meter ofd ef
lection, V. o r dshould be decreased ora n i
ncrease made in1
o
rx .
Le
tu scon s
ide rn ow t he efect o
f amagne tic d
eflec
ting fi
eld. S uppo
se
t
hatt he def
lecting plates a nd e
lect
ric fi
eld Ed ofFig
. 6-3are replaced bya
magnetic fi
eld off l
ux d ensity B norma l to the p
age asi nFig. 6-4. T he
d
irect
ion of Bi so u
twa rd f rom the page. I nt h
is ca
se the a
cceleration d
ue
SE
C. 6
-4] CHARGED PARTICLES 2
79

t
othe magnet
ic fi
eld i
snotinthe yd
irec
tion but i
snormal t
ot he ci
rcular
p
ath o
f the el
ectron
. A ssume
, however
, t ha
t 1isso smal
l t hat as an
a
pprox
ima t
ion the acce
lerat
ion c
an be taken in t
he y d
i
rection. T hen

O 0 o

O 0 0
vz
O e e a
i
n

O 0 0

• 0 0
B(
out)
O 0 0
Fm
. 6
-4
. C
athode
-ray t
ube w
ith magne
tic d
ef
lec
tion
.

t
he v
e
loc
ity c
omponen
t i
nthe yd
i
rec
tion i
s

v
„=a
t = T
r
1. (
6
-33
)

T
hus f
r
om (
6
-20
)
e
viB 1 e
B1
Vy = (
6
-34
)
m v
. m

T
he d
ef
lec
tion a
ngle a (
F
ig. 6
-
4) i
s

v
„
a= a
rc
tan —
. = a
v rctan —
e
B1
v
im

o
r

a= a
rctan (
B/.
\
/ ) (
6
-35
)
2
mV.

B
ut w
e h
ave a
l
so a = a
rctan y
/x
, a
nd s
o

m
ete
rs (
6
-36
)
= r
1
31. V 2n
:Va
w
here y = d
eflect
ion d i
stance a t s
creen ( meters
)
x= distance from magne t
ic d ef
lect
ing f i
eld to s
creen (mete
rs)
B=f l
ux d ensity ofd ef
lect
ing f i
eld (weber s/meter 2)
e= cha rge on partic
le (coulombs )
m = ma ss ofp art
icle (kg)
V
. =a ccelerating voltage (volts)
1= axial length ofd ef
lect
ing f i
eld ( mete
r s)
S
olv
ing f
or the fl
ux d ens
ity p er meter ofd ef
lection (ra
tio B /y
), we h
ave

B= 1 I
2mVi
(
6
-37
)
y x
l e
2
80 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 6

w
here t
he r
at
io B
/y isi
nwebe
rsper s
quare m
ete
rpe
rmete
rofd
ef
lec
tion
.
F
or a
n el
ect
ron (
6-37
) b
ecomes

B 3
.
38 X 1
0-6 —
- z
/ A/ V ' (
6
-38
)

w
here x = d
istance fr
om def
lect
ing fi
eld t
oscreen (
meter
s)
1= axial le
ngth o
fd ef
lec
ting fi
eld (
meters
)
V
. =a ccelerat
ing v
oltage (vo
lts
)
E
xamp le 2
. Ac athode-ray tube w
ith magnetic def
lect
ion h
as a
n a
cce
lerating vo
lt-
a
ge V. = 1,500 vo
lts
, amagne tic d
efl
ect
ing fi
e
ld a x
iall e
ngth 1= 2cm
,a nd ad i
stance
x=3 0 cm f rom the def
lecting fi
eld t
o the screen. F ind t
he magnet
ic f i
e
ld flux
d
ens
ity B required t
o def
lect t
he spot o
fa n e
lec
tron b eam 1cm on t
he s
creen.
S
olu
tion. F rom (6-38)

B 3
.38 X 1
0-4 X 1
,
5001
—2
.
18 X 1
0-2 w
ebe
r/mete
r'/me
ter
y 3
0 X 1
0-2 X 2X 10-
2

or

—
B 2
.
18 X 1
0-4 w
ebe
r/me
ter
s/cm

6
-5. T he C yc
lo tron . T he cyc lotron i s ah eavy p article a ccele rato r
,
i
nvented i n 1 929 b y E rne s t 0. L aw rence , f or o btaining a b eam o fh igh-
e
nergy i ons. P artic les s uch a sp rotons , d euteron s, o ra lpha p ar
ticles a re
g
iven mu ltiple a cce lera t
ions i n ar e sonance c hamber . R efe rring t o Fig.
6
-5, t wo h ollow D - shaped c oppe re lectrodes , ord ees, a re b etween t he p ole
p
iece s of al arge e lec tromagne t. T he r egion b etween t he p oles p iece si s
e
vacua ted . I n F ig . 6 -5 t he w al
ls o f the v acuum c hambe r a re om itted.
The t wo d ees a r e c onnected t o ah igh-f requency s our ce o f alterna ting
v
oltage . I n t he c ase o fd euteron o pera t
ion , ions i nh eavy h ydrogen g as
a
t l ow p re ssure a re p roduced a t the c en ter o f the c hambe r b y electron s
emit ted f r om af ilamen t
.
Starting w ith a d eu teron a t t he p o
int P , an ega tive p otent ial o n t he
r
igh t-hand d ee a cce lera tes t he deute ron t o t he r i
gh t
. E nte r
ing t he d ee,
t
he d eut eron i si n ar egion f r
ee o fe lectric f i
e
ld b ut s t
il i n t he magne tic
f
i
eld b etween t he p ole p ieces. S uppos et ha tt he lowe rp ole is an o
r th p ole
s
ot ha t Bi su pwa rd . T he d eute ron t hen move si n ac ircle i n ac lockw ise
d
irec tion . I f t he t im ing i s prope r s o t ha t w hen t he d eu teron a ga in
r
eaches t he g ap b etween t he d ees the e lec tric fi
eld h a sr ever sed , itw il
l b e
a
cce lera ted t ot he l ef
t. H aving a cqu ired a dditiona le ne rgy,i t move si na
c
ircle o f large r r ad ius. B y r epetition o f t h
is p roce ss t he e ne rgy o f the
d
eute ron i si ncrea sed i ns teps u ntil i treache s t he p eriphery o f the d ee s
.
He re ad eflecting e lectrode a t ahigh n ega tive p oten tia lp ul
ls t he d eute ron
t
h rough a n o pen ing i n t he d ee s o t hat i tc an i mpinge o n as pec imen
p
laced o ut s
ide t he d ee.
T he frequency i nr evolut ions p e rs econd o f ap article mov ing n orma l to
SE
C. 6
-5
] CHARGED PARTICLES 2
81

t
he magne
tic f
i
e
ld i
n ac
yc
lot
ron i
sgi
ven b
y (
6
-24
). T
hati
s
,

4. eB
(
6
-39
)
2
w
-m

P
rov
ided t
he p
art
icle v
eloc
ity i
ssma
ll c
ompared with l
i
ght
, m i
ss ub
-
s
t
ant
ial
ly c
ons
tant. Since e a
nd B a
re a
lso c
ons
tan t
, fis ac
ons
tant

D
ef
lect
ing
e
lec
trode

T
op v
i
ew

(
a)

M
agne
t p
o
le

D
ees

I
o
n p
a
ths
S
i
de v
i
ew
(
b
)
F
i
l
amen
t.' N
or
th p
o
le ..
:
.
\
.
:
•
-
•
:
.
:;
:
-
..:
:
.
.
FI
G
. 6
-5
. C
yclo
tron
.

r
egard
less o
f t
he ve
loc
ity o
f the part
icle
. Howeve r
, from ( 6
-23) t
he
r
adius o
fthe c
i
rcu
larpath i
spropo
rtional t
o t
he p
art
icle v
eloc
ity.

E
xample 1. Find t
he fr
equency fo
r ad euteron (
es•1.6 X 1
0 -" c
oulomb , a
n
3
.34 X 1
0-7 k
2 g
) in ac
yclotron w
ith a f
l
ux dens
ity B = 1
.
5 weber
s/me ter 2.
S
olu
tion
. F
rom (
6
-39
) t
he f
r
equency

1
.6 X 1
0-" X 1
.5
—2
7 X3.34 X 1
0-27 —1
.
14 X 1
07 r
ps

Th
is i
sthe f
r
equency tha
ti sr
equired o
fthe o
sc
illator c
onnected tot
he dee
s. A ccord
-
i
ng
ly, t
he o
sci
llator f
r
equency must b
e 1.4 Mc/ sec f
or a
ccelera
ting d
euterons
.
2
82 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 6

T
he fi
nal e
nergy o
f apar
ticle i
sde
term
ined b
y t
he r
ad
ius R a
nd t
he
f
l
ux dens
ity B
. F rom (
6-23)

R
eB
R = mu or V = (
6
-40
)
eB

T
he e
nergy W o
fthe p
art
icle i
s

1 \l
2W
W =—
2 m
v-. or V = (
6
-41
)
m

E
qua
ting t
hese r
e
lat
ions f
o
r va
nd s
o
lving f
o
rthe e
nergy W o
fthe p
art
icle
,

1(
ReB
)2
W — (
6
-42
)
2 m

Example 2
. Ac yclotron ha
s amax imum work
ing r
adius R =
.50 cm
, aflux d
ens
ity
B = 1
.5 ue
bers/me
te r 2. F
ind the e
nergy wh
ich may b
e impa
rted t
o deu
terons
.
So
lut
ion. F rom (6
-42 ) t
he fi
nal e
nergy

(
0
.5 X 1
.
6 X 1 0-
1
2 X 1
.
5)2
W — =2
.
15 X 1
0- " j
ou
le
2X 3.34 X 10-
2
2

S
ince
E
nergy i
nel
ectron v
olts e
nergy i
njoule
s
1
.6 X 1
0-1
2

t
h
is r
e
sult i
nel
ect
ron v
olts i
s

2
.
15 X 1
0-1
2
W
.. — = 1
.
33 X 1
02 e
l
ect
ron v
olts
1
.6 X 1
0-"

o
r a
n e
nergy o
f 1
3
.3 m
ill
ion e
l
ect
ron v
olts
.

Ife
itheralpha p articleso rpro tons had been u sed, the energy w ould be
d
oubled. I nt he a bove discussion rela
tivist
ic e fects h ave been n eglec
ted
a
s have al
so inte rac t
ion e fectso ft he i
ons int he b eam . C orrections for
t
hesee fec
ts are u sually s mal
le xcept inthe larger h igh-ene rgy cyclotrons.
I
ft he vo
ltage V a pplied between t he gap oft he dees i ss ma
ll, al arge
n
umbe r no f r evo lutions i s required before t he par tic
le r eache s the
p
eriphery. Howeve r, tor educe the di
spe r
sion o ft he beam i ti sdesirable
t
o make ns mal
l a nd, hence, Va sl a
rge asp oss
ib le. T he to
tal ene rgy W
a
cquired in nr evo lutions is
W =2
nVe (
6
-43
)

T
hus, fo
r agiven e
nergy W a
sde
termined b
y (
6
-42
) a
nd f
o
r ap
art
icu
lar
v
oltage V, t
he n
umber ofr
evo
lut
ions i
s

(
6
-44
)
 _

SE
C. 6
-6
] CHARGED PART
ICLES 2
83

w
here W i
sinj
ou
les
. I
fthe e
nergy i
sexp
res
sed i
n e
l
ectron v
ol
ts, we,
„
W.
.
n = -- X 1
.
6 X 1
0- " (
6
-45
)
2
eV

where e= c harge ofp ar

ticle (
cou
lomb s)
V=d ee vo
ltage ( vo
lts)
6-6
. T ab
le o f Charge and Mass f o
r C ommon P ar
tic
les
. T he c
harge
a
nd ma ssfor an umbe ro fc ommon part
icles a
reli
s
ted inTable 6
-
1. T he
mass gi
ven i sthe re
st ma ss
, or mas
s at zero v
e
loc
ity.

TABLE 6
-
1

C
ha rge e
, Ra
tio e
lm,
P
art
icle Ma
ss i
n
, k
g
c
oulombs c
oulombs/kg

E
lectron —1.602 X 1
0 -" 9
.107 X.1
0 -" —1.76 X 1
0"
P
o s
itron +
1.602 X 10 -" 9
.107 X 1
0 -" +1.76 X 1
01
Neutron 0 1
.6747 X 1
0 -" 0
P
roton ( hydrogen n uc
leus) +
1.602 X 10-" 1.6725 X 1
0 -'1 +9.6 X 1
01
Deuteron ( heavy hydrogen
nuc
leus ) +1.6 X 1
0- " 3
.34 X 1
0 -" +4
.8 X 1
0'
A
lpha p artic
le (he
lium n uc
leus
) +3.2 X 1
0-" 6
.644 X 1
0 -" +4
.81 X 1
07

PROBLE MS
6
-1 . Ap ar t
icle w ith an ega t
ive c ha rge of 1 0 - "c oulomb a nd amas so f 1 0 -" kgi sat
r
est i n af i
e
ld -free s pace. I f au ni
form e lectric f i
eld o f i ntensity E = 1 00 v olts/
mete r i sa pplied a t at ime =0 , wha t ist he v elocity o f t he p article 1a sec l ater?
Ans. ( a) v= 1 00 me ter s/sec .
6
-2 . A n e l
ectron b eam w ith electrons o f 1,000 -electron -vo lt e nergy e nte rst he t rans-
v
er se s tatic elect ric f ie
ld o f ap air of d ef
lec ting p lates
. The p lates a re s paced 1cm
a
nd a re 2cm l ong p a
ra llel t
o the b eam d irection . I f1 0 volts i sa pplied b etween t he
d
eflec ting p lates, f ind h ow fara way t he s creen mus tb et oo b tain ad eflec tion o f 1cm .
Assume t hat the f i
eld i su niform b e
tween t he d eflecting pla te s. Neg lect f r
ing ing .
6
-3 . I fthe elec tro sta tic def
lecting -plate s ystem o fP rob. 6 -2 isr eplaced b y au n
i form
magne t
ic fi
eld 2cm l ong i nthe b eam d irec t
ion , f ind how f ar a way t he s c reen mus t be
t
o o b tain ad ef
l ection o f 1cm when t he flux d ens ity B = 1 0- 4 w eber/me ter '.
6-4. a . Wha ti st he max imum e nergy i nm ill
ions o felectron v o
lts fora lpha p articles
i
n ac yclotron w ith amax imum u sable rad ius o f 5 0 cm? The f l
ux d ens ity i nt he air
g
ap i s 1w eber/mete r'.
b
. Wha t ist he max imum e nergy i fp rotons a re u sed?
c. Wha t ist he max imum e nergy f o r deute rons?
d
. Wha t ist he r esonant f r
equency i ne ach c ase?
e. How many r evo lut ions doe s each p article make i ft he p eak p oten tial b etween
dees i s1 0
,000 v o l
t s?
6-5. A ma sss pect rog raph is ad evice f ors epa ra ting p art
icle so fthe s ame c ha rge b ut
d
ife rent mas s. R efer r
ing t o Fig. 6-6, the p articles are injec ted w i th ak nown v eloc-
i
t y vi nto au niform magne t
ic fi
eld off l
ux d ens ity B . P articles w ith l arge r ma sss tr
ik e
2
84 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 6

t
he f
luore
scent s c
reen or p
hotographic plate a
t ag rea
ter d
is
tance from t
he point o
f
e
ntry
, ass ugge
sted . S how t
hat two partic
les o
ft he s
ame c
ha rge eand o
f masse
s m1
a
nd m: in
jected w ith t
he s
ame veloc
ity va re s
eparated a
t t
he screen b
y adis
tance d
g
iven by d (
2v/Be)(m2 —m 1)
, whe re m: >

0 0 0 0 0
B
(out)

0 0

S
c
reen

FI
G
. 6
-6
. Mas
s s
pec
trog
raph
.

8
-8. In Mil
likan's o
i
l-drop exper
iment at i
ny charged drop
letofo i
lof mas s missus-
p
ended ine qu
ilibr
ium i nthe gravi
tationa
l fi
eld (ofacce
leration g
)b ya n el
ectr
ic fi
e
ld
o
fintens
ity E between two horizonta
lc apaci
tor pla
tes. I fthe d
ropleth a
s Ne lec
tron
c
harges
,s how thatthe magni
tude o ft
he charge e
on ane l
ectron i
sgiven b
y e= m g/NE .
How can the p
olar
ity ofthe charge onthe drop
let bed etermined bythisexperiment?
 CHAPTER 7

T
I ME
-CHANG
ING ELECTR
IC AND MAGNET
IC
F
IELDS

)
( 7 -1. I ntroduc tion. I n the p reced ing c hap ter s t he p r
inc ip les o f s ta t
ic
e
lec tric a nd magne tic f i
e
lds w ere cons idered . I nt his c hap te re lectr ic a nd
magne tic f i
e
lds t hatc hange w ith t ime a red iscussed , a nd an umber o fn ew
r
elat ions a nd c oncept s a re i n t
roduced . S ome o f t he mo re i mpo rtant
o
f t he se a re (1) F araday 's l aw, w hich g ive s t he em f i nduced i n ac l
o sed
c
ircu it d ue to ac hange o f magne t
ic f lux li
nk ing i t
; ( 2) ar ela t
ion g iving t he
emfi nduced i n ac onduc to r mov ing i n amagne tic f i
e ld; (3) Maxwe ll's d is
-
p
l a
c emen tc urrent
, w hich r epre sen tsa ne xtens ion o ft he cur ren tc oncep tt o
i
nclude c harge-free s pace, a nd ( 4) a n extens ion o ft he b ounda ry r ela t
ions
d
eve loped i ne a
rlier c hap ter s t oi nclude t ime -va rying s i
tua tions .
7
-2 . F araday's L aw . I n C hap . 4w e observed t ha t ac urren t- ca rrying
c
onduc to r produce s a magne t
ic f i
eld . A bout 1 831 M ichae l F araday i n
London a nd J oseph H en ry i n Albany f ound i ndependen t
ly t ha t t he
r
eve r se e fect w asa lso p ossib le. T ha t is
, amagne tic f i
e
ld c an p roduce a
c
ur ren t i n ac losed c i
rcuit b ut w ith t he i mpo rtant
qualifica t
ion t hatt he magne t
ic f lux linking t he c ircu it
W
ire lo
op ,
.
mus t b e c hanging .
Cons ide r, for examp le, t he c losed w ire lo op i nF ig .
7
-1. A magne t
ic fi
eld w ith f lux d ensity Bi sn orma lt o
t
he p lane o f the l oop . I fBi sdirect ed u pwa rd a nd B( decreas
ing )
d
ecr ea sing i n magn itude , ac urrent If l
ow si nt he w i re FI G. 7
-1. R e
lation
i
n t he d i
rec t
ion i ndicated . ' I ti ss aid t hat t he c ur - b e tween d ecreasing
f
lux d ensity B a nd
r
ent i si ndu ced b y t he magne tic f i
eld. T he r ela tion
i
nduced c urrent /i n
b
e tween t he di
rec t
ion o f Ba nd Ii sgiven b yt he r igh t - l oop.
hand r ule ( F
ig. 4 -
2).2 T his i sf ort he c a
se w he re B i s
d
e c
r ea sing in magn itude . I fBi sdirec ted u pwa rd a sb e fore b ut i si n crea s
-
i
ng i n magn i
tude , t he direc t
ion o ft he induced c urren t i so ppo site.

The direct
ion ist ha
to fthe conventional cur
rent
, which i
so pposi
te t
othe d
irect
ion
o
f mo tion of the e
lectron current.
I Here, however, itis more c
onven ient t
ot ake B i
nthe d
irect
ion ofthe t
humb a nd I
i
n the direction o
f t he fi
ngers
. B oth this r
ule and t
hat o
f Fig. 4-2 r
e
late B a
nd Iin
t
he same w ay.
285
2
86 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 7

When the applied f

lux density B i
sdecrea
sing in magnitude,t he c
urrent
i
nduced inthe loop isins uch adirec
tion astop roduce afi
eld w h
ich tends
t
oi nc
rease B ( F
ig. 7-
2a )
. O n t
he other h
and, w hen B isincreas
ing, the
c
urrent induced in the lo op i
si n s
uch a di
rection as to produce a fi
eld
o
ppo s
ing B ( F
ig. 7-
2b). T hus t
heinduced cur
renti n t
h
el oop isalwaysi n
s
uch a d
irect
ion a s t
op rodu cefl
ux opposing th
e change in B( Lenz's l
aw).

W
i
re
B(d
e
c e
a
sing
) B
(in
creas
ing
) l
o
op

(
a) (
b
) E
.
Fm. 7-2
. I
nduced c
urrents f
o
r d
ecrea
sing a
nd FI
G
. 7
-3a
. S
ing
le-
turn l
o
op.
i
ncrea
sing f
l
ux d
ens
ity B.

T
he changing magne
tic f
i
eld p
roducesa
n e
l
ectr
ic f
i
e
ld E
.
. I
nteg
rat
ing
t
h
is fi
e
ld around the l
oop y
ie
lds a
n e m
f V
. T ha
t i
s
V = "E
. •d
l (
7
-1)
When the loop isopen
-circu
i ted a
sinF ig
. 7-3a, t
h
is em
fappearsb
etween
t
he terminals.
The el
ectric fi
eld E
. should be di
stinguished f
rom an e
l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld E.
d
ue t o charges. Whe reas E . c
an b e de
scribed as t
he g
rad
ient o
f an
e
l
ectric potential V
, t
ha t i
s
,'
E. = —V V (
7
-2)
t
he fie
ld E. c
anno t. T he e
l
ectric fi
eld E. may b e r egarded a s a
n e mf-
p
rodu c
ing f
i
eld
. Th is type o
ffie
ld c an re
sult f
rom t he chem ical a
ction in
abattery a
sdiscussed inSec
.3 -
10 . I ta
lso r
esult
s, asw es e
eh e
re,f r
om a
c
hanging magne tic f
i
eld.
The el
ect
ric potent
ial Vi s asingle-va
lued funct
ion o fp o
sition. T hat
i
s
, ap oint Pina n e
lec
tric f
i
eld E. d ue t
o charges h a
s as i
ngle poten t
ial
v
alue V with respect to s
ome reference point P
', such a s inf
inity or the
g
round. Th is v a
lue of Vgiven b y

V = — IP Ec •d
l (
7
-3)
P

i
sindependen
to fthe p
ath b
yw h
ich E.i si
n
tegrated f
r
om P'toP. How-
e
ver
, the emf V isnot asingle-valued f
unc
tion. T ha
t i
s, t
he e
mf V
b
etween two po
ints 1and 2as g
i ven by
v = f2 E
. .4
(
7
-4)
J
r
d
oes d
epend o
n t
he p
ath b
y w
hich E
. i
sin
teg
rated f
r
om 1t
o 2
. F
or
1E
, i
s al
amelar f
i
e
ld.
SE
C. 7
-2
1 T
I ME-
CHANGING F
IELDS 2
87

e
xamp le, i ft he t erm ina ls 1a nd 2o ft he w ire loop i nFig . 7-3a a re infini-
t
esima lly c l
o se t oge the r, t he e mf Vb etween t hem a s o btained b y inte-
g
ra t
ing E . f rom 1t o 2a round t he lo op i se qual to t he l i
ne i nteg ral o fE .
a
round t he closed l o op. B uti fE .isi nteg rated f rom 1t o 2d irectly a cros s
t
he g ap, t he r esult i sz ero.
With t he l oop t erm ina ls o pen ( Fig. 7 -3a) ap oten tiald ife rence V e qua l
t
o the e m f Va ppea rs b etween t he term inals. Af ie
ld E . i st hen p resent
due to t he e lectric c ha rges o n t he term inals. T he c onfigura tion o f this
f
i
eld i sd ife ren t f rom t he f i
eld E .. Howeve r
, w hen t he t e rm ina ls a re
c
losed, t he re isn op oten tia l d
ife rence b etween a ny p arts o ft he l oop a nd
n
o f i
eld E .
The q uant ita t
ive r ela t
ion b etween t he e mfi nduced i n ac l
osed l oop a nd
t
he magne tic f i
eld p roduc ing t he e mfi sg iven b yF araday 's l aw. A ccord -
i
ng t ot his l aw, t he t o
ta l e mf i
ndu c
ed i n ac losed circu i
ti se qual t ot he time
r
ate o f de crea se o f t he t o
ta l m agnetic f lux l ink
ing t h
e c ircuit
. T hus, i n
s
ymbo ls,
_
(
7-5 )
d
t
where I )=t otal e m f ( volt s
)tl I-0 k a0 1a c
t

=t otal f lux ( webe rs

)
t= t ime ( sec)
The n egat ive s ign i ndica test ha tt he e m fa nd cur rent d irec t
ion i sp o s
itive
(
the r i
gh t-hand r ule r elate sp ositive d irec t
ions ) with r espec t tot he direc -
t
ion oft he f ie
ld w hen t he f i
e
ld, a nd hence t he fl
ux,i sd ec
r easing w ith t ime .
This situa tion i si ndica ted i nF ig
. 7 -
2a .
E
qua t
ion ( 7
-5) a pp lies t o as ingle-turn l oop as i nF ig. 7-1, 7 -2
, o r7-3a .
For al o
op o f mo re t han o ne tu rn, w he re al
l t u
rns a rel inked b yt he same
f
l
ux Om,F araday 's l aw may b e e xpres sed

(
7
-6)
w
here N = numbe
r o ft
urns
.
I
feve
ry tu
rn isn o
t l
inked b
y t
he s
ame v
alue o
f f
l
ux, w
e may w
rite
F
araday
's l
aw a
sfollows
,
dA
V = d
t (
7-7)

w
here A = t
o
tal f
l
ux l
inkage (
webe
r-turns
). T ha t is
, f
o
r t
he c
ase o
f N
t
urn
s,
jI \A
)= • • • ± O mN (
7
-8)
w
here 0
„,1 = f
l
ux l
i
nked b
y f
i
rst t
urn
=fl
ux l
i
nked b
y s
e
cond turn
O
mN = fl
ux l
i
nked b
y N
th turn
ti
tisa
ssumed t
hatt
he r
e
sis
tance p
er u
nitl
e
ngth o
fthe l
oop c
onduc
tori
sun
iform
.
2
88 ELECTRO MAGNET1C
S [
CHAP
. 7

Now t
he to
tal f
lux t
hrough a cir
cuit i
se qual t
o the i
ntegra
l o
f t
he
n
ormal c
omponent oft
he fl
ux dens
ity B o
ver the s
ur
face bounded b
ythe
c
i
rcuit
. T ha
ti s
, t
he t
otal magnet
ic fl
ux 1
,
P
„, i
sgiven b
y

0
. = 1 B •d
st (
7
-9)

T
he s
ur
face may b
eany c
ont
inuous s
ur
face b
ounded b
y t
he p
er
iphe
ry o
f

W
i
reloop
T
h
is fl
ux l
i
ne c
i
rcu
it
l
in
ks
ci
r
cui
to n
ce

2t
u
rn l
o
op
S
ur
face b
ounded
b
yl o
op c
i
rcu
it

E
ach o
fthe
se fl
ux 1 -
Th
is f
lux l
i
ne l
i
nks
l
i
nes l
i
nk
sc i
rcu
ittwice c
i
rcu
itonce
FI
G
. 7-3b. C
ircuit w
ith 2
-
turn loop showing s
i
x flux
-line l
i
nkag
es. E
ach p
assage o
f
af
lux l
ine t
hrough t
he s
urface c
ons
titute
s one l
inkage
.

t
he c
i
rcu
it (
s
ee F
ig
. 7
-
3b)
. S
ubs
titu
ting (
7
-9) i
n (
7
-5) y
i
eld
s

V = ——
d f B•
d
t d
a (
7
-10
)
where V = induced e m f (
volts
)
B=f lux den s
ity ( webers/me ter 2)
d
s =s urface e l
ement ( meters 2)
t= time ( sec)
This r
e
la t
ion w as d erived b y F. E. N eumann a bout 1 845 a nd may b e
r
egarded as a mo re g enera
l f o
rm o f F a
raday's law. I t gives t
he e mf
i
nduced in ac l
osed s tat
ionary c i
rcu i
t b y ac hanging f i
eld. Equa t
ion
(
7-10) may a lso be a pplied t o ci
rcuits in mo t
ion ( w
ith r espect to the
ob
server)
, with B c ons tant or time-varying, provided that t he mo
tion of
t
he boundary o fthe s urface in (7
-10) c o
incides atevery i n
stant with the
motion o
fa l
lp arts oft he physicalc i
rcuit. T hus (7-10
) c an b eappl
ied to
aloop o
rc oi
lt ranslated , r
otated, ord eformed in amagne t
ic f i
e
ld. H ow -

tThe s
ymbo l f i
s
ndicates ad ouble or surface in
tegral (
i
f
) o
ver as u
rface s.
A
l though i
tiss implest to consider (7
-9 ) i
nc onnect
ion with as ingle
-turn lo
op, ital
so
a
pp l
iesto ac
losed single conductor c i
rcuit o
fa ny numbe ro fturnso rlo
op s
,the bound -
a
ry o f t
he surface sc o
inc iding w ith the conductor. I n this case 1,
(
,
.
. =A . T hus,
r
eferr
ing to Fig. 7-3h, the s urface integra
l of Bo ver the sur
face b ounded by t he
c
i
rcu it y
ie
lds t he total flux l i
nkages A , no considerat
ion o f the numbe r of t
urns
b
eing n
ece
ssa
ry.
SE
C
. 7
-4
] T1ME-CHANGING F
IELDS 2
89

e
ver,inc asesw here the motion ofthe boundary ofthe s
urface ofintegra-
t
ion isnot identical with the motion ofall p
arts o
f the physical ci
rcuit
(
see Examp le 4,S ec
. 7 -6) Eq. (7
-10) may not yi
eld the cor
rect induced
emf
. F or such cases
, o ne should use the g
eneral re
lat
ion of ( 7
-18) for
t
he induced e mf
.
When the loop orc losed ci
rcu
it issta
tionary orfi
xed, (7
-10) reduces to

a
B
= —f .
ds (
7
-11
)

Th
is form of F araday
's law g
ives the i
nduced emf d
ue spec
ifi
cally t
o a
t
ime rate of change o
f Bf o
r al oop o
r ci
rcuit t
hat i
sfi
xed with re
spect
t
o the o bserver. T h
is is sometimes cal
led the tr
ansf
orm erinduc
tion
e
quation.
7
-3
. Maxwe ll
's E qua
tion f r
om F araday's Law. Integral F orm.
F
rom ( 7
-1) a nd (7-
11) w
e have

V=9
6 E •d
l = —P a
B •
t d
s (
7
-12
)

where V = i nduced e mf (volts)

E=E . =e mf
-produc ing elec tr
ic f i
eld' ( vo
l t
s/me ter)
d
l =e lemen t ofp a
th ( mete rs)
B=f l
ux d ensity ( webe rs/me ter 2)
ds =e lemen t ofa rea ( meters 2)
t= time ( s
ec)
This relat
ion isr e
ferred t oa s Maxw ell
's e qua
tion a sd eriv
ed from F araday 's
l
aw. I t appears i n ( 7-12) i n its i nteg ra
l f orm . T he correspond ing
d
ife ren t
ial re
lation i sgiven i nS ec. 7-9.
A
cco rding to (7-12) t he li
ne i nteg ral o fthe electric fi
eld around af ixed
c
losed l oop or ci
rcuit i se qual t o the n orma l c omponent o ft he time ra te
o
f d ecrease of the flux d ensity B i nteg rated o ver as urface b ounded b y
t
he c i
rcuit. B oth area l
so e qualt ot he t o
tal emf Vi nduced i nt he c
i
rcu it.
7
-4. Mov ing C onduc tor i n a Magne tic Field. I n the p receding s ec-
t
ions t he emf induced b y ac hange i nf l
ux linkage i sd i
scus sed. I n some
s
i
tua t
ions i tisc onven ien t or d e s
irab le t o consider s pecif
ically the e mf
i
nduced i n aconduc tor mov ing i n amagne t
ic f i
eld.
F
rom ( 6
-17) the force F o n ap article o fel
ectric cha rge emov ing with a
v
eloc ity vi n amagne tic fie
ld o ff lux d ensity B i s

F=e
vx B n
ewtons (
7
-13
)

1To s
implify the nota
tion, t
he s
ymbol E.wil
l b
e u
sed only w he
re i
tisdes
irable t
o
i
nd
icate e
xplici
tly thatthe fi
e
ld i
san emf
-produc
ing t
ype. S ince i
n(7
-12) t
he i
ntegra
l
o
fthe e
lec
tric fi
eld i
sa ne m
f' 0
,itisobv
ious t
hat Ei
se mf
-producing a
nd tobeexp l
ici
t
c
ould b
e w r
itten L .
2
90 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 7

S
uppose that the c
harged par
ticle i
ss i
tua
ted i n aw
ire moving with a
v
e
lo c
ity vthrough amagne t
ic fi
eld o
ff l
ux den
sity B a
ssugges
ted inFig.
7
-4
. D iv
iding (7
-13
) b ye,weo bta
in the f
orce p
er c
harge o
relec
tric f
i
e
ld
i
n
tensity E.
, or

E
. =—
e = vxB v
olt
s/me
ter (
7
-14
)

T
he magn
itude o
fE.i
sgiven b
y
E
, =v
Bsi
n 0 7-
( 1
5)

where 0 = ang etween v a

le b nd B (
F . 7-
ig 5
). The electr
ic fi
eld E
. i
sof
t
he emf-produc
ing type a
nd isn
ormal to t
he p
lane c
on ta
ining v a
nd B.
Z(
o
ut)

0 O 0 0 A A
0 0 0 0
Ee
0 O 0 0
V

0 O 0 0

0 O 0 0
2 B(
ou
t)
W
ire
F
la. 7
-
4. An emf i
sinduced in aw
ire FI
G. 7
-5
. Re
lat
ion between di
rec
tion o
f
mov
ing a
cro
ss amagne
tic f
i
eld
. mo
tion o
fwi
re and d
i
rection o
fB.

For e
xa mp
le n F
, i ig
. 7
-4
, vi
sin t
he p
os
itive y d
i
rect
ion
, a
nd B i
sint
he
p
os
itive zdi
rection
. H ence
, c
rossing vi
nto B y
ie
lds E
„i nthe p
ositive x
d
i
rection o
r al
ong t he w
ire. T he emf Vinduced b
etween two p
o ints 1
a
nd 2o n t
he wire (F
ig. 7
-4) i
sthen

V= 2E •d
l = f(vx B
)• d
l v
olt
s (
7
-16a
)

w
here V = emfi nduced over alength 1o fw ire (vo
lts
)
E=E . =e l
ect
ric fi
eld al
ong wire (volts/me ter
)
d
l =e l
emen t oflength o
fw ire ( meters)
v= ve
locity ofwire (meters/sec)
B=f l
ux densi
ty of magnetic fi
eld ( webers/meter 2)
F
or as
tra
ightw ire where v
,B,a nd the wire are mutual
ly perpendicu
lar
,
Bisun
iform
,a nd vi sthe s
ame fora l
lp artso fthe wire
; (7-16a
) reduce
sto
V=E
l =v
B1 v
olts (
7
-16b
)
w
here 1= l
e
ngth o
fwire (
mete
rs)
.
SE
C
. 7
-5
] T
I ME-
CHANG
ING F
IELDS 2
91

Equa tions ( 7
-16a ) a nd 7-16b ) are m o
tional i nduction or flux-cut
ting
l
aw s g iv
ing t he e mf induced i n ac onductor mov ing w ith re
spec t to the
o
bse rve ri n amagne tic fi
e
ld. E quation (7
-16a) ist he mo re g
ene ralform ,
wh
i le ( 7
- 16b
) a ppl
ies t othe s pecia
l case where the d i
rec t
ions oft he wire,
i
t
s mo tion , and the magne t
ic f i
eld a
r e a
l
l mutua lly p erpendicular. I ti s
a
l
so a ssumed i n (7-16b) that a l
l parts ofthe wire h ave the same v a
lue o f
va nd t ha t Bisu niform .
These r e
lations may b e used t o f
ind t
he e mf induced i n a
ny p art ofa
c
i
rcu it d ue to it
s mo t
ion t hrough a magne t
ic f i
eld. T hey al
so c an b e
a
pp lied t o f
ind the total e m
fi nduced in aclosed circuit that i
s moved o r
d
efo rmed i n a magne tic fi
e
ld t hat does not change w ith time. F or a
c
l
o sed c ircuit (7
-16a ) become s

V= i
s•d
l = f(v xB
) •d
l (
7
-17
)

where V = t otal e mf i
nduced inc i
rcuit
.
7
-5 . G enera l C ase of I nduc
tion. E quation (7-12) gives t he e mf
i
nduced i n ac lo
sed c i
rcuit due to the time rate o
f change o f B( t
rans-
f
orme r induct ion). E qua t
ion (7
-17) gives the emf induced i n ac l
osed
c
i
rcu it d ue to its mo t
ion. When b oth kinds of c
hange s are o ccurring
s
imul taneous ly, thatis
, w hen B changes with time and the c
ircuit isa l
so
i
n mo tion, the total emfi nduced i
se qualtot he s
um o fthe emfsg iven by
(
7-12) a nd ( 7
-17), or
a
s
=9
6
(
v xB
) •d
l — „— •d
s (
7
-18
)
a
t
The fi
rst t e
rm o f the ri
ght-hand m ember g
ives the emf induced by the
motion, w hi
le the second te
rm g ivesthe emfinduced by the time c
hange
i
nB . T he l
ine i
ntegralinthe fi
rstterm ist
aken around the ent
ire c
i
rcuit,
whi
le t he surface integra
l in the second term istaken o ver the e
ntire
s
urface b ounded b y the ci
rcuit
.
E quation (7-
18) is ageneralrelat
ion and g
ives t
he cor
rectv alue o
ftotal
i
nduced e mfi nal
lc ases
. F orthe spec
ialcase o
f motion on
ly, aB/a
t =0 ,
a
nd ( 7-
18 ) reduces to
V = f( v xB
) •dl (
7-
19 )

F
ort he s
pec
ialc
aseo
ftime c
hange o
ffl
ux d
ens
ity o
nly
, v= 0
,and (
7
-18
)
r
educes t
o

=
-js.
a d
s (
7
-20
)

In many s
i
tua
tions the t
ota
l e m
f i
nduced i
n acl
osed ci
rcu
it i
sgiven
c
orrec
tly byt
he f
lux
-linking r
e
lat
ion o
f( 7
-10
). This r
ela
tion s
ta
tes t
hat

V = ——
d f B•d
s (
7
-21
)
d
t
2
92 ELECTRO MAGNET1CS [
Cam
>. 7

A
lthough ( 7
-21) may b ed er
ived formally f
rom ( 7
-18)
, the e
xplicit form of
(
7-21) isinadequa te (without the introduction of re
lat
ivity c onsidera-
t
ions) t
op roblems o f motion where the motion ofal
lp art
so ft he phy s
ical
c
i
rcuit isn o
t t he same a s the motion of the boundary of the surface of
i
ntegra
tion in ( 7
-21 )
.
In t
he next section a n umber ofe xample s a
re worked out to ilustrate
t
he applicab
ility o f the above f
our i nduct
ion r e
lat
ions to various s i
tua-
t
ions
. T o summar ize, the f
our induction re
lations a
re

(
I
) V =9
6(v xB
) •d
l — I
( •d
s g
ene
ral c
ase

mot
ion on
ly (
mot
iona
l i
n
-
(
I
I) '
U=9
6(v xB
) •d
l
d
uction
)

a
B B change o
nly (
t
rans
forme
r
(
I
II) 1
.
) = — 1.1 -
87 -•d
t s
i
nduct
ion)

(
I
V) V = —;
d f B
r
i •ds f
l
ux l
i
nkage

7-6
. E xamples o
fInduc
tion
. I n th
is s
ect
ion s even e
xamp lesa re g
iven
i
n w hich the tota
l emf i
nduced in acl
osed circuit (t
otal induction) i
s
c
alcula ted by e
ach o
fthe f
our i
nduct
ion re
lat
ion sl i
sted a
tt he end ofthe
p
reced ing se
ction
. T he g
enera
l re
lat
ion (I
) givest he c
orrec
tr esult i
na l
l
A A
r
e
a
c
ases. T he o
ther r
e
lations l
ead t
o the c
orrect
r
e
su lt i
nsome ca
ses b
utn oti
na l
l c
ase
s, and the
r
easons f
or t
his a
re d
i
scussed
.

Examp
le 1 . C onsider t
he fi
xed re
ctangular lo
op of
a
rea A s
hown i nFig. 7-
6. T he f
lux d
ens
i ty B i
snormal
F
la. 7-6
. Fixed lo
op of
t
o the p
lane o f t
he loop (o
utwa rd i
n Fig. 7
-6) and i
s
a
rea A (
for E
xample 1
)
.
u
niform over the a
rea o
fthe lo
op. Howeve r
, the mag-
n
i f Bv
tude o aries h
armon
ica
lly w i
th r
e spect t
o time a
sgiven by

B = Bo cos L
a
i (
7
-21a
)

w
here Bo = max imum amp litude o
f B( weber
s/me ter 2)
=radian f
requency (= 2i
rj
, where f = fr
equency ) (
re
ciproca
l se
cond
s)
t= t
ime (s
ec)
F
ind the to
tal emf induced in t
he l
oop.
S
olu
tion. T his i
s ap ure ca
se of Bchange o n
ly, there b
eing n
o mo t
ion. H ence
,
f
r
om ( III
) the t
ota
l em finduced in t
he l
oop is

a
B
— •d
s = Awf
ios
i
n 0
.
4 v
olts (
7
-22
)

This emf appears a

t t
he t
erminals o
f t
he loop (F
ig. 7-6
). Since t
he ve
loci
ty v = 0
,
t
he emfc a
lculated by (
I
I) i
szero and b
y (I) i
sid
enticalwith t
hati
n (7
-22). The emf
c
alcula
ted b y (IV
) isa
lso t
he same asgiven i
n (7-22
).
SE
C
. 7
-6
] T
I ME
-CHANGING F
IELDS 2
93

Examp le 2. C onsider the r ectangu la r loop s

hown in Fig. 7-
7. T he w
idth 1ofthe
l
oop isc onstant
, b ut it
s l eng th x i si ncreased uni
formly w ith time by moving the
s
l
iding conductor at au niform v elocity v . T he f
lux d
ensity B iseverywhere t
he s
ame
(
norma l to the plane of t he l oop) a nd i s
c
onstant w ith re
spec t to t ime. F ind t he
t
otal emfi nduced int he loop. 0B
So
lution. T h
is is ap ure c ase of mo tion v
o
nly, the f l
ux density B b e
ing c onstan t.
Hence, f
r om (I
I),Sl
id
ing conduc tor
FIG
. 7-7
. Sliding conductorforinc
reas-
D =f (v x B) •dl =v B
1 vo
lts ( 7-23 ) i
ng loop a
rea (for Examples 2and 3)
.

The e
nt
ire em
f in t
h
is c
ase i
sinduced i
n the moving conductor o
f leng
th I
. Since
a
B/at —0,the emf b
y (
I
II) i
szero and b
y (I) i
sident
ical wi
th (7-23
). T he em
f as
c
a
lcula
ted by (
IV) i
s
d
x
1
) = — -
if B •d
e —B
1Tt = —B
f i
t' v
olt
s (
7
-24
)

This i
st he s
ame a s g
iven by (7
-23) except fo
r the s
i
gn , wh
ich isarb
itrary
.
Examp le 3. C ons
ide r a
gain t
he same l oop w
ith s
l
id ing c
onductor di
scussed inthe
p
receding examp le (F
ig. 7-
7). T he flux dens
ity B i
sn ormal to t
he p
lane oft he l
oop
a
nd i sunifo
rm e verywhere. The s l
iding conductor moves with aun
iform v e
locity v
.
These condit
ions are the s
ame a s i
n t he p
receding example. H owever, i
n this c
ase
l
e
t t he magnitude ofthe fl
ux dens
ity B v ary ha
rmon ical
ly with t
ime asgiven by

B B o cos wi (
7
-25a
)

F
ind the t
ota
l emf i
nduced inthe lo
op.
S
olut
ion. T h
is is ac
ase invo
lving b
oth mot
ion a
nd a t
ime
-chang
ing B
. T
he e
mf
1
). due t
o t
he mot
ion isgiven, f
rom (I
I), b
y

= (
v XB) •d
l =
-vB
I =v
lB o c
os c
a (
7
-256
)

T
he e
mf V
,due t
o at
ime
-chang
ing B i
s om (
, f
r II
),

-fas-• w d
e =c
o
rlB
o s
i
n w
t (
7
-26
)

A
cco
rding t
o (
I
) t
he t
o
tal e
mf 1
)ist
he s
um o
fthe e
nds o
f (
7
-256
) a
nd (
7
-26
), o
r

a
B
—9
6
(v x B
) •d
l — -
7 -
5 •d
s

=v
/
3 0/c
os w
i w
xB o/s
i
n (a
B ol V v 2 s
in (
(WX) 2 w
t + 5
) (
7
-27
)
whe
re 6 = a rctan ( v/wx)
x=i nstan taneous l e
ng th o
fl oop
The e mf fr
om ( IV) isthe same asg iven in (7
-27) except t
hat 5= arctan (—v/wx).
Examp le 4. T he ci
rcu it f
or are
ctangu lar lo
op ofw idth l
and le
ngth x,isc
omp le
ted
b
y s l
iding c on tacts through a t h
in c onducting str
ip a s s
ugge
sted in Fig
. 7
-8. T he
l
oop isst a
tiona ry,b ut the s
trip movesl ongi
tud inal
ly with aun
iform veloc
ity v
. T he
magne t
ic f l
ux d ens
ity B i sn ormal to t
he str
ip a nd the p
lane o
f the l
oop. Itisc on-
s
tant w ith respect t o time a nd isu n
iform e verywhe re
. The w idth o
f the s
tr
ip isI,
2
94 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 7

t
he same a
sf o
rt he l
oop,al
though f
orclar
ity t
he l
oop i
sshown with as
light
ly greate
r
w
idth in F
ig. 7
-8. Find the t
ota
l emfinduced i
nthe c
ircui
t.
So
lut
ion. T h
is i
sa no
thercase o
f mot
ion on
ly. T here
fore f
r
om (II) the t
o
tal e m
f
i
sgiven by
=.0.(
v XB) •d
l vB
l (
7-28
)

The e
nt
ire em
fint
h
is c
ase i
sinduced i
nthe mov
ing s
t
rip a
nd appea
rsatthe t
erm
ina
ls.
S
ince asia
t =0,t
he e
m fby (I
II) i
szero a
nd by (
I
) isi
dent
ical w
ith (
7
-28)
.

l
op
v
i
ew

C
onduc
ting S
l
iding
s
t
r
ip c
on
t ac
ts
S
i
de
v
i
ew

F
la. 7
-8
. F
ixed l
o
op w
ith s
l
iding s
t
rip (
f
or E
xamp
les 4a
nd 5
)
.

The emfaccording to (
IV) iszero
. Th is is asi
tuation involv
ing mo tion where the
b
ounda ry o
fthe surface o
finteg
ra t
ion isstationary a
l though there i
sp hys
ical motion,
a
nd hence (IV) isn ot a
ppl
icable. Av a
riation of the arrangemen t of Example 4 is
p
rovided by the Faraday di
sc generator (s
ee Prob. 7-14).
Example 5. C onsider now the same l o
op a nd strip as in t
he preceding examp le
(
Fig. 7
-8)
, but le
t the magnitude of the f
lux density vary harmon i
cally with time as
g
iven by
B = Bo c os w
t (
7-29)

F
ind the tota
l emfinduced inthe c
i
rcu
it.
S
olu
t ion
. T h
is c
ase invo
lvesboth mot
ion a
nd a t
ime
-chang
ing B
. F
rom (
I
I) t
he
em
f 1)
„
,d ue to t
he mo
tion is

=.
f
(v x B
) •d
l =v
Bl =v
B olc
os c
o
t (
7
-30
)

F
rom (
I
II) t
he em
f V
. d
ue t
o at
ime ing B i
-chang s
'
a
s
=— •d
s =w
x iB
ols
i
n w
i (
7
-31)

A
cco
rding t
o (
I
) t
he t
o
tal em
f '
1
.
)ist
he s
um o
f (
7
-30
) a
nd (
7
-31)
, o
r
• V =1
)
„, vs
otcos w
t w
x,B0/ s
i
n c
u
t
B01-
Vv 2 (
wx,
) 2s
i
n (w
t +5) (
7
-32
)

where 5 = a
rctan ( v
/wx 1)
.
For t
he s
ame r eason a
si n Examp le 4re
lat
ion (IV) isnot appl
icable inth
is case
, an
emfbeing obta
ined t ha
t isthe same a sg
iven in (
7-31)
.
Example 6. C ons
ider nex
t ar otating r
ectangu
lar loop in as t
eady magne t
ic fie
ld
a
s in F
ig. 7
- 9a
. The l oop r
otates w ith a un
iform angular velocity w i
n r
adian s per
s
econd. Th is ar
rangemen tr epresents asimple a
-cgenerator
, the induced emfappea r-

IA
t l
ow fr
equencie
s the e
fect o
feddy c
urrent
s i
nthe s
t
rip c
an ben
eglec
ted. T he
e
ffect o
f a
ddy currents w
il
l b e e
ven l
e
ss ifthe s
t
rip i
svery th
in a
nd i t
s c
onduc-
t
ivity p
oor
.
SE
C
. 7
-6
] T
I ME
-CHANGING F
IELDS 2
95

i
ng at t
e
rm ina
ls connected t
o t
he sl
ip r
i
ngs
. I
fthe r
adius o
f t
he l
oop i
sR a
nd i
t
s
l
eng
th 1,fi
nd the t
ota
l em fi
nduced
.

(
a
)

(
b
)
F
ia. 7-
9. Alte
rnating-cur
rent g
ene
rato
r. (
a
) P
erspec
tive v
i
ew. (
b
) C
ros
s s
ec
tion
p
erpendicu
lar to a
xis
.

S
olu
tion. T h
is i
s ac
ase o
f mo
tion on
ly s
otha
tthe t
o
tale
mf may b
eob
tained f
r
om
(
I
I). R efer
ring t
o F
ig. 7
-96
, i
tisgiven b
y

V =.
0.(
v xB
) •d
l z
.2vB
1 s
i
n 0 (
7
-33
)
S
ince 8 = c
o
t
, w
e h
ave
V =2
c
oli
1B s
i
n c
u
t (
7
-34
)

The f
ac
tor 2i
snece
ssa
ry b
ecause t
here a
re t
wo c
onductorsofleng
th 1mov
ing t
hrough
t
he f
i
eld,t
he emf
si nb
oth a
id
ing. Since 2R1 =A,the area o
fthe l
oop
, (
7
-34
) reduce
s
t
o
V =c oBA s
in 0
.
4 (
7-35
)

ince a
S s/a
t =0,t he emf c
alcu
lated by (I
II) isz
e
ro. H en ce f
rom ( I
) t
he emf i
sas
g
iven b
y (
7
-34
)o r (
7-35
). I nthis c
ase t
he mot
ion o
fthe s
urface ofin
tegra
tion o
f(IV)
c
oinc
idesw
ith t
he phys
ical mot
ion o
ft he l
oop s
othat (
IV) also g
ive
st he s
ame emfas
i
n (7
-34
). Thus
, from (IV)
,

d d
V — — i B •d
s = —2R
113—
a c
t os 0 (
7
-36
)

—2
,
0R1B s
i
n t
o
2
96 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 7

E
xample 7
. C ons
ide
r fi
nal
ly the s
ame r
ota
ting l
oop a
s i
n the preced
ing e
xamp
le
w
ith t
he mod
ifica
tion t
hat Bv a
ries h
armon
ica
lly w
ith t
ime a
s given by

B = Bo s
i
n c
o
t (
7
-37
)

Thus, when t= 0
, B =0 ,and 0 = 0 (
F
ig. 7-
9b). Find the t
ota
l emf i
nduced
.
So
lidion
. This case i
nvo
lves b
oth motion and a t
ime
-changing B
. F rom (I
I) t
he
em
f '
U
„, d
ue t
o t
he mo
tion i
s

0̀
„
, =l
oR1B0 s
i
n' a
=w
laBo — wR
IB 0 c
os 2
c
ot (
7
-38
)

F
rom (
I
II) t
he 4U
,due t
o at
ime
-chang
ing B i
s

= —2wR1Bo cos
' wt
= —wRIB o — c
oRlBo c
os 2a (
7
-39
)

F
rom (
I
) t
he t
ota
l emf i
sgiven b
y t
he s
um o
f (
7
-38
) a
nd (
7
-39
), o
r

='
1
)
„, — 2W R1 Ba cos 2a (
7
-40
)

The t
ota
l em
f may a
l
so b
e o
bta
ined f
r
om (
IV)
. Thus

1
. = ——
d f B •d
s = —2R
1/3
0d—
t (
a s
in c
o
tco
s c
o
t
)
a
t ,
—
2wRIB
.(co
stw
t —s
in
i c
o
t
)
= —2
colaB o cos 2a (
7
-41)

The emf i
n t
his e
xamp le i
sat twice t
he ro
tat
ion, o
r magnetic fi
e
ld, f
requency. Itis
t
o be noted t
hat the emf ca
lculated from e
ither (I
I) o
r (III
) alone c
ontains a d
-c
c
omponent . Inadd ing t
he emf
sb y (
II
)a nd (
III
) the d
-ccomponent cance
ls,yie
lding
t
he c
orrect t
ota
l em fgiven by (
7-40)
.

In the above examp les we n ote that the general rela

tion ( I) always
y
ields t he correct total em f
. The f l
ux-
linking r e
lation ( IV ) gave the
c
or rect tota
l em f i
n all cases except Examp les 4 and 5. I ti sal
so to be
noted t hat ifthe em f c a
lculated from ( I
I ) iszero, the em f from ( I
II)
e
qua ls the to
tal emf, or
, c onversely
, ifthe emff r
om ( III) i
sze ro, t
he to
tal
emf i sgiven by (II)
.
7
-7. T he B etat
ron . We h ave s een that at ime-changing magne t
ic
f
i
eld p roduces an electric fi
eld. When a l oop of wire isp laced in the
c
hang ing magne t
ic fi
eld, a n emfi si
nduced i nthe lo
op t hatise qual tothe
l
ine i ntegra
l of the electric fi
eld around t he loop
. T hus
, a ccording to
(
7-12 ),
a
B
=9
6E•d
1 = — .1 7
31.
-
•ds (
7
-42
)

W
ith t
he loop o
pen th
is em
f a
ppears a
t t
he l
oop t
erm
inals
.
I
t i
shigh
ly si
gnif
icant t
o n
ote t
hat t
he i
nduced e
l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld E e
x
ists
SE
C. 7
-7
] T
I ME-
CHANGING F
IELDS 2
97

whe
ther the wire lo
op i sp
resen t o
rn ot
. T his fa
c tisw e
llilus
trated
' by
a
n elec
tron-accele
ra t
ing device ca
lled abe
tatron.2
I
n ab e
tatron electrons a
rea cce
lerated b
ya nelectr
ic f
i
eld i
nduced bya
t
ime-changing magne t
ic fi
e
ld . T he magnetic fi
eld is p
roduced by an

(
a)

P
o
les

E
v
acuated
d
oughnut

(
b
)
F
la. 7 -
10. B
eta
tron
. (
a
) C
ircu
lar e
l
ect
ron o
rbi
t. (
b
) C
ros
s s
ect
ion t
hrough
b
etatron
.

a
-
c e l
ectromagnet w ith l
am inated iron c
o re
. E lectrons are injected
b
etween the p
ole pi
eces o
ft he magne t a
nd are accelerated d
uring af r
ac-
t
i
on ofo ne a
-
c period.
L
et amagnetic fi
e
ld offl
ux density B b
edirected o ut o
fthe page from a
p
ole p
iece a
s suggested i
n Fig
. 7-10a. T he time-chang ing B induces an

The f
a ct t
ha t an e
lectric fi
eld isproduced ine mpty space by achanging magnet
ic
f
i
eld i salso ilustrated b y at r ave
ling electromagnetic wave, which may be said t
o
p
ropaga te through s pace b ecause ane l
ectr
ic fi
eld i
sproduced b y achanging magnet
ic
f
i
eld, with t his electr
ic f i
eld, i n t
urn, producing another magne tic fi
e
ld, e
tc
. S ee
Chap. 9.
2 The betatron w as developed b y Donald W . Ker
st about 1940
, ad ev
ice o
fthistype
h
aving b een p roposed e a
rlierb y Max S teenba ck
.
2
98 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 7

e
l
ec t
ric f
i
e
ld E
. A
cco
rding t
o (
6
-1) a
nel
ect
ron i
nth
is f
i
e
ld e
xpe
rience
sa
f
orce
F=e
E n
ewton
s (
7
-43
)

where E = e l
ectric fi
eld (volts/me ter)
e= c harge on electron (c oulombs)
S
ince the electron i sin a magne tic fi
eld
, ittends to move i n acirc
le.
Thus, i
fB i nFig. 7-10a iso utwa rd ass hown a
nd isincreas
ing w i
th time,
t
he elec
tron w i
ll rotate counte rc
lockw ise.
The energy p er unit charge acqu ired by a
n elec
tron in tr
aveling once
a
round ac ircularorb it o
ff i
xed r adius R ise
qual tothe to
tali nduced emf
a
round t he path, w h
ich, from ( 7-42), i
s

4.
'
0=2
TRE = — v
olt
s (
7
-44
)
d
t

whe
re 4
,„
,= tota
l magne
tic f
l
ux t
hrough t
he e
l
ectron o
rbit (
in
side r
ad
ius
R
). Disrega
rding t
he s
ign
, t
he magni
tude o
fthe el
ect
ric f
i
eld i
s

E— 1 d4
'
,,
,
=2 —— (
7
-45
)
rR d
t

S
ubs
titu
ting (
7
-45
) f
o
r Ei
n (
7
-43
) y
ie
lds af
o
rce o
f magn
itude

e 4.
F=e
E =— — (
7
-46
)
2
rR dt
B
y N
ewton
's s
econd l
awl
F —d
(mv
)
(
7
-47
)
d
t
E
qua
ting (
7
-46
) a
nd (
7
-47
),

d
(mv) _ e 4.
(
7
-48
)
dt 2
rR dt

R
efer
ring toFig
. 7-
11, s
uppo
se t
hat t
he t
o
ta ux 4
l f
l ,„
,t
hrough t
he e
l
ec-
t
r
on orbit v
arie
sh armon
ical
ly a
sgiven b
y

=0
„
,
,,s
i
nwt (
7
-49
)

w
here 4
,
„
,„ = maximum magne t
ic fl
ux (weber
s)
c
o= 2
rf = 2r/ T = r
adian f
requency (
rec
iproca
l s
e
conds
)
f= f
requency
T= p
eriod
1This f
orm of Newton's second l
aw i
su sed s
ince s
uff
ic
iently la
rge e
l
ectron v
eloc
itie
s
may be involved i
n the betatron t
hat t
he mass m ofthe el
ectron may become s
ignif
i
-
c
antly greater t
han i
ts re
st mass [see (
6-12)
1. I fm i s aconstant
, (
7-47) r
educes t
o
F md
v/d
t = ma
.
SE
C. 7
-7
] T
I ME-
CHANGING F
IELDS 2
99

Elec
trons f
rom a hot ca
thode may be injected i
nto the be
ta t
ron a
t a
r
adius R a
t atime t= 0w hen t
he f
l
ux 1/
.
/m i
szero, a
sindicated i
nFig. 7
-
11.
Then, i
fanelectron i
sremoved ats
ome l a
tert ime tle
sst han one
-quar
ter
p
eriod (T/4
), it
s momen tum is
, byin
tegra t
ion of (7
-48),

m
y = n
ewton
-sec (
7
-50
)
2
TR

w
here 4,
„
, =to
tal magne
tic f
l
ux a
t t
ime Ith
rough the el
ect
ron o rb
it.
N
eglec
ting t
he in
itia
l momentum o
f the e
lec
tron
, (7-50) gives the

I
n
jec
tion

Fm
. 7
-
11. F
lux v
aria
tion a
s af
unc
tion o
ftime i
n ab
eta
tron
,show
ing t
ime
sofi
n
ject
ion
a
nd r
emova
lofe
l
ect
ron
s.

momen
tum myofthe e
lect
ron a
ts ome t
ime ta
fterinjec
tion w
hich o
ccur
s
a
t t= 0 (
s
ee F
ig
. 7
-11
). T he v
e
locity o
fthe el
ect
ron i s

6
4
v— 4
. m
ete
rs/sec (
7
-51
)
2Rm

A
cco
rding t
o (
6
-40
) t
he r
ad
ius R o
fthe e
l
ect
ron i
sgiven b
y

= m
y (
7
-52
)
e
B
w
here m = mass o
felec
tron ( kg)
v= veloc
ity o
fe lect
ron ( mete
rs/sec)
e= charge o
fe l
ectron (coulomb s
)
B =fl
ux dens
ity at radius R (weber
s/me
ter
')
F
rom (7
-50
) and (7
-52) w e ob
tain

l
y
„
, 1O
. 1
B= (
7
-53
)
2
7R 2 2A 2

where A = a rea o fel

ectron o rb
it
=a ve rage fl
ux d ensity ins
ide electron o
rbit
Both B a nd B .
.a re instantaneous v alues
. H ence, acco
rd ing t
o (7-53)
t
he instantaneous f l
ux d ensity B at the el
ectron orb
it (rad
ius R ) must be
o
ne-ha l
f the a verage flux d ensity ins
ide t he o
rbit at the same instant.
When t his cond i
tion isf u
lfi
lled, the radius R rema ins constant as the
e
lec
t rons are accelerated. T o obtain the 2 to 1r a
tio of B . to B, the
3
00 ELECTRO MAGNETICS I
CHAp
. 7

p
oles o ft he magne tc an b et ape red asi ndicated i nt he c
ro ss-sec t
iona lv iew
i
nF ig. 7 -
10b . T his c r
os ss ect
ion a l
so s hows t he h ollow, ring -shaped g la
ss
e
nclo sure, o r" doughnut ," w hich i sp umped o ut top rovide a n e vacua ted
s
pace f or t he el
ectron o rbit.
Tou til
ize the a ccelera ted e lectrons, t hey may b e made t oi mp inge ona
t
arge ta nd p roduce X r ay s. T he targe ti sp laced n eart he o rbit radius R,
a
nd a r adial displacemen t oft he orbi t isc aused b y upset t
ing t he 2 to 1
r
e
la tion o fB ..t oB . T his may b ea ccomp lished b yh aving s a tura t
ion o f
t
he p o
les o ccur s ooner a t o ne r adius t han a t ano ther. F or e xamp le, if
s
atura tion o ccurse ar
lies t at t he cente r ofp oles, the e l
ec tron b eam t ends
t
o s p
iral i nwa rd
. T he r ad
ia l displacemen t o ft he e l
ectrons s o t hat they
i
mp inge o n atarge ti sde s
igna ted ast he r emo valt ime inF ig. 7 -11. Ow ing
t
or esistance o fthe magne tw ind ing a nd t oc ore satura t
ion t he t otal mag-
n
etic f l
ux i nana c tualb e tatron may d epar tf rom as i
nuso ida lv a r
iation at
l
a
rge v alue s o
ff l
ux a s sugge sted b y the d a
shed l ine inF ig. 7 -11 .
7
-8. S tokes' T heorem . I n S ec. 7 - 3 Maxwe ll's e qua t
ion f rom F ara-
d
ay's l aw i sstated i ni nteg ral form . T his e qua t
ion may b et ransformed

Ey1 i
l
l

Ey1 w
i
t

A
s

Er
Fm
. 7
-12
. Sma
ll r
ectangu
lar a
rea
. Fm. 7
-
13. I
lus
tra
tion f
o
r S
tokes
' t
heo
-
r
em.

f
rom a n i ntegral to ad i
fferential form b y m eans of Stokes
' t heorem .
Th
is theo rem i sdeveloped int h
is s ec
tion a nd appl
ied to Maxwe ll
's e qua-
t
i
on i nS ec. 7-9
.
Conside r as quare o
fa r
ea A si nt he x-y plane asi nFig. 7
-12. L et the
e
l
ectric fi
eld E h ave component sE .a nd E „ass hown. Now t he w o
rk p er
c
oulomb r equired to move a c ha rge around t he per
ime ter o
f the squa re
i
sgiven b yt he li
ne i
ntegralo f Ea round t he p
erime te
r. T h
is work e quals
t
he total em f around thd pe
rime ter. T hat is
,

= fE •d
l (
7
-54
)

D
ivid
ing b
ythe a
rea A
sand t
ak
ing t
he l
im
it o
fth
is r
at
io a
sAsapproaches
z
e
ro yie
lds t
he c
url o
f Enormal t
o As a
t t
he po
int a
round which As
S
ec. 7-
8
] I ME -
T CHANGING F
IELDS 3
01

s
hr
inks t
oze
ro (
s
ee S
ec
. 4
-23
). T
hus

J
im E •d
l
=c
ur
l. E (
7
-55
)
6
.
1
-
..o A
s

where curl .E = c omponent o ft he cur

l of En ormal to the area As.
C
onside r now a sur
face o f area xiyi as shown i n Fig. 7-13
. L et t he
a
rea be d ivided in
to infin
ites
ima l areas as s ugges
ted. F rom ( 7-55) t he
work per coulomb t ocarry ac harge around a n i
nf
initesima l l
oop divided
b
y i t
s ar ea isequa l t
o the curl of Ea t the point
. I ft he cur
l o f Ei s
i
ntegrated o ver t
he entire a
rea x iy
i, al
l c ontribut
ions t o the to
ta l w o
rk
c
ancel excep tfor the work al
ong t he periphe ry ofthe area
The situa t
ion here i
sa nalogous t o that of as i
ngle c urrent l
o op with
c
urrentI ,F ig. 7
-14a, whosee fect isthe same a s am esh ofc ur
rent l oops,

kr

(
a
)
Fm
. 7
-14
. (
a
) S
ing
le c
urren
t l
o
op a
nd (
b
) e
quiva
len
t me
sh o
fsma
ll c
urrentl
oop
s.

e
ach with ac ur
ren tI ,a ssuggested inF ig. 7-14b
. I ti sassumed tha tthe
a
djacent side
s o fthe s mal
l loops are very close together. S ince the c
ur-
r
ents ina d
jacen t sides are opposite
ly d irec
ted, t he
ir fi
elds cance
l. T he
o
nly currentsw hose e fect
sa re notc anceled are those al
ong t he p
eriphery
o
ft he area o
fr adius I t
.
Returning now t ot he a
rea xiyii nF ig
. 7 -
13, the integral o
ft he normal
c
omponen toft he curl overthe area xiyimus tequa l the l
ine in
tegral o
fE
a
round t he p
eriphe ry oft he ar
ea. T ha ti s
,

9
6 E •d
l = fa (
cur
l E
) •d
s (
7
-56
)

D
imens
iona
lly (
7
-56
) i
soft
he f
o
rm

For
ce w
ork/charge
Xd
i
stance — Xa
rea
C
harge a
rea
S
ince fo
rce X d
istance = work
, (7-56) i
s ba
lanced dimens
iona
lly
. In
(
7-56
) itisunder
stood that i
fthe c
url o
f Eisin
tegra
ted over a
n a
rea s
,
t
he li
ne in
teg
ral o
f Ei staken a
round the p
er
iphery o
f the s
ame a
rea s
.
3
02 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 7

T
hat i
s
,
9
6 E •d
l = f (
cur
lE) •d
s (
7
-57
)
P
eriphery s
urface
o
f s o
f s

U
sing t
he n
ota
tion V xE f
o
r t
he c
ur
l o
fE, (
7
-56
) b
ecome
s

9
6 E •d
l = is (
V xE
) •d
s (
7
-58
)

The relat
ion expres sed b y (7-56) or (7-58) isc al
led S tokes
' theor
em a s
a
pplied toe l
ectr
ic fi
elds. I n general, Stokes' theorem s tates thatth eline
i
nt
eg ralof avec
tor function around ac losed contour C ise qualt otheintegral
o
ft h
e norma l c
omponen t oft h
e c ur
l oft ha
t vec
tor f unct
ion o ver any surf
a ce
h
aving the c
ontour C a s it
s bound ing edge
.
7
-9 . Maxwe ll
's E quation f rom F araday's L aw. D iferen t
ial F orm .
By means ofS tokes' theorem ( 7-58), le
tu ss ubstitute the surface in
tegra l
o
ft he curl o
f Ef o
r t he line i
nteg ra
l of Ei n (7-12). T ha t is
,

f(vxE) •ds = — f_
a
B
t•
a d
s (
7
-59
)

S
ince d
sin(7
-59) a
ppl
ies t
oany s
urface e
l
ement,i
tisa
rb
itra
ry a
nd t
here
-
f
ore t
he i
n
tegrands i
n (
7
-59) a
re e
qual. T hus

a
vxE = ——
a
t (
7
-60
)

This i
s Maxwe ll's equation ,indiferentia
lf orm ,a sderived from F araday's
l
aw. T he integ ra
l form o fthe equation w as given in (7
-12 )
.
I
n w ords, ( 7-60) ind icates t
ha t ifB i sc hanging w ith t ime at some
po
int P , then t he curl o f Ehas av alue diferen t f
rom z e
ro a t that p
oint.
7
-10
. T he S eries Circu i
t.' Induc tance On ly
. A cco rd
ing t oF araday's
l
aw a c hange i n t he total fl
ux through a c oi
l induces a n em f i
n the coi
l.
Consider n ow t ha t i
nstead o fa n emf being induced i nt he coi
l itissitu-
a
ted in af i
e
ld -free region a nd that an em f V.i sapplied to the terminals
o
ft he coil
. Th is emfc auses acurrent It oflow, which int urn produces a
c
ounte r em fV . B y K irchhof's voltage law the sum o ft he em fs a
round
ac i
rcuit equa ls the tota l IR d
rop. A ssum ing t ha
t t he res
istance oft he
c
oil iszero, itf ol
lows t hat
'
O
. ± V =0 (
7
-61
)
F
rom (
7
-7)
d
A
(
7
-62
)
d
t

IThe c
ircu
its c
ons
ide
red i
n t
h
is c
hap
ter a
re s
mal
l c
ompa
red w
ith t
he w
ave
leng
th
(
s
ee C hap
. 13
).
SE
C. 7
-
11] T
I ME
-CHANGING F
IELDS 3
03

w
here A =
-to
tal f
l
ux l
i
nkage
s o
f c
o
il. A
cco
rding t
o (
4
-58
), A=L
I; s
o

d
(LI
) d
l
v
olts (
7
-63
)
d
l d
l
whe
re L = inductance o
fc o
il (henrys)
I= current t
hrough c o
il (
amp )
I
t is a
ssumed t hat no fe
rromagne tic mate
ria
l is p
res
en t s
o t
hat t
he
i
nductance L i
sconstant
. F rom (7-61) a
nd (7
-63
) we have
d
l
= (
7
-64
)
d
t
o
r
d
l
(
7
-65
)
d
l = 7
;
A
ccord
ing t
o (
7-65) t
he t
ime r
ate o
fc hange o
fthe c
urrent i
sequa
l t
othe
r
a
tio o
fthe a
pplied em
f t
o the i
nductance
.
Example. C ons
ider t
he hypo
thetica
l circu
it of Fig
. 7-15a c
ontain
ing a co
il of
i
nductance L
. The emf 1)
,
,of abat
tery isa pp
lied b
y cl
osing t
he s
witch S
. The c o
il
a
nd b a
ttery a
re as
sumed to h
ave z
ero res
istance. Iti sfu
rther a
ssumed tha
t fe
rro-

(
b
)
F
la. 7
-15
. C
ircu
it w
ith i
nductance
.

magne
tic ma
teria
ls are a
bsent s
o t
hat Li
s ac
ons
tant
. L
et t
he s
witch S b
e c
l
osed a
t
t
he t
ime t= 0. F ind how Ivar
ies w
ith t
ime
.
S
olu
tion
. The c
urren
t a
t a
ny l
a
ter t
ime ti
sobta
ined b
y i
n
teg
rat
ing (
7
-65
). Tha
t
i
s
,
,
A = - A (
7
-66
)

The c
urrent i
ncrease
s l
i
near
ly w
ith t
ime
, a
s i
ndicated i
n F
ig
. 7
-
156
. The s
l
ope o
fthe
l
ine i
sequal t
o V ./L
. Thus t
he ang
le
a=a
rctan —
v
. (
7
-67
)

A
s t
ime i
n
crease
s, t
he c
urrent Ii
ncreases i
ndef
ini
tely a
t ac
ons
tant r
ate
.

7
-11
. The S eries C
ircui
t. R es
istance Only. C ons
ide
r acircu
it c
on-
t
a
ining ares
istoro nly
. B y K
irchhof's vo
ltage l
aw anemf'U
.a ppl
ied t
o
t
he r
es
isto
r ise qual t
o the I
R drop acro
ss the r
e
sisto
r T hus
=I
R (
7
-68
)
I
fV. a
nd R a
re c
ons
tan
t, t
he c
urrent Ii
scons
tan
t.
3
04 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 7

E
xamp le
. The h ypothe
tica
l circu
it o
f F
ig
. 7-16a h
as a r
e
sistor o
f r
e
sis
tance R
.I.

L
et the sw
itch S b
e c
lo
sed at time /= 0
,apply
ing the em
f V,
, to t
he c
i
rcuit
. Find
h
ow Iv
arie
s w
ith t
ime
.

I
t
1
"
V
a
(
a) (
6
)
F
lo. 7
-16
. C
ircu
it w
ith r
e
sis
tance
.

S
olu
tion
. F
rom (
7
-68
)
V
.
amp (
7
-69
)

That is
, the cur
rent j
ump s i
ns tantaneous
ly to av a
lue Vs/ R when the switch i
scl
osed.
The current vs. t
ime re
lation i sind
icated graphical
ly i n Fig. 7
-16b
. I n th
is hypo-
t
hetica
l circu
it con
taining re
sistance only
, the r
ate ofincrease ofthe c
urrent isi
nf
inite
when V. i sappl
ied and t
he c urrent r
eaches i
ts f
inal va
lue in s
tantaneously.

7
-12
. T he Ser
ies Ci
rcu
it. R es
istance a
nd Inductance
. I f ac
ircuit
c
onta
ins b o
th re
sis
tance and i
nductance c
onnected in s
er
ies
, we have,
f
rom Kirchhof
's vo
ltage l
aw, t
hat

V
. =R
I L— d
I (
7
-70
)
d
t

w
here V
. = t
otal a
pplied em
f (vo
lts)
R= t
otal r
es
istance (
ohm s
)
L= t
otal i
nductance (
henrys
)
I= c
urrent (amp)
I= t
ime (s
ec)

E
xamp le. C onsider the s
eries circuit containing both res
istance and inductance
s
hown i n F
ig. 7
-17a. F or convenience i ti sassumed that al
l of t
he res
istance of t
he
c
i
rcuit islumped in asingle r
esis
tor o f res
istance R and that al
l of t
he inductance o
f
t
he ci
rcuit i
slumped i n acoi
l ofi nductance L . I fthe switch S i
sclosed at the t
ime
t= 0,a pp
lying the emf V.to the circuit, fi
nd how Iv ar
ies with t
ime. I n part
icu
lar
f
i
nd the value o
f the c
urrent at at ime I= L IR.
S
olution
. Equa tion (
7-70) may b e re
expre s
sed as

d
l ,R , V
.
T
i
t L = 7
; (
7
-71)

tThis c
ircu
it and t
he o
ne in F
ig. 7-15a a
re "
hypo
thet
ical" i
nthe s
ense t
hat actua
l
c
i
rcuit
s are not p
urely r
es
ist
ive or induct
ive. Thus ac
oil w
il
l have s
ome r
esis
tance,
a
nd a re
sis
tor wi
ll have s
ome inductance.
SE
C. 7
-
12] T
I ME-
CHANGI NG F
IELDS 3
05

wh
ich may b
e re
cogn ized a
s af
i
rst
-order d
iferen
tia
l e
qua
tion
. The s
o
lut
ion o
f t
h
is
e
quat
ion f
or t
he cur
rent Iat a
ny time t
i
e

= — (
7
-72
)

where e b ase o
f n a
tural l
ogar
i thms ( = 2
.718). When t= 0 ,t he cur
rent I = 0
t
he same as f
or apurely i
nduct
ive circu
it. A s time i
ncrease
s, t
he current s
tarts t
o
i
ncrease a
t t
he s
ame rate a
s f
or the p
ure inductance. However , t
h
is rate ofin
crease
(
s
lope o f cur
ren t
-time c urve) approaches ze
ro a s t
he time in
creases. A fter a l
ong
t
ime t he current a pproache s ac onstant va
lue o f Va/R. Th is is the same value
o
fc urrent a
sw ould beo btained in aci
rcuit c
ontaining o
nly apure re
sistance R. The
v
ariation o
f Iw ith time isilus
trated graphical
ly b y F
ig. 7
-176
.

(
a
) (
6
)
F
ia. 7
-17a a
nd b
. C
ircu
it w
ith i
nductance a
nd r
e
sis
tance
.

To demonstrate t
hat when t he s
witch isc
losed t
he current sta
rts t
oincrease a
t f
lu
s
ame rate as f
or apure inductance c
ircuit
, t
he sl
ope oft he curve may b
e obtained b
y
d
iferentia
ting (7-72
) with respect t
o time. Thus, the slope at a
ny t
ime tis

d
l -
e-(R/L)t
(
7
-73
)
L
a
nd a
t t
ime t= 0 t
he s
l
ope i
s
d
l
(
7
-74
)
d
i = L

wh
ich isthe s
ame as (
7
-65
) f
or t
he p
ure i
nduc
tance c
ase
.
Focus
ing a
tten
tion o
n t
he t
e
rm
e- (
5/1
,41

i
n (
7
-72
), i
t
s v
alue a
t t= 0 i
sun
ity
. Thus
, when t= 0
,
e-
tR
izo
g 1

Now when t
he t
ime t= L
/R,
R L
= e- ' -
1 = 0
.368 (
7
-75
)

Thus
, when t= L/R
, t
he v
alue o
fthe t
erm h
as d
ecreased t
o lie (
or 3
6.8 p
er c
ent
) o
f
i
t
s or
igina
l v
alue
. The cur
rent Iin t
he c
i
rcu
it h
as accord
ingly r
isen t
o

1
00 — 3
6
.8 = 6
3
.2 p
er c
ent

o
fit
sf i
nalv a
lue (
Fig. 7
-176)
. Therefore, t
he r
at
io L/R d
ete
rmines t
he l
ength o
ftime
f
or t
he cur
rent t
o reach 63
.2 p
er c
ent of i
t
s fi
nal v
alue
. The rat
io L/R isca
lled t
he
3
06 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 7

t
ime c
ons
tant o
f t
he c
ircu
it and i
s aconvenient q
uan
tity f
orcompar
ing s
uch c
i
rcu
its
.
I
n mksc un
its t
he d
imensional r
e
lat
ion for t
he t
ime c
onstan
t L/R i
s

H
enry
s
=s
e
conds
Ohms

7
-13
. The S
eries Ci
rcu
it. Res
istance
, Inductance
, and C
apac
itance
.
I
fan emf '
t
.
)
„ i
sa pp
lied t
o ac
apac
itor o
fc itance c
apac ,

Va —
Q
z
; (
7
-76
)

where Q = c
harg
e on capac
itor p
late
s. For an i
nf
ini
tes
ima
l c
hange i
n
e
nd ce
t
.)
„ we h
ave an i
nf
ini
tesimal c
hange i
ncha
rge dQ
, or

1
d
o. =—
c d
Q (
7
-77
)

F
rom t
he c
ont
inu
ity r
e
lat
ion (
3
-61
) b
etween c
harge a
nd c
urren
t, (
7
-77
)
b
ecome
s
1
d
.0 a = —
c Id
t (
7
-78
)

whe
re I = c
urren
t t
o c
apacito
r. If'1
.
)
. = 0a
t t= 0
,then a
t s
ome l
a
ter
t
ime tw
e have, o
n i
n
tegrat
ing (7
-78
), t
hat

1 t
=-
c
„ f 0 /d
t (
7
-79
)

I
n aser
iesci
rcuit c
onta
ining re
sis
tance
, i
nduc
tance, a
nd c
apacitance i
t
f
o
llows f
rom Kirchhof's v
oltage l
aw a
nd Eqs
. (7
-70
) and (
7-79
) t ha
t the
t
ota
l appl
ied emf i
s

v
. =R
I + L— d
l -
I 1f
— ` Id
t v
olt
s (
7
-80
)
d
t C 0

where R = t otal r
e s
istance ( ohms)
L=t otal i
nduc tance ( henrys
)
C=t otal capacitance (farads)
I= c urrent (amp )
I= time (sec)
The em f 1
%, and the c urrent Ii n (7
-80) a re i
nstantaneous v a
lues
. The
s
olution for the curren t Ia t any time ti sd
iscussed in texts o
n cir
cuit
t
heo ry and wil
l not b e considered here.'
7
-14. Energy ina nI nductor. Ac ircuit e
lemen tp o
ssess
ing inductance
s
tores energy in its magne t
ic fi
eld. Th is may be readi
ly d emonstrated
e
xper imental
ly b y t he circuit of F
ig. 7-17c. Al arge i
nduc tance co
il i
s
'S
ee
, fo
r e xample, K
. Y. T
ang
, "A
lte
rna
ting C
urrent C
ircu
its
," I
nterna
tiona
l
T
extbook Co
., 1940
, p.374
.
SE
C. 7
-
14] T
I ME-
CHANGING F
IELDS 3
07

c
onnec ted in p a
rallel with an i ncande scent l amp. W ith the switch S
c
losed, current p a
s ses through b oth t he c o
il a nd lamp . S uppose that
u
nder t hese conditions the lamp i sd im ly l i
ghted. When t he switch is
o
pened , disconnec t
ing t he b attery, t he l amp , i n
stead o f going o u
t,
i
ncreases momen ta r
ily in bri
ll
iancy b ecause t he magne t
ic fi
eld o f t
he
c
oi
l i nduces ac urrent t hrough t he c i
rcu it as the fi
eld around t he co
il
c
ol
lapse s
. T o l i
ght t he lamp r equires e ne
rgy, a nd it
t
herefore fo
llowst ha tenergy w a
ss to
red i nt he magne tic
f
i
eld oft he co
il. L et us now ca
lcu late t he value o
ft his
e
nergy.
T
he instantaneous p owe r Pd e
live red t o ac i
rcuitele-
ment is
P= V I
w
here V = vol
tage a cross the e
lement
I= current through t he e
lement
T
he in
crease (or decrease) in t
he magnetic ene
rgy
FIG
. 7 -17c
. C i
r-
i
nthe e
lement between t ime a nd t
ime £
2isthe i
nteg
ral
c
uit f o
rd emon -
o
fthe power Pb etween t hese t
imes. T hus s
trating e nergy
s
torage in amag-
= V
Idt (
7
-80a
) n
etic f
ie
ld.

S
uppose t
hat t
he c
i
rcuit e
l
ement under c
onside
rat
ion i
sa c
o
il o
finduct
-
a
nce L
. Now t he v
ol
tage V a
cro
ss the c
oi
l is

d
l
V= —
d
t

S
ubst
itu
ting t
h
is v
alue o
f Vi
n (
7
-80a
), c
hang
ing l
im
its
, a
nd i
n
teg
rat
ing
y
ie
lds
Wm = 11
2LId
l =i
r
L(1
2 2 — 11
2) (
7
-80b
)
1
,

I
tisa
s
sumed t
hat Li
scons
tan
t. I
fL =0
,(7
-80b
) r
educe
s t
o

=i
L/22 j
ou
les

where /
2 =fi
nal cur
rent (amp)
L=i nduc
tance ( h
enrys)
S
ince L = A
//, t
his ene
rgy re
lation c
an b
e e
xpre
ssed v
ar
ious
ly a
s

.
1Al 1A2 .
W = 1L/
Wm
2
2 —
—
—
j
o
ule
s (
7
-80
c)

E
xamp le
. A c o
il h as an i
nductance o
f 2h enrys
. I
f t
he c
urren
t t
hrough t
he
c
o
il is 1amp, f
i
nd the ene
rgy st
ored.
S
olu
tion. From ( 7
-80c) t
he ene
rgy st
ored i
s

W
,,
, 4
/
./ 1 u
. 1j
ou
le
3
08 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 7

I
fL i
snot ac
onstan
ta sinaninductance c
o
ilw ith i
r
on c
ore
, t
he ene
rgy
mus
tbe ob
tained byin
tegra
tion o
f( 7
-80a)
, which may b
e re
exp
ressed a
s

= I
d
A j
ou
les (
7
-80d
)

whe
re W. = increase (o
rd ecrease
) ofe nergy between the t
imesL
iand £
2
(
joule
s)
A1 = f
l
ux linkages at time Li(weber-
turns)
A2 = f
l
ux linkages at time £
2 (weber-
turns)
I= current (amp )
7
-15
. Mu tua
l- a nd S e
lf-inductance. C on
sider t hat two u
nifo
rm
t
o
roidal c
o
ils are inte
rwound a s in Fig
. 7-18a. C o
il 1of N1 t
urns i
s
2s

(
a
)

(
b
)
F
ro. 7
-18
. T
oro
ida
l c
o
il w
ith 2w
ind
ing
s.

i
ndicated by ah eavy w ire and c o
il 2ofN 2t urns by af i
ne w ire. T here i
s
n
o e l
ectrical connection b etween t he co
ils. T he ring-shaped f o
rm o n
wh
ich t he coi
ls are wound i sa ssumed toh ave ac onstan t p ermeab ili
ty A.
Co
il 1w ill be cal
led t he prima ry winding a nd c o
il 2t he s e
conda ry. A
s
chema tic diagram o ft he arrangemen t iss hown inF ig. 7- 18b.
I
fthe prima ry cur
ren t /2 isconstanti nv alue, the emfV 2a ppearing at
t
he terminals oft he se
conda ry c oi
li sze
ro, s i
nce the fl
ux 4 /.2 produced b y
t
he prima ry coil i
sn ot chang ing. I tisassumed t hat al
l o ft he magne tic
f
i
eld produced b y /2 i
sconfined tot he r
egion i n
side the toroida l windings.
SE
C
. 7
-
15] T
I ME-
CHANGING F
IELDS 3
09

This may b e r
e al
ized with au niform winding o fsufi
cient t
urns. How -
e
ve r
, to simpli
fy t he draw
ing , o nly afew t urns are shown in Fig
. 7-18a
a
lthough b oth wind ings a
re a ssumed t o be uniform a nd c
onsist o
f many
t
urns.
S
uppose n ow t hat t
he resistance 1 ?isdecrea sed at acons
tant r a
te so
t
ha t I increases. Th is increa s
e s the magne t
ic flux 0„
,. D is
regarding
t
he negative sign, weh ave from F a
raday's law t ha
tt he magnitude ofthe
emf' 02 i
nduced inc oi
l 2a nd a ppea r
ing ati t
s t ermina
ls is

d
i
k„
,1
'
0
2 = 1,2 (
7
-81
)
d
t

where I
k
„si = m agnet
ic flux produced b yp r
ima ry co
il
. I f al o
ng so
lenoid
i
sclosed onitse
lf, weo btain at o
roid
. A ssuming thatt he radius rofthe
t
oroid i
slarge compa red with t he r
adius softhe winding (Fig. 7-
18a), t
he
f
l
ux density B may b e con s
ide red constan
t over the in
terior oft he w
ind-
i
ng. O btaining t he magn itude o f B from ( 4
-50), the t otal fl
ux #„81

t
hrough the toroid is
A
IN iT s2 ifiA
=B i
rs2 = w
ebe r
s (
7
-82)
2
Tr 1

w
here A = ar
ea ofwind
ing cr
oss se
ction (A =ir
s 2)
1= mean le
ngth o
fthe to
roidal c
oi
l (1= 2wr)
S
ubs
titu
ting (
7-82) i
n (
7
-81) gi
ves
= N N IAA ri
ll
(
7
-83
)
1 dt 2

According to(7
-83) the s
econdary emf V2 i
spropo r
tionalt othe number of
p
rima ry turns N I,t
he number ofse
conda ry turns N 2, t
he permeab
il
ity At
o
ft he m ed
ium ins
ide the winding
, the c
ross
-sectiona l a
rea A ofthe w
ind -
i
ng,a nd the t
ime rate o
fchange ofthe p
rima ry current II a
nd i
sinverse
ly
p
ropo rtiona
l to t
he average l
ength 1ofthe winding . P u
tting

xr A
M = NI
I
V 2I
—
A (
7
-84
)

(
7
-83
) r
educe
s t
o
d
11
V2= M — (
7
-85
)
d
t
D
imens
iona
lly (
7
-85
) i
s
Em
f = M c
urren
t
t
ime
o
r
emf
M = Xt
ime = r
e
sis
tance X t
ime
c
urrent
I
n mksc u
nit
s
M =o
hm-
seconds = h
enry
s
310 ELECTRO MA GNETICS [
CHAP
. 7

Thus, M h as the d
imensions of i
nduc tance, and since M i nvo
lves two
c
oil
s, itiscal
led the mutua
l induc
tanc e o
ft he two co
ils.
The inductance L d
iscus
sed in previous se
ctions i
nvo lves asi
ngle c
o
il.
Therefo
re, in c
ontras
t, Li scal
led the sel
f-inductanc
e. F rom (7-64
) the
emf V Iappl
ied to aco
il ofse
lf-
induc tance Li is

u
V1 = Lic
—, (
7
-86
)
d
t

where II = c
urrent i
ncoil
. Th is r
e
lat
ion i
nvolving t
he se
lf-
induc tance o
f
aco
ilissimila
ri nform to( 7
-85), wh
ich i
nvolve
st he mutual induc
tance of
t
wo coi
ls.
F
rom ( 4-63
) the se
lf-
induc tance o
f ato
roid is
'

A
A 2 N2
L = N 2--= 1/N
1 0
21 ——
e
a h
enry
s (
7
-87
)

whe
re N = number o
ft urns oftoro
id (d
imens
ion
less
)
6 / HA = r
1 = / eluctance of reg
ion enc
los
ed b y t
oroid wind
ing
(
1/henrys
)
F
rom (7
-84
) the mutual induc
tance M oftwo c
oi
ls (
as i
nF ig
. 7
-18
) i
s

,T µ/
A N
iN2 N
iN2
M =N
liV 2— = /AA G
I

whe
re N I = numbe r o
fp r
ima ry turns (d
imens ion less
)
N2 =n umbe r o
fs e
conda ry turns (d
imen s
ion less
)
6
1=r e
luctance o
f magne t
ic ci
rcuit l
inking p r
ima ry and s
econda ry
w
ind
ing s (
1/henrys)
Cons
idern ext t
he converse ofthe si
tuation d e
scribed a bove. T hati s
,
l
et t
he bat
tery and res
istance be connected across c o
il 2( F
ig. 7
-18)
, a nd
l
etthe t
erminals o
fc o
il 1beleft open. Then t he e mf V Ia
tt he t
erminals
o
fc o
il 1is
4. 2
01 = N
' i (
7-89)
d
t
w
here i
m2 = magne
tic f
l
ux p
roduced b
y s
econda
ry c
o
il. B
ut
_ AN 2I2A
I
Pm2
l
a
nd s
o (
7
-89
) b
ecomes
, l
a
,, 2A
—
IA d
I
t2 (
7
-90
)
Vi = i
v

o
r
,d
7 ls
V
i =i
v
i — (
7
-91
)
d
t

'S
ee S
ec
. 7
-
17 f
o
r t
he s
i
gnif
icance o
f µw
ith i
r
on-
cored c
o
ils u
nde
r a
-c c
ond
ition
s.
SE
C. 7
-
16] T
I ME-
CHANGING F
IELDS 3
11

T
hus
, f
r
om (
7
-85
) a
nd (
7
-91
),
= '
0
1 _ 'U
s
(
7
-92
)
d
1 2/
dt d
l i/
dt

Therefore
,i fagiven t
ime ra
te ofchange ofc urrenti nthe pr
ima ry i
nduces
ace
r ta
in voltage i
nthe se
conda ry
, the same time rate o
fc hange o
fcurrent
a
pplied tothe se
condary wil
li nduce the s
ame v oltage i
nt he p
rimary. I n
e
fect this i
s astatement ofthe re
ciproci
ty theor
em a sa ppl
ied to aspec
ial
c
ase
.
I
ft he current I var
ies harmon ica
lly with time (alternat
ing curren
t),
w
eh ave
I
i = 1oe
i
w
i (
7
-93
)

F
orh
armon
ic v
aria
tion o
f /2 a
nd /2,(
7
-92
) b
ecome
s

0
.1 0
.2
(
7
-94
)
j
c
ad 2 '
c
ol
a
nd
VI V2 •
T
2 = T = JC
UM = Z . (
7
-95
)

where Z . = mu tual imp edan ce (ohm s

).
The a bove r e
la t
ions w ere developed f o
r the ca
se w here all of the fl
ux
l
i
nk s a l
l o f the turns. I n th
is s i
tua tion the mutua
l i nduc tance c an be
c
alcula ted r eadily by ( 7-88). I ft he flux l
eakage c
an b e n eglected, th
is
r
e
la tion a l
so c an b e a pplied to c on-
I
r
onc o
re
c
ent rated c oils wound o n a n i
ron c ore
a
si nF ig. 7 -
19 , where the r e
luctance 0 1
i
s tha t of t he iron core. I f t
he f lux
l
eakage i s a ppreciable, t he mu tual
i
nduc tance i snotr eadily c a
lculated i n
P
r
i
. S
ec
.
t
his w ay b ut i sneverthe less ad efinite
q
uan t
ity a nd c an b e m easured w ith Fm
. 7
-19
. T ransformer.
t
he a id of ( 7
-92 )
.
7-16. T he T ransforme r. S uppose t hat the two-co i
l a rrangemen t
o
fF ig. 7-19 h a
st he seconda ry co
il o pen, asshown, while the p r
ima ry coi
l
i
sc onnec ted t o an alterna ting em f V I. The em f '02 appea ring at the
s
econda ry t erminals h as amagn itude

7. d
1P.
'
02 = 1
2 2 (
7
-96
)

w
here N 2
= number ofturns o
f se
condary c
oi
l
= magnetic f
l
ux through t
rans
former c
ore
I
fthe p
r
imary r
esi
stance isneg
lig
ible
,the c
ounter em
facro
sst
he p
r
ima
ry
3
12 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 7

t
e
rmina
lsi
sequa
l i
n magn
itude t
o t
he a
ppl
ied e
mf 0̀ 1,o
r

i
k
„
,
= N Id (
7
-97
)
dt

where N 1 = n
umber o
fturns o
fpr
ima
ry c
o
il. D
ivid
ing (
7
-96
) b
y (
7
-97
)
y
ields
U2 N 2
(
7
-98
)
- N1

Accord ing to (7-98) the r

atio o ft
he seconda ry tot he primary em fi se qual
t
o the r a
tio of the n umbe r of se
conda ry turns N 2 to the number o f the
p
rima ry turns N I. The r atio isthe same f or efective (rms) v o
ltages a s
f
or instantaneous .
B
ecause t he arrangemen t of F
ig. 7-19 (or Fig. 7-18) can transform a n
emf or v oltage from o ne value to anothe r
, iti scalled at r
ansforme r
. I n
t
he p resen t di
scus sion the t r
ansforme r isa n ideal one in the sense t hat
f
lux leakage i sassumed t ob e zero sotha t Om l
inks allprimary a nd second -
a
ry t urn s
. I ti sf urthe
r a ssumed t hat the r es
istance o f t
he p r
ima ry is
v
e ry s mal
l a nd t ha t n
egligible current i s drawn f r om the s econda ry.
This c ond it
ion may b e a pproached i n prac t
ice w here a transfo rme r
s
econda ry isc onnec ted to ah igh
-resistance circuit
.

Examp le
. An i deal t
r ansformerhas at
urn ra
tio of2
,thati
s
, N2
/NI= 2 . An a
-c
em
f of 1 0 vo
lts rms isa pplied t
othe p
rimary. F ind t
he e
mfo
rvol
tage a
ppea
ring a
t
t
he se
condary t e
rm inals
.
S
olution. F rom ( 7-98) t he s
e
condary v
oltage is

0̀
2 —
N 2 VI -
= 2X 1
0 =2
0 v
olt
s r
ms
N

7
-17. A l
ternating-current B ehavior ofF erromagne t
ic Ma teria
ls. We
n
oted inC hap. 5thatt he permeab i
lity ofi r
on isn o
t aconstant. I ns pite
o
f th
is, the permeabili
ty o f the i
ron i n a
n iron-cored co
il c
arrying alter-
n
ating current may bet aken as acons tantf o
rc erta
in appl
ications
, but i t
s
v
alue, i
n t h
is ca
se, needs further explanation.
Where µ isn ot aconstan t
, w e have from ( 4
-59) tha
t the inductance L
o
f acoil isgiven by
dA
= — h
enrys (
7
-99
)
d
l

I
fthe
re i
sno f
l
ux l
e
akage
, A = NO.
; s
o

d
i
P„
,
L= — (
7
-100
)
dl

F
or ato
roidal t
ype o
f co
il
, 4. = A dB
, and d
l =1dH/N, where A
e
qua
ls t
he area a
nd 1equals t
he m
ean l
eng
th o
f t
he c
o
il. Therefo
re
SE
C. 7
-17
] T
I ME-
C HANGI NG F
IELDS 3
13

.(
7
-100
) b
ecome
s
=N
'A d B
- (
7
-101
)
I dH

Now d B/dH i n(7-101) hast he d

imensions o
fp ermeabil
ity. I tisequa l to
t
he slope ofthe hyste
re s
is curve. A ts ome p
ointP, asi nFig
. 7-20
, t h
is is
d
iferent f r
om t he ordinary p ermeab
ility
, B1/H 1,w h
ich i sequal to t he
s
lope oft he li
ne from the o r
igin t
o the po
int P. S ince dB/dH i nvolves
i
nf
initesimals, it is some t
ime s c
al
led t he inf
ini
tesimal or dif erential
p
erm eabi
lity
.

s
l
o
p
e—
or
d
in
ar
y
p
e
rmeabili
ty
a
t Bmax
.

dB
S
l
ope—

S
l
ope-o
rdina
ry p
e
rmeab
il
ity
a
t(B1,
111)

Fm
. 7
-20
. Hys
tere
sis l
oop i
lus
tra
ting o
rdina
ry a
nd d
ife
ren
tia
l p
ermeab
ili
tie
s.

I
falternating c urrent isapp
lied t oa niron-cored co
il sothatt he condi-
t
ion o
ft he ir
on move saround ah ysteresi
sl oop ( F
ig. 7
-20) once pe
rc yc
le,
t
he s
lope d B/dH v aries ove
r aw ide range a nd the i
nstantaneous value of
t
he inductance w i
ll
, f rom (7-101 )
, v ary o ver ac orresponding r ange.
Under these c onditions i tisoften c onvenien t to c
onsider the a verage
i
nductance ( over one c yc
le) a
s o btained from ( 7-
101), us
ing t he average
v
alue ofthe s l
ope d B/dH. T h
is ise qual tot he o
rdinary permeability at
t
he maximum v alue o f Batta
ined i nt he cycle (s
ee Fig
. 7-20). T hus

I
s
PA (
dB) I
s
PA
La
' = 1 = A (
7
-102
)
V
IH a, l
- -

w
here A = B ./H ma
a =ordinary permeab
il
ity at B..
T
he above d
iscu
ssion i
sfor a
lte
rnating c
urren
t on
ly through t
he c
o
il.
3
14 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 7

I
f as ma
ll a lte
rnating c urrent is superimposed o n ar elat
ively l a
rge
s
teady
, ord irect
, current th
rough t he co
il, t
he s
i
tua t
ion isass uggested i
n
F
ig. 7
-21. T he magne tic condit
ion o f the i
ron t hen fo
llows a m inor
h
yster
esis loop asi nd
icated. I n t
his case t
he average va
lue oft he sl
ope
dB/dH isgiven b ythe li
ne pass
ing through the t
ipsoft he m
inorh ysteres
is

Fm
. 7
-21
. M
ino
r h
ystere
sis l
o
op i
lus
tra
ting i
n
cremen
tal p
ermeab
ili
ty.

l
oop a
nd i
sca
lled t
he i
nc
rem
enta
l p
erm
eab
ili
ty ;
h.
,. R
efe
rring t
o F
ig
.
7
-21
,
_(
dB) _ AB
(
7
-103
)
-VI
I at,— MI
T
he incremen
talpermeabi
lity i
s much l
ess t
han t
he o
rdinary permeab
il
ity
BiH i f
o
r apo
int a
t the c
ente
r oft he m
inor loop i
nFig. 7
-21.
I
n (7-87
) t
he s
e
lf-
inductance L of at
o ro
idal c
oi
l ofNt urns isg
iven a
s
mA
L = N 2—1 h
enry
s (
7
-104
)

a
nd i
n(7-88)the mutualinductance M o
ftwo c
oi
ls moun
ted
,fo
rexample
,
o
n ari
ng-shaped core i
sgiven as
x, m
A
M = N" i
v 2- h
enrys (
7-105
)
I

where N 1 = number o fpr

ima ry turns
N 2 = numbe r ofseconda ry turns
Foriron core
sa nd a
-c operation these rela
tions may b eused tocalculate
t
he average L ora verage M p rov
ided t he appropr
ia te v
alue o
f ui sused.
A
sd iscussed above,t h
is v
alue o f misequa ltothe average va
lue o
fd B/dH
o
ver the operating range oft he i
ron o n aB -H diagram.
A
lthough t he above discuss ion has concerned toroida
l coi
ls wi
th u n
i-
f
orm c o
re cros
ss ect
ion A, E qs. (7
-104 ) and (7
-105) may b eappl
ied i nthe
SE
C
. 7
-
19] T
I ME-CHANGING F
IELDS 3
15

more g
ene
ra l c
ase
, w here t
he i
ron c
ore i
sofnonun
ifo
rm crossse
ction and
t
he magnetic c
ircui
t may i nc
lude a n a
i
r gap, b
y re
expre
ssing them as
f
o
llows,
N'
L= h
enrys (
7
-106)

w
here 6
1=r
e
luc
tance o
fcl
osed magne
tic c
i
rcu
it t
hrough c
o
il
, a
nd
_N
iN2
h
enry
s (
7
-107
)

whe re 6 1 = r e
luc tance o fc l
osed magne tic c ircuit l i
nk ing t he primar ya nd
s
econda ry c oi
l s
. T he a bove r ela tions a re a pp licab le t o b oth u niform ly
d
is tributed c o
ils a nd t oc oncen tra ted c oils ( asi nF ig. 7 -
19 ) p rovided t ha t
f
l
ux l eakage i s n eglig ible. T he r eluc tance o f t he magne tic c ircu it i s
c
alcu la ted a s di scus sed i nS ecs. 5 -18 , 5 -19 , 5 -22, a nd 5 -
23.
7
-18 . E ddy C urren ts. When l a rge c onduc ting s pecimens a re s ub -
j
ected t o t rans fo rme r o r mo tiona li nduc tion , cur ren ts t end t o be i nduced
i
nt he s pecimen . T he se c urren tsf l
ow i nc lo sed p a ths i nt he s pecimen a nd
a
re c alled e ddy c urren ts. I na cco rdance w ith L enz 's l aw t he e ddy c ur ren t
t
end s t o o ppo se t he c hange i nf i
eld i nduc ing i t
.
E ddy c ur ren ts r esu lt i n J ou le h eating i n t he c onduc t
ing s pec imen .
The e ne rgy l oss d ue t o e ddy c urren ts i n t he f erromagne tic c ores o f a - c
d
ev ice si sina ddi tion t ot he e nergy l osti nt he magne t
iza t
ion -demagne tiza -
t
ion p roce ss ( propo r
tiona l t ot he a rea o ft he h y stere sis l oop) , asd iscus sed
i
n S ec. 5 -14 . I n o rde r t o r educe t he e ddy c urren ts i n i ron-co red a - c
d
ev ice s, t he c ore i sc ommon ly made o ft hin s hee ts o r l am ina tion s o fi ron
i
nsu la ted e lectr ica lly f rom e ach o ther . T hus t he e ddy c urrent s a re c on -
f
i
ned t o ind ividua l shee ts, a nd t he p owe r loss i sr educed . E ach s hee t i s
c
on tinuous i n t he d irec tion o f t he magne tic f lux t hrough t he c o re, b ut
b
ecause o fi t
st hinnes si th as ar ela tive ly l arge r eluc tance . B ys tack ing a
s
uffi cien tn umber o fs hee tsi np ara llelt he t ota lr eluctance o ft he magne tic
c
ircu it may b e r educed t o t he d esired
v
a lue . T o r educe e ddy c urrents t o a p A )
minimum , i ron w ires a re some t
ime su sed
i
n p lace o f s hee ts, w h
ile a t r ad io f re - B
a
ll
ist
ic •S earch c o
il
g
a
lvanom eter
quenc ie s p owered -iron c ores a re c om -
Fm. 7-22 . S earch coil and b allistic
mon ly e mp loyed .
g
alvanome ter.
7-19 . Measu remen t o f Magnet ic
F
ie lds . T he F luame te r
. As teady magne t
ic f i
eld may b e exp lo red o r
mea sured b ym ean so f as ea rch c oilc onnected t o ab a
lli st
ic g alvanome ter '
a
si nF ig. 7 -22. F rom ( 7
-70 ) w e h ave f or t h
is c ircu it t ha t
'A b
al
lis
tic g
alvanometer i
s aga
lvanometer w
hose d ef
lec
tion i
sp ropor
tional t
o the
c
harge Q p
ass
ing through itp
rovided t
he t
ime i
nterva
lf orthe p
assage ofthe c
harge i
s
s
uff
ic
ient
ly shor
t.
3
16 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS 1
CHAp
. 7

d
l
R
I + Ld
—t = —N (
7
-108
)

w
here R = t
otal r
es
istance o fcir
cu it (ohms)
I= c
urrent through c ir
cuit ( amp)
L= t
otal i
nduc tance o fcircuit (henrys
)
%
Gm = magnet
ic f l
ux t hrough s earch c
oil (webers
)
N = number o f turns of sea rch c
oil (i
t isassumed t
hat #
, l
i
nks
a
l
l turns)
Th
is may a
l
so be expre s
sed

d
I
R
I L — = —NA d
B (
7
-109
)
d
t

where A = area o fs earch coil

B=c omponen to fflux densi
ty B normalt othe plane ofthe search
co
il
I
ti sas
sumed t hat the coi
l iss mall enough sothat Biss ubstant
ially u n
i-
f
orm overt he area oft he coil
. S uppos e t
he c
oil i
sin amagne t
ic fie
ld of
f
l
ux density B a nd that the plane oft he c
oil i
snormal tot he d
irection of
B
. Then , i
ft he coil isquickly removed t o alocat
ion ofn egl
igible mag -
n
etic f
ie
ld, the d ef
lection of the b a
llis
tic ga
lvanome te
r w il ind
icat e the
p
assage of acharge Q o btained b yintegrat
ing (7
-109) over atime interval
f
r
om t= 0t o t= T t hat includes the ent
ire a
ction
. Thus

I B
(
at g (
at g
NA
f Id
t+ — f d
I = — —R f d
B (
7
-110
)
g
m0 1-0 B B
t—0) (
at —0
)

S
ince I = 0 a
t t= 0a
nd a
l
so a
t t= T
, t
he s
e
cond t
e
rm y
ie
lds z
ero a
nd
wehave
NAB
Q-
o
r
QR
B =
NA

w
here B = f
l
ux d ensity ati nit
iall o
cation ofco
il (webe
rs/mete
r 2)(
norma
l
t
o plane o fc o
il)
Q=c harge p assed t hrough b al
lis
tic ga
lvanome te
r (p
roport
iona
l
t
od ef
l ection) ( coulomb s
)
R =res
istance o fcircuit (ohm s)
N =numbe r oft urns o fcoil (d
imensionles
s)
A =area ofc o
il (me ters'
)
SE
C
. 7
-
19] T
I ME-
CHANGING F
IELDS 3
17

The product BA e qual to QR/N i n (7-111) equals t

he total fl
ux change
t
hrough t he c o
il
. H ence, the sea rch-co
il a nd b a
lli
stic-galvanome ter
a
rrangement o fFig. 7-
22 iso f
ten ca
lled af lux
-m e
ter
.
Another procedure for m ea
suring t he fi
e
ld i sto keep t he co
il at the
l
ocat
ion w here the fi
e
ld i sto be mea sured and q u
ickly to fl
ip itover or
r
otate itthrough 180°
. Unde r t
hese c ond
itions itissome times ca
lled a
f
l
ip co
il, a
nd the bal
lis
tic-galvanome ter def
lect
ion i sdoubled forthe same
f
l
ux density B. T hati s
, .
QR
B= (
7
-112
)
2NA

I
fthe r
e
stor
ing to
rque on t
he ga
lvanometer c
oi
l i
sremoved s
ot hati t
s
d
ef
lect
ion i
sproport
ional t
o the n
et cha
rge pa
ssed a
fter s
ome r
eference
t
ime L
i
, t
hen the n
et c
hange i
n fl
ux dens
ity b
etween th
is t
ime a
nd some
l
a
ter t
ime isi
sgiven b
y
(
Q2— Q
i)R
B
s —B
1 — (
7
-112a
)
NA

where B2 — B 1 =n e t c hange i nf l
ux dens ity i n t
ime interval between t s

and t s (
webe rs/mete r') ( plane of search c oi
l n o
rma l
t
oB )
Q2 — Q1 = ne t c harge t h
rough g alvanome ter i n same i nterva l
(
c oulomb s
) ( propo rt
iona l to net change i n deflection
o
fg alvanome ter)
R=t ota l c i
rcuit r e
sistance ( ohm s
)
N =n umbe r oft urns ofs earch c oi
l (dimen s
ion less
)
A =a rea o fs earch c o
il ( mete rs
')
This type o f fl
uxme ter i s often r e
fe rred t o as aG rasoot fluxm ete r
.
Thus,ifac harge 2qp asse st h
rough t he galvanome ter i
no ne d i
rection a nd
t
hen ac harge qp as
se st h rough i ti nt he oppo site d
irec
tion, alli nt he time
i
nterval between t ia nd i s, the net c hange i n Bi n t
his same i nte rval i s
p
roportional to 2q — q= q .
I
n a
n alternating magne tic fie
ld w here B = B osinc u
t apeak v oltme ter
may be connec ted to t he s ea rch coil
. T hen, i fthe plane o f t
he c oil i s
n
o rmal to the f
lux density B , w e have

V
o
B
o = (
7
-113
)
NA
co

w
here Bo = p
eak fl
ux density (webers/meter'
)
V0 = p
eak emf (volts)
N =n umbe r ofturns ofsearch co
il (d
imens
ionless)
A =a rea o
fs ea
rch c o
il (meters
')
c
o= radian f
requency (rec
iprocal se
conds) (=2s
rf, whe
re f = f
r
e-
q
uency)
3
18 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 7

7
-20. D isplacemen t Current. I n th
is sec
tion a n ew c oncept i
si nt
ro-
d
uced, name ly, that o
fdi splacement curren
t. C onsider av oltage applied
t
o ar e
sistor and a capacitor inp aral
lel as i
n Fig. 7-23a. T he nature of
t
he current f l
ow through t he re
sistor isdiferen t f
rom t hat through t he
c
apacitor
. Thus ac onstan t vo
ltage across ar e
sistorp roduce s ac
on tinu-
o
us fl
ow o f current of c
ons tant value. O n the other h and, the current
t
hrough a c apacitor w
il
l b e constant only w h
ile the voltage ischang ing.
For av o
ltage V a cross ar e
sistor of res
istance R a nd capac
ito r of
c
apacitance C i n p
aral
lel asi n F
ig. 7-23a w e have ac urrent through t he
r
es
istor given b y
. V
=—R (
7-114)

a
nd ac
urren
t t
hrough t
he c
apac
ito
r g
iven b
y

d
Q _ c dV
= (
7
-115
)
2
2 d
t d
t

The i
ns
tan
taneous c
harge Q i
n t
he c
apac
ito
risg
iven b
y Q = CV
.
R
es
ist
ance I C
apac
itance

.4 E d •
q
,
.
co
.
n
.41L
0Z Y
d
i
sp

i
,
(
a) (
b
) (
c
)
F
in. 7
-23
. I
lus
tra
tion f
or d
i
scus
sion o
n c
onduc
tion a
nd d
i
splacemen
t c
urren
ts.

The curren t t
hrough the r
esistor is ac ondu ction c
urrent, w h
ile the c ur-
r
ent " through" t he capac
ito r may b e c a
lled a d isplacem ent c urrent.
A
lthough t he c u
rrent does not flow th rough t he c
apac itor
, t he externa l
e
fe ct i
sast hough i tdid
, si
nce a s much c urren t f
l
ow so ut ofo ne plate a s
f
l
ow s i
nto the oppo s
ite one
. Th is c i
rcuit c oncept may b e e xtended t o
t
hree dimen sions by suppos
ing t ha t the r e
sisto r a
nd c apacitor elemen ts
e
ach occupies av o
lume a sinFig.7 -23b. F r
inging ofthe f i
e
ld isn eglected .
I
nside ofeach elemen t t
he el
ectric fi
eld E e qua ls t
he voltage V a cro s
st he
e
lemen t d
ivided b y it
s le
ngth d. T hat i s
,

V
E=—
d
(
7
-116
)

F
rom (3-21)the c
urrentdens
ity J1 i
n
side t
he r
esis
torequals t
he product
o
f t
he el
ectric f
i
eld E and the c
onductiv
ity u o
f the medium inside the
r
e
sisto
r el
emen t
, al
so i td
iv
ided by t
he cros
s-sec
tion a
rea A. O r

J1 = E
a = (
7
-117
)
SE
C. 7
-20
1 T
I ME-
CHANGING F
IELDS 3
19

The d
imen
siona
l f
o
rm o
f (
7
-117
) i
n mk
sc u
nit
s i
s

Ampere
s v
olt
s mhos
X
Me
ter2 m
eter me
ter

F
rom (2
-55
) the capa
citance of apa
ral
lel-p
late c
apacito
ri sC =
w
here A i
sthe area of t
he plates a
nd d isthe spac
ing between t
hem.
S
ubst
itu
ting t
his v
alue f
or C, and f
rom (7
-116) f
or V, i
nto (
7-
115) y
ie
lds

. e
Ad dE , dE
t
2=— — (
7
-118
)
d dt d
t

D
ivid
ing (7
-118) by the area A g
ives t
he re
lation that the c
urren
t
d
ens
ity J2i
ns
ide the c
apacito
re qua
ls t
he p
ermitt
ivity o
ft he n
onconduct-
i
ng med
ium fi
l
ling the c
apacitor e
l
ement multip
lied by the t
ime r
ate of
c
hange o
fthe e
lec
t r
ic f
i
eld. Thus

i
2 _ , = _dE
(
7
-119
)
" e a
t
The d
imens
ions o
f (
7
-119
) i
n mk
sc u
nit
s a
re

Ampere
s f
arads v
olt
s/meter
X
Me
ter2 meter s
econd

R
eca
lling t
hat D =e
E
, (
7
-119
) b
ecomes

dD
(
7
-120
)
J
2 = i
t

I
n t h
is examp le J1 is aconduction c urrent dens
ity Je„d, wh
ile J2 i
sa
d
isplacemen t current dens
ity tid
ie s)
. Also, s
ince the cur
rent den
sity J,
t
he el
ectric d
isplacement D, a nd t
he e l
ectr
ic fi
e
ld intens
ity E a
re a
ctual
ly
s
pace v ecto
rs, w hich al
l h ave the s ame direct
ion i n i
sot
ropic media
,
(
7-117) and (7-120) may be expressed in more general f
orm as

j
eo
n
d =(
7
E (
7
-121
)
a
nd
d
E dD
(
7
-122
)
ed
t _dt

A
s af ina
ls tep
,s uppose tha tins
tead ofh aving t
wo sepa rat
ee l
ement si n
p
arallel, one ofw h
ich acts like apure re
sis
tance and the otherlike ap ure
c
apa citance,w eh ave on
ly o ne,w h
ich hasb oth c
apacitance and r
esi
s tance.
Thus, a s i
n Fig. 7
-23c
, t here is asi
ngle el
ement fi
lled with a conduc t
ing
d
ielectric sothatb oth conduc t
ion and displacementc urrents a
re present.
Then t he tota
l curren
t d ensity jtow i
s

L o
l a = j
eond Jd
isp (
7
-123
)
3
20 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 7

The concept ofd i splacemen t current, ord ispla cemen t current d ensity,
wasi nt
roduced b yJ ame s Clerk Maxwe l
l t oa ccoun tf o
rt he produc tion of
magne t
ic f i
e
lds i n e mpty s pace. H ere t he c onduc t
ion c urren t isz e
ro,
a
nd t he magne t
ic f i
eld s are due e n
tirely to d isplacemen t curren ts
.
7
-21. Maxwe ll's E quation f r
om Ampe re's L aw . C omp lete E xpress ion.
According t o Ampe re's law the li
ne i n
teg ralo fHa round ac l
osed c on tour
i
se qual t o the current e nclosed. Whe re b o
th c onduction a nd d i
sp lace-
ment cur rents arep resen t, t
his cur rent ist he totalcurrent. T hus ( 4-81),
which a pplies on
ly t o conduc tion c urren t
s, may b e extended a s fo
llow s
when b oth c onduction a nd displacemen t current s are present,

9
6 H •d
l =f (
Tam
a+ •d
s (
7424
)

or

H •d
l = f (E e2
(-
E)•d
s (
7
-125
)
a
t

The li
ne integralofH onthe l
e
fts ide o
f(7-125
) isaround the boundary o
f
t
he surface 8o ver wh
ich t
he s
urface in
tegral i
staken on the r
ight s
ide o
f
(
7-125). E ach term in(
7-
125) hast he d
imensions ofcur
ren t
. T he c
on-
d
uc t
ion c urrent t
hrough t
he s
urface sisgiven by

L GE •d
s

w
hile t
he d
i
splacemen
t c
urrent t
hrough t
he s
ur
face 8i
sgi
ven b
y

f O
E •d
e-
c
T
i s

Equa
tion (
7
-125
) ist
he c
omp
lete e
xpre
ssion i
nin
teg
ral f
orm of Max
-
w
el
l's e
quat
ion d
er
ived f
r
om Ampere
's l
aw. I ti
sal
so o
ften w
ritt
en

9
6 H •d
l =f +-
a-) •d
pt
a s (
7
-126
)

wherel without as
ubscr
ip tisunderstood t
orefer on
ly toconduction c
ur-
r
ent densi
ty.
B
y an appl
icat
ion ofStokes' t
heorem to (
7-126) or by a
n extens
ion of
(
4-130) toinc
lude d
i
splacement currents t
he c
omp le
te expre
ssion ind
ifer-
e
ntialform of Maxw
ell
's equa
tion d
e r
ived f
rom Ampe re
's law i
s
,a
p
vx H = J-
1- - (
7
-127
)
a
t
or

V xH = a
E e— a
E (
7
-128
)
a
t
SE
C. 7
-22
] T
I ME
-CHANGING F
IELDS 3
21

I
tshould b
en oted t
hatwhen t
he e
l
ect
ric f
i
e
ld var
iesharmonical
ly w
ith
t
ime (E = E0sinc o
t
), t
he c
onduct
ion and d
i
splacemen
t cur
ren ts a
re i
n
t
ime phase q
uadrature
. T hatis
,

J= c
r
E = 0E 0 s
i
nco
t (
7
-129
)
a
nd
8
D _
a
t — a
E =c
o
eE 0 c
osc
o
t (
7
-130
)

Thus, w hen c o
t =0 , the d i
splacemen t c urrent is a max imum a nd t he
c
onduc tion c urrenti szero. O n t
he othe rh and, w hen co
t =7 /2, t
he con -
d
uc t
ion c urrent is a max imum a nd t he displacemen t current isz ero.
S
ince t he displacemen tcurren tis amaximum o ne -quartercycle (
c
ot =7 /2 )
b
efore t he conduc tion curren t
, iti ssaid t hat the di
splacement c urren t
l
eads the c onduction curren tb y90°. Th is issimilart othe si
tuat
ion i na
c
i
r cuit h aving ar e
sistora nd ac apacitori np aralle
l (Fig. 7
-23a) inw hich
t
he c ur ren t " through" t he capacitor l eads t he current through t he
r
es
isto r b y 90°
.
T
his p hase diference can a l
so be readily shown b ye xpres
sing the time
v
aria t
ion o ft he fi
e
ld b y'
E = E°e a
." (
7-
131 )

T
he d
i
splacement c
urrent i
sthen

e—a
t = e
i
wEe
2"
a =j
c
ueE (
7
-132
)

Maxwe
ll
's e
qua
tion (
7-1
28) t
hen b
ecome
s

Vx H = A-Fj
co€E = (
a
.+j
c
oe
)E (
7
-133
)

The o pe rator ji n the d isplacement cur rent t erm and i t

s a bsence in t he
c
onduc tion c urrent t e
rm s i
gnif
ies t
hat t he d isp
lacemen t c urrent isa d-
v
anced i npha se b y 90° w ith re
spect t
o t he conduc t
ion c urrent.
7-22 . D ie
lec tr
ic Hys te res
is. I n dielec tr
ics t hat are good i n
sulato rs
t
he d- c c onduc t
ion c urrent may b eneglig ible. Howeve r
, a n appreciab le
a
-c c urren t in p hase w ith t he appl
ied f i
eld may b e present b ecause o f
d
iel
e c
t rich ys
ter e
sis. T h is phenomenon i sa nalogous to magne t
ic h ys
te re-
s
i
si nf erromagne tic mate ria
ls. Ma teria ls, such as g
lass, w h
ich a re good
i
nsula tors u nder s tat
ic c ond it
ions may c onsume c ons
iderab le e nergy i n
I
nusing t
his no
tation i
tisu
nderstood t
hat t
he i
n
stan
taneou
s v
alue o
fthe f
i
e
ld i
s
g
iven b
yt he i
maginary par
tof (
7
-131). Thus

E(
i
nstan
taneou
s) .
• E0 I
m E0 s
i
n w
t

One m
ight a
l
so use the rea
l part o
f wh
ich ise qua
l to co
s cu
t (
that i
s
, Re ew =
c
os c
u
t)
. However , i
n a ny given ana
lysis one convent
ion o r t
he othe
r should b
e
a
dopted a
nd used c
onsi
sten t
ly. H ere i
tisunderstood to b
e the i
maginary p
art
.
3
22 ELECTRO MAGNET
1CS [
CHAP
. 7

a
l
terna ting f i
elds. T he h eat generated int his way issomet
imes a ppl
i ed
i
ni ndustria l r
adio-frequency h eating processes.
I
n d ealing w ith a
- c die
lec t
ric losses
, the d
i e
lectr
ic powerfac
tor i
s ac on-
v
enient q uant
ity . R efer r
ing tot he time-phas ediagram ofFig. 7
-24, the
t
ota
lc ur ren td ens
ity Jeo ka i
n adielectr
ic wil
ll e
ad the a
ppl
ied fi
e
ld E bya n
a
ngle 0w hich i sle
ss t han 9 0°
. T hus 0= 9 0° —b . T he power fac
to r
(
PF) isg iven b y t
he c osine of0 . T hus'

PF =
-co
s 0 (
7
-134
)

S
ince 5i
susua
lly n
ot more t
han 2 o
r 3°,t
he p
ower f
actor i
s sma
l ven i
l e n
t
he case ofp oor h
igh
-frequency d
ie
lec
trics s uch a s glass
. F or e xamp le,
t
he p ower f acto r fo
r c rown g l
ass
i
s0 .01 at 1k c per sec
. C ellulose
t
o
tal n
itrate h as a n e ven higher p ower
j
am/
. f
actor a t 1k c pe rsec, being a bout
0
.05 ( 8 =3 °
). O n t
he o therh and,
t
he p owe r f acto r for q ua rtz a t
1k c per s ec iso nly 0.0003 a nd of
p
olys tyrene 0 .0002 . T herefore,
t
hese ma terials find wide a pplica-
t
ion a s dielectr
ics a t t
his a nd a lso
c
r1, E x mu ch h igher f r
equenc ies
.
Fm
. 7 -
24. T
ime -pha
se d
iag
ram for d
i
- I
ti ssome times c onven ientt oas-
e
l
ectr
ic wi
th lo
s ses
. s
ume a ne quivalen tconduc tivity for
t
he d ielectr
ic w hich w ould produce the s
ame h eat
ing as t
he die
lectric
h
yste resis
. T hus, al
though t he dc c onduct
ivity of the d
ie
lectric is
n
egligib le
, the equiva
len t conduct
ivity o' may be s
ign
ifi
cant a
nd issub -
s
t
itu ted i n r
elat
ions involving the o
rdinary conduct
ivity a
. E xpress
ing
t
he t otal conduction currentf J6,
44 i
nt e
rm sofits c
omponent parts a
si n
(
7-133 ),
Jew.'= a
'E j
weE (
7-135)
IT
he d
i
ele
ctr
icbehav
iorisa
ls
osome
time
sex
pre
ssed i
nte
rmso
fta
n a
. F
ors
mal
l
v
a
luesof15t
hi
si st
h
es ame a
sco
s 0
.
tS
ome
time
s t
h
e t
o
tal c
o
ndu
ction c
u
rren
t i
sex
pre
ssed a
s.1(.
4.
1= — j
c
oE,
w
hich isequ
ivalentto(7
-135
). Then def
in
ing e *a
sth
ecomp
lex d
ie
lec
tri
ccon
stant,
8
. 1 = j
4. c
uesE, whe
reth
ec ompl
ex d
i
elec
tri
c c on
stan
t e
*ha
s a"r
eal" p
arte' ea nd
a
n "imaginary" par
t e
" =e l
°,asgi
ven by
_je ,) e
(
7
-134a)

T
he te
rm srea
land i
maginary a
r
eused int
hem a
themat
ica
ls en
se. B o
th pa
rtshav
e
are
al phy
sica
l si
gn
if
icance
, the s
o
-ca
lled "
r
eal" pa
rt e'b
eing as
soc
iated w
ith t
h
e
c
omponen
t ofc
urr
ent d
ens
ity i
npha
se q
uadr
atur
e w i
th t
h
e fi
e
ld a
nd th
e s
o
-ca
lled
"
imag
inary" p
a
rt be
ing a
s
soc
iat
ed w
ith t
h
e componento
fcur
rentde
nsi
ty i
nphase
SE
C
. 7
-22
] T -CHANGING F
I ME IELDS 3
23

The c
omponen
t p
arts a
re a
dded l
i
ke v
ecto
rs t
oob
tain Jo
i . N
g
a ow
, f
r
om
F
ig. 7
-24
,
t
a
n ô= —
a
' c
os 0 (
7
-136
)

o
r
a
' w
e c
os 0 (
7
-137
)

Example
. F ind t
he average power d
is
sipa
ted per c
ubic mete
r i
n anonconduc
ting
med
ium w ith a r
e
lative permitt
ivity o
f 4a nd power fa
ctor o
f 0
.00
1 ifE 1
,
000
v
olt
s/me te
r rms a
nd the fr
equency is10 Mc/sec
.
S
olut
ion. From (7-137) the e
quiva
lent c
onductiv
ity i
s

a
' = cos 8 271 0 7 X 4 X 8
.85 X 1
0 -s X 1
0 -s
=2.
22 X 1 0 -'mhos/me ter

T
he p
owe
r W d
is
sipa
ted p
er u
nit v
olume i
sthen

W = Eke =
.104 X 2
.
22 X 1
0-8

=2.22 w
att
s/mete
rs

I
ti st o be noted t ha t the c urrent d ensity a nd t he fie
ld i n
ten s
ity h ave
t
he s ame s pace d i
rec tion i n i so
trop ic m edia . A l though b oth may h ave
t
he s ame s pace direc tion, t heir sca lar magn itude s may h ave d iferent
t
ime p hase. T hus, in t he a bove d i scussion t he s pace directions are the
s
ame a nd a re fi
xed, b ut the s calar magn i
tude Jgo i o
t
a f the total current
d
ensi ty leads the scalar magn itude E o ft he electric fie
ld intensity int ime
b
yt he p hase angle O. T hus, o n at ime -pha se diag ram , s
uch a sF ig
. 7-24,
J
to
tai a nd E may b e rep resented b y v ecto r
s s epara ted in d i
rection b y an
a
ngle O . S uch a p seudo v ecto r used t o r epresen t the t ime p hase of a
s
calar q uan t
ity i so f
ten c al
led a p ha sor. Ad ot ( '
) issome t
ime s added
when i ti sd es
ired t o i nd
ica te e xplicitly t hat the q uantity is ac omp lex
f
unct ion oft ime (t hati s
, ap hasor).
T
hu s
'
E=a E =a E oe
h
it (
7-
138 )

w
here a= uni
t (spac
e) vect
o ri ndirect
ion o
fE
E = Eoe m =v ecto
r represen
ta t
ion o
ftime p
hase (
pha
sor
)
E0 = amp
litude ofE

w
ith t he fi
eld. S ee for examp le, S. Roberts and A . v on Hippe
l, AN ew Me thod for
Measur ing D ielectric C on stan t and L os
s i n the R ange o f Cen timeter Wave s
, J .
Appl
i ed Phys., 1 7
, 6 10
, J uly, 1946.
sT he quan tity E i sn ot o n
ly a s pace vector bu t a
lso a funct
ion o f time (phasor).
Thus
, i t may b e called av ector-phasor and d es
igna ted b y k
( = aE ). I n general
, w e
s
hal
l u se the dot o ver aq uan tity only where w ew ish toi nd
icate expl
icitly thatitisa
c
omp lex function o ft he time ( thati s
, aphaso r)
. The f a
ct that aq uantity is aspa
ce
v
ector i sindica ted b y using b o
ldface (heavy ) type. I n l
onghand n otat
ion a spa ce
v
ector may b e d es
igna ted b y ab a
rp laced a bove orb elow the le
tter.
3
24 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAp
. 7

I
n (7
-138
) the quantity Eoe
h "is as
cala
rf unction o
fthe time. Howeve r
,
i
t may b
e represented on the complex plane by avector (o
r phasor) o
f
magn
itude E0 t ha
t r o
tate
s c ounte
rclockw ise o
ne revolut
ion p e
r cycle
.
Th
is may be made mo re obvious by writing E i
n it
s equivalent po
lar
f
orm. T ha
t is,
E = Eo/c
u
t (
7
-139)

which isi nt
erpre ted to m ean a v ecto r (o
r p haso r
) of magn itude E0 a t
a
na ngle c
o
tw ith r e
spectt os ome reference d irec t
ion (usual
ly t he real o
rx
a
xis). H ence, w hen t= 0 , the p ha sor isi n t he p o
sit
ive x d irect
ion.
One-quarter of ap eriod later (t= T /4 a nd c o
t =7 /2) t he p hasor has
r
otated 9 0° to t he p o
sit
ive y d i
rec tion. A t t= T /2 the p hasor has
r
otated at otal of 180° to the negative xd irec tion, et
c.
I
ti sunderstood t hat t
he instantaneous magn itude oft he electric f
i
eld
i
n
tens ity E isg iven b y t
he r e
al ( Re) p ar
t o r i maginary (Im ) p a
r t ofE.
T
ak ing ite qual t o the imaginary p art, the i nstantaneous v alue o f t
he
e
l
ec tric f
ie
ld intensity is
E = aI
m t = aI
m Eoe
i
c
" =a
E os
i
nco
t (
7
-140
)
R
e ferr
ing to (7-
135 )
,i tisu nderstood tha t Ei nthis equat
ion i s apha sor
a
sg iven b y Eoei" or E0/ 0
.4
. I tf o
llowst hat Fig. 7-24 shows t he p o
sition
o
f Ea nd the other p hasor s at t= 0. A s af unct
ion o f time t he e ntire
d
iag ram r o
tates c oun terclockwise o ne r evolu t
ion p er c ycle
, a nd t he
i
nstantaneous v a
lue o fa ny o fthe quan tit
ies isgiven b yi t
sp rojec t
ion o n
t
he ya xis
.
7
-23. B ounda ry R elations. T he boundary r e
lations given i n T ables
2
-2 a nd 5-2 for the tangen t
ial and n orma l component s ofst a
t ic electric
a
nd magne tic f
ie
lds also h o
ld f o
rt ime-va rying fi
elds. T his may b es hown
a
s f o
llow s: Conside r fi
rst t he tangential c omponen ts Et of the e lectric
f
i
eld ( see F
ig. 2-4)
. I n s
tead o fu s
ing t he re
la t
ion t hat fE •d l = 0f ora
c
losed p ath, which i st r
ue f or s
tatic fi
elds d ue to charges, w e should , in
t
he t ime-varying c ase
, u se Maxwe ll's equa t
ion f r
om F araday's l aw

5
6E •d
l = — i—
t•
a
a
B d
s (
7
-141
)

I
ft here i
s af l
ux d ensity B norma l to the rectangular p a
th ( ha
lf ine ach
medium ) and B c hange s with time, then f E •d li snot z e
ro ift he path
e
ncloses af in
ite a rea. However , i tisa ssumed t hat the d imen s
ion A y
a
pp roaches zero sot hat Ena nd En a res eparated byo nly ani nf
inites
ima l
d
istance. T herefore the area oft he rectangle approaches z ero
, a nd the
s
urface integral of aB /a
t v an
ishes. T hus the w ork around t he p a
th is
g
iven b y En , da — E 24 6
1
x =0 ,as b efore, and itf o
llows t hat Ee1 = ES2
h
olds for both static and time-vary ing situat
ion s
. T he t wo m edia may
h
ave a ny perm itt
ivities, p
e rmeabil
i t
ies, and conduc t
ivities.
SE
C. 7
-23
] T
I ME
-CHANGING F
IELDS 3
25

H
J
C
H
Cons
idern ex
tt he tangent
ial c
omponentsofthe f
ie
ld (s
ee F
ig. 5
-15
).
I
nstead of u
sing the r e
lat
ion •d
l = HJ •d
s for st
eady fi
e
lds, we
s
hould, i
nthe time-varying ca
se, u
se Maxwe
ll
's equa
tion fr
om Ampe re
's
l
aw inits c
omplete fo
rm ,

O
H•dl = a
p
—
7 )•
.
3 d
s (
7
-142
)

I
ft here i
s atime-chang ing D n orma l t
o t he re
ctangular p ath (ha
lf in
e
ach m ed
ium), then there wil
l be ac ontr
ibu tion due toD. However , i
t
i
sa s
sumed t ha
t the d imension A y approache s ze
ro so that t he s
urface
i
ntegra f a
l o ro t v anishes. Now i n (7
-142 ) the conduc tion current
d
ensity Jmay also change with time. Howeve r
, it
ss ur
face i n
tegral a
lso
v
anishesasA ya pproache s z
ero unless t
he conduc t
ion current isassumed
t
oe x
istina n i
nf
initesima l
ly thin layer a
t the conductor surface. T hus,
TABLE 7
-1
BOUNDARY RELAT
IONS FOR ELECTRIC AND MAGNET
IC F
IELDS

F
ie
ld
B
ounda
ry r
e
lat
ion C
ond
ition
c
omponen
t

T
angen
tia
l B
,
, = Et, (
1
) A
ny t
wo med
ia

T
angen
tia
l El — 0 (
2
) Med
ium 2i
s ap
erfect c
onduc
tor (
a
: = e
c
i) t

T
angen
tia
l H
:, — H t2 (
3
) A
ny t
wo med
ia

T
angen
tia
l Hu — 11
,2 K (
4
): C
urrent s
hee
t a
t b
oundary

T
angen
tia
l Hu = K (
5
): Medium 2 is aperf
ect c
onduc to
r (
a
: = 0
)
w
ith c
urren
t shee
t at s
urface

T
angen
tia
l t
h, =0 (
6
) Med
ium 2h as i
nf
in
ite p
ermeab
ility (
µ2 = e )

(
no c
urrent
s)

N
orma
l D
., — As2 = pa (
7
) A
ny t
wo med
ia w
ith c
harge a
tbounda
ry

Norma
l D
., =D
., (
8
) A
ny t
wo med
ia w
ith n
o c
harge a
tbounda
ry

No
rma
l D
.i —P
s (
9
) Medium 2i s ap
erfe
ctc
onductor w
ith c
harge
a
t sur
face

No
rma
l B.
,.= B.
: (
10
) A
ny t
wo med
ia

Under s
tat
ic cond
itions i
ts uf
i
ces fo
r medium 2 to b
e ac onduc
tor (0
.2 f
i
nite
).
However
, f
or Et, t
obe ze
ro unde
r t
ime-vary
ing c
ond
itions r
equ
ires t
hata: 0( s
ee
C
hap. 10
).
:Note t
hat a
lthough K and t he components o
f H are mea sured p
ara
lle
l to the
b
oundary, t
hey a
re normal t
o each other
. Thus , i
nvector no
ta t
ion (5
) i
sexpres
sed
b
y K nxH , where n = u
nit vector n
orma
l to t
he boundary.
3
26 ELECTRO MAGNET 1C
S [
CHAP
. 7

f
or as
hee
t c
urrent o
fli
near d
ens
ity K a
t t
he s
ur
face
—H
es =K (
7
-143
)
a
s b
efo
re, wh
ile i
n t
he a
bsence o
fsuch as
hee
t
H it = He2 (
7
-144
)
a
s before
. T hus, t he r e
lations f o
r t he tangen tial H f i
eld of T ab le 5-2
h
old for both static a nd time -chang ing situation s
. T he t wo m ed ia may
h
ave a ny permeab i
lities, perrnit
tivities, and c onductivit
ie s
.
The forma l a pproach i n o btaining t he c ontinuity r e
lations f or the
n
orma lcomponen ts o fDa nd B isthe same u nder time-varying c ond itions
a
s for sta
tic cond itions , and t he relations g iven in T ables 2-2 a nd 5-2
a
pply u nder b oth c ondit
ions . T he t wo med ia may h ave a ny p ermit-
t
iv
ities
, permeab ilitie s
, and c onduc tiv
i t
ies.
Table 7
-1 summar izest he bounda ry re
lations d eveloped fore l
ec tric and
magnetic fi
elds
. T hese r e
lations a pply u nde r all si
tuations, e xcep t as
n
oted.
7
-24. G eneral F ield R e
lations. I n C hap. 4i t is shown t ha t the
d
ivergence oft he c url of av ector func t
ion F i sz ero
. T hus,
V •(V xF
) =0
A
s ac oro
lla ry,a ny vectorf unction w ith n od ive rgence mus tbet he c
urlo f
s
ome o ther v ecto r function. Thus , i f V •G = 0 , then w e c an w rite
G = Vx F , w here F i s some o ther v ector f unction. A s an e xamp le,
V •B = 0 s o t hat B may b e e xpressed a s the c ur
l o f avector p oten t
ial
(
B = V xA ).
Itisal
so s hown i nC hap. 4t ha tthe c url o
ft he gradient of ascalarfunc -
t
ion fisz ero
. T hus V x ( Vf) =0 . A s ac orollary, any vector function
w
ith n ocurli st he gradient o fs ome scala rf unct ion. Thus , if V xF = 0 ,
t
hen w e can w rite F = V g
, w here gi s as calar f unction. A sa n examp le,
t
he curl of the s tatic el
ectric f i
e
ld d ue t o electric charges
' isz ero (V xE
=0 ). I t f o
llow s that as tatic elec tric f i
eld d ue t o charge s may b e
e
xpressed a sthe g radient of as calarfunc t
ion. Tha tis
, E = —VV ,w here
Vi sthe el
ec tr
ic s calar poten t
ial.
According t o Maxwe ll
's e qua t
ion d erived f r om F araday's law w en ote,
h
oweve r, thati n time-chang ing s i
tua tions t he c ur
l oft he el
ectric fi
eld is
n
o t z
ero b ut ise qual to the time r ate o f dec rease of B. Thus
a
s
vxE = ——
a
t (
7
-145
)

S
ince V X E i
sno
tze
ro, the r
e
lat
ion E = —VV isn
otsufic
ien
tfortime
-
v
arying f
i
eld
s. An add
itional t
erm i
srequ
ired
. This may b
e f
ound a
s

T
o ind
icate e
xpl
ic
itly t
his t
ype o
f f
i
e
ld, we h
ave s
ome
time
s u
sed t
he s
ymbo
l E
.
Th
is t
ype offi
e
ld iss
aid t
o be l
ame
lla
r (
see S
ec
. 4
-28
).
SE
C. 7
-24
] T
I ME-
CIIANGING F
IELDS 3
27

f
o
llows
: S
ince B = V xA
, (
7
-145
) b
ecome
s

a
(
v xA)
V xE = — (
7
-146
)
a
t
f
r
om w
hich

Vx + 11-
) =0 (
7
-147
)

Now si
nce t
he c
ur
lofthe e
xpres
sion i
np a
renthe
sesin (
7
-147
) e
quals z
ero
,
i
t mu
stb eequa
lt ot
he g
radient o
f as
calarfunc
tion
. Thus wecan wr
ite

a
A
E± -
-
,
,i = V
f (
7
-148
)

where fi
s asca
lar f
unction. I fthe e
l
ectr
ic s
ca
la rpoten
tia
l Vi staken t
o
b
e t h
is sca
lar func
tion, then a re
lat
ion is
. ob
tained that sa
tisf
ies t
he
r
equirements for both stat
ic and time-va
rying situa
tions
. T hus l
et
f = —V s o t
hatfrom (7-148) we h
ave
a
A
E= (
7
-149
)
a
t
F
o r s
tat
ic fi
elds th
is r educe
s t o E = —V V
, as i
tshould
. I n the g
enera
l
c
ase, where the fi
eld may v ary with t
ime
, Ei sgiven by both a s
cala
r
p
otentia
l Va nd av ector potentia
l Aasin (
7-
149). I fthe t
ime va
riat
ion
i
sh armonic
, ( 7
-149) b ecome s

E = —VV — j
0
.4 (
7
-150
)

Knowing the v
ectorpotent
ial Aa
nd the s
ca
larpotent
ial V
, the e
l
ectr
ic
a
nd magne t
ic fi
elds may now be o
bta
ined under s
tat
ic o
r time-va
rying
s
i
tuations f
rom the r
elat
ions
a
A
E = —VV — — v
olt
s/me
ter (
7
-151
)
a
t
a
nd
B = Vx A w
ebe
rs/me
ter 2 (
7
-152
)

w
here V= 1 f 6-d
v v
olt
s
4
re o .r

A= 1 -P d
v w
ebe
rs/me
ter
4
i
r vr

I
ti sas sumed that t
he di
stance rin the expres
sions fo
r Va nd A i
ss mal
l
c
ompa red with a wavelength so that propaga t
ion time efec
ts can be
n
eglected. I ft h
is i
sn ot the c
ase, the propaga t
ion time must b
e con-
s
i
de red and the more g
eneral r
e
ta rded form used for pand Jasexp
lained
i
n C hap. 13
. ( See S
ecs
. 1 3
-3 and 13-5.
)
3
28 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
Gimp
. 7

7
-25
. Co mpar
ison o
f E
lectr
ic a
nd Magne
tic F
ield Re
lat
ions
. I
n
Tab
le 4
-2 a c
o mpar
ison i
s made o
f e
lectr
ic a
nd magnet
ic f
i
eld e
quat
ions
.
A
l f t
l o hese a
pply i
n s
ta
tic o
r s
l
owly t
ime
-va
rying s
i
tua
tion
s. Under
r
apidly time-varying c ondit
ions c erta
in oft he r
elations may b ee xtended
s
o as apply under t hese conditions. T hese re
lations a re l
i
sted inT able
7
-2
. I ti sto be noted t hat unde r st
atic condi
tion s the time de
riva tives
a
re zero, and these r e
la t
ions r educe to the correspond ing spec
ial c a
ses
g
iven inT able 4
- 2
. T hese s
tatic re
lations (Table 4-2) arealso applicable
i
n time-changing s i
tua tions provided t he var
iations a re sl
ow enough s o
t
hatt he t
ime derivatives can ben eglected. I n mo re r
ap id
ly time-va rying
s
i
tua t
ions w here the time der
iva tivesc annotb en eglected the e
xpre ssions
o
fT able 7-2 mus t be e mployed.
TABLE 7
-2
CO MPAR
ISON OF ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD RELATIONS
FOR TI ME
-CHANGING SITUAT
IONS

De
scrip
tion o
f
E
lectr
ic f
i
e
ld Magne
tic f
i
e
ld
equa
tion

C
urle quat
ions a
B a
to
(
po
int re
lat
ions
). v xE —— v xH +—
a
t a
t

C
losed path o
f i
n
- a
B
t
egrat
ion =9
6 E•
dl = — 8— •d
s F 9
611 •d
l = f (J + a
—)
p •d
s
a
t 8 a
t

D
erivation of
f
i
elds from
s
calar and v ec
- a
A
t
or potent
ialst. E = —v1 — B= VxA
a
t

tV a
nd A a
re a
sind
ica
ted i
nconnect
ion w
ith (
7
-151
) a
nd (
7
-152
).

PROBLE MS
7
-1. A1 -
turn l oop with a na rea of 1meter 'issitua ted i nairw i
th au nifo rm magne tic
f
i
eld n orma lt ot he plane ofthe l oop. I fthe flux d ensity isc hanging 2w ebers/me ter ,/
s
ec, wha t ist he e mf appea r
ing a t the te
rm ina ls oft he l oop? Ana.: 2v o
l ts
.
7
-2. How many t urns are r equired in al o
op o f1 0c mradius tod eve lop amax imum
emfo f0 .1 volt r ms atthe l o
op t erminals ifthe l oop r otates3 0r psi nt he e ar
th's mag -
n
e t
ic f i
e
ld? T ake the flux density B o fthe e arth's f i
eld at 6X 1 0- 2 webe r/me te r
l.
7
-3. A1 -turn w ire loop of0 .
1 me ter2area i ss i
tua ted i n a
ir in a1 0- Mc/ sec r adio-
f
requency f i
eld. I f 1v olt r ms i sinduced i n the l oop , w hat ist he r m s value o f H
n
orma l to the plane o fthe l oop? Ana.: 0
.126 amp ere/met er
.
7
-4. As ho r
t b ar magne t of 1 0 amp-me ters 2 magne t
ic momen t rotate s around i t
s
c
enter p oint at 1r ps. A1 00-turn l oop o
f0 .1 me ter ,a rea islocated 2m e tersf r
om t he
bar magne t
. Wha t isthe l argestp eak em fw h
ich t he fie
ld oft he magne t c
an i nduce
i
n the l oop? No te: When t he circuit isfixed b ut t he f i
eld move s, c ausing B a tt he
c
ircuit to c hange , E q. ( I
I) o f Sec. 7-5 yields z ero a nd t he resu
l tant e mf isg iven
by (III).
 T
I ME
-CHANGING F
IELDS 3
29

7
-5. At o
roidal c
oi
l of 1,000 turns has amean r adius of20c m and ar adiusf orthe
w
inding of 2c m. Wha t ist he average self
-inductance ( a) wi
th a n a
irco re and (6
)
w
ith an i
ron co
re having an a verage rela
tive incrementa lp e
rmeab i
lity of800?
AIM: (a
) 1.26 mh ; (b) 1
.006 henrys.
7
-8. Wha t i
st he mutual inductance o fa n ideal t
ransformer i fa6 0-cps current o
f
1amp r ms app
lied t
o the prima ry induces 10v olts rms at the se
conda ry terminals?
7
-7. Af i
xed, square 5-
turn c oi
l w ith lower l e
ft corner at the orig
in h as side
s of
l
eng
th xla nd y1. Ifx1 =y l 1meter a nd ift he magnetic fl
ux d ens
ity B i snormal
t
othe plane ofthe c
oil a
nd h as as pace v a
riation of amplitude

TX r
y
B. = 3s
i
n— s i
n— w
eber
s/met
er'
Xi 1
/

f
i
nd the r ms e mf i nduced i nt he coil i fB v aries h armon icaly w i th time 1 ,000 c ps.
An s.: 2 7
,000 v olt s r ms.
7
-8. Wha t i st he d isplacement c urrent d ens ity o f a magne tic f i
e
ld i n f ree s pace
g
iven b y Ho Ho s
i n (04 —f i
x)? Ho H, =0 .
7
-9. A n a ir c apac itor c onsist
ing o f t wo f l
at, p ara l
le l, squa re plate s m ea suring
2
0 b y 20 c m a nd s paced 2cm a pa rt h as a 1 ,000 -ohm r esistor c onne cted b etween t he
c
enters oft he p la tes
. A1 0- Mc/sec e mf of 10 v olts p eak i sa pp lied to the c apa c
ito r
.
Neglect fr
ing ing o f t he f i
e
ld . F ind ( a) the r ms d isplacemen t c urrent t hrough t he
c
apa c
itor, ( b) t he r ms c onduct ion c ur ren t
, a nd ( c
) the t otal cur ren t.
Ans
. (c) 1 0.6 ma .
7
-10. Ac apac ito r c onsisting o f t wo flat p arallel p late s 50 b y 5 0 cm s qua re a nd
s
paced 1 0c m a par t isc omp letely f i
l
led w ith as lab o fd ielectric ma terial
. A n e m fof
2
,000 v o
l t
s r ms a t 1 Mc/se c isa pplied t o the p lates. F ind t he p owe r dissipa ted a s
h
eati nt he d ielec tric i fthe dielectric h as ap owe rf acto ro f0.005 a nd ar e
la tive d i
elec-
t
r
ic cons tant o f8 .
7
-11. A1 0- tu rn coilo f0 .01 mete r'a rea rota tes3 ,600 r pm ( 60 r ps)i n au n
i fo rm f i
eld
o
ff l
ux den sity B = 0 .1 w eber/me ter 2. F ind t he p eak i nduced e mf
. T he c o
i l axis is
n
orma l to B . Ans
.: 3.77 v olts.
7
-12. G iven t hat t he a verage p owe r diss
ipa ted p e r u nit v olume o f a med ium i s
E
(aD/8 1) c os 0w atts/me ter'
, w here 0 = t ime -phase a ng le between E a nd D . S how
t
hat the tota l a verage p ower d iss
ipa ted i n ap a rallel
-p late c apa cito risV Ic os 0w atts
,
where V = v ol tage a cros sc apacitor a nd I c ur ren tt hrough c apa c
itor. T he med ium
f
i
l
ling t he c apac ito r i sn onconduc ting . N eglect f r
ing ing . E , D , V, a nd Ia re r ms
v
alues.
7
-13. S how t ha t B
rush Shaf
t

a
s a
A
-
if •d
s 9
6-v •
c d
l — B
rush

7
-14 . A t hin brass disc 20 c m in d iame ter i s
s
i
tua ted w ith i t
splane normal to amagne t
ic fi
eld of
c
ons tant f l
ux d ens
ity B = 1 w ebe r/me ter'
. T he
magne t
ic f i
e
ld i severywhere uni
form ( s
ee Fig. 7-25).
I
fthe d i
s cr otates 1rps
, fi
nd the em f Vd eveloped a t
F
io. 7-
25. F araday di
sc g en-
t
he t ermina ls connected as shown t o brushe s, one e
rato
r.
p
laced a gainstt he pe
riphery ofthe disc and the other
a
gain st the sha f
t. Th is ar
rangement i sc al
led aF araday di
sc gen
e ra
tor.
7-15. R epea t Prob. 7
-14 with the mod ification t hat t
he magnetic fi
eld v
ar
ie s w
i th
t
ime a sg iven b y B = Bos i
no g
, w here Bo = 1w ebe r/metersand co 2 i
r X10t ad/se c
.
3
30 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 7

7
-18 . I n ab eta tron t he a verage f lux d ensity i ns
ide t he e lectron o rb it isgiven a sa
f
unc tion o f t ime b y B = Bo s in w t, w here Bo = 0 .05 w ebe r/me te r 2a nd co= 2 r X6 0
r
ad/ sec . The r ad ius o ft he e l
ec tron o rb i
t is1 0 cm . N egle ct re
la tivistic e fect s
.
a
. F ind t he v eloc ity vo ft he e lec trons a t at ime t= 1m il
lisec i f v=" 0a t 1= 0 .
b
. F ind t he e ne rgy p eru nit c ha rge i mpa r
ted t ot he elect ron i no ne revolu t
ion i ni t
s
o
rbit.
c
.F ind t he n umbe ro fr evo lu tions i n 1m i
ll isec.
d
. E xpress t he e lectron e nergy a fter 1m i
llisec i ne l
ec tron v o
lts.
7
-17 . S how t ha t af i
eld g iven b y B =k /r, whe re ki s ac on stan t a nd ri st he r adial
d
is
tance , is af i
eld s a
tisfy ing t he 1t o 2c ondition a t a ny r adiu si n ab etatron . N o
te:
I
n prac tice a f i
eld B = k /r", where n i sless t han 1 ,i su sed . T he 1t o 2c ond i t
ion i s
s
t
il
ls a tisf
ied a tt he elec tron o rbit ( r=R ), but t h
is t yp eo ff ie
ld a lso f ocusest he b eam
i
ns uch aw ay a st o prov ide r adia l a nd a x
ial s tability t o t he elect ron o rbit
.
7
-18 . Av ector f i
eld i so f t he f orm F = i F . ±j F, +k Fs,w here F . =F . = 0a nd
F
. =s in x. ( a
) F ind c url F . ( b) Find d iv ( curl F )
. ( c
) D raw a d iag ram s how ing
Fand c url Fa s af unc t
ion o f xo ver ad i
stance o fa t least 2 e
rr ad.
7
-19 . A magne tic f ie
ld v ary ing h armon ically w ith t ime 1 0 6cps i nduce s ap eak e mf
o
f 5v olt sin as ingle -turn s qua re l o
op o f 10 me ters 2area . T he p lane o ft he lo op i sat
a
n a ng le o f4 5° w ith r espect t o t he d irection o ft he f i
eld. F ind t he peak v a
lue o f B.
7
-20 . A1 - henry i nductance h as ar e sis
tance o f 5o hm s
. I f ast eady e mfo f 1 0v olts
i
sa pp lied a t t= 0 ,f ind t he l eng th o ft ime requ ired f ort he c urren ti nt he induc tance
t
o reach 8 0 p er c ent o fi t
s f i
na l v alue.
7
-21 . As ma l
l f l
ip c o
il u sed t o measure magne tic f i
e
ld sh as 5 0t urnsa nd a n area o f
1
0 cm '. The f i
e
ld i sn orma lt ot he p lane o ft he c oi
l. I f ab all
istic g alvanome terc on-
n
ected t o t
he c oil i ndica tes t he p assage o f 10- 4 coulomb w hen t he c o
il isf l
ipped 1 80°,
f
i
nd t he f l
ux d en sity B . The c oil -galvanomete r ci
r cuit h as ar es
i stance o f5 00 o hm s.
 CHAPTER 8

THE RELAT
ION BET WEEN F
IELD AND
C
IRCU
IT THEORY
. MAX WELL
'S EQUAT
IONS

8
-1. I ntroduction . I n circuit theory w e deal w ith c ircuit elemen ts,
t
he voltage V a cross them , and the t o
ta l curren t It hrough t hem . I n
f
i
eld theo ry w e deal with the fi
eld vecto r
s ( E
, D , B , H , a nd J ) and their
v
alues a s af unc
tion o fp osi
tion.
Conside r
,f orinstance, asho rtrod \
Cr j

o
fl e
ng th 1a nd c ross-
sectional area
FIG
. 8 -
1. C onduc t
ing rod.
A in Fig . 8-1. I n low-f
requency -
c
i
rcuitt heory itisc onvenien ttod e
scribe t he rod i nt e
rms o fo ne quantity,
i
t
sr es
is tance R. I tsl e
ngth,a rea, and s
hape a reo fs econda ry impo rtance.
Thus the voltage diference b e
tween t he ends oft he r od is
,f rom O hm 's law,
V=I
R (
8
-1)
w
here I = c
urrent t
hrough rod
.
F
rom t
he fi
e
ld -
theory p
ointofv iew w
ec ons
ider t
he v
alue o
fthe e
l
ectr
ic
f
i
e
ld E a
t ap o
in tinthe rod
. F rom Ohm's law a
t apo
int

E= v
olt
s/me
ter (
8
-2)
c
r

whe
re J = conduc
tion current d
ensity (
amp/meter 2)
a= conduc
tivity (mhos/mete r
)
Now, in
teg
rating (
8-2) over t
he l
ength o
fthe r
od, we ob
tain t
he v
oltage
d
iference V b
etween the ends
. T ha t i
s
,

v = f E •d
l =
f_
.d
1 (
8
-3)

F
or au
nifo
rm r
od w
ith u
nifo
rm c
urren
t d
ens
ity t
h
is b
ecome
s

V=—
1 = J
. A —
a
A v
olt
s (
8
-4)
a
w
here JA = I = c
urren
t t
hrough r
od (
amp
)

—/ = R = r
e
sis
tance o
frod (
ohms
)
eA
A =c
ros
s-s
ect
iona
l a
rea o
frod (
meter
s')
3
31
3
32 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 8

T
hus
, f
r
om (
8
-4) w
e h
ave
V=I
R (
8
-5)

S
tart
ing w ith fi
eld theory w eh ave a rrived a tt he ci
rcuit relation k nown a s
Ohm's law.
H
isto r
ically this and o ther circuit r e
la t
ions w e
re p ostula ted a nd v er
i-
f
i
ed fi
rst. T hen, as ag enera l
iza tion, t hey w ere extended s o as to a pply
t
o the mo re gene ral fi
eld s i
tua tion. I t f
ollows, t here
fo re
, t hat circuit
r
e
lations are simp ly special cases o ff i
e
ld e qua tions a nd may b e deduced
f
rom them . A l though f i
eld re
la tions a re mo re general,i ti susually much
s
implert ou se circu
it equa tions w hereve r these are applicab le.
Equation (8-1) is apure c i
rcuit r e
lation . O nthe other h and , (8-2
) i sa
p
ure fi
eld rela
tion . Many e qua tions a re no tp urely one o rt he otherb ut
a
re a comb ination o r mixture. S uch m ixed r e
lations a re n ecessary, for
e
xamp le
, i n orde r to p rovide a c onnec t
ion b etween f i
eld a nd c ircuit
t
heory
. Two i mportant e quations t ha t provide s uch c onnec t
ing l inks
a
re
V=f
E •d
l v
o
lts (
8
-6)
a
nd
/= 5
CH •d
l amp (
8
-7)

Equa tion ( 8-6) relates V ( ac i

rcuit q uan t
ity) b etween t wo p oin ts t o the
l
ine i nteg ral o f E ( a f i
eld q uan tity ), b etween t ho se p oin ts
. L ikew ise
(
8-7 ), w hich i s Ampe re's l aw , rela tes I( a circuit q uan t
i ty) t o the l i
ne
i
nteg ral o fH ( af i
eld q uan tity ) around ac l
osed p ath.
8
-2. A pplica t
ions o f C ircu it a nd F ield T heory . Wh i
le f i
e
ld r e
la tions
a
re a pp licab le i n gene ral, c ircuit r e
lations a re u sua lly mo re c onven ient
whe rever V a nd Ih ave as imp le, w el
l-defined s ignificance .
T hus, i nd e
term ining t he c apac itance o f ac apaci to r o
fi r
regu lar s hape
w
i th t he a id of ag raph ica lf i
eld map ( s
ee F ig
.2 -24) w ea rei ne fect d i rect-
i
ng o ur a tten t
ion t othe f i
eld a nd i tsv alue as af unction o fp osition i nt he
c
apa cito r. Howeve r, o nce w eh ave d ete rmined t he c apac itance , w e may
a
tl ow f requenc iesc onside ri ta ss imp ly at wo-te rmina l ci
rcu ite lemen t o
f
c
apac itance C w ith av oltage d ife rence V . T he p hy sical s i
ze a nd s hape
o
ft he c apac ito ra nd t he f i
eld c onfigura t
ion w ith in ita rethen r elega ted t o
p
o sitions o fseconda ry i mpo rtance .
As a no ther i lus t
ration l et u s c onside r the c oaxia l transm is sion l i
ne,
s
hown i nc rosss ection i nF ig. 8 -2
,u ndert wo cond it
ions , one w here V a nd
Ia re u sefu l quan titiesa nd o ne w he re they a re n ot
. T he c oaxia ll ine h as
a
ni nner c onduc to ro fr ad ius aa nd a n o uter conduc tor o fi nside r adius b .
With a s teady p o tential d ife rence b etween t he c onduc to rs t he e lec tr
ic
f
i
eld l ine s are r adial a s s hown . I f ac urren t Ii sf l
ow ing, t he magne t
ic
f
i
eld l i
ne s Ha re circles a si ndicated . Now b y ( 8
-6) t he p oten tial d ifer-
SE
C
. 8
-2
] MAX WELL'
S EQUATIONS 3
33

e
nce b
etween t
he i
nne
r a
nd o
ute
r c
onduc
tor
s i
s

V = fab E •d
r v
olt
s (
8
-8)

L
ikew
ise f
r
om (
8
-7) t
he c
urrent Ii
nthe i
nne
r c
onduc
tori
s

/= 5
6 H •d
l = .
12
r H
rdO amp (
8
-9)

I
n ( 8-8) Vi si ndependent o ft he p ath b etween t he c onduc to rs
, w hile i n
(
8-9) Ii si ndependent o ft he r adius rp rov ided i t
i
sb etween aa nd b . H ence , Va nd Ih ave as imple,
d
efinite s ignificance i n t his c as e a nd a re u seful
q
uant ities.
The fi
eld c onfigura tion s hown i nF ig.8 -2i sc a
lled
aT ransve r se E lectro Magne tic f i
e
ld ( abbrev iated
TE M ) b ecause t he e l
ec tric a nd magne tic f i
eld are
e
ntirely t r ansve rse ( no c omponen t i n t he a x
ia l
d
irection ). T his type o ff ie
ld i st he o n
ly c onf igura -
Fla
.8 -2. C oaxialt r ans-
t
ion o r fi
eld mode p ossib le u nde rs teady c ond itions m is
sion l i
ne with TE M
a
nd a lso f or t ime -va ry ing s itua t
ion s w he re the mode .
waveleng th i so f the o rder o f 4b o rg rea ter. ' A t
h
ighe rf requenc ie s( sho rte rw ave leng ths ) mo re comp lex f i
eld c onfigura tions
k
nown a sh ighe r-order modes b ecome p ossib le. T hese mode sa rec ha rac -
t
erized b yh aving s ome f i
eld c omponen t si nt he axiald i
rection . A l though
c
oax ial lines a re s e
ldom u sed u nde rs uch c ond it
ions ,s uppo se t hatt he f re-
q
uency i ss ufi c
ien tly h igh f ort he mode o rc onfigura tion s hown i nF ig.8 - 3
t
oe x
ist. B oth ac ross( o rt ran sve rse)s ection a nd al ongitud ina l( ora xial )
s
ection a re n eeded t oshow t he fi
eld c onfigura tion. T his fi
eld may b ec alled
aT ransve rse Magne tic ( abbrev ia ted TM ) mode b ecause t he magne tic f i
eld
i
se ntirely t r
ansve rse,w hile t he electric f i
eld h as al ongitud ina lc omponen t.
Now , f o
rt his mode , t he v oltage V b e tween t he conduc torsa so btained b y
(
8-8) may b ecome n egligib le,w hile the c urren t /o b
ta ined b y( 8-9)d epends
o
nt he rad iu s ra tw hich H i sinteg rated . H ence V a nd In ol onge rh ave a
s
imp le s ign if
i cance a nd a re n ot a s u sefu l a s the f i
eld q uan tities t hem -
s
elve s
. T he b reakdown o f t he c ircuit c oncept o ccur red h ere w hen t he
t
ran sver se d imen sions b ecame c ompa rab le w ith the w aveleng th.

'T hat i
s
, the f
requency iss
o high t
hat adisturbance t
r
aveling w
ith t
he v
eloc
ity o
f
l
i
gh t can t
ravel on
ly a bout a d
is
tance equa
l to the d
iameter (
26
) inone-ha
lf per
iod
.
I
n free s
pace aw ave has awavelength Xin mete
rs tha
tisrela
ted tothe f
r
equency fi
n
c
ycles persecond by the ve
loc
ity ofligh
t ca s f
ol
lows:

X c
/f
, w
here c 3X 1
0 8 me
ters/
sec

F
or af
ur
the
r d
i
scus
sion o
f f
i
e
ld mode
s i
nli
nes a
nd g
uide
s s
ee C
hap
s. 1 a
nd 1
2
.
3
34 F
T.F:
CTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 8

H
r

C
ros
s s
ec
tion L
ong
itud
ina
l s
e
ct
ion
a
t AA
' i
A
'
(
a) (b
)
FI
G
. 8
-3
. C
oax
ial t
r
ansm
iss
ion l
i
ne w
ith h
igher
-order (
TM) mode
.

8
-3. The Ser
ies Circuit. C ompa
rison o
f Fie
ld a nd Circu
it Theory.
'
F
rom ( 7
-151
) the e
lectric fi
e
ld E may be e
xpressed in t
erms of asca
lar
p
otent
ial Vd ue t
o e
lect r
ic cha
rges a
nd a v
ector po
ten t
ial Ad ue t
o cur
-
r
ents b
y
a
A
E = —VV — (
8
-10
)
a
t
A
t apo
int on o
r i
n aconducto
r t
he e
lec
tric f
i
eld i
sre
lated t
othe c
urrent
d
ens
ity J a
nd t
he c
onductiv
ity c
rby Ohm's l
aw a
t ap o
int
. T hatis
,

Et = (
8
-11
)

whe
re Et = to
talelect
ric fi
e
ld a
t the po
int. This to
tal fi
eld i
sequa
l t
oE
a
s given by (
8-
10) plus any a
dditiona
l appl
ied orimpressed f
ie
ld E
. due
,
f
or example
, to agenerator w
ho se c
harges o
r c
urrents a
re exc
luded f
r
om
c
onsidera
tion indetermining V and A in (
8
-10)
. Thus

E + E = Et (
8
-12
)
a
nd
=
- —E v
olt
s/me
ter (
8
-13
)

S
ubs
titu
ting f
r
om (
8
-10
) a
nd (
8
-11
) i
n (
8
-13
), w
e o
bta
in

j a
A
E
. =-
: +
0 —
a
t +v
v (
8
-14
)

Cons
ider n
ow the appl
ication of t
his fi
eld r
ela
tion to the s
ta
tionary
s
er
ies ci
rcu
it o
f Fig
. 8-4 con
taining res
istance
, induc
tance, and capac
i-
t
ance. The to
tal l
eng
th o fthe ci
rcu
it isassumed to be smal
l c
ompa red
'
See J
ohn R. Car
son , E
lec
tromagne
tic Theory and t
he F
ounda
tion
s o
f C
ircu
it
T
heory
, Bel
l S
ystem T . J
ech .
, 6, 1
-
17, J
anuary
, 1 9
27.
SE
C. 8
-3
1 MAX WELL'
S EQUATIONS 3
35

w
ith a w avelength s o t
hat the current Ih a s the s
ame v a
lue
, at any
i
nstant
, at all po
in ts o
f the ci
rcu
it. Ag enerator impre
s se
s an appl
ied
f
i
eld E.between t erminals 1and 2. I fnoc apacitor i
spresent (
terminals
3a nd 4 c
onnec ted together
) a nd t
he fie
ld relation (8
-14) isinteg
rated
a
round ac l
osed p ath t
hatf o
llows t
he conduct-
i
ng ci
rcui
t, w e obtain

E
. •d
l = •d
i +9
6a-
- •d
A l (
8
-15
)
C
r a
t
Ea
There i
sn o contr
ibu t
ion f
rom t he th
ird te
rm
o
ft he r
igh t-hand si
de of (8
-14) si
nce the li
ne
i
ntegra
la round aclosed p
ath o
f afie
ld due t
oa
3 4
s
calarpo tential i
sze
ro. I tisassumed thatE .
e
xistsonly b etween te
rminals 1and 2. H ence F
la. 8
-4
. S
er
ies c
i
rcu
it w
ith
r
e
sistance, induc
tance
, a
nd
• = f2 E
. •d
l ='
1
) v
olt
s (
8
-16
) c
apacitance
.

where 1
.
)=e mf app
lied (a
t terminals 1 a nd 2) by gene
rator
. T he
g
enerato
r i sassumed to beimpedancele
ss.
Now f(J/ cr
) •dlin (8
-15
) yie
lds the t
otal IR drop a
round t
he c
ircu
it.
I
nF ig
. 8
-4t he tota
lr e
sis
tance R o
fthe ci
rcuit i
sassumed tobelumped in
asi
ngle r
esistor
.
The l
ast term in (
8-15
) may be re
expressed as
i

96A •d
l =d
—
I 5
6A— •d
l =L d
—
I (
8
-16a
)
d
t I d
t
A
w
here L = 5
6—I •d
l =i
nductance o
fci
rcu
it

A= d
v =v
ecto
r p
otent
ial
4
7
r r
I
n Fig
. 8 -4 the total induc
tance L o f the circuit i
ss hown l
umped in a
s
i
ngle induc tor
. S ince A ispropor
tiona l to the current
, i
tfol
low s t
hat
A
// and h ence L i sindependent ofthe c ur
rent . T hus, f
or t
he ca
se o
fa
c
los
ed circuit cons
is t
ing of agenera
to r
, ar esistor, a
nd aninductance t
he
f
i
eld r
e
la tion (8-15) reduces t
o the c
ircuit equa t
ion

v = I
R L— d
I (
8
-17
)
d
t
The t
rans
format
ion o
f (8
-16a
) may b
e al
so made w
ith t
he a
id o
fStoke
s' t
heorem
,
r
eca
ll
ing that B = Vx A a
nd A = L
I, a
s f
olows
,

—i 9
d 6 A •d
l d f (
v xA
) •d
s !
5 B •d
s d
A = L d
l
d
i T
i
t a
where L i
sthe i
nduc
tance o
f t
he l
oop a
nd I t
he c
urrent t
hrough i
t
. I
t i
ssimp
les
t
h
ere
, t
hough n
ot e
ssen
tia
l, t
o t
h
ink o
fthe i
nductor a
s as
i
ngle
-turn l
oop
.
3
36 ELECTRO MAGNET1CS [
CHAP
. 8

L
et us n ow reintroduce the c apac i
to r b e
tween term inals 3 a nd 4
(
Fig
. 8-4
). I fw eintegrate (
8-14) fort his case a
round ac lo
sed p ath t
hat
f
o
llows the conducting ci
rcuit and a cros s the g
ap in the capacitor, t
he
c
ontr
ibution ofthe term invo
lving J /u b ecome sinde
term inate because i
n
t
he capac
itor Ja nd a b oth approach z ero
. H ence l
et us i n
teg ra
te al
l
t
erms in (8
-14) around a p a
th t hat i sc lo
sed except for the s mal
l gap
a
cros
s the capac
itor (between termina ls 3a nd 4)
. T h
is gives

d
I
'
U=I
R + L—
t +
d (
8
-18
)

A
s suming thatt he gap isvery s ma
ll
, ( 8
- 18) i
si dent
icalw ith (8
-17) except
f
or the a ddi
tiona l t e
rm V , representing t he i ns
tan taneous p o
ten t
ial
d
iference between t he plates of t
he c apacitor. T his w a
s obtained b y
i
ntegrating VV a round the conduc t
ing p a
th from t erminal 3to4 . I fw e
i
ntegrate V V fr
om 4 t o 3a cro
ss the c apacitor, we o b
tain — V . T hus,
t
he line in
tegral o f VV a round a c lo
sed p ath f r
om t erminal 3b ack to
t
erminal 3y ie
lds V , — V , =0 . Now V , i
n ( 8
-18) may b e e
xpressed in
t
erms o fthe charge Q o n the p
lates and t he capacitance C by

f Id
t (
8
-19
)
C C
T
hus
, the f
i
e
ld equat
ion of (
8
-14
) can b
e a
ppl
ied t
o as
e
rie
s RLC c
i
rcu
it
t
oyi
eld t
he f
ami
liar c
ircu
it e
qua
tion'

d
I 1
(
8
-20
)

F
or h
armon
ic v
aria
tion w
ith r
e
spect t
o t
ime (
8
-20
) r
educe
s t
o

=I
R + (
8
-20a
)
PA
;
or

=I
R +j
l(c
oL — —1 ) (
8
-20b
)
wC
In d
er
iv ing (8-20) from (8
-14) t he assump tion w as made t hat a t a ny
i
ns
tan t the c
urrent i sthe s
ame a t al
l p arts oft he c ircuit
. T his i mplies
t
hat adisturbance isp ropagated around t he circuit i n
stantaneous ly. I f
t
he ci
rcuit le
ngth iss ma
ll c
ompa red w ith t he w aveleng th, th
is is as a
tis-
f
actory assump t
ion. Howeve r
, ift he circuit leng th i sappreciable c om -
p
ared with the w avelength (
say at l e
ast waveleng th), the variation i n
c
urrent a nd phase around the c i
rcuit may b ecome s i
gnif
ican t
. Unde r
t
hese ci
rcums tances t he s
imple circuit c oncep ts t end to become i nade -
q
ua te and inaccurate. I t i
sa lso t o be n oted t ha t the above c ircuit
C
ompa
re w
ith (
7
-80
).
SE
C
. 8
-4
] MAX WELL'
S EQUATIONS 3
37

t
reatmen t ig nore s t he p henomenon o f r adia tion , w hich i ss o impor tant
a
th igh f requenc ie s ( s
ee C hap . 13).
There a re c erta in e xcep t
ions t o t he a bove s tatemen t tha t c i
rcuit c on-
c
ep ts b ecome i nadequa te w hen t he c i
r cuit l eng th i sc ompa rab le w ith t he
wave leng th. F or e xamp le, c ircuit c oncep ts a re s uccessfully a pplied t o
t
he l ong t ransm is sion l i
ne. I n t his c ase
, t he d istributed i nduc tance a nd
c
apac itance a re r epre sented b ys u
itab le lumped e l
emen ts ( see C hap . 1 ).
A
lthough t he l eng th o ft he l ine can b e many w ave lengths,i ti ss ign
ificant ,
h
oweve r, tha t e ven i n t his e xtension o f c i
rcu it t heory t he t reatment i s
a
dequa te o nly f or l ine s w ith t r
ansver se d imens ion s that a re v ery s mall
c
ompa red w ith t he w ave leng th.
8-4. Maxwel 's E qua tions a s G enera lizations o f Circu it E quations .
I
n t he r ema inde r o ft h
is c hap ter an umbe r ofr elations d eve loped i nt he
p
reced ing c hapte rs a re b rough t t oge the r a nd c onsidered a s ag roup .
Thes e r e
la t
ions a re k nown a s Maxw ell
's e qua tions a nd c on s
i st of four
e
xpre ssions :o ne d erived f rom Ampere 's l aw, o ne f rom Faraday 's law , and
t
wo d er
ived f r om G aus s's l aw . T hese e qua tions a re ofp rofound i mpo r-
t
ance a nd, t oge the r w i th b ounda ry, c ontinu ity, a nd other a ux il
iary r e
la -
t
ions, f orm t he b asic t oo ls f or t he a naly s
is o f mo st e l
ec tromagne tic
p
rob lem s
.
InC hap . 4Ampe re's l aw r e
la t
ing t he line i nteg ra lofH a round ac losed
p
ath t o t he c urren t Ie nc lo sed i sg iven a s

f
i H •d
l =/ (
8
-21
)

Rep
lacing t
he c
urrent /bythe s
urfa
ce in
tegra
l o
fthe c
onduc
tion c
urrent
d
ensity Jo
vera n a
rea bounded b
y the p
ath o
fin
tegra
tion o
fH, weh ave
t
he more g
enera
l re
lation
9
6 H•d
1 = is J
•ds (
8
-22
)

I
nC hap
. 7t h
is r
e
lation w
as made e
ven mo
re genera
lb yadd
ing ad
isp
lace-
ment c
urrent d
ensi
ty to the c
onduct
ion cur
rent dens
ity s
o t
hat (
8-22
)
b
ecomes
a
9
6H •d
l =f (J + l
w •d
s (
8
-23a
)
8
Th
is relat
ion isc a
lled Maxwell
's equation a sd er
ived from Ampe re's l
aw.
I
n ( 8
-23a) iti sgiven i
n it
s integra
l f o
rm , t he li
ne integral of H being
t
aken o ver ac l
osed pa
th b ounding the sur fa ce s
. I n circuit pa
rlance a
c
lo
sed p ath or loop i
soften ca
lled a "me sh." H ence, (8-23a) is amesh
r
e
lation. A pplying S
tokes'theorem to( 8-23a ),w eo bta
in t he c
orrespond-
i
ng point r
elat
ion
OD
Vx H = J -1 - -i
c (
8
-23b)
3
38 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
.8

Equat
ion (8
-23b) i
s adiferen
tial r
e
lation and re
lates t
he f
i
eld quantit
ies
a
t ap o
int
. I tisthe d
iferent
ial f
orm o f Maxwel
l's e
quat
ion as derived
f
rom Ampere's law
.
I
nC hap. 7Faraday's l
aw r
elat
ing t
he em f Vinduced i
n aci
rcuittot he
t
ime r
ate o
fd ec
rease oft
he to
tal magnetic f
lux l
i
nking t
he c
ircu
it isgiven
a
s
dA
(
8-24a)
dt

R
eplac
ing t
he fl
ux li
nkage A b
y t
he s
urface i
n
tegra
l o
fBo ve
r t
he a
rea
b
ounded b
y the c
ircu
it, w
e h
ave t
he mo
re genera
l e
qua
tion

= — f B •d
s (
8
-24b
)

R
eplac
ing V i
n (8
-24b
) by t
he l
ine i
n
tegra
l of Earound the c
ircu
it, w
e
h
ave t
he s
t
il
l more g
enera
l r
e
lat
ion (f
or s
ta
tionary c
ircu
its
) tha
t

9
6 E •d
l = — f—B •
a ds (
8
-25
)
,a
t
Th
is fi
e
ld relation i
s ag enera
liza tion of F a
raday's c
i
rcuit l
aw (8-24a).
Equa
tion (8
-25 ) i
scalled Maxwe ll's equation as d
er
ived fr
om F a
raday 's
l
aw. Iti sgiven in (8-25) in in
teg ra
l form, that i
sto s
ay, i
tis a me sh
e
quat
ion. T he co
rrespond ing poin trelat
ion may b eob
tained f
rom (8-25)
b
y an app
lication ofS tokes' t
heo rem , y
ielding

a
B
vx
E = ——
a
t (
8
-26
)

Equation (8
-26) is adife
ren tia
lr e
lat
ion and re
latesthe f
i
eld q
uant
itiesat
apoin t
. I t isthe d iferentia
l form of Maxwe ll
's equa
tion as d
erived
f
rom F araday's l
aw.
I
n C hap. 1G auss's l
aw relating t
he s
urface i
ntegra
l ofthe e
l
ect
ric fl
ux
d
ensity D to the charge Q enclosed i
sgiven a
s

9
6. D •d
s =Q (
8
-27
)

Rep
lacing Q in (8
-27) b
y the vo
lume i
ntegral o
f t
he cha
rge d
ens
ity p
t
hroughout the v
olume e
nclosed b
y t
he s
urface s
,(8
-27
) may b
e wr
itten
i
n amo re g
enera
l form a
s
9
6. D •d
s = pd
v (
8
-28
)

This f
i
eld re
lation is ag
ene
ral
ization o
f Gaus
s's law and isca
lled Max-
wel
l's e
lec
tric fi
e
ld equat
ion as der
ived f
rom G auss
's law
. I n (8-28
) i
t
appear
s in integra
l form and appl
ies t
o afinite volume v. A pply
ing
S EC
. 8
-41 MAXWELL
'S E
QUAT
IONS 3
39

(
8-28) to a
n inf
ini
tesima
l volume, we can obta
in the cor
respond
ing
d
iferen
tialr
ela
tion tha
t r
e
late
st he f
i
e
ld quant
itiesat ap
oint a
sgiven b
y

V •D = p (
8
-29
)

Equation (8-29
) i s Maxwe l
l's el
ectr
ic f i
eld equat
ion as d
er
ived from
Gauss's l
aw indiferential f
orm.
In the c
ase of magne t
ic fi
e
lds the surface i
nteg
ral o
f Bover aclo
sed
s
urface syie
lds ze
ro. T hus the magnetic coun
terpart o
fGauss
's e
l
ectric
f
i
eld rela
tion (8
-27) is
9
6. B •d
s =0 (
8
-30
)

T
he c
orre
spond
ing d
ife
ren
tia
l o
r p
oin
t r
e
lat
ion i
s

V •B = 0 (
8
-31
)

Equa t
ions ( 8-30 ) a nd ( 8-31) may b e r eferred t o as Maxwe l
l's magne tic
f
i
eld e qua tions a s d erived f rom Gaus s's l aw . E qua t
ion ( 8-30) i s the
i
nteg ral a nd ( 8-31 ) ist he d ife ren tial f o rm.
The d eve lopment o f Maxwe ll's e qua tions a s g ene ra l
iza t
ions o f c i
rcuit
r
e
la tions i nvo lves b oth i nduc tive a nd p hy sica l r eason ing. I t i s not
i
mp lied t ha t t he " der iva tion" i s r igo rous. Maxwe l
l's e qua tions a re
j
ustified b y t he f act t ha t c onc lusion s b ased o n t hem h ave b een f ound i n
i
nnume rab le c ases t o b e i n e xce l
len t a greemen t w ith e xperimen t, i n the
s
ame w ay a s the e a r
lie r c i
rcu i t r e
la tions a re j ustif
i ed w ithin t heir mo re
r
estric ted d oma in b y t he e xce llent a greemen t o f c onclusion s b a sed o n
t
hem w ith e xpe riment . I t i sp erhaps w orth r ecalling t ha t Maxwe ll
's
e
qua tion s w ere n o
t g ene rally a ccep ted f or many y ea rs after t hey w ere
p
o stula ted ( 1873 ). H is c url e qua tions ( invo lving V xE a nd V xH )
implied t ha t t ime -va ry ing e lec tric a nd magne tic f i
elds i n e mpty s pace
were i n terdependen t, ac hang ing e lec tric f i
eld b eing a ble t o gene rate a
magne tic f ie
ld , a nd v ice v ersa . T he i nference f rom t his ist ha t at ime-
c
hang ing e lec tromagne tic f i
eld w ould p ropaga te e ne rgy t hrough emp ty
s
pace w ith t he v e
loc ity o f ligh t ( see C hap. 9 ) a nd, f urther, t hat l ight is
e
lect romagne tic inn ature . R adio w ave s we re u nknown a tt he t ime , and
i
tw as 1 5 y ea rs ( 1888) b e
fo re Her tz d emons tra ted t hat electromagne t
ic
(
or r ad io) w ave s w ere p o s
sib le a s p red ic ted b y Maxwe ll
.
The re i sn o g uaran tee t hat Maxwe ll's e qua tions a re exact. Howeve r
,
i
ns of ara st he p recision o fe xpe r
imen tal mea suremen ts al
low ,t hey a ppear
t
o b e, a nd t here fore w e may r ega rd t hem a s e xac t.
Along w ith Maxwe ll's e qua tions c er tain o the r f undamenta l r ela t
ions
a
re o f i mpo rtance i n d ea l
ing w ith e lectromagne t
ic p roblems . Among
t
he se may b e men tioned O hm 's l aw a t ap oint ( 3-21 )

J=a
E (
8
-32
)
3
40 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS I
CHAp
. 8

t
he c
ont
inu
ity r
e
lat
ion (
3
-58
)
o
p
V• = ——
d
i (
8
-33
)

t
he f
o
rce r
e
lat
ions
F=q E (
8
-34
)
d
F = /d
1x B (
8
-35
)

a
nd t
he r
e
lat
ions b
etween E a
nd D a
nd b
etween B a
nd H a
s g
iven b
y

D =€
E =e 0E P (
8
-36
)
B= = µ0(
11 M) (
8
-37
)

8
-5. Maxwe l
l's E quat
ions in Free Space. In the preceding s
ect
ion ,
Maxwe l
l's e quations are s
tated in t
heir gene
ral fo
rm . F or the s
pecial
c
ase off r
ee s pace, where t
he cur
rent density J a
nd the charge d
ens
ity p
a
re z
e ro
, t he equa t
ion s r
educe t
o as impler f
orm. I n in
teg ra
l f
orm t he
e
quations a re

s
f
i H •d
i = f a
a
—D
t •ds (
8
-38
)

9
6E•d
1= a
s (
8
-39
)

9
6. D •d
s =0 (
8
-40
)

9
6. B •d
s =0 (
8
-41
)

I
n d
ife
ren
tia
l f
o
rm t
he e
qua
tion
s a
re

a
p
vx , = - (
8
-42
)
a
t
a
B
v xE = — — (
8
-43
)
a
t
r •D = 0 (
8
-44
)
v •B = 0 (
8
-45
)

8
-6. Maxwel's E qua
tions for Harmonical
ly Vary
ing F
ields. If we
a
ssume that t
he f
i
elds vary h
armonica
lly wi
th time
, Maxwel
l's e
quat
ions
may beexpre
ssed i
na no
the rspec
ialfo
rm. Thus ,ifD va
rie
sw ith t
ime a
s
g
iven by
D =D
oe.
"
' (
8
-46
)
t
hen
o
r
) .. .
=3
0
.
1D oe
w =3
0
3D (
8
-47
)

Mak
ing t
he s
ame a
ssump
tion f
o
rB, Maxwe
ll
's e
qua
tions i
nin
teg
ralf
o
rm
 TABLE 8
-1
MAX WELL
'S EQUAT
IONS I N I
NTEGRAL FOR M

F
rom Ampe
re F
rom F
araday F
rom Gau
ss F
rom Gaus
s

D
imens
ion
s Mm
f Em
f E
lect
ric f
l
ux Magne
tic f
l
ux

mouvato smamxvw
mks
c .
C
ase n
i
ta
Ampere
s V
olt
s C
oulombs Weber
s

a
r
o a
B
G
enera
l. . F= 9
6 H •d
l = fa (
J ± 7
3T ) •d 44 V = 9
s = le, 6E •d
l = — is w •d
s t
k= 9
6 . D •d
s — is pd
v l
k
„
, =9
6 . 1 •d
s =0

F
ree s
pace F =9
S H •d
l = f—
• •
a
r
.a
t
d
s .
=/a
sp V =9
6 E •d
l = — 1 —
a
B
8a
t
•d
s q
,= 6D •ds
9
8
=0 %
,
c
„
, =9
6 . B •d
s =0

Ha
rmonic
•a
t
ion
. F= 9
6 H •d
l = O
r +j
am
) is E •d „I V — 9
s = /t„
, 6 E •d
l — —
jaw 1 H •d
s 1
,
1
,= f
i s D •d
s = 1 pd
v 0
,
, = B •d
s -
=0

s
96 8
v
an 8 •

S
teady F=9
6 H •d
l = f J•d
s = Lo„d V = 9
6 E •d
l -
=0 i
,
t
'= 9
6 D •d
s = i pd
v 1
,
1
,,
,= 9
6 8 B •d
s =0
8 8 •

S
tat
ic U = f
i H•d
1 =0 V =9
6 E •d
l =0 0= 9
6 D •d
s = i pd
v V
,
. =9
6 B •d
s =0
• • 8
3
42 ELECTRO MAGNETICS I
CH% p
. 8

r
educe t
o
9
6 H •d
l = (
a+ j
c
oe
) E •d
s (
8
-48
)

E •d
l = -
icop jH •ds (
8
-49
)

9
6. D •d
s = pd
i
' (
8
-50
)

9
6 B •d
s =0 (
8
-51
)

I
n d
ife
rent
ial f
o
rm t
hey a
re
V xH =(
o ±j c
o
t)E (
8
-52
)
V xE = —j
04.
414 (
8
-53
)
V •D =p (
8
-54
)
V •B =0 (
8
-55
)
8
-7 . T ables o f Maxwel 's E qua t
ions . Maxwe ll
's e qua tion s are s um -
ma rized i n T able s 8-
1 a nd 8 -2. T able 8-1 gives Maxwe ll's e qua tions i n
i
nteg ral f orm a nd T able 8 -2 i n d iferential form. The e qua tion s a re
s
tated f o r the g eneral c ase
, f r
ee -
space c ase, harmon ic -va r
ia tion c ase,
s
teady c ase ( sta t
ic f i
e
lds b ut w ith s teady c onduc tion c urren ts), a nd
s
tatic c ase ( s
ta tic fi
e
lds w ith n o c urrents). I nT able 8- 1 t he e quiva lence
i
s a lso i ndicated b etween t he v a r
ious f i
eld q uantities a nd t he e l
ec tric
p
o ten tial V , the em f V, t he magne t
ic p otential U, the mm f F, t he t o
ta l
c
ur ren t /to w
, t he displacemen t curren t hu.
„, the conduc tion c ur ren t
t
he e l
ect r
ic f l
ux and the magne tic flux 0„,
. I t shou ld b e n oted t ha t
Maxwe l
l's e qua tions a s tabu lated h ere a pply specifically t os tationa ry
s
ys tems o r bod ies at rest
.
TABLE 8
-2
MAX WELL
'S EQUATIONS I
N DIFFERENT
IAL FOR M

F
rom Ampe
re F
rom F
araday F
rom Gaus
s F
rom G
aus
s

D
imen-
s
i
ons E
lect
ric c
urrent E
lect
ric p
otent
ial E
lectr
ic f
l
ux Magnet
ic f
l
ux
C
ase a
rea a
rea vo
lume vo
lume

a
D a
B
G
enera
l V xH = J — v xE = — — v• D v• B —0
a
t a
t

a
D a
B
F
ree s
pace
... Vx H = v xE = — — v
• D —0 v
• B =0
a
t a
t

Ha
rmon ic
v
aria
tion.
. V xH = (
a +j
c
oe
)E vx E = V •D a
.
•p v
•B = 0

S
teady vx H =J vx E =0 v
• D =p v• B = 0

S
tat
ic vx H vx E =0 v• D v• B = 0
 MAX WELL
'S EQUATIONS 3
43

PROBLE MS
8
-1. Sta te Maxwe l
l's e qua tions in t
he i
r g enera
l in
tegra l fo
rm . D erive their form
f
or h
a rmon ica l
ly v arying f i
elds.
8
-2. State Maxwe l
l's e qua t
ions i n their general d
if erential f
orm. D erive t heir
f
orm for ha rmon ically v ary ing f i
e
lds.
8
-8. (a) O bta
in t he integra lf orm of Maxwe l
l's e
quation f r
om Ampe re b
yg eneraliz-
i
ng Ampe re's l aw. ( b
) O bta in the corre sponding diferen t
ial or point r
ela t
ion b y
a
pplying S toke s
' theorem .
8
-4. D eve lop Maxwe l
l's e qua t
ion involving V x E from f undamen talcons
ide ration s
o
f aclosed c ircuit ofi nf
in i
tes ima l a
rea.
8
-5. Show t ha tthe exp ression forthe l
ow -frequency inductance asgiven i
n( 8-16a)b y

A
L=9
6- dl
/

r
educe
s f
o
r ac
onduc
ting c
i
rcu
it t
o N
eumann
's l
ow-
frequency i
nduc
tance f
o
rmu
la,

L= 96
96 •d
l
4
r r

8
-6. Atransmiss
ion l
i
ne cons
ist
ing o
ft wo p
ara
lle
l conducto
rs has a l
e
ngth 1a
nd a
c
onductor s
eparat
ion D (c
enter t
o c
enter
). T he conducto
rs are t
hin wal
l t
ube
s o
f

I
Y
2
a 1
+
I d
l
'

d
l
2conducto
r
t
ransmiss
ion li
n
e
FI
G
. 8
-5
. Two -conductor t
ransm
iss
ion l
i
ne.

r
adius a (s
ee F
ig
. 8-5)
. A pply Neumann's low
-frequency i
nduc
tance f
o
rmu
la
(
Prob. 8
-5
) t
oshow t
hat t
he i
nduc
tance o
fthe l
i
ne is

L =— g
o
/ I D
n - h
enrys
r a

C
ompare wi
th (
4
-71)
. A ssume t
hat 1> D, a
nd n
eglect e
nd e
fec
t s
. H in
t: No
te t
hat
d
l
'/r i
n N
eumann's f
ormu
la may be e
xpres
sed i
nthis p
roblem (
see F
ig
. 8
-5) a
s

- ;) d
x

where r
' a
nd r
" = ‘
,
/ x2 -
1D1
.
 CHAPTER 9

P
LANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTR
IC MED
IA

>
( 9 -1. I ntroduc tion . The i nterdependence o f e lec tric a nd magne tic
f
i
elds i sd emon s t
ra ted i n as tr
ik ing manner b y a n e l
ec tromagne t
ic w ave
p
ropaga t
ing t hrough s pace. I ns uch aw ave t he t ime -chang ing magne tic
f
i
eld may b e rega rded a s gene rating at ime -va rying e lec tric f i
eld, orv ice
v
e r
sa , with t he r esult t hat e nergy i spropaga ted t h rough e mp ty s pace a t
t
he v elocity o fl igh t
.
I
n t h
is c hap ter w e begin t he s tudy o fe lectromagne tic w aves b y con -
s
idering t he s imp les t case, n ame ly, t ha t o f ap lane , l i
nea rly p olarized
wave i n al ossles sd ielec tric m edium .
Ap l ane w ave may a lso b e called
ap r
inc ipa l
, z ero -orde r, o r TE M
(
transve rse e lectromagne t
ic) w ave
s
ince E a nd H a ret ran sve rse tot he
d
irec tion o fp ropaga tion . As t udy
o
f p lane w ave s f o rms a n excellen t
i
ntroduc tion t ow ave p henomena i n
g
ene ra la nd t os uch s ystem si np ar-
t
i
cu la ra sw ave g u
ide sa nd t ran sm is-
si
on l ines
.
A
lthough t he f ollow ing d iscus -
F
lo. 9-1
. P lane tr aveling w ave approach -
si
on d eals l arge ly w ith ap lane w ave
i
ng reader (out of p age ).
i
n f ree s pace ( vacuum ), i ti s mo re
g
ene ral. I t a lso a ppl
ie s f or a ny l os sles s ( nonconduc ting) d ielec tric
medium w hich i si s
o tropic, tha ti s
,o ne h aving p roper tiest hata ret he same
i
na ll direc tions.
T he f i
e
ld l i
ne sf or aw ave p ropaga t
ing t owa rd t he r eade r ( out o fp ag e)
a
re i ndica ted i n F ig. 9 -1. T he d irections o f Ea nd H a re e verywhe re
p
erpend icu la r
. I n au niform p lane w ave E a nd H l i
ei n ap lane a nd h ave
t
he s ame v alue e ve rywhe re int hat p lane .
y 9 -2. P lane Waves a nd t he Wave E qua tion. R efer ring t o t he r ight -
handed c oo rdina te s ystem i nF ig. 9-2, a ssume t hat ap lane w ave i strave l-
i
ng i nt he d irection o ft he p os
itive xa xis. T he elec tric f i
eld E h aso nly a
c
omponent E , i n t he y d irection a nd t he magne tic f i
e
ld H o nly a c o
rn -
3
44
SE
C. 9
-2
) PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
45

p
onent H .i nthe zdirect
ion.' Iti ssa
id thatth
is wave i
spola
rized inthe
ydirection (ve
rtica
lly polar
ized)
.
S
ince w e a
re deal
ing w i
th a n onconduct
ing m ed
ium, the conduct
ion
c
urren t dens
ity J i
sz ero
. T hus Maxwe l
l's e
quat
ion fr
om Amp ere
's l
aw
r
educe s to
O
D
vxH =—
a
t (
9-1)

o
rinr
e
ctangu
lar c
oord
ina
tes

it
ax
,_ a
H) ..
(aH
. O
H
, k (
aH, a
l
l)
ka
y Oz
+ 1
a
z a
z) \a
z —a
y
a .
=T
t (
i iD
.±J
D, -
I
-k/
).) (
9
-2)

F
or aplane wave t
rave
ling i
nthe xd
i
rec
tion t
he o
nly c
omponen
ts o
f(9
-2)
t
hat c
ontribute a
re

.
ai
i
, .
ap
.
(
9
-3)
—
3 •
: =3 a
t Ey
T
here
fore
.
a
i
i
. = —e 0
E
, (
9
-4) x
O
x a
t D
irec
tion o
f
p
ropagat
ion
Maxwe
ll
's e
qua
tion f
r
om F
araday
's 1
l
aw i
s
a
s z
vxE = — (
9
-5)
a
t F
in. 9
-2
. Fie
ld componen
ts ofplane
wave wi
th rela
tion to coo
rdinate
o
rinr
e
ctangu
lar c
oord
ina
tes s
ystem
.

Ia
E \ /a
E a
E\ /
aE \
i
--
\-
-
'
a
y
— a
E ) ±
Oz
5 j k
-!
a
z
-a
x
3
)+k
a
x
a
E
v— —!
y)
a
a. .
= —y
t (
1
E
. +J
E
„ +k
i
3.) (
9
-6)

F
or ap
lane wave t
rave
ling i
nthe xd
i
rec
tion t
he o
nly c
omponen
tso
f(9
-6)
w
hich c
ont
ribute a
re 2

k1' = —k a
B' (
9-7
)
a
x a
t
IT he wave i n F
ig. 9-2 i
st rave
ling in t
he po
sit
ive x d i
re ct
ion since
, apply
ing the
r
i
gh t-hand r u
le, Et urned in
to H a dvances (
as ar i
gh t-handed s crew) in t
he po
sit
ive
xdirection
.
I
fi thad b een specif
ied or
iginal
ly that t
he w ave i slinearly polar
ized wi
th E in
t
he yd irec
tion a nd tha
t the wave trave
lsinthe xd irection, itfo
llow s f
rom (9
-6) and
a
lso from (9-2) tha
t H mus tb ei nthe zdi
rect
ion.
3
46 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 9

T
here
fore
a
E _ a
x
, I
(
9
-8)
ax A
L a
t '
Equat
ion (9-4
) relatesthe space d
er
ivative o
f H,tothe t
ime der
ivat
ive
o
f Ev,whi
le (9-8
) re
la tes t
he space d
er
ivative o
fE„ tothe t
ime der
ivat
ive
o
f H, . By diferentiat
ing (9-4) w
ith re
spect t
o the t
ime and (9
-8) wi
th
r
espect t
o di
stance x ,H , c
an b e e
l
iminated and an e
xpress
ion obta
ined
f
or Evinterms of tand x. Proceeding i
nt h
is way
, weo b
tain, f
r
om (9-4),

a(a
il) =
(
9
-9)
T
t\axJ a
t
.
a
nd f
r
om (
9
-8)
a
.
Ei,= a(OH
,
(
9
-10
)
a
x
. a
x\ a
tJ
D
ivid
ing (
9
-10
) b
y —
,u y
ie
lds

— 1a
2
E„= a(a
H)
8X a
x a
2 t 0
-
11)

S
ince i
n(9
-9)itd oe
sn o
t mat
terw he
therw ediferen
tiate f
i
rstwith r
e
spect
t
o xand t
hen wi
th r e
spect t
ot,orvice v
ersa
, t
he le
ft-hand s
ide o
f(9
-9) i
s
e
qual t
o t
he r
ight-hand si
de of (
9
-11) and i
tfo
llows that

a
2
E„ 1a
2
E,
at2 = m
e ax2 (
9
-12
)
1
E
quat
ion (
9-12) r
elatesthe s
pace and t
ime va
riat
ion o
fthe s
cala
r mag
-
tude E
n
i yo ft
he elec
t r
ic fi
e
ld i
ntensi
ty and i
scal
led awav
ee qua
tion i
nE.
I
tis
, i
nfac
t, ascalar wave e
quation ofthe s
imple
stform.
D
iferen
tiat
ing (9
-4) a
nd (9
-8) i
n t
he r
eve
rse o
rde
r, t
hatis
, (
9
-4) wi
th
r
e
spectto xand (
9-8) w
ith r
e
spect t
ot,we c
an e
l
iminate E
„ a
nd ob
tain a
w
ave equat
ion i
n H, a
s
02
H
. 1 a2
H ,I

[
(
9
-13
)
t2
a mea
x2 I

Both (9
-12 ) and (9-
13 ) a
re ofthe same form. Aw ave equa t
ion s uch as
g
iven by (9-12) and (9-13) has many i mportantp hysicalapp lica t
ions a nd
i
ssome t
ime sc a
lled D 'A lember
t's equa
tion, having b een i
nteg ra ted byh im
i
n 1747. I fE yi n (9-12) is atransverse d
isplacemen t, t
he e qua t
ion c an
r
epresent the mo tion of ad is
turbance o n as tretched string. T h
is w as
D
'A lembert's p roblem. I f E„ is a mechan ical c ompres s
ion , t hen t he
e
qua t
ion can descr ibe the motion ofs mal
l oscil
la t
ions ofa i
ri n an arrow
p
ipe. I no ur case E„ represents the s
cala
r magn itude o ft he e lec
tric fi
e
ld
i
ntens
ity of ap lane electromagne tic wave progres s
ing in the xd i
rection,
SE
C. 9
-3
] PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MED
IA 3
47

a
nd t he equation i st he mo stg eneral w ay o
fd escr
ibing the mo t
ion ofthis
f
i
eld a s afunc t
ion o ft ime a nd s pace
.
Au n
iform p lane e l
ec tromagne tic w ave with b oth E a nd H t ransverse
(
perpend icular) t o t he d irection o f propaga tion i sa pproxima ted by a
sma
ll s e
ction of af ree -
space w ave at ag reat distance from as ource
. A s
p
reviously m en tioned t h is t
ype o fw ave may b ec a
lled ap r
inc ipalor TE M
wave. T h
is kind o fw ave i su sually the t
ype f ound o nt wo-wire orcoaxial
t
ransm ission li
ne s
, a l
though o nt hese li
nest he f i
e
ld isn onuniform , t
hati s
,
Ea nd H v ary i nd i
rec t
ion a nd magn itude from p o
int top oin tin atrans-
v
erse p lane. I t w il
l b e noted, h oweve r, t hat a TE M w ave canno t
p
ropaga te i n ah ol
low p ipe or w ave g u
ide, s i
nce ins uch g u
ide s Ea nd H
a
re n ever b oth e ntirely t r
an sverse, there b eing a lways o ne fie
ld com -
p
onen t in the d irection o f propaga t
ion . S uch w aves are c al
led higher-
o
rde r mode s (see C hap . 1 2
).
Let us now i ntroduce aq uan t
ity ri n (9-
12 ) such t hat

v
' =— 1 (
9
-14
)

E
qua
tion (
9
-12
) t
hen b
ecome
s
a2
E
v
g2
a
= V 2 a2 E l
i (
9
-15
)
aX 2

D
imens
iona
lly (
9
-15
) i
s
Vo
lts v2 vo
lts
Me
ter
-second 2 - m
eter
'
s
o t
hat
m
ete
rs
v=
s
e
cond
Thus, ita ppea rs that vh as t
he d imen sions ofv e
locity. T h
is ve
locity is
acha racter
istic o fthe m edium, being d ependen t on the constants µ and
efo
r t he m edium . F or fr
ee space ( vacuum ) vi sapproxima tely equal t
o
3X 1 0' meter s per s
e c
.
X 9 -3. S o
lu t
ions o ft he Wave E qua tion. T he wave e quation (9
-15) isa
l
i
nea r p art
ial d iferen t
ial equation o f the second orde r
. T o apply the
e
qua tion, as olution mus tb efound f orE . Me thods ofs o
lving th
is type
o
f e qua t
ion a re discussed in t e
x t
s o n diferentia
l e qua t
ions. I t wil
l
s
uff
ice h ere tos ay tha tifw e t
ake t he fol
lowing t r
ial s
olu t
ion
E
a
E
. =s
i
n gx m
t) (
9
-16
)
w
here =27
r/X
X= w ave
leng th
m = aconstant (t
o be de
termined
)
=time
w
e f
i
nd on s
ubst
itution in (
9-
15) that
m = ±
r (
9
-17
)
 3
48 ELECTRO MA GNETI CS [
CHAP
. 9

whe
re v= v
eloc
ity
. H
ence ag
ene
ral s
o
lut
ion f
o
r (
9
-15
) i
s

E
, =s
i
n(3
(x v
t
) + s
i
n —v
t
) (
9
-18
)

E
ither te
rm alone is aso
lution
, or t
he sum, as i
n (9
-18)
, is asolution
.
Th
is can be v
er
ified by t
aking the s
econd de
riva
tives o
f the s
olution i
n
t
erms of ta
nd xa nd s
ubs
titut
ing them in (
9
-15). Since v= fX
, itfol
lows
t
hat

f
l
y =—
X .
f
X = 24
r
f =c
o (
9
-19
)

Thus
, (
9
-18
) c
an a
l
so b
e e
xpre
ssed

E
, =s
i
n (
f
ix + c
u
t
) -
I
-si
n (
1
3x — c
u
t
) (
9
-20
)

S
uppo
se t
hatt
he f
i
rstt
e
rm o
f(9
-18
) i
scon
side
red b
yit
sel
fas as
o
lut
ion
.
T
hat i
s
, eQ
E
„ =s
i
n0(x v
t
) (
9
-21
)

The s
i
gnif
icance of(9
-21) c
an beilustrated b
ye valuat
ing E„as af
unct
ion
o
f xfor severa
l values o
f the t
ime t . Firs
t l e
t us take t= 0
. T hen
E
, =s infix
. T he c
urve f
or t
his in
s tant o
f time isshown by F
ig
. 9-3a.

+
1
6• .
4; 4)
4
E y 0
t=0 (
a)

4
'-1 0 (
b
)

t
=-2 (
c
)
—
1
FI
G
.9-3
. Curves f
or E =sin (
f
ix +wt) atthree i
ns
tan tso
ftime: I=-0, 7
'
/4, a
nd
I2
=T/2. Ac ons
tant p
hase p
oint P moves t
o the l
ef
t as t
ime p
rogres
ses.

Nex
t cons
ider the si
tua
tion one
-qua
rter per
iod l
a
ter
, t
hat i
s
, when
t= T/4
, where T i
sthe t
ime o
fone p
eriod
. Then

f
l
v
t = c
t = (
o 2
4rf
)t =2
7 t= 2
r T =r (
9
-22
)

The curve fo
r t= T /4 or cu
t = T/2 rad isshown in Fig
. 9-3b. O ne
-half
p
eriod la
ter, t= T /2
, and c
o
t = 7, yie
lding the c
urve o
fF ig
.9 -3c. Focus-
i
ng our attention on t
he crest of o
ne o f t
he waves
, as indicated b
y the
po
intP , wen ote t
hatast ime progre
sse s
, P movestot he l
ef
t. F rom F
ig.
9
-3 we can thus in
terpret (9
-21) as represen
ting a wave travel
ing t
o the
SE
C. 9
-3
] PLANE WAVES IN D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
49

l
e
ft, o
r i
n the n
egat
ive x d
i
rection. T he maximum v a
lue ofA, f
or t
his
wave i
suni
ty.
The p
oint Pis apo
int o
f constant phase and i
scharac
ter
ized b
y the
c
ondit
ion t
hat 7 a 4rt V
it a that
X+ vi=c onstant (
9-23)

T
aking t
he t
ime d
er
iva
tive o
f (
9
-23
) g
ives

d
x
+v=0 (
9
-24
)

a
nd
d
x 0-
ebb
"h
=—v f)
v
e i
td (
9
-25
)

In (
9-25)
, d x/d
ti sthe ra
te ofc hange of 'stance with r
espect to t
ime,
o
r veloci
ty, of ac ons
tant p hase po
int. H ence, vi sthe veloc
ity of a
c
onstant phase p o
in t a
nd iscal
led the p as
e v e
loci
ty. We n o
te also t
hat
visnegative, w h
ich m eans that the wave ist r
aveling inthe negat
ive x
d
irect
ion.
Next consider the la
st term of (9-
18) as as o
lution by it
self
. T hen

E
y =s
i
nft
(x — v
i
) =s
i
n (
f
ix —c
u
t
) (
9
-26
)

Pu
tting i
n va
lues f
o
r t= 0, T
/4, and T/2
, we o
btain fr
om (9
-26) t
he
c
urvesofFig
. 9-
4. H e
re ac
onstan
tp has
e poin
t P moves t
othe r
i
ght a
s

+1

Ey 0 t
-
0 (
a)y 4
-
1

Ey 0 (
C) 4 13 0
a
. 4
0 X -7

—
1
Fu
l. 9
-4
. Curvesfor E
, ▪s in (
3x — wt
) at t
hree i
n
stantsoftime t= 0
, t= T
/4, a
nd
t= T/2. Ac ons
tant phase p
oint P moves t
o t
he ri
ght a
s t
ime p
rogre
sses
.

t
ime p
rogress
es. H ence (
9
-26
) rep
re sent
s awave tr
ave
ling i
nthe p
osi
tive
xdi
rec
tion.
I
fwe set x— viequal t
o aconstant and p
roceed i
n t
he s
ame manne r
a
sfor (9
-24) and (
9
-25), w
e f
ind i
nt h
is c
ase t
hat

d
x
= +v (
9
-27
)

T
hus
, t
he w
ave t
r
ave
ls w
ith av
e
loc
ity vi
nthe p
os
itive xd
i
rec
tion
.
3
50 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 9

To s umma r
ize, an egative si
gn i n x± v to r in fi
x ±c o
t isassocia
ted
w
ith aw ave tot he right
,w h
ile ap o
sitive si
gn isa s
sociated with aw ave to
t
he l e
ft
. A cco rdingly, w hen so
lu t
ions w ith b o
th p osi
tive and n egat
ive
s
igns are g iven, a s in (
9-18), two w aves are represented, one to the l
eft
a
nd o ne t o the r ight
, a nd the comp lete so
lution i sequal to the sum o f
b
oth w ave s
.
Let us n ow t rea t in s
omewha t mo re deta
il the w ave traveling in the
p
ositive x d irection a s gi
ven b y (9-26). An umbe r of other forms can
a
l
so b e u sed w hich a re equivalent e xcept for ap hase d i
splacement .
Three e quivalent f orms are

E
„ =s
in (
c
ot — f
i
x) )
E
. =c
os (
f
ix —cot
) (
9
-28
)
E
. =c
os (
c
ot —fi
x)

T
hese may b
erewr
itten s
otha
ttheir r
e
lat
ion t
othe f
i
rstismore a
pparent
.
T
hus, r
eca
ll
ing t
hat si
n (—u) = —sin u= si
n (u -
I
-7) and c
os (— u
) =
c
osu
E
. =s in (
c
ot —fi
x) =sin (f
i
x —co
t±r )

E
. =c
os (
f
ix —c
o
t
) =s
i
n (f
i
x —c
o
t-1
-;
(
9-29
)

E
. =c
os (
c
o
t —f
i
x) =s
i
n (f
i
x —c
o
t-1
-;

T
he r
e
lat
ion o
fthe t
hree f
o
rm so
f(9
-29
) t
o(9-26
)i si
lust
rated g
raph
ica
lly
i
n F
ig
. 9-5
. H ere the f
our f
o
rms a
re c
ompa red f
or t= 0. O n s
ub-
c
os
(g x-wt)
a
n
d
,
. .
cos
(cot-l
it) s
i
n(P
x-w
t)

; o r /
ix

-
s
in(
wt-/
ix)
F
io. 9
-5
. F
our f
o
rms o
fw ave e
xpre
ssion a
t t.
.0.

s
t
ituting o
the r va
lue s o
f tinto t
he four equations
, itisseen thati neach
c
ase the equation represen
ts a w ave tr
ave l
ing to the r i
ght. T he o
nly
d
iference between them isthatinsome casest here i
sap hase d
isplacement
o
fr/2 or7 .
I
ft he p
ha se di
splacemen t i
sdisregarded, a ny o
ft he four f
orms given
b
y (9-26) and (9
-28) can bes e
lec
ted t orepresent aw ave trave
ling inthe
SE
C
. 9
-4
] PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
51

p
osi
tive xd
i
rec
tion
. S
uppo
se, t
hen
, w
e c
hoos
e t
he f
o
rm

E
, =s
i
n (
w
t —f
i
x) (
9
-30
)

T
his cho
ice hast
he advantage t
hatthe t
e
rm with the t
ime ti
spo
sitive f
o
r
w
ave s t
ravel
ing i
nei
ther the p
osi
tive o
rthe n
egative xdi
rect
ion.
Thus fa
r, ith
as b
een assumed that t
he maximum amp l
itude of Ev i
s
u
nity. I fnow we s
peci
fy the maximum ampli
tude as Eo,we h
ave

E
„ = E0s
i
n (
c
o
t —1
3
x) (
9
-31
)

S
ince f = 1
/T, (9
-31) c
an b
eexpre
ssed i
n af
orm i
nwhich t
he p
er
iod T
a
ppearsexplic
itly
. F o
r t
he s
ake o
fsymmetry, l
e
t u
s a
l
so put =2 7/X
,
o
btain
ing

= Eos
i
n (
27
r —2
T-x
) (
9
-32
)
X

The
se express
ions
, ( 9
-31) a
nd (9
-32
), r
epresen
t awave t
ravel
ing inthe
p
osi
tive xdirec
tion. T he c
orre
spond
ing e
xpress
ions f
o
r aw ave t
ravel
ing
i
nthe negative xdirec
tion a
re

Ei,= Eos
i
n (
c
o
t -
I
-/3
x) (
9
-33
)
a
nd

Ev = Eos
i
n(27 y
i 2
7
r (
9
-34
)

The s
o
lution
s of t
he w
ave equa
tion given by (
9-31) a
nd (9
-33) a re
t
r
igonome
tricso
lut
ions
. We may also e
xpress t
he s
o
lu t
ion i
nexponential
f
orm. T hus
E
„ = E0e'±f t
) (9
-35 )

where i
tisunders
tood that t
he i
nstantaneous va
lue o
fthe fi
e
ld i
sgi
ven
b
y t he imag
inary (o
r real
) part of the exponent
ial f
unc
tion. Thus
,
t
aking t
he imag
inary pa
r t (
Im) we have

Ei,= E0 I
mei4"-P
i
) = Eos
i
n (
c
o
t —O
x) (
9
-36
)

I
fthe r
ea
l p
art (
Re) i
staken
, w
e o
bta
in

E
„ = Eo R
eei(*
"-o
x
) =E
0co
s (
c
o
t —O
x) (
9
-37
)

T
ak ing t he s e
cond deriva t
ive sof(9-35) with respect t
o tand x,it may be
v
erified tha t ( 9
-35) i
sindeed as olution.
y9 -4. T able o f Solut
ions o f Wave E quation. I n T able 9-1 b oth
t
r
igonome tric a nd e
xponen t
ial s
olutions are given fo
r ap lane wave ina
l
o
s s
les s m ed ium . S olutions are li
sted f o
r w aves travel
ing t o t
he l e
ft
(
nega tive xd irect
ion) and t o t
he right (pos
itive xd i
rect
ion )
. S olutions
g
iven b y the s um of t wo such independent s olut
ions are also i
nc
luded .
3
52 ELECTRO MAGNET
1CS [
CHAP
. 9

TABLE 9
-1
TABLE OF SOLUTIONS OF WAVE EQUATION

T
rigonome
tric f
o
rm E
xponent
ial f
o
rm

Wave t
o
r
i
ght
.. E
y -
= Els
i
n (
c
u
t —a
x) = Eie
t
(i -P
z
)

Wave t o
l
e
ft.... E
y =E
y s
i
n (
t
o
t -
Ifi
x) Et,= Eo
eio
.
e4
-8.
)

Two -
-----40
w
ave
s. Eo s
i
n (
c
u
t +1
3
x) + Els
i
n (
w
i —f
i
x) E
y =E
yei
(w+
fi
x) Ei
eic
w-th
)

9
-5. Phase Veloc
ity. We h ave seen that x — v
tis acons
tant f
o
r a
p
oint o
fc ons
tantp hase i
n at
ravel
ing w ave
. I tfo
llows t
hatcu
t — xisa
c
onstant
. T ha
ti s
, tand xmus tv a
ry togethe
rs o t
hat

c
o
t —f
t
x =c
ons
tan
t (
9
-38
)

D
iferen
tia
ting (
9-38
) w
ith r
espec
t to t
ime t
o f
i
nd t
he v
eloc
ity o
f t
he
c
ons
tant pha
se p
oint
, a
sdone i
n (9
-24
), y
i
elds

d
x
— p— = u (
9
-39
)
d
t
or

d
x _c
o
(
9
-40
)
d
t

Thus, the phasevelocity, o

rv e
locity of ac onstantp hase po
in t
, isgiven
b
y 00 . T hatc o/
13h ast he d
imen s
ions ofv elocity i
s more apparentifi ti
s
r
eexpressed
w 2
1rf = x f (
9-41)
# 2 .
7r/X
where X = w avelength
f= f requency
The produc t Xfh as the d imens
ions o f wave length (
distance) times fr
e-
q
uency ( r
eciprocalo ft ime). T hus, X fha
st he dimens
ions ofdistance per
t
ime orv elocity
.
From ( 9
-14) w eh ave t hat t
he pha se v
elocity is

6
.
1
Ie
i = v— 1 (
9
-42
)
VT
:
i
e
Equat
ion (9
-42) gives t
he phase velocity of awave in a
n unbounded
medium ofpermeabil
ity l
aand permittivity e
. For f
ree s
pace (
vacuum)
t
he ve
loc
ity i
s awe
ll-known constant (usual
ly d
es
ignated b
y cand u
sua
lly
SE
C
. 9
-
5] PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTR
IC MEDIA 3
53

c
a
lled t
he v
e
loc
ity o
fli
ght
). T
hus
1
c= -2
.
998 X 1
08 m
eter
s/sec (
9
-43
)
ViA
o
e
-o
I
nthe mk
sc s
ys
tem o
fun
its t
he p
ermeab
il
ity o
fvacuum i
s

=4
1.X 1
0-7 h
enry/me
ter

T
here
fore t
he p
erm
itt
ivi
ty o
fvacuum i
s

1
o = —
e o o = 8
m .
85 X 1
0-2 f
1 a
rad/me
ter (
9
-44
)

F
or othe
r m ed
ia the p
hase v
e
loc
ity r
e
lat
ive t
o t
he v
e
loc
ity o
f l
i
ght
, o
r
r
e
lat
ive pha
se v
elo
city
, i
s

V *
' VItoet
o 1
NN
, (
d
imens
ion
les
s) (
9
-45
)
c V i
a 1
/.1t
e
r

where AT = r ela t
ive p ermeab ility of med ium
e
,= r ela t
ive p erm ittiv ity ofm ed ium
T he p hase v elocity o f aplane w ave ina nu nbounded l oss
les sm ed ium is
e
qua l t o orl esst han t he veloc ity ofl i
gh t ( p < 1 )
. I n g
ene ral, h owever,
t
he p hase v elocity n iTik-h ave v alues -b oth g reater a nd l e
ss t han t he
v
eloci ty ofl ight. F ore xamp le,i n ah ollow m etalw ave g u
ide vi sa lways
e
qua l t o or grea ter than c( see C hap . 12).
I
ft wo w ave s o f the same f requency t r
ave l with t he same v elocity in
o
ppo s
ite d irections o r with d ife rent v elocities int he s ame d irection, the
p
has e v e
locity o f the r e
sultant w ave i sn ot ac onstant b ut v aries as a
f
unc tion o fp os
i t
ion. I n m ea suring t he v elocity i ti susually mo st con-
v
enien t, at radio f r
equenc ies
, t o determ ine t he electrical pha se s h
ift (by
p
ha se -compa rison m ethod s) b etween t wo p oints
, o ne ofw h
ich i st aken as
arefe rence.
Fo r aw ave t raveling i nthe p os
itive xd i
rec tion there isa ni nfinitesimal
p
ha se l agc h
i
:,o rp hase advancement -d Oi n ap os
itive d is
tance d x. T he
t
ime r equired f or ac on stant p hase poin t t o move t his distance i st hen

d
l = -- T s
ec (
9
-46
)
2
w

w
here T = t
ime f
o
ro ne p
er
iod
. T
here
fore t
he p
hase v
e
loc
ity a
s af
unc
-
t
i
on ofpo
sit
ion i
sgiven b
y
d
x d
x _ _
v= d
l = (
9
-47
)
(
T/27
) d
c
p d
q
S/dx
F
or aw ave t
rave
ling i
n t
he p
osi
tive x d
i
rec
tion d
4
,/dx i
snega
tive
, a
nd
h
ence vispo
sit
ive
.
 3
54 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 9

As compa
red with ( 9
-47) the phase ve
loci
ty w /
i3 a
s in (
9-42
) i
sa n
a
verage pha
se ve
locity a s a
veraged over an in
tegral n
umbe r o
f w
ave-
l
e
ng ths. Thus, d
ividing ( 9
-47) by co/
/3
, w e obta
in a rela
tive p
hase
v
eloci
ty p wh
ich i
s af unct
ion ofposi
tion as g
iven by

0
(
9
-47a
)
P= c
h
k/dx
where /
3= 2 7/X
X= w avelength infree space
Both vin (
9-47) and pin (9-47a) are u
sefu
l where t
he phase v
e
loc
ity isa
f
unc t
ion ofposi
tion.
X 9 -6
. Index ofR ef
raction. I n op t
ics t
he i
ndex o
fref
racion ni
t sdef
ined
a
s the r
eciproca
l oft he r
elative phase v
eloc
ity p. Thati s
,

1 1
n = = = = We, (
9
-48
)
p v
/c v

F
or n
onfe
rrous med
ia A,i
sve
ry n
ear
ly u
nity s
o t
hat

= (
9
-49
)

E
xamp le 1. Paraff
in ha
s ar e
lative p
ermit
tiv
ity e
r = 2
.
1. Find t
he i
ndex o
fre
frac
-
t
i
on for paraff
in a
nd also the phase v
eloc
ity o
f awave i
n a
n unbounded medium of
p
araff
in.
S
olut
ion. The i ndex o
f ref
raction

n = —1
.
45
The p
hase v
eloc
ity
v =2
.07 X 1
0 8 meter
s/sec
V2
71

E
xample 2
. D
ist
illed w
ater h
as t
he c
ons
tan
ts a 0
, e
, =8
1, µ
, = 1
. F
ind n
a
nd v.
S
olu
tion
:
— =9
.
1
11c = 3
.33 X 1
0 7 me
ter
s/sec
V8
1

The index o f refraction g iven f o

r w ater in the above e xamp le isthe
v
alue at l ow f r
equenc ie s (
f -0 0)
. A t li
ght fr
equenc ies
, s ay for sod
ium
l
i
gh t (X =5 ,893 a ngst roms), the i ndex of ref
raction i so bserved to be
a
bout 1 .33 instead o f 9a s c
alculated o n the bas
is oft he relat
ive p ermi
t-
t
ivity. Th is dife rence w a
s a t one time c i
ted as i
nva l
ida ting Maxwe ll
's
t
heo ry
. The e xp lana tion for the d iference isthat the p ermittivity eis
n
o t acons tant b ut is af unct
ion off requency . A tze
ro f r
equency 0 ,= 8
1,
b
u t at l
ight frequenc iese ,
.= 1 .33 2 = 1.77. The i ndex o fr e
fraction and
p
erm itt
iv ity of many o ther subs tances also vary as af unc t
ion o f t
he
f
requency .
SE
C. 9
-
7] P
LANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
55

NA9
-7. Group V
eloc
ity
.' Con
sider apl
ane wave t
r
avel
ing i
nthe po
sit
ive
xd
i
rect
ion asinFig. 9
-2
. Let t
he t
otal e
l
ectr
ic f
i
eld b
e g
iven b
y

E
. =E
o c
os (
c
o
t —,
R
x) (
9-5
0)

S
uppo se n
ow that t
he wave h
as n
ot o
ne b
ut t
wo f
r
equenc
ies o
f e
qua
l
amp
litude e
xpres
sed by
w
o -I 1
- ,0,
a
nd
o — A
c
o c
o

I
tfo
llows t
hat t
he 1
3va
lue
s c
orre
spond
ing t
o t
hese t
wo f
r
equenc
ies a
re

P P c
o ± A orrespond
ing t
oco +A
c
o
a
nd
S
o —A
$ c
orre
spond
ing t
o Wo — A
co

F
orf
r
equency 1

E
; =E
ocos [ C M — WO
(WO + A + A0
)4 (
9
-51
)

a
nd f
o
rfr
equency 2

= Eo c oh — A
os [
( c)t — (
u io — A
t i
3)x
] 9-
( 5
2)

A
dding g
ive
s t
he t
o
tal f
i
e
ld
E
, = g+E;
' (
9
-53
)
o
r

E
„ =E
0 i
cos[
(WO ± A O — (
Po ± A
f3
)x]
+cos[ (
c
oo —A
c
o)t — (
$0 — 4
3)4
} (
9
-54
)

Mu
ltip
lying o
ut (
9
-54
) a
nd b
y t
r
igonome
tric t
r
ans
forma
tion

E
„ =2
E0c
os (
c
o
ot — f
ox
) c Aw t— 4
os ( 1x) 9-
( 5
5)

The two c
os
ine fa
cto r
s ind
ica
te the pre
sence o
f b
eats
, t
hat i
s
, as
l
ow
v
ariat
ion s
uper
impo sed o
n amo re r
ap
id o ne
.
Fo
r acons
tant p
hase po
int

c
o
t —O
ox = c
ons
tant
a
nd
d
x c
o
— — = v= f
oXo (
9-56
)
d
t i
3o

w
here v= phase ve
locity
. S
ett
ing t
he a
rgumen
t o
f t
he s
e
cond c
os
ine
f
a
ctor e
qua
l to aconstant
,

A
w t— A
ftx= c
ons
tant
1L
eon
Br
ilouin, "Wave Propagation i
n Per
iod
ic Structures
," McGraw -Hil B ook
Company
,I nc
., New Y
ork, 1
946,C hap.5. J.A.Stra
tton, "Electromagne
tic Theory,"
McGraw-Hi
ll Book Company, Inc
., New Y o
rk, 1
941, p
. 330.
3
56 ELECTRO MAGNET
IC.
S [
CHAP
. 9

a
nd

(
9-57
)
d
t

where ui sthe p ha se v
eloc ity ofthe w ave enve lope, w hich i
su sua
lly called
t
he g r
oup v elocity
. I n t he a bove deve lopmen t we c an consider co +A c
u
and coo — A coa st he two s ide-band frequenc iesd ue tot he modulation o fa
c
a r
rier f requency c oo by af r
equency A co
, t he c a
r r
ie r fr
equency b eing
s
uppres sed .
I
n n ond ispe rs
ive m edia t he group v e
locity i st he s ame as the p hase
v
elocity. F ree s pace isa n example o f al o
ssless, nond ispers
ive med ium ,
a
nd i n f ree s pace u = v = c . Howeve r
, i n dispersive m edia the p hase
a
nd g roup v elocities dife r.
Adisp ersive m edium i so ne inwhich t he pha se velocity is afunction of
t
he f requency ( and h ence o f t
he f ree-space w aveleng th
). D ispersive
media a re oft wo t ypes:
. N
1 o
rma
lly d
i
sper
siv
e. In these media t
he change i
n phase ve
locity
w
ith w ave
length ispos
itive, that i
s
, d
v/dX > 0 . For these media
U<v .
. A
2 noma lous
ly d i
spers
ive
.1 I n t hese media the change i n phase
v
eloci
ty w ith wave
length isn ega
tive
, t
hatis
,d v/dX < 0. F orthese
media u > v.
The te
rms " normal" and "anomalous" a
re arb
itrary
, the s
ignif
icance
b
e
ing s imply that a
nomalous d
ispe
rsion i
sdiferentfrom the type o
fd i
s-
p
ersion descr
ibed as "
normal
."
For apa rt
icu
larfrequency (
band width van
ishingly smal
l)
A
c
o d
c
o
u = um — = (
9
-58
)
A
f
t d
#
But c
o= 2
rf = 2
7
rfX/X = /
3
v; s
o

d
c
o d
(f
iv
) — #— d
v v (
9
-59
)
u =C
1
7
1=
- d
#
o
r
d
v
u= v 1
3wc
3 9-
( 6
0)

I
t may a
l
so b
e s
hown t
l
4it
d
v
u=v — X (
9
-61
)
_ -
Equat
ions (
9-60) and (
9-1) a
6 re u
sefu
linf
i
nding t
he g
roup v
e
loc
ity f
o
r
ag
iven pha
se v
eloci
ty funct
ion
.
A conduc
tor i
sa n example o
f an anoma
lous
ly dispers
ive medium . Howeve
r,
c
onductors a
re a
bsorpt
ive (n
ot l
oss
less
), a
nd in med
ia w here t
he abso
rpt
ion i
snot
sma
ll
, the g
roup v
eloc
ity t
ends t
olose i
tss
imp
le meaning.
SE
C. 9
-7
] PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
57

Example. A1 -Mc/sec (
300 meterswavelength)plane wave t
rave
ling i
n anormal
ly
d
i
sp er
sive, l
os
sless medium has aphase v
eloci
ty at th
is f
r
equency of 3X 10 8 me
ter
s/
s
ec
. T he phase ve
loci
ty as afunct
ion o
fw aveleng
th isg
iven by

v = kNl
i
k

w
here k = c
onstan
t. F ind t
he group ve
locity
.
S
olu
tion
. F rom (9
-61) t
he group ve
locity i
s

u=v —X d
—
v =v --k v,-
d
X 2
o
r
U=v
(
1 —
H
ence
u n
.1.
5 X 1
0 8 me
ter
s/sec

T
o ilus
tra
te g
raph
ica
lly t
he dife
rence b
etween p ha
se a nd group
v
e
locity
, l
etusc
ons
ide
r awave o
fthe s
ame p
hase v
elo
city cha
racte
rist
ics
u
Ey

T
ime
t=0

Ey

-
-p
4 er
iod
l
a
ter

1
500

E
j
•
i p
e
1
r
iod
l
a
ter

F
lo. 9
-6
. C ons
tant phase point P o
f the wave proper move
s wi
th phase v
eloc
ity v
,
wh
ile p
oint P
' on t
he e nve
lope moves with group veloc
ity u
. I n t
h
is example t
he
g
roup v
eloc
ity iso
ne-half t
he phase v
eloci
ty.

a
sint he a
bove e xample and a
s
sume , fu
rther
, t ha
t the w ave h
ast wo fr
e-
q
uenciesfo i
fa nd fo — A
fofe qual ampl
itude w he re fo = 1
06 cps and
A
f = 106 cps
. Th is is equ
iva
lent t o a1 0 6-
cps car r
ier modu lated at
1
06 cps w
ith the car
rier s
uppres
sed. F rom ( 9-55) graphs oft he in
stan-
t
aneous magnitude ofEya s af
unction ofdi
stance (plo tted i
nm e
ters) a
re
3
58 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 9

p
resen ted i n F ig
. 9 -6 f o
r t hree i nstan ts o f time , t= 0 , t= T /4 , a nd
t= T /2. The p oint P i s ap oin t of c ons tant p hase o f the w ave p rope r
a
nd move sw ith the p hase v e
loc ity v
. T he p o
in tP ' is ap oint o fc ons tant
phase o f t he e nvelope e nc losing t he w ave a nd move s w ith t he g roup
v
elo c
ity u . I tisa ppa rent t ha ti no ne -ha lf period ( T/2) t he p ointP ' h a
s
moved a d istance d ' w h ich i s one-ha lf t he d istance d moved b y t he
p
oin t P . Tha t is to s ay, t he g roup v elocity u i s o ne-ha lf t he p hase
v
elo c
ity v . T he i ntel
ligence c onveyed b y t he modu lation move s w ith
t
he v e
loc ity o fthe e nve lope , t hat is
, a t t he group v elocity. '
The d ife rence b etween p has e and g roup v eloc i
tiesi salso i lustra ted b y
acraw ling c aterp i
llar. T he h umps o n h i
sb ack move f orwa rd w ith p hase
v
elocity , w hile the c aterp i
l la r as aw ho le p rogre sses w ith g roup v e locity.
For as ing le-f
requency c ons tant-amp litude ( steady -sta te) w ave t he
g
roup v e
loc ity i sn ot appa ren t. Howeve r, ifthe w ave c onsis ts oft wo or
more f requenc ies
, o r af requency g roup , a s i n a modu la ted w ave t he
g
roup v eloc ity may b e o bserved b ecause t he w ave amp litude i s n on-
u
niform a nd t he i ndividua l w aves a ppea r to f o
rm g roups t hat may b e
e
nclosed b y a n envelope , a s i n Fig
. 9 -6.
y9 -8. I mpedance o fD ielec tr
ic Med ia. Thus f aro ur a t
ten t
ion h as b een
f
ocused o n t he electric f i
eld E . L et u s n ow c onside r also t he magne t
ic
f
i
eld H , oft he same p lane w ave ( s
ee F ig. 9 -2) a nd, inp ar
ticu la r
, find h ow
H
,i srelated i n magn itude t oE . As olu tion o ft he w ave e qua t
ion ( 9-13)
i
n H , is
H, = Hos in ( c
ot —f t) (
9-62 )

T
his solu
tion r
epre
sen ts a w
ave t
ravel
ing in t
he pos
itive xdirec
tion
. A
s
o
lution for E
„ repre
sen t
ing a wave in t
he pos
itive x d
irec
tion isgiven
b
y (9-31) a
s
Ey = Eo s
i
n (c
ot —fi
x) (
9-63)
T
o f
i
nd h
ow H
. i
n (
9
-62
) i
sre
lated t
o E
y w
e r
e
cal
l f
r
om (
9
-8) t
hat
a
E
, =- a
— l
l,
A- (
9
-64
)
a
x at
S
ubst
itut
ing (9
-63) f
or E
yin (
9
-64
), pe
rfo
rming t
he i
ndica
ted d
ife
ren
tia
-
t
i
on, and t
hen i
nteg
rat
ing w
ith r
e
spect t
o t
ime y
ie
lds

0
H
, = — Eo s
i
n (
c
o
t —O
x) (
9
-65
)
I
g
o
T
aking t
he r
atio o
fE y t
o H
. f
or as
ing
le t
rave
ling w
ave
, a
s g
iven b
y t
he
r
at
io o
f (
9-63
) to (
9-65)
, we o
bta
in

E
, = Eo _ m
a
) _ A _ h
i
- _ E
o
(
9
-66
)

1 I
n al
o
ss
les
smed
ium t
h
een
ergy i
sal
so c
onv
eyed a
tth
egr
oup v
e
loc
ity
.
SE
C. 9
-8
] PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
59

o
r

= H
, (
9
-67
)

F
or c
ompa
rison w
e c
an n
ow w
rite

E
„ = Eo s
i
n (
c
o
t —i
3
x) v
olt
s/me
ter (
9
-68
)
a
nd

H
, = Eo s
i
n (
c
u
t —1
3
x) amp/me
ter (
9
-69
)

I
tisa
ppa
rent t
hat E
„ a
nd H
. a
re i
den
tica
l f
unc
tions o
f xa
nd t
,but t
he
ir
magnitudes d
ifer b
y afa
cto
r / a/e o
r i
ts r
ecip
rocal
.
The dimens
ions o
f (
9
-66) e
xpre
ssed in mksc un
its a
re

Vo
lts/meter _ v
olts
—o
hms
Amperes/me
ter ampere

Thus
, Va/
e h
as t
he d
imens
ions o
fan i
mpedance
, a
nd w
e may w
rite

(
9
-70
)

whe
re Z i
sca
lled t
i
ll i
n
trins
ic i
mpedanc
e o
fthe m
edium
. F
orf
r
ee s
pace
(
vacuum
)
4
.
Z = Zo = =3
76.7 1
20r o
hms (
9
-71
)
e
o

I
fEa nd H a re i
n t
ime p hase
, Zi s ap ure res
istance. T his isthe case
f
or free space a nd a
l
l l o
ssless die
lect r
ic med ia. T o emphasize the fact
t
ha t the impedance is ap ure res
istance, one c an speak of the i
ntrinsic
r
esis
tance (instead of impedance ) of free space a nd of l
oss
less di
electric
media. I fEa nd H are n ot in t
ime p hase, as in conduc
ting med ia
, t he
r
atio of Et o Hi scomplex, s o t
hat the mo re general t
erm in
trinsi
ci mp ed-
ance must be used in connec t
ion with s uch med ia
.
I
ntroducing ( 9
-70
) in (9-66), we h ave

_ _z _ f
-
A-
(
9
-72
)
H
, — H
o — 1
/e
E
xamp le
. I fthe magnitude o
f Hin ap
lane w
ave i
s Iamp/me
ter
, f
i
nd t
he magn
i-
t
ude o
f Ef or ap
lane wave in f
r
ee s
pace
.
S
olu
tion. F rom (
9-72)

E = ZH = 3
76.7 X 1 3
76.7 v
olts/me
ter

The i
nstan
taneous va
lue
s o f E
„ a
nd H, a
long t
he x ax
is f
or aplane
wave p
rogress
ing i
n the p
osi
tive x d
i
rec
tion a
re i
lus
trated i
n Fig
. 9-
7.
F
igure 9
-7a shows t
he c
ond
ition a
t t
he t
ime t= 0
, wh
ile F
ig. 9
-7b s
hows
 3
60 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 9

t
he c
ondit
ions one-quar
terperiod l
at
er( t= T/4
). T he maximum v alues
o
fE,a nd H . (
Eoa nd Ho)are s
hown tob eequa
l. H ence, ifthe medium
i
sfr
ee space, t
he sca
le invo
lts pe
r m e
ter a
long t
he ya x
is should be 377
t
ime
s the sca
le in ampere
sper meter a
long t
he zax
is. T he s
cales would
I
l

(
a)

D
i
rec
tion o
fpr
opag
ation

(
6
)

Fm.9
-7. I
nstan
taneous v
alue
sofE .a
nd H.along xa
xi
sattime t 0( a
)and p
er
iod
l
a
ter (
b
). Int h
is i
n
terva
lt he p
oin
t Phas a
dvanced % w
ave
length t
othe r
i
ght
.

b
e equa l
, however, ift he medium h ad a n intrins
ic impedance o f 1ohm .
I
nF ig. 9-7both the magn itudes and direction sofE „and H.a res hown for
p
ointsa long the xa x
is. S ince w e a
re c onsidering aplane wave t r
avel
ing
i
n the direct
ion of the x a x
is, the re
la t
ions o f E
, and H. along a l
l li
nes
p
arallel t
o the xa xis a
re the same a s those s hown.
X 9-9. I mpedance o f T ransm ission-l
ine C e l
l. I magine a p l
ane w ave
t
raveling out oft he page (towa rd the r e
ade r) with s
pace divided u p by

4
E -
6- 20
-

C
onduc
ting
s
t
rip
s

C
ur
renton T
r
ansmis
sion
s
t
rip
s I l
i
nece
ll
1

F
ro. 9
-8
. P
lane wave t
ravel
ing o
ut o
f p
age w
ith s
pace d
iv
ided b
y c
onduct
ing s
t
rip
s
i
n
to tr
ansm
iss
ion-
line c
e
lls.

t
hin c onducting s tr
ips into transmiss
ion -
line c e
lls as suggested in F
ig.
9
-8. T he s
trips are no
rma l t
oE , and they extend inf
inite
ly farn o
rmalt o
t
he p age
. T he f
i
e ld H isp ara
llel to the st
rips. A t the s
urface ofeach
s
tr
ip t he
re is acurrent sheeto flineardensity K ( no
rma lt othe page) t
hat
i
se qual in magnitude toH . T he cur
ren t
s o n opposite si
des ofone st
rip
SE
C
. 9
-9
] PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
61

a
re o ppo sed as shown . A p lane ( TE M) w ave t
raveling through s pace
d
ivided u p in
to l i
ne cells a
s in F
ig. 9-8 has the s
ame v alues of Ea nd H
e
ve rywhe re a
s aw ave in empty space (no s
trips p
resent asinF ig.9-2), i
t
b
eing a ssumed t hat the str
ips are ofinfin
itesimal th
icknes s
. A ssum ing
a
lso that t he st
rip w idth and spacing are equal (
both equal to 1)so that
t
he cel
lc ro sssect
ion i ssquare and the e
dges ofthe s
t
rips are i
nf
inite
sima lly
c
lose toge ther
, the v ol
tage V b etween t wo st
rips o
fo ne ce
ll is

V=E
l (
9
-73
)

The t
o
tal c
urrent /f
l
owing o
n t
he b
ottom s
urface o
fthe t
op s
t
rip o
f ac
e
ll
(
ortop s
urface o
fthe b
ottom s
t
rip o
f ac
el
l) isgiven b
y

/= H
I (
9
-74
)

D
ivid
ing (
9
-73
) b
y (
9
-74
) y
ie
lds

E V „
(
9
-75
)
X =I =
Thus
,for as
ing
le traveling wave t
he i
ntr
insi
cimpedanceE/H of awave i
s
e
qual t
othe c
harac
teristicimpedance V
II of as
i
ngle t
ransm
iss
ion-
line c
e
ll
.
Fur
thermore
, fr
om ( 9-72) we have

(
9
-76
)

Now inthe c
ase o
f atransm
ission-
line c
e
ll w
e h
ave f
rom (4
-100) t
hat t
he
i
nduc
tance ofthe l
ine p
er u
nit dep
th (no
rmal t
othe p
age
) isequa
l to t
he
p
ermeabi
lity ofthe medium
, that is
,

(
9
-77
)
=

w
hile w
e h
ave f
rom (
2
-105) t
hat t
he c
apac
itance o
fthe l
i
ne c
e
ll p
er u
nit
d
epth e
qua
ls t
he p
erm
itt
ivity o
fthe m
edium, or

(
9
-78
)

A
ccord
ing
ly, w
e c
an w
rite

Z= = (
9
-79
)
e C
/d

whe
re Z = character
istic impedance ofli
ne c e
ll (ohm s)
Lid = i
nductance per unit l
ength ofline ce
ll (henrys/meter
)
C/d = c
apacitance per uni
t length o
fl ine c
ell (fa
rads/meter)
To summarize
, the cha
ra c
teri
stic impedanc
e o f at r
ansm iss
ion li
ne c
e
ll i
s
e
qual to t
h
e intr
insic i mpedance of th
e m edium f i
lling th
e ce
ll
. I f t
he
 3
62 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 9

m
edium isf
r
ee s
pace
, µ = A
o a
nd e= c
o
; s
o t
he c
harac
ter
ist
ic i
mpedance
o
fthe l
i
ne i
s

Z=,
\P
±"
-
o) = 3
e 76.7 o
hms (
9
-80
)

lane Waves T rave ling i n O ppos i te D irec t

ions . S tand ing
Waves . T hus a , eh ave c on side red o nly as ing le t r
avel ing w ave , s uch
a
s aw ave mov ing i nt h • os
itive o rt he n ega tive xd irection . L e tu sn ow
e
xam ine t he s i
tua tion w hi e
xists w hen t he re a ret wo w ave st rave l
ing i n
oppo s
i te d irec t
ion s, s uch t
he n ega tive a nd p osi
tive x d irec tions.
Assume t ha t t he t wo w aves a re o f
Medium 2 il Med
ium 1
t
he s ame f requency a nd o fs inuso i
-
.0 yf
1
9 e
ct d
al f orm . T he c ondition t hat t he
ct, 1EL ,
1
CO' wa ves b
e of t
he s
a me f
re q ue n cy a
nd
T
ransm it
ted wave I I n
cident wave f
orm i sa utoma tica l
ly f ulfilled i fone
wave i sar eflection o ft he o the rs ince
R
e
f
le
c t
ed wave b
o th t hen o rigina te from t he s ame

7
-_ -c
v - ,o
- s
ou rce.
, Refe rr
ing t oF ig.9 -9
,a s sume t hat
B
oundd 'y b
etween s
pace i sd iv ided i nto t wo m edia , 1
med
ia
a
nd 2 , w ith a p lane b ounda ry b e-
t
ween a s s hown . Aw ave o rigina t-
i
ng i nm ed ium 1a nd inciden to nt he
b
ounda ry i ss aid t o be t he i nc ident
Fm. 9-9 . Relation of in c
iden t, ref
lected, wave. T he w ave r ef
lec ted f rom t he
a
nd tr ansm i
tted w ave s.
b
ounda ry b ack i nto med ium 1 i s
c
alled t he reflected w ave. I ft he r eflection o f t he i nciden t w ave a t t he
b
ounda ry i sn ot c omp lete, s ome o ft he w ave c on tinue so nin to m edium 2
a
nd t his w ave i sr efe rred t o a s the t ransm it
t ed w ave.
I
n t he s o
lu tion o f the w ave e qua tion f or Ei,a s given b y ( 9-20 ) t here
a
re t wo t erm s, the f i
rstr epresen t
ing aw ave i nt he n ega tive xd irec tion ( to
•—
r
.) t
he l e
f t) and t he s econd aw ave i nt he p ositive xd irec t
ion ( to t he r igh t
).
Referring n ow t o t he e xponen tial solu tion i n T able 9 -
1, l et t he i nc
ident
wave ( t
rave l
ing t o t he l e
ft ) be g iven b y
c
hrect
l f
r
i E 0 = E oe
i(w
t-F
8x) (
9
-81
)

a
nd t
he r
ef
lec
ted w
ave (
t
rave
ling t
othe r
i
ght
) b
y
#x t
v
(/
1 ty
. 1 = /
x- (
9
-82
)

whe
re 5isthe time-phase l
ead of to with r
espectto two a
t x= 0. T hat
i
s
, 5isthe phase shi
ft at t
he point ofref
lec
tion. E0 i sthe ampl
itude o
f
t
he in
ciden
t w ave, and E1 isthe amplitude of t
he ref
lec
ted wave. T he
d
ot C) isused here to i
ndica
te e xp
lic
itly that t„o and to ar
e c omp
lex

I _ 10 k
- S
SE
C. 9
-
10] PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
63

f
unc
tion
s o
f1,x
,and a
t The t
ota
l e
l
ect
ric f
i
eld E
.is
E
,
,
i (
9
-83
)
L
J
The instantaneous magnitude o
it he f
i
elds isobtained by t
aking e
i
ther
t
he real (Re) o
ri maginary (
Im) part
so f(9-81
) a nd (9
-82). T hus
, t
aking
t
he i mag
ina ry par
ts, the t
o
tal i
nstantaneous el
ectric f
ie
ld i
s

y „= I
m E = E0 s
i
n (
c
o
t + f
i
x) + E
l s
i
n (
c
o
t —f
i
x + i
5
) (
9
-84
)

T
o simpW
fy t he pre
sent d
is
cussion
, as
sume t hat 5i
n (
9-84
) i
seithe
r 0°
o
r 1
80°. T hen, 8need n
ot appear a
t al
l
, EI be
ing n
ega
tive i
f 3= 180
°.
On t
h
is b
asis, (
9-84) may
,be expanded as f
o
llows:
'

E
, = Eo si
ncotc
osf
i
x + E
o c
osc
o
tsns
i x P
i
+ Els
i
nwtco
sfi
x — El c
osc
a
tsi
nfi
x (
9
-85
)
C
ollec
ting t
erms
1
1, 1
-
6
E
, = (
E0 + E
l) s
i
nco
tco
sfi
x ± (
E 0 — El)c
osw
tsi
nfi
x (
9
-86
)

I
f med
ium 2i s aperfect c
onduc to
r, t
he r
ef
lected wave isequal i
n magni-
t
ude to t
he i
ncident w ave. I f x= 0i staken to b e at the boundary
b
etween med
ia 1a nd 2, the boundary r
elat
ion fo
r t he tangen
tial com-
p
onent of Erequires that E „ = 0so t
hat EI= — E l
) at the boundary
(
5 = 180
°). Thus ( 9-86) becomes ?
vb .) ‘
, Aia Ve
i -

E
,
„ =PE ° c
osw
t
'sin f
i
x (
9
-87
)

This r epre sen ts a w ave w hich i sstationa ry in s pace. The v alues of

E
„ a t ap articu lar instan t a re a s ine func t
ion o f x. The i nstan taneous
v
alue sa t ap articularp oint a re ac osine f unc t
ion o ft . T he p eak v a
lue of
t
he w ave i st he s um o ft he i nciden t and r ef
lected p eak v a
lue s o r2 E0
. A
s
tationa ry w ave o fthis t ype f o
r w hich l E il= l Eo
l is ap ures t
and ing w ave
.
This t ype o fw ave isassoc ia ted w ith r esona to rs
.
The spa ce a nd time v ariations o fE ,f or ap ure stand ing w ave are s hown
b
yt he c urve so fF ig
. 9-10 . I tistob en oted t hat ac onstan tp hase p o
in t
,
s
uch a sP , d oes n ot move i nt he xd irection b ut remains at af ixed p os
ition
a
st ime p a
sse s.
Now l e
t u s e xam ine t he c ond it
ions w hen t he ref
lec ted w ave i ss mal
ler
t
han t he i n cident w ave , s ay o ne-half a s l arge. Then , E l = —0 .5E 0
.
Evalua ting ( 9-86 ) f
ort his ca se atf ou r instan ts oft ime, the cu rveso fF ig
.
9
-11 a re o btained . The c urve s show t he v alues of E y as af unc tion of
f
i
x a t times e qua l to0 ,i f,, a
f nd p eriods . The p eak v alueso fE yr ange
f
rom 1 .5E0 a t t= 0t o0 .5E 0a t t= Ip eriod. The p eak v a
lue sa s af unc-
tHowever,bo nd Po a
th twoa re s
ca
la rs
pace c
omponents o
fthe t
o
tal f
i
e
ld ve
ctorE
.
I
n the c
ase b
e
ing cons
idered
, Ehas o
nly o
ne c
omponent. T hus E =jE w.
Isi
n (
a ±b ) =
-sin ac
os b ± 0
08 asi
n b
.
3
64 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 9

t
i
on o f xa
s o b
served over an interval oft
ime g reater than one cycle cor
-
r
espond to t he envelope a s i ndica
ted. T h
is e nve
lope r ema ins s ta
-
t
i
ona ry, b
ut focus
ing o ur attention on ac onstant p hase point Po f t
he
w
ave, w e no
te that t
he t o
tal instantaneous wave t ravels t
o the l e
ft
. I t
w
i
ll also b
e n o
ted tha
t t he velocity wi
th w h
ich P move s i
sn o
t c onstant
.
B
e tween time 0 and i fper
iod P move s about 0 .
05 w aveleng ths (0.1r
),

F
lo. 9
-10
. P
ure s
tand
ing w
ave s
how
ing Er a
t v
arious i
n
stant
s o
f t
ime
.
Ey
?
l et of wa r
t ;4(
.
4
01i
1
.
5E0 E
nve
loprv
,

1
.
0E0

0
.
5E,
2
r
a
x
—
0.5E
,

—
1.0E0

E
nve
lope
—
1.5 E0

FI
G. 9
-11
. Stand
ing-wave e
nve
lope f
o
r Ei = —0
.5E 0 w
ith a
ssoc
iated (
t
rave
ling
) w
ave
a
t f
our in
stan
ts o
f t
ime: t= 0
, 1= T/8
, t. T/4
, a
nd t= 3T/8 .

whi
le i nt he n
ext I
-p er
iod P move s abou t f
our times as f
ar
, or about 0.2
waveleng ths (0
.4T)
. A lthough t he a verage v e
locity of the con s
tan t
p
ha se p o
int isthe same a s fo
r ap ure travel
ing w ave, it
s in
stantaneous
magn i
tude v arie
s b e
tween v a
lues wh ich are greater and le
ss.
T o summa rize
, there are two E
„ w aves
, one traveling i
n the negative
xdirection and ano
the ro ne-hal
fasl arge tr
aveling int he p
os
itive xdirec-
SE
C. 9
-
10] PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
65

don. T he w ave s re
inforce each othe r a
t s ome points and sub tract from
e
ach o ther a t o the r po
in t
s. T he r e
sultant w ave travels in the negative
xdirection. T his obviously mus t be the case si
nce the l a
rger w ave isin
t
he n egative xd irect
ion.
The e nve lope o fthe instantaneous c urve s i
n Fig. 9-11 can b e c
alled a
s
tanding -wa ve c urve, or en
v e
lope. A n instrumen t reading the r ms v a
lues
o
fE „a long t he xa x
is w ould yie
ld v aluesp roport
iona l tothose s hown f o
r
t
he enve lope . A ta ny pos
i t
ion Oxt he max imum v a
lue o fthe fi
eld atsome
t
ime d uring t he c yc
le ise qual to the ord
ina te va
lue o ft he envelope.
Toc alcu late t he v a
lue oft he st
and ing-wave e nvelope, w e may p roceed
a
sf o
llow s: In ( 9-86) p ut
A =(
E0 E1)c
osi
f
i
x (
9
-88
)
B= (
E 0 — E1)s
i
nfi
x (
9
-89
)
Expand
ing s
i
nco
t a
nd c
osc
o
t i
n t
e
rms o
f e
xponen
tia
ls, i
tcan b
e s
hown
t
hat
As
i
nco
t Bc
osc
u
t = A2 + B2 c
o
s (
c
o
t —6
) (
9
-90
)
E
qua
tion (
9
-86
) c
an t
hen b
e w
rit
ten a
s

E
„ = /
A2 B2c
os (
c
u
t —6
) (
9
-91
)
The va
lue o
f 6isnot s
i
gnif
icant i
no ur a
ppl
ica
tion.
Expand
ing (
9-91
) by means of (
9
-88) and (
9-89
) yi
elds

E
„ = V(E
o E
1) 2c
os 2i
3
x (
Eo —E
1) 2s
i
n 2$
2 c
os (
c
o
t —6
) (
9
-92
)
T
he maximum va
lue o
fE ,atsome p
osi
tion $xa
sobse
rved o
veran i
nte
rval
o
fatlea
st o
ne p
eriod o
ccurswhen c
os (c
ot —6) =1. Thusforthe s
hape
o
f t
he s
tand
ing
-wave envelope o
fE„w e h
ave

E
, = (
E0 E1)
2co
s 21
3
x (
E 0 — E1)
2si
n 21
3
x (
9
-93
)
Ordinari
ly w ea re n o
t so much i nterested int he s hape o fthe st
anding-
wave e nve lope as g iven b y ( 9
-93 ) as in t he ratio o f the max imum t o
m
in imum v a
lues f or t he e nve
lope , w hich i s called t he s t
anding-wave
r
a
t io ( S WR )
. T he max imum v alue of t he envelope c orrespond s to t
he
s
um o f the amp l
itude s of the incident a nd ref
lec ted w aves ( E
o E1
),
wh
i le t he m inimum c orre
sponds t o t he d iference b etween t he two
(
E 0 — E1) . W ith t his information w e c an determ ine t he f r
action ofthe
i
nciden t E,w ave w hich i sref
lected, form ing the r eflected w ave, and a
lso
t
ha t w hich ist r
an sm itted (see Fig. 9
- 9
). A s wil
l b e noted l a
ter on
,t h
is
k
now ledge i sofv alue i nd etermining t he n ature o ft he c ondit
ions atthe
p
oin t ofr ef
lection.
Thus, for the stand ing-wave r at
io w e c an write

SWR = =E
o — E
l (
9
-94
)
A
-411
1in Z4 0
 3
66 E
LECTROMA.
GNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 9

When the r
ef
lec ted w ave iszero (E1 = 0), the SWR i sun
ity
. When t he
r
ef
lected wave i se qual to t
he i nc
iden t (E 1 = E0),the SWR i sinf
in
ite.
Hence f
oral
li ntermed iate va
lue soft he r
ef
lected w ave
,t he s
tanding
-wave
r
at
io li
es b
etween 1a nd inf
in
ity .
The r
at
io o ft he ref
lected w ave to the i
ncident w ave isd
efined a
s the
r
ef
lec
tion c
oeff
ic
ien t
. T hus
, at the p o
int of ref
lec
tion ( x =0) and a
t the
t
ime t= 0,t he r a
tio of (9
-82) to (9-81) i
s

. Eie
g E
l/ 5
p= = = — = p lo
E
.° E
0 E
0

The d o
t 0 i ndicates that i s acomplex f unction. T hus, i
n general
,
e
xpre s
ses both the magn itude of t
he ref
lec ted w ave with re
spec t t
o the
i
ncident and al
so t he phase sh
ift öa
t the p o
int ofr ef
lect
ion. T he mag-
n
itude o fg5can range between 0 and 1wi th p hase a ng
les be
tween 0 a nd
±1 80°
.
I
n thi
s di
scus s
ion, w e are d
eal
ing wi
th t he values oft he e
lec
tric fi
e
ld.
Hence, more specif
icaly hmay b
l e c
a
lled t he fi
eld ref
lect
ion co
eff
icien
t.
R
ew ri
ting (9
-94) and s ubst
itut
ing (9
-95),

SWR = 1 (E 1/
E 0) 1 15
1 99
( 6
)
1— (
E 1/
E 0) 1— 1
,
5
1 -

S
olv
ing for g
ive
s an e
xpres
sion f
or t
he magn
itude o
f t
he r
ef
lec
tion
c
oef
fi
cien
ti nt
e
rm s oft
he s
tand
ing-wave r
a
tio
. T hat i
s
,

Xef
/
eCI
'h.
;^
C
o e4
;jc /
11
I1
5 p SWR — 1 (
9
-97
)
= = SWR 1

I
n F ig. 9 -12, s tand ing-wave e nvelopes a re presen ted f o
r t h
ree magn i-
t
ude s oft he r eflected w ave a s given b y ref
lec t
ion c oeff
icients, p= 0 ,0 .
5,
a
nd 1 . T he amp litude o f t he incident w ave i st aken a s u n
ity. T he
c
urves s how EL,a s af unc tion o fp osit
ion i n terms o fb o th fi
x a nd w ave-
l
ength. F or c omp lete r ef
lec tion (p =1 )w e have a p ure s tanding w ave
w
ith aSWR o fi nf
inity . F or zero ref
lection ( p =0 ), t
he SWR i sunity,
a
nd E „ i scons tan t as af unction ofp osi
tion. F or ar ef
lection c oeff
icient
o
f 0.5, t he c urve v aries b e tween 1 .5 a nd 0 .5 s o that SWR = 3 . I n
g
eneral
, t he s tand ing -wave e nvelope i sn ot as i
ne c urve, t he m inimum
b
eing s ha rper t han t he max imum . T h
is i silustra ted b y the c urve for
p= 0 .
5. Howeve r, i n t he l imi
ting c ond i
tion o f p= 1 t he c urve d oes
h
ave t he f orm o f ar ec t
ified s ine function ( l
sin fxD
i . A lso, a s the condi-
t
ion p = 0 i sa pproached , t he curve a pprox ima tes as inusoidal v ariation
(
see Prob . 9 -15 ).
The st anding -wave e nve lope sinF ig.9 -12 ilustrate the peak magn itude
o
ft he electric f ie
ld a s af unc tion ofp osit
ion . F igure 9-13 s how st he time
SE
C. 9
-10
] PLA NE WAVES IN DIELECTRIC M EDIA 3
67

2
.
0

1
.
5

1
.
0

Ey

0
.
5

2
r
0 0
.
25X 0
.
5X 0
.
75X 1
.
0X
F
lo. 9
-12. S
tand
ing-wave e
nve
lopes f
or t
hree magn
itudes o
f r
ef
lect
ion c
oe f
ic
ient
,
p= 0
,0 .5
, a
nd 1.

2
70 -
A
=—1

2
25 -
1
0
—i

A
=0.
5/45
'

A
=0.5
p
=—i
=-0
.5

A
=—1
A=-1
A=0
.5/
45 .
A=-
0.5

p
=i

f
i
-0.5

p=1
4
5 9
0 1
35 1
80 2
25
D
i
stance f
r
om p
oin
t o
fre
f
lect
ion i
ndegrees

-
45

F
lo. 9
-13
. Phase var
iation o
f t
ota
l fi
eld a
s af
unct
ion o
f d
istance f
r
om p
oint o
f r
ef
lec-
t
i
on for v
arious c
ondit
ions o
f r
ef
lect
ion.
3
68 ELECTRO MAGNET1CS [
CHAP
. 9

phase o f t he t o tal f i
e
ld E5 a s af unc tion o f d i
stance f rom t he p oin t of
r
eflec tion . H e re t he d istance a nd t ime p ha se a re e xp res sed i n d eg ree s
.
The d ife ren t c urve s show t he p ha se v aria tion f or d ife rent c ond ition s o f
r
eflec tion . When A= 0 ,t he p ha se v aria tion i s al i
nea r f unc tion o fd is
-
t
ance a nd i sshown a s as tra igh t l ine a t as lope o f4 5°. F o r ar eflec tion
c
oe ff
i cien t i = 1t he p has e v aria tion i s as tep f unc tion w hich j umps i n
s
tep s o f 1 80 ° at d i
s tance i nte rva ls o f 1 80 °. F or A= j , wh ich s ign ifi es a
p
ha se s hift o f9 0° atr eflection , w e a lso h ave as t
ep f unc tion w hich i sd is
-
p
laced 4 5° in b oth t ime p hase a nd d istance f rom t he c urve f or A= 1 .
L
ikew is e, j ,= — 1, a nd i = — j y ield o the r d isp laced s tep f unc tions .
For r eflection c oeff
i cien ts b etween z ero a nd u nity , t he p has e v aria tion i s
g
iven b ys mooth c urves w hich f all b etwe en t he stra igh tl i
ne o f A= 0a nd
t
he s tep f unc t
ion sf or w hich Ae qua ls u nity . F ore xamp le ,n ote t he c urve
f
or i= 0 .5. When p i sf rac tiona l a nd bi sn ot e qua l t o 0o r 1 80 °, t he
c
urve sa re s moo th b uta re di splaced a long t he A= 0l i
ne,a si lus tra ted b y
t
he c urve f or A= 0 .5/45 ° =0 .35 ± j 0.35 .
I
n as tand ing w ave t he v eloc ity o f ac on stan t p ha se p oint i sn o t u n
i-
f
orm , a s may b e n o ted b y t he v ariab le r a te o fp rog res s o ft he p oin t Pi n
F
ig . 9 -11. F rom ( 9-47 ) t he p ha se v eloc ity a s af unc tion o f p osition i s
i
nve r se ly p ropo r t
iona l t o t he s lope ( dO/dx ) o f t he p hase -dis tance c urve
f
or t he t otal f i
eld . T he SWR i n F ig. 9 - 11 i s3 , a nd t he c orre spond ing
r
eflec tion c oeff
ic ient p = 0 .5. R efe rring t ot he A= 0 . 5c urve i nF ig. 9 - 13
t
he p ha se v e
lo ci ty i ss e en t o b e l arge st w he re t he s lope o f t his c u rve i s
smal le st, a sa t0 ° a nd 1 80 °
, a nd v ice v ersa. ' T he a ve rage p ha se v elo c
i ty
c
o
/$ , i nt his i nstance , isi nve rsely p ropo rtiona l tot he a ve rage s lope o ft he
4
)v s
. xc urve o ve ra ni nteg raln umbe ro f w aveleng th . Th is i ss een t o b e
t
he s ame a s t he s l
ope o f t he A= 0 l ine ( S WR = 1 )s o t ha t t he a verage
p
ha se v e
loc ity i n as tand ing w ave i se qua l t ot he p has ev elo city f or ap ure
t
rave ling w ave.
I
ft he p hase v elocity i sp lo tted a s af unc tion o fp o si
tion i n as tand ing
wave , ac urve i so btained t ha t o s cil
la te s b e
tween a max imum a nd a
m
in imum v a
lue o fv eloc ity i n a manne r t hat i sa nalogous t o as tand ing -
wave e nve lope f or f i
eld i n aw ave , o r v oltage o n at r ansm ission l ine.
Hence , b y a nalogy w e may c al
l t he r atio v./ v.i. t he s tand ing -wa v e r atio
f
orp ha sev elocity . I th asb een s hown b y Ma rsh 2 tha t
, i n as t and ing w ave
d
ue t ot wo w ave so fu nifo rm b ut, i ng ene ra l, u nequa l amp litude t ravel ing
w
i th e qua l v eloc ity i no ppo site d irec tion s
, t he stand ing -wave r a
tio o ft he
I
n this g
raph the a bsc
issa i
sind egrees a
s obtained b y mult
iplying the d
istance x
b
y 3 607X . The w avelength Xisalways equal to the di
stance between any point and
t
he n ex
t p o
int having t he s
ame phase.
2 J
.A. Ma rsh, "A Study o fPhase Veloc
ity onL ong C ylindr
ical Conductors
," P h
.D .
d
isser tat
ion, Depa rtment o f E
lectr
ical E ng
ine er
ing, Oh io S
tate Unive r
sity
, 1 949;
Mea sured C urrent Distribut
ions on He
lical Ant
enna s
,P roc. I
.R.E.
,3 9,668-675, June,
1
951 . S ee Probs
. 9 -31 and 1-17 for more general relat
ions.
 SE
C. 9
-11
] PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
69

p
hase v
elocity vas in (
9-47) o
r of t
he r
ela
tive p
hase v
eloc
ity p a
s in
(
9
-47a) and the s
tand
ing-wave r
atio f
or t
he fi
e
ld E o
r t
he vo
ltage V a
re
r
e
lated by
p
S WR = (VS WR)2 (
9
-98)

w
here p
S WR isthe SWR fort he v
e
locity a
nd VS WR i
sthe SWR f
o
rt he
f
i
e
ld orvoltage
. T hat i
s
,
p
S WR = VE
D
AS PI
T
I
A
Z
(
9-99)

w
here v
.
.. = maximum p
hase ve
locity
= min
imum phase v
eloci
ty
PM
IS =
D maximum r
e
lative phase v
e
locity
= m
inimum re
lat
ive phase ve
loc
i ty
a
nd
Em" +E
l = V.
V
S WR = L-
i E, (
9
-100
)
mio Ed 0- 1 V min

w
here E. = max imum resul
tant fi
eld
=m in
imum r e
sultant fi
e
ld
E0 = ampl
itude o
ff i
rst t
ravel
ing wave
El = ampl
itude o
fs econd tr
aveling w
ave
V
„.„ = max
imum r esu
ltan t v
oltage
Vm
in =minimum resultant vol
tage
E
xamp le
. The SWR o fthe envelope o
fthe resultant wave i
n F
ig. 9
-11 i
s3. Th
is
i
sal
so the SWR f
or t
he p = e nvelope i
n Fig
. 9-12. F ind the r
at
io o
f maximum t
o
m
inimum p ha
se v
eloc
ity o
f the re
sultant wave correspond
ing to t
his SWR (=3)
.
S
olu
tion. From (9
-98
)
pS WR = ( VS WR ) 2 = 32 = 9

Hence t
he max
imum p
hase v
eloc
ity (
a
t E.
,„) i
s n
ine t
ime
s t
he m
inimum p
hase
v
eloc
ity (
at

9
-11
. Energy Re
lat
ions i
n aT ravel
ing Wave
. F
rom (
2
-67a
) t
he
e
nergy d
ens
ity w
„ a
t apo
int i
nan e
lect
ric f
i
e
ld i
s
A(4
-ive
fi S
p rs w
. =i
cE 2 j
ou
les/me
ter
' (
9
-101)
v
o „‘
,/
„(zcou
lo,
n
6
w
here E = permit
tivi
ty o fm edium (f
arads/meter)
E=e lect
ric fi
e
ld intensity (
vo
lts/meter
)
F
rom (4-110) the ene
rgy d ens
ity t
v„
, at apoint i
n a magne
tic f
i
e
ld i
s
w
. = 61
-
12 j
ou
les/me
ter
s (
9
-102
)
w
here t
s= permeab
ili
ty o
fm edium (
henry
s/me
ter
)
H =Hf i
e
ld (amp/meter
)
L
I
n at
rave
ling wave c
ot l
uhlb

(
9
-103
)
3
70 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 9

S
ubs
titu
ting f
o
r Hf
r
om (
9
-103
) i
n (
9
-102
), w
e h
ave

=4
J
AH 2 = i
eE 2 = w
. (
9
-104
)

Thus t
he e
lectr
ic and magne
tic e
nergy d
ens
itie
si n ap
lane t
rave
ling w
ave
a
re equa
l, and the t
ota
l ene
rgy densi
ty w i
st he s
um of t
he el
ectr
ic a
nd
magnet
ic e
ne rg
ies. T hus

W=w
. =-
i
eE 2 -
6112 (
9
-105
)
o
r
w = EE2 = /
LI P I j
ou
les/me
ter
' (
9
-106
)

9
-12
. T he Poynting Vec
tor
. C ontinu
ing the d
iscuss
ion ofthe p
reced-
i
ng s
ect
ion, a
ny i n
crease i
nthe ene
rgy peru n
it vo
lume mus tbep roduced
byan i
nflow o
fe nergy. Likewise any dec
rease must be e
qua
l toa n ou
t-
f
l
ow. Thus ,for as ma
llvo
lume A vthe d
ecrease i
ne ne
rgy a
s afunction o
f
t
ime may be e
xp ressed a
s

— —a(
t1
a .
2
e
E2 ±- 101
2
2
) = f S•
8
d
s
w
att
s (
9
-107
)

whe
re S = energy p
eru n
it a
rea pass
ing p
erunit t
ime t
hrough the s
ur
face
o
fthe volume Ay (
watt
s/me ter 2)
.
D
ividing (
9-
107) by iv a
nd taking t
he l
im
it as h
i
v approache
s zero
, we
o
btain
a 1
v•s= ——
t(-
a 2e
E2 ± -
1A1
11 2) (
9
-108
)
2

The quantity Shasthe dimensions ofpowe rperu ni

ta rea and i
sexpre
ssed
i
n watts per s
quare m e
te r
. I ti s avec
to r s
ince itindica
tes no
t only the
magnitude ofthe energy fl
ow b ut a
lso it
s di
rection. I ti su
sually c
al
led
t
he Poynting ve
cto
r.'
Re
tu rning to Maxwe l
l's equations f
or nonconduc ting media
, we have

V xH = — a
D a
nd VxE = - a
s
t-
a -
(9-
109
)
a
t
Wr
iting t
he s
ca
lar p
roduc
t o
fthe f
i
rst e
qua
tion w
ith E a
nd o
fthe s
econd
w
ith H,
E •(
V xH
) = E •— a
D a
nd H •(
V xE a
s- (
) = -H •w 9
-110
)
a
t
S
ubt
rac
ting t
he f
i
rst f
r
om t
he s
e
cond
,
a
p
H •(
V xE
) - E •(
V xH
) = - (
E •w H •-
a-)
a
Bt (
9
-111
)

IJ
. H. Poynt
ing, On t
he Transfe
r of Ene
rgy i n t
he E
lectromagnet
ic Fie
ld, Phi
l.
T
ra m.
, 174
, 343
, 1883
. O l
iver Heavis
ide
, "E lec
tromagnet
ic Theory," E
rnest Henn,
L
td.
, London, 1893
, Vo
l. 1
,p. 7
8.
SE
C. 9
-
12] PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
71

By m
ean
s o
fthe c
onve
rsion f
ormu
la

G •(
V xF
) — F •(
V xG
) = V •(
F xG
) (
9
-112
)

t
he t
wo t
e
rms o
n t
he l
e
ft s
i
de o
f (
9
-111
) c
an b
e e
xpre
ssed a
s o
ne. T
hus

V •(
E xH
) = O
aD
t H a
aB
t)
(
9
-113
)

F
or i
s
otrop
ic med
ia, D =e
E a
nd B = AH
, a
nd (
9
-113
) t
ake
s t
he f
o
rm

V •(
E xH
) = — [
E •a
(a6
Et) H •a i )]
(Aal
t (
9
-114
)

R
eca
ll
ing f
r
om c
a
lcu
lus t
hat
a
w 1a
w
2
w—
t =
a (
9
-115
)

(
9
-114
) c
an b
e w
rit
ten a
s

E xH
V •( ) = —í
a (fE
2-
' )+ K 1
2) ] (
9
-116
)

T
aking t
he t
ime d
er
iva
tive o
pera
tor o
uts
ide t
he b
racke
ts,

V •(
E xH
) = — G
6E
2±,
H
2
) (
9
-117
)

C
ompar
ing (
9
-117
) w
ith (
9
-108
), i
tfo
llow
s t
hat

Ex H = S (
9
-118
)

whe
re E = el
ectr
ic fi
eld i
ntensity (
volts/meter
)
H =H f i
eld (amp/me ter)
S=P oynting vec
tor ( wat
ts/me te
rs)
T
he dimens
ional fo
rm o f (
9-118) in mksc un
its i
s

Vo
lts amperes w
atts
X
Mete
r meter meter
s

I
n w ords
, t h
is important re
la t
ion indica
te s t
hat the rate o
f e nergy fl
ow
p
er unit area i
n aw ave isdirected normal to t
he plane containing E a nd
H and h as a magnitude i n watts per square meter equal t o EH s in 0
,
where 0ist he a
ngle between E a nd H. I ti so
ften helpful to regard the
P
oyn t
ing v ector a
s as urfa
ce pow e
r densi
ty.
For ap lane wave travel
ing i n t
he pos
i t
ive x d
irection, as in Fig
. 9-2,
(
9
- 118) becomes
j
E„ xkH z = iS, =S (
9-119)

I
tshould b
e ment
ioned tha
t in s
ome s
ituations E xH doe
s not r
epre
-
s
entenergy f
l
ow, a
s
, for e
xample
, in as
ta
tic magne t
ic f
i
eld s
upe
rimposed
o
n asta
tic e
l
ectr
ic f
i
eld
. Howeve r
, t
he i
nteg
ra l o
fthe n
ormalcomponent
3
72 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 9

o
f E xH o
ver acl
osed s
urface a
lway
s g
ive
s t
he t
ota
l p
owe
r t
hrough t
he
s
urface
. Tha
t is
,
•s•
d
s =P w
att
s (
9
-120
)

where P = p ower fl
ow ing out o
fc losed surface 8. The P oynting v ector
Si n the above relation isthe instantaneous p owe r density, a nd P i n
(
9-120) isthe ins
tan taneous power.
When E a nd H are changing with t ime
, w e are often i
n terested int he
a
verage p ower. Th is is obtained b y integ rat
ing t he i n s
tan taneous
Poynting vector over one p
eriod and d ivid
ing b y one period. I tisa lso
r
eadily obtained us
ing complex n o
ta tion asf o
llow s
: I n comp lex n o
ta t
ion
t
he comp lex Poynting vector i
sgiven b y

S= xH* (
9
-121
)
w
here E = sEE = agE oe
i
"g
ag=unit v
ecto r i
n Edirection
H* = auk* = aHH0e-)0" -
1
)

a
H =unit v
ecto r i
nH direc t
ion
=p hase angle be
tween E a nd I *
I
n (
9
-121
) H* i sc
alled the c
omp lex c
onjugate o
fH, w
here

H = amHoe (
9
-122
)

The q uan
tity H a nd it
s complex conjugate H* h ave the same space
d
irect
ion and the s
ame ampli
tude Ho,b utthey diferinsign i
nthe
ir phase
f
actors
. A ssuming that t
he space d
irect
ions o f Ea nd H (or H*) are
normalt oeach o
ther, t
he c
omplex Poynting vec
to risnormaltot he p
lane
c
on ta
ining E and H* and i
s
S=i
a„E oHoe
:
E (
9
-123
)
where a
f
t =unit vec
tor normal t
o Eand H*.
Now the a
verage Poynting v
ecto
r S
,„ i
sgiven b
y t
he r
ea
l p
art o
fthe
c
omp lex P
oynt
ing vector
, or
S
. =R
e S=i
a„E olo c
os w
atts/me
ter
' (
9
-124
)
where =t ime-pha se a
ngle be
tween e l
ec t
ric and magne t
ic f
i
elds
. I tis
understood t ha t Eoa nd H
oa re the ampl
itude sorp eak magni
tude softhe
f
i
elds. I f
, instead, one uses t
he r ms values
, the fac
to r i
n (9
-124) i
s
omitted.
Tak ing t he i maginary part o
f (9
- 123
) y ie
lds the s
o-cal
led "reac
tive"
powe r per u n
it area
.
The a verage p ower P. fl
owing outwa rd through a cl
osed s
urface may
now b ee xpressed as

=9
6, R
e S •d
s = 9
6. R
e (
E xH*
) •d
s (
9
-125
)
SE
C. 9
-
12] PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
73

D
ividing t
he Poynt
ing v
ecto
r b y the e
nergy d
ens
ity
, w
e o
bta
in a
q
uanti
ty with t
he d
imens
ion
s ofve
locity. Thus

P
oynting v
ecto
r
-v
e
loc
ity (
9
-125a
)
Ene
rgy dens
ity

o
rind
imens
iona
l s
ymbo
ls
MT -3 _L
ML - I
T-2 T

T
his i
sthe e
nergy v
e
loc
ity v
„
„. Inn ond
ispersive med
ia t
he energy v
eloc
ity
i
sequa
l to t
he phase ve
loc
ity v
. I n anondispe
rsive l
o
ssle
s s med
ium w e
h
ave
EH 1
Vi
m =e—E
2 = V
i= v

I
nd ispersive m edia thata re a
lso l
os
sle
sst he energy v e
locity isequal t
o
t
he group v e
locity. I n absorbing media (notlossless
) w here the absorp
-
t
ion isn ot small the g
roup v e
locity t
ends to lo
se i t
s simple signif
icance
.
Howeve r, t
he e ne
rgy v eloc
i ty st
il
l has asimple, defin
ite m eaning.
Whe reast he pha se ve
locity (and al
so the g
roup v e
locity) may a ssume
v
aluesg reatero rl e
s sthan the ve
locity o
fl i
ght, the energy velocity neve
r
e
xceeds the v e
locity ofl i
ght (3 X 1 08meters per sec)
.

E
xamp le 1
. Aplane t
rave
ling wave inf
ree space h
as a
n a
verage P
oyn
ting v
ecto
r
o
f 1watt/meter
s. Find t
he ave
rage ene
rgy density
.
S
olu
tion. The a
verage e
nergy d
ensity

I NV v
e
loc
ity 3X 1
0 -sj
ou
le/me
ter
s

g
o e
rg/me
ter
s

The energy d ensity w.

s. isa n average v a
lue. T he instantaneous va
lue
may b e any v a
lue b etween z ero a nd t w
ice the average v a
lue. T he
d
iference b e
tween t he average and i ns
tantaneous values isdi
scussed i
n
more detai
l int he fo
llowing p a
rag raphs.
Returning n ow to af u
r ther c
onside rat
ion of aplane w ave t
ravel
ing i
n
t
he posi
tive xd irection in aloss
less m edium, l
etuss ubs t
itute (
9-68) a
nd
(
9-69) int he Poyn t
ing-vecto r e
qua t
ion ( 9
-119)
. Th is yie
lds

S
r
. = V-
-E
-
e 0 2s
i
n2(
c
o
t -0
x) w
att
s/me
ter2 (
9
-126
)
A

Th
is is t
he ins
tantan
eous power per uni
t area. A t af i
xed p
osit
ion,
=cons
tant, th
is powe
r pulsa
tes with the pas
sage o
f time a
s as i
ne
s
quared f
unc
tion. The peak power p
er un
ita r
ea occu
rs when

s
i
n2(
c
o
t -0
x) = 1
3
74 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 9

g
iv
ing
E02
P
eak S
. -
= Nr
-6 E
ol = (
9
-127
)

whe
re R = i
ntr
insic res
istance o
fthe medium. T ofi
nd the a
veragepower
p
er un
itar
ea, t
he instantaneous v
alue g
iven by (
9-
126) i
sintegrated o
ver
o
ne per
iod a
nd divided b y t
he l
ength o
fo ne p
er
iod, wh
ich yie
lds'

1
A
verage S
. =-
2 -
p E02 = —
E
02 (
9
-128
)
2R

C
ompa
ring (
9
-128
) a
nd (
9
-127
), i
tfo
llow
s t
hat

P
eak S
. = 2(
ave
rage S
.
) (
9
-129
)

The e
nergy f
low peru n
it t
ime per uni
t a
rea, o
rpower surface den
sity
,
o
f aplane wave t
ravel
ing inthe pos
itive xd
irec
tion i
silustrated inFig
.
9
-
14 . H ere t
he i
nstantaneous v
alues ofS. a
re s
hown at two ins
tants o
f

W
atts p
er
1
.
0
s
quare me
ter P
e
ak

s
,

0
5
A
v
e
rag
e

D
i
rec
tion o
f
p
ower f
l
ow

2 L
i
x

'
0 1 1 3 A
—
4X
2 —A
4
FI
G
. 9
-14
. I
nstantan
eou
s Poynt
ing-v
ect
or magn
itude f
or p
lan
e wave t
r
ave
ling i
n
p
o
sit
ive xd
i
rect
ion att
wo i
ns
tantsofti
me: 1= 0and % p
e
riod l
a
ter
.

t
ime t= - 0a nd t= T /8. T he value s of t he i nstan taneous p ower p er
u
nit a rea are given o ver ad istance of 1w ave leng th i n the x direction.
Conf
in ing o u
r atten t
ion t o o
ne o fthe c urves, s ay f o
r t= 0 ,w e note that
t
he p owe r surface d ens
i ty i
s ap u
lsating q uan tity, w ith t wo pulse
s p er
waveleng th. H ence, at af i
xed p os
i t
ion t he re a re t wo p ulses per per
iod
o
rc ycle. C ompa r
ing t he c
urve sfor t= 0a nd t= T /8, w en ote thatt he
p
ulses move t o the right adistance o fi fw ave leng th i nt he interval of
p
eriod, indicating ap owe r f
l
ow i nt he p o
sitive xd i
rec tion.
To o btain the instan taneous energy d ensity o f the w ave, the in
stan -
t
aneous P oynting v ector isdivided b y the v e
loc ity o ft he w ave. T hus
1T
hesam
ere
sul
tmay b
eob
tain
ed f
r
om (
9
- )b
124 yn
o
ting t
h
ati
n al
o
sslea
s med
ium
E= 0
.
SE
C
. 9
-
121 P
LANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MED
IA 3
75

t
he i
n
stan
taneous e
nergy d
ens
ity i
sgi
ven b
y

S 1ji
w - = - -So s
i
n' (
c
o
t -f
l
x) (
9
-130
)
v v M

S
ince 1
/v = VW
.
t
, (
9
-130
) b
ecome
s

W=f
E02 1
2 (
c
o
t -)
9
x) j
ou
les/me
ter
' (
9
-130a
)

By s
teps s
imi
lar t
o tho
se f
o
r (
9
-127
) a
nd (
9
-128
) t
he p
eak a
nd a
verage
e
nergy d
ens
ities a
re

Peak w = e
E02 j
oules/meter
s (
9
-131
)
A
verage w = eE02 j
oules/meter' (
9
-132
)

Tab
le 9
-2 s
umma r
izes t
he r
e
lat
ions deve
loped above f
or t
he P
oyn
ting
v
ectorand e
nergy d
ensi
ty o
f asi
ngle p
lane t
rave
ling wave
.

TABLE 9
-2
POYNT
ING
-VECTOR AND ENERGY -DENSITY RELAT
IONS FOR A PLANE
TRAVELING WAVE I
N A DIELECTRIC MEDIU M

P
oyn
ting v
ector S
, T
ota
l energy d
ens
ity w
,
C
ond
ition
wa
tts/meter
' j
ou
les/metera

I
nstan
taneous Eols
i
n' (
c
o
t —f
l
.
r) e
E 02 s
i
n' (
w
i —f
i
x)
A

P
eak Eo2 = H o' t
E0 2 = AH 02

A
verage 5 \F
.; E02 H o2

The i nstan taneous e nergy -density d istr

ibu t
ion o f the p lane w ave
t
ravel
ing i nt he posi
tive xd irection h as t he s ame f orm a s t he P oynting-
v
ector c urve s shown i n F ig. 9-14. T he o rdina te
, h oweve r, f o
r e nergy-
d
ensity c urve sise xpre ssed i nj oules per c ubic m eter.
From t he e nergy p oin t ofv iew, iti si nteres t
ing t o c onside r the energy
p
er pulse o f the w ave . H ere w e con s
ide r t ha t 1p ulse is- IFwaveleng th
l
ong. I ts b ounda r
ie s a re d efined b y t he p os
ition s w he re t he e nergy
d
ensity isz ero. S ince w ea red ealing w ith ap lane w ave o fi nfini
te e x
ten t
,
l
e
t u s confine o ur atten tion t o av o
lume 1me ter s qua re (pa ral
lel to the
wave front) b y 1pulse l eng th (int he xd irection ). S ince 1p ulse length is
waveleng th long, t he e nergy i n this v o
lume ( 1p u
lse l ong) i so btained
b
y mu ltiplying t he a verage e ne rgy d ensity b y- }w aveleng th e xpressed in
3
76 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
C u
'
. 9

meters
. Thus
X
Energy = (
average w
) .
2- j
oules (
9-133
)

where X = wave
length
.

Examp le 2
. T he average e
nergy dens
ity of ap l
ane tr
avel
ing w
ave is 1jou
le/
meters
. I ft
he w
avelength i
s0.
5 me te
r, f
ind t
he energy i
n avo
lume 1pu
lseleng
th by
1me ter .
2

So
lution. From (9-133)
Energy j
oule

Th
is i
sthe e
nergy i
n avo
lume 1me
ters
quare b
y 1p
ulse l
eng
th l
ong
,ort
he e
nergy i
na
v
olume of0.
25 meterz
.

I
tist
o b
e n
oted t
hat t
he i
nstantaneous v
a f E
lues o , and H
. have a s
ine
d
istr
ibut
ion a
s af
unct f x
ion o . The Poynt
ing v
ector S a
nd t
he e
nergy
d
ens
ity t
o
, h
owever
, h
ave a s
ine s
quared d
istr
ibut
ion
.
The e
nergy d
ens
ity w wh
ich we h
ave b
een d
iscuss
ing i
sthe t
ota
l e
nergy
d
ens
ity o
f t
he p
lane e
lectro magnet
ic wave
. Th
is e
nergy d
ens
ity i
n t
he
c
ase o
f t
he p
lane t
rave
ling wave i
s e
qua
lly d
ivided a
t a
l
l t
i mes b
etween
t
he e
lectr
ic e
nergy d
ens
ity a
nd t
he magnet
ic e
nergy d
ens
ity
. Th
is r
e
la-
t
ionsh
ip i
sgiven by (
9-105
).
Equat
ion (
9-126
) f
or t
he Poynt
ing v
ector o
f ap
lane t
rave
ling wave i
s
wr
itten i
n t f E
erms o . S
ince t
he p
ower i
sequa
lly d
ivided b
etween e
lec
-
t
r
ic a
nd magnet
ic f
or ms
, we c
an wr
ite

1 e
S
: = —
2 \
I—µ E
02s
i
n2(
c
u
t —f
t
x) (
9-134
)

L .
a
nd

s
'
„
,=
\
F-
E
-Ho2
sm2(
c
ot — /
3
x) (
9-135
)

where A
S
: = e
lectr
ic p
ower p
er un
it a
rea
= magnet
ic power p
er un
it a
rea
The phase f
actors f
or b nd S
oth S a 's,a
re i
dent
ica
l. S
ince A
S
: = S
'
„, f
or
t
he p
lane t
rave
ling wave
, t
he t
ota
l p
ower c
an b
e e
xpressed a
s tw
ice t
he
v
alue o
f S. Thus

S= =2
S (
9-136
)

where t
he Poynt ector S i
ing v sequa
l t
o t
he t
ota
lpower p
er un
it a
rea
.
L
ikew
ise
, t
he e
nergy d
ens
ity i
s e
qua
lly d
ivided b
etween t
he e
lectr
ic
(
t
o.) a
nd magnet
ic (
Wm) s
o t
hat

e = 4
w 0E0 2s
in' (
c
o
t —O
x) (
9-137)
a
nd
w
„, = blio 2 s
in 2 (
c
ot — #
.
1-) (
9-138
)
 SE
C. 9
-13
1 PLANE W AVES I
N DIELECTRIC MEDIA 3
77

S
ince w
. =t
v
, f
o
r ap
lane t
r
ave
ling w
ave
, t
he t
o
tal wi
stw
ice w
.
. T
hus

w=W
e t
v
. =2
we = 2
w„
, (
9
-139
)

)
( 9 -13. E nergy R ela
tions in aS tand
ing Wave . N ex t l
et us consider
t
he e nergy and p owerrelat
ions fortwo p
lane wave st ravel
ing ino ppo s
ite
d
irec t
ions. A ssume thatb oth wavesare po
lar
ized w ith E int he ydirec-
t
i
on . A ssume f urther t
hat one wave t
ravels i
nt he n egat
ive x direction
a
nd h as an amp li
tude E o
, w h
ile the o
ther wave t ravels i
n the p o
sitive
xdi rect
ion a nd h as an amplitude El. In th
is c ase t he i
nstantaneous
v
alue o fE .
, result
ing from the two waves
, isgiven b y

E
. = E0s
i
n (
c
o
t +1
3
x) E1s
i
n (
c
o
t —t
3
x) (
9
-140
)

We may f
ind ac
orre
spond
ing r
e
lat
ion f
o
rH.a
sfo
llows
: L
etu
sst
artw
ith
(
9-8
). T hat i
s
,
a
E
, =— O
_ H
,
(
9
-141
)
a
z a
t
S
ubs
titut
ing E„ f
rom (
9-140
) into (
9-
141)
, diferen
tia
ting w
ith r
e
spect
t
ox,a nd i
n
teg
rat
ing w
ith re
spect t
o1,we ob
tain

H
. = — Eo s
i
n (
c
o
t +l
a
x) + J
iE sin (cot — ax)
i (
9
-142
)

T
he magn
itude o
fthe P
oyn
ting v
ecto
r i
s
Sz = E
.H. (
9
-143
)
S
ubs
titut
ing (
9
-140
) a
nd (
9
-142
) i
n (
9
-143
) y
ie
lds

S
. = — [
E 02 s
i
n2 (
c
o
t +f
i
x) — E12 s
i
n2(
c
o
t —/
3
x)
] (
9-1
44)
A

Acco rding t o( 9
-144 ) the n etP oyn ting vec tori sint he n ega t
ive xd i
rec t
ion
p
rov ided Eo > E l. F ur the rmo re
, t he netP oynt
ing v ec tori se qualt ot he
d
ife rence o ft he P oyn t
ing v ectorsf ort he t wo traveling w ave s
. S uppo se
t
ha t the w ave t ot he lef
ti sinc
ident o n ap lane b ounda ry a t x = 0( a
si n
F
ig . 9-9)
. T he w ave tot he ri
gh tt hen b ecome s ar ef
lected w ave . I ft he
med ium t o t he l e
f t oft he b ounda ry is ap erfect conduc tor, w e have t he
c
ond ition a t the b ounda ry t hat E 1 = —E o, re
su lt
ing i n ap ure standing
wave t o the r ight o fthe b ounda ry. We n ote that fo rt h
is cond it
ion t he
n
e tP oynting v ecto riszero a nd,h ence ,n op ower ist ransm itted. F urther-
mo re, itfollows f rom ( 9-144 ) that, ing ene ral, t
he largert hes t
and ing-wa ve
r
atio, t h
e s ma
l ler t he ne
t p ower transm i
tted for ag i
v en v alueo fE . C on-
v
e rsely, t he s maller the s tanding -wave r at
io, t he large r t he n et powe r
t
ransm itted f or ag iven v alue ofE o.
It isi n
te res t
ing t o exam ine t he c ondition o f ap ure s tand ing w ave
(E 1 = —E o) i n mo re de tail
, p articularly f rom t he s tandpo int o f con-
3
78 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 9

c
entra
tions o
fenergy. Accordingly
, le
t us fi
nd t
he values o
fthe e
lec
tric
a
nd magne t
ic e nergy d
ens
ities separate
ly. S ubs
tituting (9
-87
) i nto
(
9-
101), we o
bta
in , f
ort
he e
l
ectric e
nergy dens
ity o
f apure s
tand
ing wave,

we = 2
fE 02 c
os 2c
o
tsi
n2 (
9
-145
)

T
aking (
9
-142
), e
xpand
ing
, c
o
llect
ing t
e
rms
, a
nd p
utt
ing E1 = HO
;

Hs = —21
1 0s
i
nco
tco
s 9
x (
9
-146
)

S
ubst
itu
ting th
is i
n (
9-102
) y ie
lds t
he v
alue o
f t
he magne
tic e
nergy
d
ens
ity o
f apure s
t
and
ing w ave,

t
v
. = 41
-
1 02 s
i
n 2c
o
tco
s2 9
x (
9
-147
)

Compar
ing (
9-145
) a
nd (
9-147
), the e
lec
tric e
nergy dens
ity i
s amax
imum
when t
he magnet
ic i
s z
e
ro , and vi
ce v er
sa. F ur
the rmore
, the po
ints
p
4
,g
.w
2 .
.
b.
Z
e
ro ct0 /• E
ne
rgya l
t
i
me g
a1 / .‘ ,
e
l
ect
ric
/ .
w
C /
1 /
0
0
2

2 D
i
rec
tion o
f
tp
w e
r
iod , 7p
o
ynt
ing v
e
cto
r
-
1-
- —4
.-
" l
a
ter ' ,
'
"
..—
"-%. -- -
-'s En
ergyhalf
el
ec
tr
ic, h
al
f
/
' %
.
..
.. magnet
ic
3
7*
4 2 2
f
ix

2
p
er
iod , E
n
ergyal
" l
a
te
r m
agne
ti
c

3
7 2
7
2 f
ir

FIG. 9
-15
. T ota
l elec
tric and magnetic e
nergy d
ensi
ties a
t three i
n
stants o
ftime f
o
r a
pure s
tanding wave. C ondi
tions a
re s
hown over ad
istance o
f 1waveleng
th (1
3
x =2 7)
.
There isno n
et transm iss
ion ofenergy i
n apure s
tanding wave.

where t hey are max imum a re wavelength apa r

t. I n other wo rds, the
e
lectric a nd magne tic e nergy d en s
ities of ap ure s tanding w ave a re in
s
pace a nd t ime quadrature. Th is condition istypicalo f apure r
e sonator.
The e nergy o s
cil
lates b ack a nd forth f r
om t he el
ec tr
ic form t o the mag -
n
e t
ic. E nergy in this cond it
ion i soften spoken o f a
s react
ive o r sto
red
e
ne rgy. I ti snot transm i
t ted b u
t c i
rculates fr
om o ne form tot he other.
S
imu l taneously with t he change fr om the el
ectric tot he magne t
ic f o
rm o f
e
ne rgy the re i
s aspace mo t
ion o ft he energy back a nd fo
rth over ad is
tance
o
f jw avelength. The se r e
lations a re shown g raph ical
ly i n F
ig . 9-15.
 Sm
. 9
-14
] PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
79

Here the energy densitiesareshown a tt hree in

stants o
ft ime, t= 0,T /8
,
a
nd T /4. T he d ashed curves show t he i ns
tantaneous e lect
ric energy
d
ens i
ty w . as e va
lua ted fr
om ( 9-145) a nd the so
lid curves t he i
nstan-
t
aneous magne t
ic energy densi
ty w .
, ase valuated from (9-147).
Final
ly, let u s f
ind an express
ion f o
r t he magnitude o f the Poynting
v
ecto r o
f ap ure st
and ing wave. T o do t h
is, we subs
titute (9-146
) a nd
(
9-87) in (9-
119 ), o b
taining

Sx = —4E
011
0co
sco
tsi
nco
tco
sfi
xsi
nfi
x (
9
-148
)

P
utt
ing Ho i
nte
rms o
fEo
,

S
. = —4 Vi
-E02 c
osw
tsi
n c
o
tco
sfi
xsi
nfi
x (
9
-149
)
A

a
nd t
he p
eak v
alue o
fthe P
oyn
ting v
ecto
r i
s
-
P
eak Sx =
\I
IE
V A
(
9
-150
)

F
rom a ni nspec tion of( 9
- 149 )itisc l
eart ha tS .i s amax imum a tc o
t =7 /4
(
ip eriod). A t th
is i nstant t he posit
ion o fo ne max imum i sat1 3x =7 /4
(
iw aveleng th) and i sd irec ted to the left as shown b y the arrow i nF ig.
9
-15 . T he o ther a rrow s i ndicate o ther P oyn ting-vec tor max ima a nd
i
lus trate t ha ta t t= T /8 t he energy i sfl
owing f rom t he reg
ions o fe l
ec tric
e
ne rgy d ens i
ty t o tho se of magne t
ic e nergy d ensity.
Referring t o Fig. 9 -11, w e note tha t in as t anding w ave, ac ons tan t
p
hase p o
int d oes n ot move w ith u niform v eloci
ty . A s ar e
su lt
, t he
e
ne rgy t end s to bunch u p o r lo
calize
. T his cond it
ion b ecome s extreme
w
i th ap ure s tanding w ave f o
rw h
ich ac onstan tp hase p o
inti sst
a t
iona ry.
Hence , l oca l
ized c oncen tra tions o f energy a re a ssociated w ith a n on-
u
n iform o rs tat
iona ry p hase v e
locity.
)
( 9 -14 . Wave P ola r
iza tion.' C on s
ide r ap lane w ave t r
ave l
ing o ut o f
t
he p age ( positive zd irec t
ion ) asinF ig. 9-16a, w ith the el
ectric fi
eld ata l
l
t
ime si nt he yd i
rec t
ion . Th is wave i ssaid tob elinearly polarized int he
yd irection . A s af unc tion o f t
ime a nd p os
ition t he e l
ectric fi
eld o f a
l
inea rly p olarized w ave ( as in Fig. 9 -16a) t raveling i n the p osit
ive z
d
ire ction ( out oft he p age ) isgiven b y

E
„ = E2 s
i
n (
c
o
t —j
3
z) (
9
-151
)

I
n genera
l, t
he e
l
ec t
ric f
i
eld o
f aw ave t
rave
ling i
nthe zdi
rec
tion may
h
ave both aycomponen tand an xcomponent, a
ssugges
ted inF
ig. 9
-16b
.
I
n the gene
ral s
i
tuation, s
uch a wave i
ssaid to b
e e
lipti
cal
ly po
lar
ized
.
1For amore d
eta
iled t
rea
tment o
fwave po
lar
iza
tion s
ee
, forexamp
le,J
.D . Kraus
,
"Antennas
," McGraw -Hi
ll Book C
ompany
, Inc
., New York
, 1950
, p
p. 4
64-484
.
3
80 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 9

A
t af i
xed va
lue o
f zt he e
lec
tric f
ie
ld v
ector Erotates a
s afunction of
t
ime
, the ti
p of t
he vector des
crib
ing an el
ipse ca
lled the p
olar
izat
ion
e
lip
se. T he ra
tio o
f t he major t
o the minor a
xis of t
he polar
izat
ion
e
lip
se isca
lled t
he a
xial ra
tio (AR)
. Thus , fo
r t
he w ave i
nFig. 9
-16b,

E
y
AR = (9
-152
)

T
he a
x
ial r
a
tio o
f al
i
nea
rly p
ola
rized w
ave i
sinf
ini
te.

L
i
near E
lipt
ical C
ircular
p
o
lar
izat
ion p
o
la r
izat
ion p
o
larizat
ion

(
a) (
6
) (
c)
Fm
. 9
-
16. L
inea
r, e
lip
tica
l, a
nd c
i
rcu
lar p
ola
riza
tion
.

I
n g
ene
ral
, an e
lipt
ica
lly p
ola
rized w
ave may b
e e
xpre
ssed i
nte
rms o
f
a
n xcomponen
t given b
y

E
. =
- E1s
i
n (
c
o
t —O
z
) (
9
-153
)

a
nd ayc
omponen
t g
iven b
y

E
„ = Ey s
i
n (
c
o
t —O
z ± 5
) (
9
-154
)

w
here El = amp l
itude oflinearly po
larized x
-componen
t w ave
Ey = ampl
itude oflinearly po
larized y-
componen
t w ave
=time-phase angle b y which E. lead
s E. (
the "x wave" i
s
t
aken as t
he reference f
orp hase)
T
he instantaneous t
otal vector fi
eld E r e
sult
ing f
rom the two l
i
nea
rly
p
ola
rized component w avesi s

E=i
E is
i
n (
c
o
t —0
z
) j
E 2s
i
n (
c
u
t —/
3
z + 8
) (
9
-155
)

Evaluating ( 9
-155 ) as afunction of t
ime ta t af i
xed va
lue of za nd
p
lotting the va
luesf orE ,the l
ocus o
ft he t
i
po f Eiso b
tained a
s afunction
o
ft ime. I ngeneral the l
ocus isanelipse
. I fE 1 = Ey and 8= 9 0°
, the
l
ocus described byt he ti
po f Eis aci
rcle (
Fig
. 9-16c)a nd t
he w
ave iss a
id
t
ob ec i
rcularly polariz
ed. O n t he o
ther hand, if 5= 0° or ±1 80
° or if
El or Ey e qua
ls z e
ro, the wave i sli
near
ly p o
larized. B oth l
inear and
SE
C
. 9
-
14] PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
81

c
i
rcula r p o
la r
iza tion may be r egarded as spec
ial (l
imit
ing) cases of
e
l
liptical po
la rization
.
The factt hatt he lo
cusisingeneral an e
lip
se may bed emonstrated by
p
roving tha t (9-153) and (
9
-154
) w ith z= 0are the p
arametric e
quations
o
fa n elipse. T hus we h
ave

Ex = Els
i
nwt (
9
-156
)
E
y =E y s
i
n (
c
o
t ± 6
) (
9
-157
)

where (
o
tisthe i
ndependent variable
. T he procedure used i
n t
he proo
f
w
illbetoel
iminate c
o
tand rearrange the r
esu
lting expre
ssion i
nto t
he f
orm
o
fthe equa
tion f
or an e
lipse
. F ir
s t we e
xpand ( 9
-157). Tha t i
s
,

E
„ =E
y (
s
in w
tco
s 6+ c
osc
o
tsi
n 5
) (
9
-158
)
F
rom (
9
-156
)
Ex
s
i
n c
o
t =
r
i
We a
l
so c
an w
rite

c
osc
u
t = -
V1 — s
i
n 2c
o
t = V1 — (E ) 2
El

S
ubs
titu
ting t
hese r
ela
tions f
o
r s
i
nco
tand c
osc
o
tin (
9
-158
), r
ear
rang
ing
,
a
nd s
quaring y
ie
lds
,

E2 2
E,E
„ co
s 5 E2
± E
22 =s
i
n25 (
9
-159
)
E22 E2E2

D
ivid
ing b
y s
i
n25
,th
is c
an b
e r
educed t
o

a
E2 — b
ExE
„ ± c
E„2 = 1 (
9
-160
)

whe
re a = 1 /
(E 12 si
n25 )
b= ( 2c o
s 6)/(E 1E2 sin25 )
c-=1 /(E 22 s
in25 )
Equa t
ion (9-160) may b e re
cogn ized asthe equat
ion fo
ra ne l
lipsei ni t
s
most generalf orm, the axes oft he el
lipse
, ingeneral
, not co
inciding with
t
he xo r ya x
is.
F
inally, le
t u s develop a n expre s
sion for t
he average Poynting v ec
to r
o
f an eliptically polarized w ave. F or thi
s itwil
l be convenient to u se
c
omp lex notation and toi ndicate a
llcomp lex q
uantit
ies(phasors)explicit
ly
by ad ot 0.
Now t he comp lex P oyn t
ing vec tor is

(
9
-161
)

a
nd t
he a
verage P
oyn
ting v
ecto
r i
sthe r
ea
l p
art o
fit
, o
r

S
.
, =R e A xi
e g = 4R l* (
9
-162
)
 3
82 E
LECT
ROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
.9

R
efe
rring t
o F
ig. 9
-16b
, le
t the el
ipt
ica
lly po
lar
ized w
ave h
ave x a
nd y
c
omponents w
ith aphase d
iference 6a
s g
iven by

=Ele
i
(
64-
8 1
) (
9
-163
)
: Ey = E 2 e 't -I3Z +6) (
9
-164
)

A
t z= 0t
he t
ota
l e
l
ectr
ic f
i
e
ld (
vec
tor
) i
sthen

A= = j
E ze
(w
t-4)
1 (
9
-165
)

where i= u n
it vector in xdirect
ion
j= u n
it vector in ydirect
ion
Note that Ai s acomp lex vector (phasor-vector) wh
ich isre
solvab
le into
two component c omp lex v
ecto rsi Ez a
nd jEy
, w here e
ach c
omponen thasa
v
ector p art (ind
icating space d i
rection) and a c omplex par
t or phasor
(
indicat
ing t ime phase). Thus , ini Ez,iisthe v
ectora nd Ezi
sthe p
hasor.
The H -f
ield component a ssociated with E.i s

•7 (? 7) f
l
y = i
e
g t (
9
-166
)
XA
1
- )

w
he re t= pha
se l
ag o
f f
r
„wi
th r
e
spec
t t
o E
y. The H
-fie
ld c
omponen
t
a
ssocia
ted w
ith k
yis
=H
2eg'
s-0 •
+ ") (
9
-167
)
The to
tal H f
i
eld (
vec
tor
) a
t z = 0f
o
r aw
ave t
rave
ling i
nthe p
osi
tive z
d
irec
tion i
sthen
=j
i
l„ —i
l
iz =j
l
- le
g.
g -t
)— i
H 2e(w
g
+t -t
) (
9
-168
)
Now t
he complex c
onjuga
te o
f i
iise
qua
l t
o (
9
-168
) e
xcep
tfo
r t
he s
i
gn
o
fthe e
xponen
t s
. Tha t i
s
,
=j
f
i le
-gw
e-1
) — (
9
-169
)
S
ubst
itu
ting (
9
-165) a
nd (
9
-169
) i
n (
9
-162
) g
ive
s t
he a
verage P
oyn
ting
v
ecto
r a
t z= 0as
S
.
„ =i
fRe[(
i x — (
jx
=-
I
FI
ERe (
ES: + (
9
-170
)
w
here k = u
nit v
ecto
r i
n zd
i
rec t
ion (
di
rect
ion ofpropaga
tion o
fw ave
).
I
tfo
llow
s that
S
. = Ree
l E2H2 R
ee t
)
=4
-k
(E 11
I E2H2)c
os t (
9
-171)
I
tisto b
e no
ted that S. isi
ndependent o
f 6
.
I
n al
os
sle
ssm edium t= 0 (e
lect
ric a
nd magnet
ic f
ie
lds i
nt ime p
hase)
a
nd E1/H 1 = E2/H 2 = Z
, where Z, the i
ntr
insic impedance of the
med
ium, i
sreal
; so

=i
k(E il i E
2H2
)
=I
k(1
/ 12 H22)
Z =4
-
1
cH 2Z (
9
-172
)
SE
C. 9
-
15] PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
83

w
he re H =VH
1
2 + H
2
2 = amp
litude o
f t
o
tal H f
i
e
ld. We c
an a
l
so
w
rite
1 E2
1 E22 1 E2
2 k — 2k (
9
-173
)

w
here E= VE12+ E
2 = amp
litude o
fto
tal Ef
i
e
ld.

E
xamp
le. A
nel
ipt
ica
lly p
o
lar
ized w
avei
nai
rha
s xa
nd yc
ompon
ent
s
E
. = 3s
i
n (wt — (32) v
ol
ts/m
eter
E
„ = 6s
i
n (
c
ot — 7
5
°) v
o
lts/me
ter
F
i
nd thea ve
ragepowe
rp e
ru n
ita r
ea co
nveyed byt
hew ave
.
S
olu
t . T
ion h
ewav
ei st
rave
ling i
nthepo
sit
ive zd
i
rec
tion
. T heave
ragep
owerpe
r
u
n
ita r
ea isequa
ltot
heaverag
eP oynt
ing v
ector
,whi
ch fr
om (9
-173
)has am
agn
itud
e
1
.
E2 1E
ll +E22
Sa
v 2 Z

F
rom the st
ated c
ond
it
ions t
he amp
li
tude E1 = 3v
o
lts/met
er, a
nd t
h
e a
mpl
itud
e
E2 = 6v
ol
ts/m e
ter
. A l
so f
o
ra i
r Z =376
.7 o
hms
. H ence
13
2 +62 145
= 0
r .
06w
at
t/m
ete
r'
= 237
6.7 23
76.
7
9
-15
. Cross-f
ield
. T he d
iscus
sion i
nt he preceding s
ect
ions has d
ealt
w
ith e
ll
ipt
icalpolar
iza
tion a
nd it
st wo s
pecia
l limit
ing cas
esoflinearand

d
i
Wave
rect
ion c
lE d
i
rec
t
W
ave
ion

P
l
anec
o
nt
ain
ing E (P
l
ane c
onta
ining E

(
a) (
b)
F
la
.9-
17. P
lan
eco
ntain
ing Efo
rca
seo
fel
ipt
ica
lpo
lar
iza
tion (
a
)
,and p
l
anec
o
nta
in-
i
n
g Efo
rcas
eo fc
r
oss
-fi
eld (
b
).

c
ircular polar
iza tion. I n al
l o fthe se case
s the direc t
ions oft he e l
ectric
f
i
eld v ecto
r at ag iven p oin
t a re confined to aplane p erpendicular t o the
d
irection ofp ropaga tion, as indica ted inFig. 9-17a.
A
no thers i
tua t
ion o ften occur si nw hich the e
lectric vecto
r ro tates ina
p
lane p ara
llel to the p ropaga tion d i
rection (F
ig. 9-17b )
. T his cond it
ion
i
sc a
lled cross-f
ield.
' T his si
tua t
ion c an occur ifthe re i
s acomponen t of
Eint he direction ofp ropaga tion. T h
is si
tuation neve rexistsi nt he case
IA
.Alf
ord, J
.D. Kraus
, and E.C.B arko
fsky, C
hap
. 9
,"Ve
ry High F
requ
ency
T
echn
iques
," Rad
io R e
search Labo
rato
ry S taf
, H. J
. R
e
ich (e
d
.), McG
raw-Hil
l
B
ook Company
,I n
c.
, New Y o
rk, 19
47, p
.2 0
0.
3
84 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 9

o
f asingle plane w ave infree space since such a w ave has no fie
ld com-
p
onen tint he di
rection ofp ropagation. Howeve r, i nthe near fie
ld ofan
a
ntenna the re a
re fie
ld componen ts in both the direction ofp ropaga t
ion
a
nd n ormal to t
his d i
rect
ion so that c r
oss-f
ield isp resent (Fig. 9-18a
).
Cro
ss-f
ield may a lso b
ep resentw here two w aveso fthe s
ame f requency
a
nd travel
ing ind iferentd i
rections cross
. T hus
,i nt he reg
ion e xposed t
o
r
adiat
ion from t wo a ntenna s a
s in Fig. 9-18b there i scross
-field. B oth

( .
h
.

/
/ Et
,

C
ross f
i
e
ld
r
eg
ion

7
7
(
a) (
b
)

L
'
-l
ine

Wave
\ / d
i
rect
ion
C
ross f
i
e
ld
r
eg
ion
A
i
r E l

C
onduct
ing E
t
med
ium
(
c) (
d)
F
lo. 9
-18
. S
i
tua
tions i
n wh
ich c
ros
s-f
ie
ld may b
e p
resen
t.

a
n tenna sarel i
nearly p o
la rized int he p lane oft he p age, a nd both a recon-
n
ec ted to the same g ene ra tor so t hat b oth r adiate t he s ame f requency.
I
n g eneral
, the t i
p o f Ed escribes al ocus tha t i sa n elipse in a manne r
s
im i
la r t
o that in ell
iptica l polariza t
ion e xcept t hat Ei sc onf
ined t o the
p
lane c ontain
ing t he a ntenna s (
plane o ft he page ).
As another i lustration , c ros
s -f
ield i s presen t w hereve r aw ave is
r
ef
l ected so t
ha t w aves o ft he same f requency a nd traveling i n diferent
d
irections cross (Fig. 9-18 c
). S t
i l
l a no ther si
tua tion i nw hich c ros
s-f
ield
i
sp resentisn eart he surface o f ac onduc t
ing m edium a long w hich ap lane
wave istravel
ing ( Fig
.9 - 18d). I ft he m edium i sn otinfini
tely c onduc t
ing,
t
he E l i
ne isti
lted f o
rwa rd n ear the s urface oft he m edium s o that Eh as
ac omponent n orma l tot he surface ( E .
) a nd ac omponen tp arallel tothe
SE
C
. 9
-
151 PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
85

s
urface ( E
t). S ince, i ng eneral, these component s ar e not i
nt ime p hase
t
here ise lipt
ica l cross -f
ield presen t (s
ee Sec. 1 2-7, Fig. 12-21)
.
In general, the t i
p o f Ed escr
ibe s an elipse ( e
l
lip t
ica l c
ross
-field)
. I n
s
pecial cases t he elipse b ecomes a s t
raight l i
ne ( l
inea r c
ross
-field) or a
c
i
r c
le ( c
ircular c ross
-field). T h
is may b e shown a sf o
llows:
Conside r two p lane t r
ave l
ing w aves li
nea rly p olarized in the plane of
t
he page ( Fig
. 9 -19), o ne w ave traveling int he yd irec t
ion (yw ave) and a
s
econd w ave i n ad i rection mak ing a n a ng le 4 )w ith the y d irect
ion
(
0 w ave). T he electric f i
e
ld o ft he y wave h as only a c omponen t i
nt he
xd i
rec t
ion w ith a n i nstantaneous
v
alue
Exs = E1 s int o
t (9
-174 )
The in
stantaneous v
alue o
fthe t
o
tal
e
lec
tric f
ie
ld ofthe 4
)w ave i
s
E T, = E
ysi
n (
c
u
t -
I
-6) (
9
-175
)
whe
re 6= p hase le
ad o f E T, o
ver
E. T he tota
l 0-wave fi
e
ld Er,c an
b
ereso
lved into two c
omponents,o ne
i
n the x direct
ion E .4,and one in
t
he ydirec
tion Es. T hus
Er
b = Er,cos q
t
s
=E
yc o
s 41sin (
c
u
t + (
5
) (
9
-176
)
a
nd
E
,
,, = ET,s
in 4
)
=Eysin 4
)si
n (
c
o
t -
I
-6) (
9
-177
) FI
G. 9-19
. C on
struction f
o
r d
i
scus
sion
o
n cros
s-f
ield e
lipse
.
Now a
dding the i
n
stantaneou
sfi
elds
i
nthe xd
irec
tion g
ive
st he xc
omponent E
.oft
he r
e
sultant f
i
e
ld. T
hati
s
,
E
. =E
.s + E
.. = Els
i
nco
t± E
yco
s 4
1si
n (
c
o
t ± (
3
) (
9
-178
)
S
imi
lar
ly w
e h
ave f
o
r t
he yc
omponen
t Ei,o
fthe r
e
sul
tan
t f
i
e
ld
E
. = —E
.. = —E 2s
i
n 4
,si
n (
c
a
t + 6
) (
9
-179
)
E
quat
ions (9
-178
) and (
9
-179 ) a
re t
he parame
tric e
qua
tions o
fan e
lipse
s
i
nce by e
l
iminat
ing c
o
lthey can be r
educed t
o an e
qua
tion f
or a
n e
lipse
o
fthe f
orm
AE. 2 + BE,E
. ± CE .2 = 1 (
9
-180)
w
here A = 1
/
(E 12 s
i
n26
)
B—2(E 1co
s 6± E yc o
s4 .
)
E12E2 s
in 2 6s
in c
t)
E12 + 2E 1E2 c
os 0cos 6- I
- E 22 C
OS 2 4
)
C=
E,2E22 s
in2 4t h
n26
3
86 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 9

The s
teps required to arrive a
t (9
-180) are le
ft a
s an exe
rcise f
o
r the
s
tudent (s
ee Prob. 9-26)
.
As aspecia
l c ase of (9
-180) l
et t
he t wo wave d
irec
tions be a
t ri
ght
a
ngles (c
P =9 0 0)
,o f t
he s ame amp
litude (E1 =E y = 1)
, and in p
hase
q
uadrature (6=9 0
°) a
tt he po
intP. T hen A =-1,B = 0,and C = 1so
t
hat (9
-180) reduces to
Ez2+ E2 = 1 (
9
-181)

This i
sthe equa t
ion of aci
rcle, a
nd hence
,u nderthese c
onditions w ehave
c
ircular c
ross-f
ield. R efer
ring toFig. 9-19
, al i
near
ly p o
larized r
e ce
iving
a
ntenna i n the plane of the page cou
ld b e turned th
rough 3 60° a t the
p
oint Pu nde r these c
ondi t
ions and n o change be observed in o utput.
The ro
tation direct
ion for Eiscounterc
lockw ise f
or 6= 9 0
°a nd c
lockw ise
f
or 6 = —90 °.
A
s another special c
ase le
t cb= 90° and EI = E y =1 ,b u
tl e
t S = 0°.
Then (9-180) reduces t
o
Ez = E„ (
9
-182 )

which i st he e qua tion o f as traight l ine o fs lope +1 , t

ha t i
s
, al i
ne at a n
a
ng le of +45 °w ith r espectt ot he posi tive xa x
is. T herefore, int h
is c ase
t
he c ross-fie
ld e lip se h as co
llap sed t o as t
raight l i
ne a nd w e h ave l i
nea r
c
ros s-f
ie
ld .
As as t
ill mo re g ene ral si
tua t
ion c ons ide rt he case w he re t
he t wo w aves
o
fF ig. 9-19 a re n ot linear
ly p olarized b ut are e ll
iptically p o
larized. I n
s
uch a s itua t
ion w e h ave a c omb ina tion o f eliptical p olar
iza tion a nd
e
lip tica
l c r
oss-field c a
lled s pace p olari zation. I ft hese t wo w ave s inter-
s
ecting a t Pa re o ft he s ame frequency , Ew i
llb ec onfined t o asingle plane ,
t
he t ip of Ed e scrib ing, in gene ral, a n elipse .' T he plane o ft he elip se
p
as ses through t he p oint Pa nd, i ng ene ral, may a ssume a ny or
ien ta t
ion .
I
ft he plane i sp arallel to the p age ( F ig. 9 -
19 )
, w e h ave p ure cr os
s-field.
When t he t wo w aves a re eliptica l
ly p ola r
ized ,t he plane w illli
e,ing ene ral,
a
t s ome a ngle w i th r espect t o the p age . I ft he f requenc ies of the t wo
wave s are n ot t he s ame , the t ip o f Ev ec tor w i
ll, in gene ral
, d escribe a
t
hree -dimens iona l L issajous f i
gure.

PROBLE MS
X9 -1
.Find t
he v
e
loc
ity o
f ap
lane w
ave i
n al
o
ssles
s med
ium h
aving ar
e
lat
ive p
erm
it-
t
i
vity o
f 5a nd r
e
lative p
ermeabil
ity ofu n
ity
. Ans
.: 1
.34 X 1
0 8 me
ters/sec
.
X9-2
. ( a
) From Maxwe l
l's c
ur
l equations d
er
ive t
he w
ave equat
ion i
n Ef o
r aplane
w
ave tr
aveling i
nthe p
osi
tive ydi
rect
ion inaniso
trop
ic h
omogeneouslo
sslessm edium.

1C
. W . C handler
, "Analys
is and Measurement of El
lipticaly P o
lar
ized Electro-
magne t
ic Waves ," master
's t
hes
is, depar
tmen t o
f el
ectr
ical engineer
ing, Oh
io S tat
e
University
, 1 948. M . G. Morgan a nd W . R. Evans
, S ynthesis and Analysi
s o f
El
ip tic Polarizat
ion Loci i
n Terms o f Space
-quadrature Sinusoidal Componen ts
,
Pr
o c
. I. R.E.,39, 5
52-556
, May, 195
1.
 PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
87

The el
ectric fie
ld isi
nt he zdirection. ( b) As
sum ing harmonic v
ariat
ion,s tate aso
lu-
t
ion ofthis e quat
ion, and prove t hat i
ti s aso
lution
.
-
N
C 9 -3
. Ap lane wave istraveling in the pos
itive x di
rect
ion in aloss
less u nbounded
medium h aving a pe
rmeab il
ity t he same as free s
pace and a p
ermittivity nine t
imes
t
hat offree s pace
. ( a
) Find t he phase ve
locity ofthe wave. (b) Ifthe electr
ic f
i
eld
i
ntens
ity E h as only a y component w ith an amp l
itude of 1
0 volt
s/me te
r, find t
he
amp l
itude a nd d irection o ft he magne tic f i
e
ld i n tens ity. r
' •0 9 : •
Ans.: ( a) v= 1 0 2 me ter s/sec . ; ( b
) 11 = 0 .08 amp/me t er.
9-4. Ap lane w ave i n al os
s les s d ielec tric med ium h as a n e lectric f ie
ld g iven b y
E
. = E .s in 2w( f t —x /x), w he re f = f requency . O btain a n exp re ssion f ort he p ha se
v
elo c
ity o ft he w ave.
9-5. F ind t he i mpedance o f al os
sles s med ium f or w hich e , = 8a nd AT = 2 .
An s. :188 o hms .
1
( 9 -6. Al ossles s med ium h as ar e
lative d ielec tric c ons tant o f8 1 a nd ar e
la tive p e rme -
abil
i ty of u nity . T hese c ond itions a re c lose ly me t b y d istilled w a
te r. ( a) F ind t he
impedance o ft he med ium . ( b
) F ind t he v e
loc ity o f al ow -frequency r adio w ave i nt he
med ium .
9-7. ( a) Find t he p hase v eloc ity o f aw ave i n amed ium h aving ar elat
ive p e rmi ttiv-
i
ty o f 9a nd ar e
la t
ive p ermeab ility o fu nity . ( b
) F ind t he i ndex o fr ef
ra ction o ft his
med ium . Ans. ( a) v 1 00 m ete rs/se c.; ( b
) =3 .
9
-8 . A p lane 2 ,
000 - Mc/sec w ave i si nciden t n o rma lly o n as lab o f p o
ly sty rene
=2 .
7 ) o f l a
rge e x ten t. How t hick mus t t he s lab b e to r eta rd t he w ave i n p has e
by 9 0°b ehind aw ave w hich p as se st hrough al arge h ole i nt he s lab?
9
-9 . F rom Maxwe ll's c url e qua t
ions d e rive t he w ave e qua tion i n Ef or ap lane
wave i nf ree s pace t rave l
ing p ara llelt ot he x -y p lane a nd a ta na ngle o f4 5°w ith r espe ct
t
o t he p ositive xa xis. T he e l
ec tric f i
eld i sint he zd i
rec tion .
)4 9-10 . C ompute a nd p lot c urve sf ort he amp l
i tude o ft he r esultan te lec tr
ic f ie
ld d ue
t
ot wo p lane w aves t rave ling i nt he p ositive a nd n ega tive xd irec tion a tt hree i nstan ts
o
f t ime t 0 , T /8, a nd T /4. The w ave s h ave o nly E . c omponen t s. T he w ave i n
t
he p os
itive x d i
rect ion h as a n amp litude Eo = 1v olt/me t er a nd t he o the r w ave a n
amp litude E1 = I v o
lt/me ter. E x
tend t he p l ot o ver ad i s
tance o fa tle asto ne w ave -
l
eng th i nt he xd irection . ( a) I n w hich d irec tion d oes ac on stan t p hase p o
in t move?
(
b) Wha t i st he s tand ing -wave r atio? ( c) A ssum ing t ha tt he s mallerw ave i s ar eflec-
t
ion o f t he l arge r
, what i st he magn itude o ft he r ef
lect ion c oef f
icien t?
9
-11 . Ap lane w ave i nf ree s pace i sr ef
l ected a t n orma l i n c
idence f rom a n i nfinite,
p
er fectly c onduct ing s hee t produc ing a s tand ing w ave. T he amp l
i tude o f Eo f t he
i
ncident w ave i s 5v olts/met er. ( a
) How f arf r om t he s hee ti st he P oyn t
ing v ecto ra
maximum? ( b) Wha ti st he a ve rage v alue o ft he P oyn t
ing v ecto r? ( c
) Wha t ist he
maximum v alue o ft he P oyn ting v ector?
Ans.: ( a
) ( 2n + 1 )X/8 , whe re n 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , e tc.; ( b
) z e ro; ( c
) 6 .63 X 1 0-2

watt/me ter '

.
9
-12 . Ap lane w ave i sr ef
lected a tn orma li ncidence f rom ab ounda ry s urface . T he
amp litude o f Eo f t he i nciden t w ave i s 1v olt/me te r a nd o ft he r eflected w ave i s El.
(
a) U nde rw ha tc ond i t
ions i sthe re ap ure s tand ing w ave? ( b
) Find t he s tand ing -wave
r
atio when E1 — v o
l t/me ter. ( c
) F ind t he v alue o f E.a nd E .g.w hen

= Iv
olt/me
ter

9
-13
. (
a
) F
ind t
he a
verage P
oynt
ing v
ector f
o
r ap
lane w
ave o
f amp
litude

Ho =
, 1amp/meter
3
88 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 9

i
n ahomogeneous i s
otropic medium f or which pr = 1a nd t,= 4. (b) F
ind the max i-
mum e nergy density ofthis wave.
Ans.: (
a) 94.25 w atts/me ter
s; (b
) 1.26 X 10-
6 j
oule/me ters
.
9
-14. The e arth rece
ives fr
om t he sun 2 .
2 g -cal/min/cm s
. ( a) What isthe corre-
s
ponding P oynting vector inw atts per squa re me ter? ( b
) Wha t i
sthe power outpu t
o
f t
he s un as
sum ing t hat itisa n is
otropic s ource? ( c) Wha t w
ould t
he r ms e
lectric
f
i
eld i
ntensity bea tthe earth due tot he sun's radiation
, assuming t
hatalloft he sun's
e
nergy isat asingle f
requency? No te: 1wat
t = 1 4
.3 g
-ca
l/min. D i s
tance ear
th t
o
s
un = 1 49 X 10 6 km
.
9
-15. Show t hat when the in
cident w ave amplitude Eo i
s much greater t
han t
he
r
ef
lected wave amplitude Ei,t
he standing-wave-envelope e
xpre
ssion o
f (9-93
) b
ecomes
a
pproximately Ev = Eo + El c os 2Ox.
9
-16. A 10- Mc/sec p
lane tr
aveling w ave i
nf r
ee space h
as an amp
litude

E
o 1v
olt/me
ter

a
. Wha t i sthe a verage e nergy d ensity o f t he w ave?
b
. Wha t isthe p eak e nergy d ens ity?
c
. Wha t isthe a verage P oynt ing v ecto r?
d
. Wha t isthe p eak P oyn ting v e
ctor?
e
. How much e nergy i scon tained i n ac ubical v olume 1 0 km o n as ide?
9
-17 . G iven a p lane w ave E E0 R ee g
." -Ps). S how t hat t he r esultan t of t wo
wave s o f this type o f e qual amp litude a nd o f t wo f requenc ies given b y coo -
I-col and
—o h (and t wo corre spond ing wave n umbe rsg iven b yP o + P ia nd Oo — PI ) may b e
e
xpres sed E 2E0c os ( c
o ot— 80 ) c os ( w it—
9
-18 . The g roup v elocity u = d f
.
r/d8 . S how t ha t uc an also b e exp ressed i n the
f
ollow ing f orms,
d
v dv d
f
u=v- 1
- 8- - =t ) X =
dp dX d
(1/X)
whe re v = p hase v e
loc ity.
9
-19 . Find t he group v elocity o f a wave 1 0 me ter s long in an orma lly d ispersive,
l
ossle ss med ium f o r wh ich t he phase v e
loc ity vi sg iven b y v= 2 X 1 07 xi meter s/sec.
9
-20 . S how t ha
t, f or ap lane w ave in ad ie
lec tric med ium , the e nergy v elocity c an
b
e e xpre ssed a s 1/a o r Z /p, whe re Z i
ntrinsic i mpedance o ft he med ium .
9
-21 . A wave t r aveling n orma lly o ut o f t he p age ( t
owa rd t he r eade r) h as t wo
l
inear ly pola r
ized c omponen ts E . = 2c os w t, E. = 3c os (wt 9
0 °)
. ( a) Wha ti sthe
a
xial r atio o f the r esultan t w ave? ( b) I n wha t d irection ist he ma jo r a x8
1 o f the
p
ola rization e l
lipse? ( r
) Doe s Er otate c lockw ise o r coun terc
lockw ise?
Ans.: ( a) AR = 1 . 5
; ( b
) yd irection ; (c) clockw ise.
9
-22 . A wave t rave ling n orma lly o utwa rd f rom t he p age (t
owa rd the r eade r
) i sthe
r
esul tant o f two ell
ip tically p olarized w ave s, one w ith c omponent s of Eg iven b y

= 2c
os c
o
t

= 6e
c
os (
wt ;
1)

a
nd t
he o
ther w
ith c
omponent
s g
iven b
y

Ey
" = 1c
os c
u
t

= 3c
os (
0
,1 —

(
a
) Wha
t i
sthe a
xia
l r
at
io o
f t
he r
e
sultan
t w
ave? (
b
) Does E r
ota
te c
l
ockw
ise o
r
c
oun
terc
lockw
ise?
 PLANE WAVES I
N D
IELECTRIC MEDIA 3
89

9
-23. An e lliptical
ly p olarized p lane w ave t ravel
ing n ormaly o u
t o f the page
(
towa rd the r eade r
) has linearly pola r
ized c omponen ts E.a nd E. L et E.
,
. =B , =1
v
olt/me ter a nd E ,l e
ad E . in the time p hase by 7 2
°. ( a) Calcula
te a nd draw the
p
ola r
izat
ion e l ipse. ( b) Wha t isthe axial ra
tio? ( c
) Wha tist he a
ngle between the
major axis and t he x axis? Ans.: (b
) AR = 1 .38; (
c
) 4 5
°.
9-24. Answe r the same q uest
ions a s in Prob. 9-23 fo
r the c ase where E , l
eads E.
b
y 7 2° a
sb efore b ut E. = 2v olts/me ter and E„- =1v olt/met er.
9-25. The r esultant magn i tude of Ef or across
-field e
llipse i
sg iven by

E =V[
E
.si
n (
w
e 4
5°)
12 (
E„ s
i
n c
u
t
)!

S
how t
hat E i
s a max
imum w
hen

c
o
t a
rctan R I
ZY ±\ PY
L I
]

9
-26 . C onfirm ( 9-180 ) a nd t he v a
lue sgiven f o
r A , B, and C .
9
-27 . Two c ircu larly p ola rized w aves o f e qual magn itude i ntersect a t t he o r
igin.
One ( y w ave) i st rave l
ing i n t he p osi
tive y d irec t
ion w ith E r otating c lockw ise as
o
bse rved f r
om ap o
in t on t he p o s
itive ya xis . T he other ( xw ave) i st raveling i nt he
p
ositive xd irection w ith E r o
ta t
ing c lockw ise a so bserved f rom ap oin to n the p ositive
xaxis. A tt he origin , Ef ort he yw ave isint he po s
itive zdire ct
ion a tt he same i nstant
a
s Ef ort he xw ave i si nt he n ega t
ive zd irec tion . Wha tist he locu so ft he resulting E
a
t the o r
igin?
An s
.: S tra
ight l i
ne ( l
inea r space p o
lariza tion ) i n x
-y p lane a t a ngle o f 4 5° w ith
r
espe ct to xa x
is.
9
-28 . P rove t hat t he ins tan taneous P oyn ting v ector o
f ap lane t raveling w ave i sa
c
ons tant w hen t he w ave i sc ircularly p o
larized .
9
-29 . P rove t ha t t he a ve rage P oyn t
ing v ector o f ac i
r cularly p ola r
ized w ave is
t
wice t hato f al inea r
ly p ola rized w ave ift he max imum f i
eld i ntensity i sthe s ame f or
b
oth w aves.
9
-30 . S how t ha t b y tak ing t he a bsolute v alue o f R, in ( 9
-83 ) the s tand ing-wave
e
nvelope i sobtained a s given i n (9-93). T ha t is
, show t ha t lE„Ig ivest he s tand ing-
w
ave e nvelope a s af unction o fp osition.
9
-31 . T he resul tant f i
eld o f as tand ing w ave d ue tot wo t ravel
ing w ave si sg iven b y
E Eoe i
(w+P ai Elei
(" ,
-0 ,)
,w here EI < Eo. Mar sh'h a
ss hown t ha tt he pha se v e
loc-
i
t
y va s af unction o fp osition ( x
) i sgiven b y

(
E01 B11+ 2E
0E, c
os 2
f
ix )
(
E01 — E1
'
)

(
a
) C
onf
irm t
h
is r
e
sul
t. (
b
) A
lso c
onf
i
rm Mar
sh's r
e
lat
ion (
9
-98
) t
hat

(B o + Ely
= (V S W R) 1
Vm
in V E0 —

H
int f
or (
a
): No
te t
hat a
rctan B/A
, w
here B = I
m ka
nd A =R
e E. Note
a
l
so t
hat
d
4
, A
(dB/dx
) —B (dA /
dx)
d
x Al + BS

1J
.A. Mar
sh, "A S
tudy o
fPhase Ve
loc
ity onLong C
ylindr
icalConductors
," Ph
.D.
d
i
sser
tat
ion, Depar
tment of E
lectr
ical Eng
ineer
ing
, O hio Sta
te Un
ive r
sity, 1
949
;
Measu
red C urrent D
istr
ibu
tion
s o
n H
elica
l A
ntennas
, P
roc
. I
.R.E
., 3
9
, 6
68-675
,
J
une, 195
1.
3
90 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP .
9

9
-32. Two u niform w aves of t he same f r
equency and v e
lo c
i ty and of amp l
itudes
E0 a
nd E i tr
aveling in oppo site directions form a st
anding w ave. I f E1 0
.5E 0,
make agraph show ing t
he stand ing-wave e nvelope f
orthe r
e su
ltan tfie
ld as afunc t
ion
o
fdistance (
abscissa) f
ors everal w avelengths. A lso d
raw ac urve ont he same graph
s
howing the ve
locity ofthe r e
su ltant fi
eld as afunct
ion ofd is
tance ( s
ee P rob
. 9-31).
9
-33. Show t hat in ast anding w ave the average phas
e v eloci
ty o f the re
sultant
f
i
eld isequa
l to the geometric mean o ft he maximum a nd minimum v eloc
ities
. T hat
i
s, V
av =
9
-34. Ap lane traveling wave i sincident at an angle of4 5° toan infin
ite
, p e
rfect
ly
c
onduc t
ing f l
at sheet. T he electr
ic f i
e
ld ise verywhe re contained i n aplane normal
t
o the sheet and p aral
lel to the direct
ion o f wave propaga tion. P lo
t the ax
ial rat
io
o
f the cross-f
ield el
lipse a s af unction of dis
tance f r om the s hee
t f or adistance of
1waveleng th.
9
-315
. A n eliptically p o
lar
ized w ave in an u nbounded l ossle
s s medium o f re
lat
ive
p
erm i
ttivity 4 has H -f
ield components ( norma l to the di
re c
tion o f p
ropagation and
n
orma l to each other ) of amplitude 2 a nd 3 amp/me te
r. F ind t he power conveyed
t
hrough a n area of 1 0 meter
s'n ormal to the direc
tion o fpropaga t
ion .
 CHAPTER 1
0

P
LANE WAVES I
N CONDUCT
ING MEDIA

N
' 10-1. Conduc
tors a nd D ielec
trics. In C hap. 9t he d i
scussion w as
c
onfined to waves in nonconduc t
ing o r l
os
sle
ss m ed
ia, that is
, the con-
duc
tivity 0 was assumed t o be zero. L e
t us n ow consider the mo re
g
ene ra
l si
tuat
ion w here aisn ot z
ero.
Assume that aplane tr
aveling w ave s
tr
ikest he b
oundary o f aconduct-
i
ng m edium atnorma l i
ncidence ass hown inFig. 1
0-1
. Ap ort
ion oft he

t
i / C
onduc
t
/ing m
e
/diu /

Ey
/ /
I
n
c
iden
t w
ave W
ave t
r
ansmi
tted i
n
to
2 -, )
"c
onduc
ting med
ium
H
, x /
-
4- -
R
e
flec
ted w
ave

c
o
B
ounda
nduc
t
ry o
ing m
f
ed
ium
/
Fm
. 1
0-1
. P
lane wave e
nte
ring c
onduct
ing med
ium a
t n
orma
l i
nc
idence
.

i
nc
iden t ene
rgy i sref
lected
, w h
ile the r
emainder e
nter
s the conduct
ing
med
ium . L etusd i
sregard the r
ef
lected wave a
nd f
ocus o
urattention o
n
t
he transmitted wave.
Accord
ing t o Maxwell
's fi
rst c
ur
l e qua
tion,

r
x H =J +
a
l
) (
10
-1)

I
n nonconduc
ting med
ia J = 0
,b ut i
n c
onduc
ting m
edia J may n
ot b
e
n
egl
igib
le. R eca
ll
ing t
hat J=c r
E, (
10
-1) b
ecomes

a
p
vxil =c
r
E + —
a
t (
10
-2)

For al
inearly po
larized p
lane wave t
rave
ling i
nthe xdirect
ion wi
th E
i
n the y di
rection, t
he vector e
quation (1
0-2) r
educes t
o the f
ol
low ing
s
ca
la r e
quation invo
lving the f
i
e
ld component s E
„ and H
.:
3
91
 3
92 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
0

aH, a
E,
(
10
-3)
a
x at
Th
is equa
tion has two t
erms i
n E. A ssum
ing tha
t Ev i
s ah
armon
ic
f
unct
ion o
ft ime
, tha
t is
, Ev = Eoe
i
(
", (
10
-3) b
ecomes
e
t
ir " ?'
4 1.
( '
$
' —a—
a
H, =c rE, j
c
oeEv (
10-4)
co
,id itr t
uk-ret .--"/ o
kr/9/
0ee, ,
.0., -( r uere )
,4
The t
erm si n( 10 -4) each h ave the dimensions ofc urren tdens ity, which is
e
xpressed i n ampe res p er square m eter
. T he term a E„ repre sents t he
c
onduction curr ent den s
ity, while t he term jwtE „ represents the d isplace-
mentcurrentd en sity
.' T hus, a
cco rding to (10-4) t
he s pace rate o fchange
o
fH e quals t he s um o ft he conduc tion a nd di
splacemen t cur rent densi-
t
ies
. I fthe c onduc t
ivity i sz e
ro ( c
r =0 )
, the conduc t
ion c ur rent term
v
anishes and w e h ave t he condi t
ion c onsidered in C hap. 9. I fcrisn ot
e
qual to zero, t here are three cond it
ion s, which can b e li
sted a s fo
llow s:
1
.we>
2
. w
e c
r
3
. w
e < a
When t he d i
splacemen t cu rrent i s much g reate r than the c onduc t
ion
c
urrent, a s i n condition 1 , t he med ium b ehave s l i
ke a d ie
lectric. I f
a= 0,t he m edium i s aperfec t, orl oss
les s
, d ie
lect r
ic. F ora •note qual to
z
ero the m edium i s aloa
sy, o ri mperfec t
, d ie
lectric. Howeve r
, ifw e>
i
tbehave s mo re l
ike ad i
elect ric than a ny thing elsea nd may, forp ractical
p
urpo ses
, b e c l
ass
ified as ad i elec
tric
. O n the othe rh and, w hen t he con-
d
uction c urrent i s much g rea ter t han t he displacemen t curren t
, a s in
c
ondition 3 ,t he m edium may b e c
las s
ified a s ac ondu ct
or. Unde r condi-
t
i
ons m idway b etween t hese t wo, w hen t he conduc tion current iso ft he
s
ame o rde r of magn itude as t he displacemen t c
ur ren t
, the m edium may
b
e cla
s s
ified a s aq uasi c
ondu ctor.
We can b ee ven mo re specific and a rbitra r
ily cl
as sify media asb elonging
t
o one oft h
ree t ypes accord ing t o the v alue o ft he r a
tio a/we as fol
lows :

D
ielec
trics
: — < 1
e
zk b -
ten w
e
a 1
00
1
Q
uas
i c
onduc
tors: -F0
- < —e < 1
0 00

C
onduc
tor
s: 1
00 <
w
e
where 0 = conduc t
iv i
ty of medium ( mhos/meter )
a= perm i
ttivity o
fm edium ( f
a rads/meter)
c
o= r adian frequency (=2 7f, w here fi
st he f
requency)
The rat
io c
r/wei sdimensionless.
Th
e ope
rator j(= i
)int h
e di
splacem en
t cu
rrent te
rm in
dicate
s t
h
at t
h
e
d
isp
lacemen
tc u
rrentleadsth
ec onduct
ion currentby90°i nt
ime p
hase.
Sm
. 1
0-1
] PLANE WAVES I
N CONDUCTING MEDIA 3
93

I
ti sto be n
oted that f
requency isa n important f
actor i
nd etermin
ing
whether am edium a c
ts li
ke a die
lectr
ic or ac onductor. F or example,
t
ake the case o
f average rural g
round (Oh io
) for wh
ich e r= 1 4 (
at low
f
requencie
s) and cr= 10-2 m ho p
er meter
. A ssuming no change inthese
v
alues as afunction of f
requency, the ra
tio a/we a
t t h
ree diferent fr
e-
q
uencies isas t
abulated be
low .
F
r
equ
ency
,cp
s R
a
tioa
/c
ue
1
02 1
.3 X 1
04
1
07 1
.3
3X 1
010(
X = 1cm
) 4
.3 X 1
0-4

At 1k c per sec (102c ps) rural g round b ehave sl i

ke ac onducto r, w hi
le at
t
he m icrowave f r
equency o f3 0
,000 m cp ers ec ( 3 X 1 0" c ps) ita ct sl i
ke a
d
ielect r
ic. A t 1 0 m c p er sec ( 107 cps) i t
s b ehav ior i st ha t of aq uasi
c
onduc tor.
A
s a no ther e xamp le, c onside r t he c ase of c oppe r
, w hich i so rd ina r
ily
r
ega rded a s an e xce llen t c onduc tor. T aking q = 5 . 8 X 1 0' mho s per
meter a nd e r= 1 , t he r atio o /w e i sv ery l arge a t o rdina ry r ad io f r
e-
q
uenc ie s
. E ven a t 3 0,000 m c p er sec t he ratio is3 .5 X 1 0', w hich s til
l
c
lasse s c
oppe ra s ag ood c onduc to r
. Howeve r, at af requency o f 10" c ps
c
orre spond ing t os hor tXr ays,t he r at
io o lc
oei sa bout 1 0- 2 , which c lassif
ies
c
oppe r as ad ielect r
ic. I n o ther w ords, c oppe r behave s l ike a d ielec t
ric
f
or Xr ays, wh ich i s ac rude w ay o fe xplaining w hy X r ay s c an p ene trate
c
on s
ide rab le thickne ss es of am etal s uch a s coppe r
.'
I
n F ig. 10-2 t he r atio c r
/co
e isp lotted a s af unct
ion o ff requency f or a
n
umbe r of co mmon m edia. I n p reparing F ig
. 1 0-2 t he c ons tan ts w ere
a
ssumed t o main tain t heir low-f requency v alue sat all f requenc ies. T he
c
urve si nF ig. 1 0
-2 s hou ld t herefo re n otb er egarded a sa ccura te above t he
m
icrowave r egion s ince t he c onstan tso fm edia may v ary w i th frequency ,
p
ar t
icu larly at f r
equenc ies oft he o rder o f 109 cps a nd h ighe r. Al i
st of
t
he l ow -
frequency c ons tant s for t he m edia o f Fig. 1 0-2 i sp resen ted in
Table 1 0-1.
TABLE 1
0-1
TABLE OF CONSTANTS FOR SO ME CO M MON MED
IA

o
, R
ela
tive p
ermitt
ivity e
, C
onduct
ivity
Med
ium
(
dimens
ionless
) mho
s/meter

C
oppe r 1 5
.8 X 1
07
S
ea w a
te r 8
0 4
Rura
l ground (Oh
io) 1
4 1
0-2

U
rban g round 3 1
0-4

F
resh w ater 8
0 1
0-2

The pene
tration o
f Xrays o
ccur
s b
ecause t
he w
ave
leng
th i
scompa
rab
le w
ith o
r
s
mal
le r t
han the atom
ic s
pac
ing
.
 3
94 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
0

R
eferr
ing toFig. 10-2
, w eno te t
hat copperb ehave
sl i
ke aconductorat
f
r
equenc ies far a
bove the m icrowave r egion
. On t he othe
r h and
, fr
esh
water acts l
ike a die
lectr
ic at frequenc ies a
bove about 10 m c p
er sec
.
The olwerat
io sfo
rs ea water
, ruralground ,and urban g
round are b
etween
t
he e x
tremes ofc opper and fr
e sh water
. o
t
v
;
.
0-
t,

M=
6

5
4

3
2

1
0
-
1

-
2
-
3
D
i
elec
tr
ic
-
4 r
eg
ion
-
5 kx _
-
r
a
y
s
b
l
e
L
ow
, m edium,and hi
gh _ +
_MicnS.
,14 _ I
n
fra r
e
d — 1.
14— U
l
tra —
01
r
ad
io f r
equen
cies w
a
ves v
i
olet
I I I I I I I I t ! l i f t
N=1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
0 1 1
2 1
3 1
4 1
5 1
6 1
7 1
8
F
r
equency -
10" c
ps
no
. 1
0
-2. Ra
tio r
/we a
s af
unc
tion o
ffr
equency f
ors
ome c
ommon med
ia (
l
og-
log p
lot
).

)( 10-2. Wave E qua t

ion f or C onducting Med ia. A n elec t
romagne tic
wave israpidly a
t tenua ted i n aconduc ting med ium . I n fa ct
, in agood
c
onduc tor the a
ttenua t
ion i ss o r
apid t hat at high r adio frequencies the
wave penetrates the conduc tor on
ly to av ery s mal
l d epth.
This d
ep th o
ft he p enetration is ama t ter o
fc onside rable interes
t. T o
c
alculate i
t
,l etus fi
rst d evelop aw ave equa t
ion i nE yf or ap lane wave in
aconduc t
ing med ium . F rom a s o
lu t
ion o f this equa t
ion , an express
ion
f
or the dep th of pene tration i s t
hen o btained.
From Maxwe ll
's c url equat ions we h ave for al inearly pola r
ized wave
t
raveling i
n the xd irection w ith E in the yd irection

_aH
z =a
.
E
y+ ea
E,
(
10-5
)
a
x a
t
a
nd
a
E
y a
x.
(
10-6
)
a
x = — P at
SE
C. 1
0-2
] PLANE W AVES IN CON DUCTI NG M EDIA 3
95

D
iferen
tia
ting (
10
-5) w
ith r
e
spec
t t
o ta
nd (
10
-6) w
ith r
e
spec
t t
o x
,we
o
bta
in

a
nd
a
(a
H
,
a
x —
)
— aa
t
a
E
„ a
2E
„
—e a
t
2
(
10
-7)

_
1 a
2
Ei,= a(
a l
(
10
-8)
a
x
2 a
t
S
ince t
he o
rde
r of d
ife
rentiat
ion i
simmate
ria
l, t
he l
e
ft s
i
de o
f (
10
-7) i
s
e
qual t
o t
he r
igh
t si
de of (
10
-8) s
o t
hat

1a
2
E„ _ a
2E
„ a
E„
(
10
-9)
A a
x
2 e a
t
2 —a a
t =
Th
is isthe wave equat
ion inE.f o
r ap lane wave in ac onduc
ting med
ium .
I
tis more g
ene ra
lt han t
he wave e
qua t
ion ( 9
-12)
, d eveloped f
ort
he case o
f
an onconducting medium . Whe reas (9
-12) h as t wo te
rms, (
10-9) has
t
hree, t
he th
ird o ne i
nvo
lving the conductivity
.
Assuming h armonic var
iat
ion o f E„ with respect to I,we may w r
ite

E
„ = Eoe
,'
" (
10-
10)

Tak
ing the f
i
rst a
nd se
cond d
erivat
ive
s o
f (
10-
10) w
ith r
e
spec
t t
o ta
nd
s
ubst
itu
ting t
hese va
lues i
n (
10
-9),

i
a
2E
c
o2e
E —j
u
urE
, =0 (
10
-11
)
A a
x 2

R
ear
rang
ing t
e
rms
, t
h
is b
ecome
s

c
r
E
a
x2 — .
1
wAi
cr c
o2A
i
e
)Ey =0
L
et
7 2 = juq
.w .

Then (
10
-11a
) r
educe
s t
o
a
2
E1
' —-
yE„ 2 =0
a
x2

Th
is equat
ion is asimpl
ified f
o
rm of (10
-9)
. T he t
ime tdoe
s n
ot a
ppea
r
e
xpl
ici
tly, ha
rmon ic var
ia t
ion wi
th t
ime being as
sumed.
Asolut
ion of (
10-13) for awave t
rave
ling i
nt he p
osi
tive xd
i
rec
tion i
s

E
. = Eoe
—rx (
10
-14
)

F
or c
onduc
tor
s, a>
> c
o
e s
o t
hat (
10
-12
) r
educe
s t
o
7 2•
•
..
., jw
iw . (
10
-15
)
3
96 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS I
C
.HAp
. 1
0

a
nd'

7 Vi
co = (
1 + i
)•\1-r
°
2 (
10
-15a
)

Thus, 7has ar ea
l and imagina
ry par
t. Putt
ing 7 = a j t
1, a,the r
ea
l
pa
rt, i
sassociated w
ith attenuat
ion
, and 5
,the i
maginary p
art
, isas
soci
-
a
ted with phase.
Subs
titut
ing t he va
lue of 7from (
10-
15a
) in (
10
-14),

=E
oe -
u+a
) .
2 = Eoe-N
F
2. e
2 2 (
10
-16
1

I
n (
10
-16
) t
he a
t
tenua
tion f
ac
tor i
sgiven b
y

V a
p
—e

2
(
10
-17
)
a
nd t
he p
has
efa
ctor b
y
.,\ F
o
i
m
r
s — —z
2
(
10
-18
)

where co= r ad ian frequency ( =211) ( r

ecip rocal s econds )
= p
e rmeab ility o f med ium ( henrys/me ter)
a = conduc tivity o f med ium ( mhos/me te r
)
x= d istance ( meter s
)
j= c omp lex o pe rator ( d
imens ion less)
Equa t
ion ( 10-16 ) is as o
lu t
ion o f the w ave e quation f or aplane w ave
t
raveling i n the p osi
tive x d irection in ac onduc ting med ium. I t gives
t
he v ar
ia t
ion o fE „i nb oth magn itude a nd p ha se as af unction o
fx . T he
f
i
eld a ttenua te s exponen t
ially a nd i s r e
ta rded l inear
ly i n phase w ith
i
ncreasing x.
10-3. Dep th o fP ene tration. C ontinu ing t he d i
s cussion ofthe preced-
i
ng section, let u s now o btain aq uantita t
ive mea sure o fthe penetration
o
f aw ave in ac onduc ting med ium . R e
fe rring t o F ig
. 10-1, c
onsider the
wave t hat pene trate s t he c onduc t
ing med ium , t ha t is
, the t
ransm itted
wave. L et x = 0a t t he b ounda ry of the c onduc ting med ium so that x
i
ncrease s pos
itive ly into t he c onducting med ium .
Let (10-16) b e writ ten i n the fol
low ing f orm ,

E
„ = Eoe-z
i
ae-i
(x1
6
) (
10
-19
)

w
here ô= V P- E
q
u
.a
.
—. At x= 0,E„ = Eo. Th
is i
sthe amp
litude o
fthe
f
i
e
ld atthe s
ur
face oft
he c
onduc
ting med
ium
. Now 5i n (1
0-19) h
as t
he
1No
te:

V
:
i 2 I
f 2

= 1+ j 1
/45°
V-
2
SE
C
. 1
0-3
] P
LANE WAVES I
N CONDUCT
ING MED
IA 3
97

d
imens
ion o
fdi
stance
.' A
t ad
i
stance x = 5t
he amp
litude o
fthe f
i
e
ld i
s

l
E
„I = Eoe
- i= E0! (
10
-20
)

Thus
,E „d ecreasest o1/e(3 6
.8 perc
ent)ofit
sin
itialva
lue,w h
ile t
he wave
p
enetrate
st o ad istance 6. H ence 6i
sca
lled t
he 1/edepth ofpene
trat
ion.
As a
n examp le
, c ons
ider the dep
th of p
enet
ra t
ion of ap l
ane elec
tro-
magnet
ic w ave i n
cident no rma
lly on agood c
onductor, such as c
opper.
S
ince c
o= 2 7 f
, the 1/e depth becomes

1
a= (
10
-21
)
11
.r
i
-r
i
za
—

F
or coppe
r ti
r = 1s
o t
hat µ= 1.26 X 1
0-6 h
enry pe
r m
eter. The con-
d
uctiv
ity cr= 5.
8 X 1
0 7 mhos per m
eter
. P utt
ing these v
alues in
(
10-21
), we o
bta
in f
o
r copper
,
6
.
6 X 10-
2
a— (10
-22
)
11
w
here 6= 1/
e d ep
th ofpenetra
tion (meter
s)
f= f
requency (c
ps)
E
valua
ting (
10-22) a
t s
pecif
ic f
requenc
ies, i
tisf
ound t
hat

A
t 6
0 cps
, 6= 8
.5 X 1
0-2 m
ete
r
At 1Mc/sec
, 6= 6
.6 X 1
0-6 m
ete
r
A
t30
,000 Mc/sec
, 6= 3
.8 X 1
0-7 m
ete
r "
-

Thus
, wh ile a t6 0c ps the 1 /
ed ep th ofp enetrat
ion is8. 5 mm , t
he p enet ra-
t
i
on d ecrea se s ini nverse propor tion t o the square roo t o
ft he frequency .
A
t 1c mw ave leng th (30,000 Mc/s ec) t he penetrat
ion i sonly 0.00038 mm ,
o
rl e
ss than 4m icron. T hisp henomenon i so f
ten called skin e fe
ct.
Thus, ah igh -frequency f i
eld isd amped o u
ta sitp enetrates ac onduc tor
i
n as horter d istance t han al ow-frequency f i
eld.2
In addi t
ion t o the 1 /e depth o f p ene t
ra t
ion, w e can s peak o f othe r
d
epth s for w hich t he electric fi
eld d ecrea ses to a
n a rbit
ra ry fraction o f
i
t
so riginal v a
lue . F ore xamp le, con sidert he depth a t which t he fi
eld is
0
.01 (1pe rc en t)o fi t
sorigina lv a
lue. T h
is depth isobtained b y mu lt
ip ly-
i
ng the 1/ed epth b y4 .6a nd may b ec a
lled t he 1percentd ep
th ofp enetration.
Phasev e
loc i ty isgiven b yt he ratio c o
/#. I nthe present case, ft= 1 /5

1I
n d
imens
iona
l s
y mbo
ls ai
sgiven b
y

,V Q 2 ML 3
L

2 T
his i
sanalogous t
othe w
ay inwh
ich ar
apid t
emperature v
ar
iat
ion atthe s
urface
o
f athermalconductor p
ene
trate
s as
horte
rdi
stance t
han as
low t
empe ra
ture v
ar
iation.
3
98 ELECTRO MAGNETICS (
CHAP
. 1
0

s
o t
hat t
he p
hase v
e
loc
ity i
nthe c
onduc
tori
s

2
c
o
v
.=c
o
b = (
10
-23
)

S
ince the 1/e dep th iss mall, the phase v elocity in conduc to
rs iss ma ll
.
I
t isa pparent from ( 1
0-23 ) that the veloc ity is af unct
ion o f the f re
-
quency and, hence , ofthe w aveleng th
. I n t h
is case
, dv/dX isn egative,
where X isthe f ree-
space w avelength. H ence , conductors are a noma -
l
ously di
spersive m edia (Sec. 9-7).
The r
at
io ofthe v eloc
ity of aw ave i
nf ree s pace tothatint he conduc t-
i
ng medium i sthe index ofr e
fraction forthe c onduc ting medium. A tl ow
f
requencies the index for conduc torsisvery l arge
.
T
o fi
nd the w avelength X ,int he conduc to r
, w eh ave f
rom ( 10
-23) t hat
f
i
ke =0 .
7
6, or
X
e = 2T5 (10
-24 )
I
n (10
-24), both X
ea nd 6are in t
he same u n
its of l
eng th
. H ence the
w
avelength in t
he conductor i
s27 times the 1
/e depth. S ince t
he 1/e
d
epth issmal
l for c
onductor
s, t
he wavelength inconducto r
si ssma
ll
.
V
alues of t
he 1/
e depth, 1per c
ent depth, wavelength, ve
loc
ity
, a nd
r
e
fract
ive index f
or am ed
ium ofcoppera regiven inT able 10
-2 f
orthree
f
r
equencies
.
TABLE 1
0-2
TABLE OF PENETRATION DEPTHS
, WAVELENGTH , VELOCITY
, AND
REFRACT
IVE INDEX FOR COPPER

F
requency 6
0 c
ps 1
06 c
ps 3X 1
00 c
ps

Wave
leng
th i
nfr
ee s
pace X (
meter
s) 5
,000 km 3
00 me
ter
s 1cm

l
ie depth, me ter
s 8
.5 X 1
0-3 6
.6 X 1
0-5 3
.8 X 1
0-7

1per cent depth, meter

s 3
.9 X 1
0-6 3X 1
0-6 1
.7 X 1
0-6

Wavelength i nconductor X
., meters 5
.3 X 1
0-6 4
.1 X 1
0-6 2
.4 X 1
0-6

V
elocity inc onducto
r v.
, meters/sec 3
.2 4
.1 X 1
06 7
.1 X 1
04
I
ndex o fre
fraction (dimen
sionless) 9
.5 X 1
07 7
.3 X 1
06 4
.2 X 1
06

I
ti sinteresting ton o
te t hatthe electr
ic fie
ld i sdamped t o 1percento f
i
t
si nit
ial amp litude i na bout w aveleng th int he m e
ta l
.
S
ince t he penetration d ep th i
sinve rse
ly propo rtional tot he s
quare root
o
f the frequency , at hin s heet of conduc ting ma teria
l c an act as alow -
p
ass fi
lterf or el
ectromagne tic waves.
1
0-4. R e
laxa t
ion T ime . T hus far, t he behav ior of electromagne tic
waves in c onducting med ia h as been d iscussed f r
om t he standpoin
t o f
d
epth o fp enetration, velocity, and sof orth. I ti sinst
ruc tive tocons
ide r
t
he problem f rom a nothe rp oint o
fview ,n ame ly
,f rom t hato fthe b
ehavior
o
f ac harge c onf
igu ration p laced int he conduc t
ing m ed ium .
SE
C. 1
0-4
] PLANE WAVES I
N CONDUCT
ING MEDIA 3
99

Consider ac onduc ting medium o fi nf

in ite e
xten t
, in wh
ich isp laced a
c
harge o f arbitrary s hape a nd d ensity. I magine that the c harge is
r
e
lea sed and
, b ecau se ofthe mutual repu lsion oft he l
i
ke charge
so fw h
ich
i
tisc omposed, spreads o utthrough t he c onduc t
ing m edium. Now l etus
d
eterm ine h
ow l ong ittakesf o
r such ac harge ofd ens
ity pto decrea se i
n
d
ensity to 1
/ e ofi tsorig
inal value.
A
cco rding to ( 3-58) the continuity r elation between c u
rrent d en s
ity
a
nd c harge density is

V •J = — (
10
-25
)

F
rom Maxwe
ll
's e
qua
tion V •D = p
,and f
r
om D = E
.
v•
E= (
10
-26
)

B
ut J= a
E s
o t
hat (
10
-26
) b
ecome
s

V •J = (
10
-27
)

F
rom (
10
-25
) a
nd (
10-27
) i
tfo
llow
s t
hat

o
p c
r
(
10
-28
)
a
t =
As
o
lut
ion o
fth
ise
qua
tion i
s
p= p
o
e -
ceo
s (
10
-29
)

a
s may be r
eadi
ly ver
if
ied by t
aking t
he f
i
rst d
er
iva
tive w
ith r
e
spec
t t
o
t
ime a
nd subst
itut
ing in (
10
-28)
.
L
et u
s put
T,= (
10
-30
)

T
, has t
he dimens
ion o
f t
ime
. A
t t= 0
, p= p
o
, w
hich i
sthe i
n
itia
l
c
harge d
ens
ity
. When t= T „
1
P= p
o
e-I = P
oi (
10
-31
)

Thus, T„ist he time required f

or t
he cha rge d
ensity tod ecrease to 1
/e o
f
i
tsinit
ial value
. T he quant
ity T, isca
lled the re
laxa t
ion time.
In aperfect dielectric a = 0 s
o that T, isinf
inite
. H ence the c
harge
mainta
ins i ts o
rigina l dens
ity indef
initely. O n the other h and
, for a
c
onduc to
r s uch as c opper fo
r which a = 5 .8 X 10 7 mhos per meter and
e= 8.85 X 1 0-2 f
1 arad per mete
r, w e f
ind that

T
, = 1
.
5 X 1
0-'
9se
c

Th
is very s
hort i
nterva
l cor
responds t
o the l
ength o
f o
ne per
iod f
or
X r
ays
. Thu s, a
t radio a
nd mic
rowave f
requenc
ies t
he r
e
laxa
tion t
ime
4
00 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
0

i
s much l ess than t he p er
iod . T he r e
sult o fthe sho rt re
laxa tion t ime is
t
hat the c onduc tor c annot ma in tain a c harge c onf
igu ration l ong e nough
t
op e
rm itp ropaga tion o f aw ave mo re than av ery shortd istance i n
to t he
c
onduc tor
. When t he f r
equency i s suficiently h igh, o f t he o rder o f
1
0'9 cps
, t he relaxa t
ion t ime i sa bou t the same l ength a s the p er
iod a nd
p
ropaga t
ion i sp os
sible. Th is isa no the r way o flooking a t t he p henom -
e
non ofX - ray p enetra tion of me tals. We n o
ted ina ne ar
liers ection t hat
c
opper b egin s to a ct l i
ke a d ielec tric w hen t he frequency i sr aised t o
a
bout 1 0 2°cps.
1
0-5. I mpedance o f C onduc ting Med ia. The b ehavio r of c onduc ting
med
ia t owa rd p lane e lectromagne tic w aves c an be c onside red f rom y et
a
nothe r point ofv iew . Th is i
sf rom t he standpo int ofi mpedance .
Asolution o ft he w ave e quation f orthe electric f
ie
ld o f al inearly p olar-
i
zed p
lane w ave t r
avel ing int he xd irection in ac onduc ting m ed ium w ith
Ein the yd i
rec t
ion i so ft he form
E y = Eoe T
z (
10
-32
)

w
hile f
o
r t
he magne
tic f
i
e
ld as
o
lut
ion i
s
= H oe
i(40- 0-7x (
10
-33
)
whe
re E i
sthe l
agintime pha
se o
f11,
. wi
th r
espec
tt o t
„ orthe l
ead o
f E y

w
ith r
espect t
o i,
.t
Tak
ing the r
at
io of (
10-32
) t
o (1
0 -33) y
ie
lds the i
n
trin
sic impedance
Z
c ofthe c
onduct
ing medium. Thus

= Et
,= E0 _ E0 E
o
/E
Hoe
—i
s— Ho/—
E — Ho = Z `/E (
10
-34
)

A
cco rd
ing to( 10
-34) t
he magni tude or modulusofthe i
ntr
in s
ic impedance
i
se qua
l t o the rat
io o
f t
he e l
ec tr
ic to the magnet
ic fi
eld
, a nd t
he phase
a
ngle oft he impedance i
se qual t o E
.
Toeva luate Z,i nt
erms oft he constantsofthe conduct
ing med ium, we
p
roceed a s f
ollow s
: Maxwell's e quat
ion from F a
raday's law fo
r ap lane
wave with componen ts E
, a nd H , i
s
a
t
, __ af
t
,
(
10
-35
)
— I
4 a
t
Tak
ing the x d
erivat
ive o
f (
10-32
) a
nd t
he td
er
iva
tive o
f (
10
-33
) a
nd
s
ubst
itu
ting i
n (10-35
) y
ie
lds

l
'Ev =j
t
itoli
s
tThe dot (
.
) isused toi nd
icate e xpl
icit
ly that E,a nd H
.a re c
omp lex f
unct
ions of
t
,x,and E. T he i
nstantaneous v a
lue soft he f
ie
ld componentsa re g
iven byei
thert he
r
ea
l or t
he imaginary parts o
fE , a nd i
$The doton Z„i nd
icatese xpl
icitly thatt he impedance i
salso acomplex quan
tity.
However
, itis acomplex function o nly ofthe phase ang
le E
.
SE
C
. 1
0
-5) P
LANE WAVES I
N C
ONDUCT
ING MED
IA 4
01

T
he i
n
trin
sic i
mpedance 2
,ist
hen g
iven b
y J
.
(
.
20 = = I 4
•
" -
v
7

R
eca
ll
ing f
r
om (
10-
15a
) t
hat f
o
r ag
ood c
onduc
tot/

7 (
1+
(
10
-36
) b
ecome
s

z= = + b= ( a 1 -F (
10
-37
)

S
ince

1
+ j= 1
/45
°

t
he i
n
trins
ic i
mpedance c
an a
l
so b
e e
xpres
sed a
s

2
, =2
,
/t = /
45° (
10
-38
)

I
tfol
lowst
hatt
he magn
itude o
fthe i
n
trin
sic i
mpedance o
f ac
onduc
tori
s
g
iven b
y

(
10
-39
)

a
nd t
he p
hase a
ngle b
y
0 A
-,
(
10
-39a
)

Whe reas the intr

insic impedance of ap e rfect dielectric med ium i sa
p
ure resistance (Ey and H
,i nt ime phase), we n ote from ( 10-38) t hatt he
i
ntr
in s
ic i mpedance of aconduc tor i
s ac omp lex q uantity, H , l
a gging E y
i
nt ime phaseb yvery near
ly 45°. T h
is isa nalogous t ot he si
tuat ion ina
c
i
rcu i
t h aving re
sistance and inductance in series whe re the curren t lags
t
he app l
ied v o
ltage. The refore the c
onduc ting m ed ium b ehaves l ike an
i
nductive i mpedance. T h
is may b e expressed e xplicit
ly b y writing Z ,
i
n terms o f it
s re
sist
ive, o
r real, part Ra nd i t
s reactive, or imag inary,
p
a r
t X . Tha t i
s,

2
, =R jX = •iN it (
10
-40
)

The i
ntr
ins
ic impedance may b
e expres
sed i
n yet ano
the r f
o
rm, a
s
f
o
llows: Mult
iply
ing and d
iv
iding i
n (
10-37
) by e , a
, e
o nd Alo,

2
. _
1 +\IA
N/
°
e
o
Ao e
o e
w
e
(
10
-41
)
4
02 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
0

S
ubs
titu
ting e
rand µ
,fo
r t
he r
a
tio
s i
n (
10-41
),

2
, =1 j±
c
e (
10
-42
)
q
/ r N
E

B
ut Nri
I. o i
sthe i
n
trins
ic r
e
sis
tance o
f f
r
ee s
pace
, w
hich e
qua
ls 3
76.7
o
hms
, so t
hat

2
c — 1 +—
jX 3
76.7 \r
-Le o
hms (
10
-43
)
Er a

w
here µ
, = r
e
la t
ive p e
rmeab i
lity o
fm edium (dimensionle
ss)
=re
la t
ive p e
rm it
tivity o
fm edium (d
imens ion
less)
=radian frequency ( = 2
7f) (r
ecip
rocal s
econds)
E= p
erm it
tivity of medium (f
arads/meter)
T= c
C onduc tiv
ity of m ed
ium ( mhos/meter
)
T
he magni
tude or modu lus of2,is

2
, = 1
2
,1 =3
76.7 Ni
±
i
- (
10-44
)
Er c
r

T
he ra
tio we/c
ror i
ts r
e
ciproca
l w a
s di
scussed in Sec
. 10-1
. F or g
ood
c
onducto
rs we/a is v
ery small (a
/we very la
rge). T ake
, for i
n
stance
,
c
opper
. A t afrequency o
f3 ,
000 Mc/sec (wavelength 10 cm),

WE
— = 2
.
9 X l
0-

T
aking A
ir a
nd e
„as u
nity
, t
he i
n
trins
ic i
mpedance o
f c
oppe
r a
t 1
0 c
m i
s

2 — 1 ±j X 3
76.7 X5
.
4 X 1
0-6
V 2
o
r

2
, — 1 ±jX 0
.02 =0
.02/45
° o
hms

T
he magn
itude o
fthe i
n
trins
ic i
mpedance o
fcoppe
r i
s

Z
, = 1
2
,1 =0
.02 o
hm

These results i
ndicate thatfor ac onduc t
ing med ium such ascoppe rt he
r
at
io o f E. t o H. is much l es
s t han f o
r free space
. I f 0- w
ere infinite
(
perfect conduc tor), then Z. = 0a nd E v an
ishes. The s ma
ll value o f
Z
, for coppe r s
ugges t
s t hat t
he c onducting m ed
ium b ehaves li
ke as hort
c
i
rcu it t
o the electromagne tic fi
e
ld .
I
n t he a bove discussion on t he i mpedance of conducting m ed
ia , w e
i
nt
roduced a v alue o f 7 into ( 10-36) based o n the assump t
ion t hat
> w e
. Howeve r
, i n t he case o f ad ie
lectr
ic m edium w e> > G., and
SE
C. 1
0-6
J PLANE WAVES I
N CONDUCTING MEDIA 4
03

7= =jc
u -s
,
/7
i. S ubs
tituting th
is value of 7into (10-36
) g ives t
he
i
ntr
insic i
mpedance f
or adie
lectric med
ium e qual t
o N/p/easo btained in
Chap. 9
.
Some of t
he impo
rtant re
lations f
or conductors d
eveloped in this a
nd
p
receding s
ect
ions a
re s
umma rized i
nT able 10
-3.
TABLE 10
-3
PENETRATION DEPTHS, VELOCITY, WAVELENGTH, IN DEX OF
REFRACT
ION, IMPEDANCE, AND RELAXAT ION T
I ME IN
CONDUCTING MED IA (
c
r>>t
o
e)t

1
-d
e
epth = 5 =
N
Ar
.f
m
_
1
a
.
\
/
1
W W
1
me
ter
s

1p
er c
ent d
epth = 4
.
66 me
ter
s
,
\ Fu
P
hase v
eloc
ity = r
,= (
.
0-A = — me
ter
s/sec
all

Wave
leng
th = x
, =2
7
r6 me
ter
s

I
ndex o
f r
e
fract
ion = = = (
d
imens
ion
les
s)
C
c

R
elaxa
tion t
ime = T
, = s
ec
a

I
mpedance = =N
IT-
=
2'/
45° o
hms

tI
n t
he t
able
w=2r f =r ad
ian fr
equency
f= f
requency (cp
s)
m=permeab il
ity ("=4ar X 10-
7 h
enry/me
ter i
fno f
e
rromagne
tic ma
ter
ial i
s
p
resent)
t= p
erm itt
ivity (
farads/meter
)
c
ontluet
ivity (mhos 'me
ter)

10-6. R ef
l ection a nd T ransmission o f Waves a t aB ounda ry. T he
s
i
tua tion o f ap lane t raveling w ave i ncident norma lly o n ab ounda ry
b
etween t wo med ia ofi nf
inite e
xten tisd iscussed i
nt his sect
ion . L et the
wave b e l
i
nea rly p o
larized a nd travel
ing i n t
he posi
tive x d irect
ion w ith
Eint he ydi rection and H i n t
he zd irection. A s
sume t hat the incident
t
raveling w ave h as f
ie
ld c omponen ts E , and H , at the b ounda ry as in
F
ig. 10 -3a
. A tt he bounda ry b
etween t he two media p ar
to ft he i
ncident
wave i s
, in gene ral, r
eflected while ano the r par
t ist ransm itted into the
s
econd med ium . The r ef
lected trave
l ing w ave has f i
eld componen ts E,
a
nd H , at the b ounda ry. T he transm itted w ave ha s fi
eld c omponen ts
Eta nd Hea tt he b ounda ry.
'
7The dot ( n E
) o a, E„
, a
nd H, i
ndica tes e
xpl
icit
ly that, i
n genera
l, they
a
re complex funct
ions of 1
,x,a
nd 5o r E(that is
, phasors
), whe re 5isthe time-phase
d
iference between E , a
nd E,(s
ame a s b
etween r ef
lected and inc
ident wave s in Sec.
9
-10) and Eisthe time-pha
se d
iference b
etween E,a nd H,. T ak
ing the fi
elds a
t t he
b
oundary ( x =0) a nd a
t f 0,t hey a
re funct
ions o nly o
f 6a nd E.
4
04 ELECTRO MAGNET
I CS [
CHAP
. 1
0

M
edium 1 M
edium 2
Z2
E
,

I
n
c
iden
t

R
e
fle
cted E
- 1

/
1
,

z
=
.0

(
b
)
21
Z2
FI
G. 1
0-3
. P
lane w
ave i
nc
iden
t n
orma
lly o
n b
oundary (
a
) a
nd a
nalogous t
ransm
iss
ion
l
i
ne (b
).

F
rom t
he c
ont
inu
ity o
fthe t
angen
tia
l f
i
e
ld c
omponen
tsa
t ab
ounda
ry,

+E
r= (
1045
)
a
nd
1
1 = (
10
-46
)

The e
lec
tric and magnet
ic f
ie
lds o
f ap
lane w
ave a
re r
e
lated b
y t
he
i
ntr
ins
ic impedance o
f t
he m
edium. Thus

E
.
=-
E t
7- = 1 (
10
-47
)
H
,
-

1
1
The impedance o
f t
he ref
lected wave (
t
ravel
ing in t
he n
egat
ive x d
ire
c-
t
ion) i
st aken t
o b
e negative Z1 and o
f t
he in
cident w
ave, po
sit
ive Zi.
From (10
-46) and (
1047)
E
, ki Er
= = - (
10
-48
)
Z
2 Z
1 Z
1
o
r
• 2
2 2
2
- 1 E;
Et = 2 - (
10
-49
)
z
i
SE
C. 1
0-6
1 PLA NE W AVES IN CON DU CT
I NG M EDIA 4
05

Mu
ltip
lying (
10-45
) b
y 22/
2 1,

2
2 =2
2 , 2 2 L
S
.
1
,
1 A
Z
ds rir (
10
-50
)
Zi Z
1 2
1

Add
ing (
10-49
) a
nd (
10
-50
),

2
, (
1 = _
2E. (
10
-51
)
2
2 2
2
o
r
_ 2
22 _ (
10
-52
)
Z2 + 2 1

w
here #i
sca
lled t
he t
r
ansm
iss
ion c
o
eff
i
cien
t. I
tfo
llow
s t
hat

2Z2
— •— . . (
10
-53
)
Ei Z2-
1- Z
i
_
J
S
ubt
rac
ting (
10
-49
) f
r
om (
10
-50
),

•
Eg — 1) = 2
22 (
10
-54
)
Z
,
( 22 E,

S
ubs
titu
ting Etf
r
om (
10-52
) i
n
to (
10
-54
) a
nd s
o
lving f
o
r E
„

2
• ,
=22 — 2 ' —k
Ei (
10
-55
)
2 2 + 2 1

w
here i
sca
lled t
he r
ef
le
ction c
o
eff
ic
ien
t.' I
tfo
llow
s t
hat

( E 2
2 —2
2
(
10
-56
)
—E
: —2
2 + 2
2
The s ituation ( Fig. 1 0-3a) o f ap lane w ave i nc
iden t n orma lly o n a
b
ounda ry b etween t wo d iferen t med ia of inf
inite e x
ten t
, w ith i ntrin s
ic
i
mpedance s Z1 a nd Z 2,isa nalogous t o the s
ituation o f ag uided w ave o n
a
ni nf
in ite tran smiss
ion l i
ne h aving a n abrupt change i nimpedance f r om
Z1 t
o Z2 ( F
ig . 10-3b). T he t ransmis s
ion a nd r ef
lection c oeff
i
cien ts f o
r
v
oltage a crosst he transm is s
ion l i
ne are ident
ica lt otho se g
iven i n ( 10-53)
a
nd ( 10-56) i fthe intrinsic i mpedance Z 1 of med ium 1i st aken t o b e the
c
harac terist
ic i mpedance o ft he li
ne tot he le
fto ft he j
unc t
ion ( Fig. 1 0-3b)
a
nd t he intr
ins ic impedance Z2 o f medium 2i staken t obet he cha racte r
-
i
s
tic i mpedance o fthe line t ot he r
ight oft he junction. Th is isd iscus sed
f
urther i nC hap . 1.
The a bove r elat
ions a pply t o any med ia, c onduc ting o r d ielec tr
ic
(
l
o ss
les s)
, the n ature o f the med ium b eing specif
ied i n every ca se b y i t
s
i
n
t r
ins ic impedance Z .
"Th
is i
sthe s
ame a
s t
he r
ef
lec
tion c
oef
f
ic
ient jd
i
scus
sed i
nSe
c. 9
-
10.
4
06 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
0

R
eturn
ing n ow to the case of aplane wave in
cident normally on the
b
oundary be
twe en t wo med ia of i
nf
inite e
xtent as i
n Fig
. 10-3a
, let us
c
ons
ider s
everal s
pecial c
ase s
.
C
ase 1
. A ssume t hat medium 1i sair a
nd medium 2i s aconductors o
t
hat Z
1 >
> Z2. T hen, from ( 10
-52) we have the a
pproximate re
lation

(
10
-57
)

B
ut f
r
om (
10-47
) t
h
is b
ecome
s
1 ,2 2 2 2 f i s2
,
(
10
-58
)
1 2 . 1

2
,
f
r
om wh
ich
c
-
_
-
•214 (
10
-59
)

Thus
, for aplane wave i
na i
ri nc
iden tn ormally o n ac
onduc ting medium ,
t
he magne tic f
i
eld is
, t
o ag ood a pproxima tion, doubled in in
tensi
ty a t
t
he bounda ry. I tal
so f
ol
low st hatI ,. Hisot hatthe re i
s an
early pure
s
tanding w ave t
o the l
e
ft oft he bounda ry (i
n med ium 1 )
.
Ca
s e 2
. C onsider n
ow t he o ppo s
ite situation whe re medium 1 i sa
c
onduc to
r a nd medium 2i sair s
o t hat Z1 << Z2. Then , f
rom (10
-52) w e
h
ave a pproximately
E
, 22, (
10-60)

Thus, f or aw ave l e
av ing ac onduc t
ing med ium , the e l
ectric f ie
ld isn early
d
oub led a t the b ounda ry. I t f o
llow s tha t E, E
. so t ha t t here is a
n
ear ly p ure stand ing w ave ( S WR = 0 ) i mmed iately t o t he l e
ft of the
b
ounda ry (in med ium 1 ). Howeve r
, o wing t o the a t
tenua tion o fw aves
i
n m edium 1 ,t he SWR d ecrea ses rapidly a s o ne move s a way f rom t he
b
ounda ry ( to the left).
Case 3. I n C ase 1i ti sa s
sumed t ha t Zi> > Z2. C on side r now t hat
Z2 = 0 ( medium 2 ap erfec t conduc tor)
. Then f rom ( 10-56 ) t he ref
lec-
t
ion c oef f
ic
ien t p= — 1, a nd f r
om ( 10
-53 ) t he tr ansm iss
ion c oeff
icient
= 0 . Thus , the w ave i s comp letely r ef
lected , a nd n o f i
eld ist rans-
mitted i n
to med ium 2 . F ur the rE , = —E„ a nd H „ =H is ot ha tthe mag -
n
e t
ic f i
eld inten s
ity e xactly d oub les at the b ounda ry. Th is s i
tuation is
a
na logou s to as hor t
- circuited t ran smiss
ion l ine.
Case 4. I n C ase 2 i ti sa s sumed t ha t Z1 < < Z2. C onside r n ow t he
hypo the t
ical si
tua tion whe re Z2 i si nf
inite.' Then f rom ( 10 -56 ) p = +1
a
nd f rom ( 10-53) T= 2 . T hus t he w ave i s c omp lete
ly r ef
lected, b ut
E
, = +E i s o that t he elec tric f i
eld intensity a t the b ounda ry ise xactly
d
oub led . Th is situa tion i sa na logous t o a n o pen-circuited t r
an smission
l
ine.
1I
tist
ob enoted t
hatforfree s
pace t
he i
ntr
insic i
mp edance i
sonly 3
77 o
hms
. T o
o
bta
in a h
ighe
ri mpedance w
ou ld r
equ
ire t
hat la
r > 1such asinfer
romagnet
ic med
ia.
SE
C. 1
0-7
] PLANE WAVES I
N CONDUCTING MED
IA 4
07

Case 5. T ake n ow t he c a
se w here 2 =21. T hen p = 0,a nd 7 = 1
s
ot hatt he w ave propaga te sinto m ed
ium 2w ithou ta ny ref
lect
ion . T h
is
s
i
tua t
ion i ss imi
lar t o that o n acon t
inuou s tran smission line ofu ni
fo rm
c
harac ter
istic impedance .
1
0-7. T he T erm inated Wave .' I n t he p receding s ec
tion w e c on-
s
ide
red v arious ref
lec t
ion a nd tran
sm iss
ion s i
tua tionsa t ab ounda ry. I n
a
l
l case s t
he re was ar ef
lec ted w ave except w here t he two med ia w ere of
t
he same i mpedance, a nd i nt h
is case t
he w ave w ase nt
irely transmit ted.
No case w as cons
ide red in wh ich the inc
iden t w ave ist e
rm inated so t hat

S
p
ace
3
76
.7 o
hms

Z
e
ro r
e
s
istance
b
ars
(
a
) (
b
)
F
la. 1
0-4
. S
pace c
l
oth h
as ar
e
sis
tance o
f376
.7 o
hms p
er s
qua
re.

n
o w ave w ill b e t r
an sm itted o r r ef
lec ted. T his c ase d eserve s s pecial
mention a nd i sc onside red i nt his se c
t ion.
T
he i ntrinsic i mpedance o ff r
ee s pace i s3 76.7 o hms . Th is c oncep t of
a
n i mpedance f or free s pace t akes o n more p hysical s ignificance i fw e
c
onside r t he p rope rt
ie s o f ar e s
istive s heet h aving a r es
istance o f 3 76.7
o
hm sp e r squar e
. Ma te r
ial s o treated i soften c alled s pace p ape r ors pace
c
l
oth. I ts hould b e noted t hatt he resistance i sn o t pers qua re c entime ter
o
r per s qua re m eter b ut simp ly p er s qua re
. T his ise quivalen t t osaying
t
hat t he r esistance b etween t he e dge s o f
a
ny s qua re s ection o ft he ma terial i st he
s
ame . H ence t he resistance b etween t he
o
ppo site e dge s oft he s malls qua re ofs pace
c
loth i nF ig. I 0-4a is3 76.7 o hm s
,a si sa lso
a
t
he r esistance b etween t he e dge s o f t he
l
arge squa re i nF ig. 10-4b. I nt h
is ilus tra- F
la. 1
0-5
. S
quare o f spa
ce cloth
o
f th
ickne ss h
.
t
ion i t i s a ssumed t hat t he e dge s a re
c
lamped w ith z ero-resistance b ar sa nd t hat t he i mpedance o ft he leads is
n
egligible.
T
he c onduc tivity o ft he ma ter ia
l r e quired f o
r as heet oft he s pace c loth
S
. Ramo and J
.R. Whinnery
, "F
ields a
nd Wave
sin Mode
rn R
adio
," J
ohn W
iley
&S
ons
, Inc
., New York
, 1944
, p
.277.
4
08 ELECT RO M A G N ETICS [
CHAP
. 1
0

d
ependsonthe t
h
ickne
ss o
ft he s
heet
. T
hus t
he r
e
sis
tance R o
f as
qua
re
s
ec
tion a
sinFig
. 10
-5 i
sexpressed by

/ / 1
o
hms (
10
-61
)
a
a a
h
l

w
here 1= l
ength o
fs ide (me ters)
a= a
rea ofedge ( mete rs 2)
h= t
hickness ofsheet ( me te
rs)
a= c
onductivity ofs heet ( mhos/meter
)
I
tfo
llows t
hat t
he required c onductivity i
s
1 1
a = = mho
s/me
ter (
10
-62
)
R
h 3
76.7h
C
onsider now t
he b
ehavior o
f as
hee
t ofspa
ce clo
th pla
ced i
nthe p
ath
o
f aplane wave
. S uppose
, as s
hown i
nFig
. 10-6a
, tha
t aplane w
ave i
n

'I
n
f
in
it
es h
ee
t
/ o
fsp
acecl
o
th
-
•
• •
•1
11.

2
Ei=
1 Er = E
y= (
a)

I
n
c
iden
t R
ef
lected T
ransmi
tted
w
av
e w
ave w
ave

2
1
;=1 =T

zo I
nf
ini
te (
6
)
t
r
ansm ion l
iss i
n
e
1
F
io
. 1
0-6
. (a
) Pl
anewavetrav
eling t
ori
ghti
nc
id en
tn ormal
ly o
nsh
eeto
fsp
acec
l
oth
,
a
nd (
) a
b na
logo
t.st
ran
smis
sion-
linear
rangem
ent.

f
r
ee space travel
ing to t
he ri
gh t i
si n
ciden t normally o n asheet o
fspace
c
l
oth ofi nf
inite e
xtent
.
T
aking t he ampli
tude ofthe inc
iden tw ave as 1v o
ltp erm ete
r, w
eh ave
f
r
om ( 10-53) that the
re is at ransmitted w ave c ontinuing to t
he r
ight
o
fthe sheet of ampl
itude
2X 1 88.3 2
=r Ei — — v o
lt/me te r
1
88.3 + 3 76.7 3

a
nd from (1
0-56) t
hat t
here i
s ar
ef
lected w
ave t
o the l
e
ft oft
he s
hee
t o
f
amp
litude
188
.3 — 376
.7 1
, =p
E Ei — — —v
3 ol
t/me te
r
188
.3 + 376
.7
SE
C
. 1
0-7
] PLANE WAVES I
N CONDUCTING MEDIA 4
09

I
ti st o b
en oted t hat t
he i mpedance p resented t o t
he inciden tw ave at
t
he sheeti sthe r e
sultan toft he space cl
oth i np arallelw ith the impedance
o
ft he space beh ind i t
. T his iso ne
-ha l
f of3 76.7, o r 188.3 o hms.
I
t isa ppa ren t that as hee t of space cloth b y itse
lf isi n suf
fic
ient to
t
ermina te a w ave. T h
is may a lso be seen b y c onsidering t he analogous
t
ransm iss
ion a rrangemen t a
ss hown i nF ig
. 1 0
-6b .
In order c
omp letely to absorb o r t
erm inate t he incident w ave without
r
ef
lection or tr ansm iss
ion,' let an inf
inite, perfec t
ly c onduc t
ing s heet be
p
laced p ara
llel t o the space c lo
th a nd 1 w aveleng th b ehind i t
, as por-

I
n
cident
wave x
4
(
a)

--
* I
nf
ini
te s
hee
t '"---
-In
fin
ite pe
rfec
tly
o
fspace c
lo
th c
onduct
ing shee
t
I
n
cident
wave

S
hor
ting I
n
f
inite
zo zo b
ar— v
- t
r
ansmiss
ion (
b
)
l
i
ne
1
k
e--- a
A .
FI
G. 1
0
-7. (a
) Plane wave t
ravel
ing torightincidentn orma
lly onshee
to fspace c
l
oth
b
acked b
y conducting s
heet isabsorbed without ref
lect
ion
. ( 6
) Wave travel
ing t
o
r
i
ght o
nt r
ansmiss
ion li
ne i
sa b
sorbed without ref
lect
ion bya na
logous a
rrangement
.

t
rayed i nF ig. 1 0
-7a. Now t he i mpedance p re sented t ot he in
cident w ave
a
tt he s hee to fs pace c lo
th i s376.7 o hms, being t he impedance o ft he s hee t
i
n pa rallel w ith a n i nf
inite impedance . A s ac onsequence , th
is a rrange -
ment r esu lt si nt he t otal absorption o fthe w ave b y the s pace cloth, w ith
n
o re f
lec tion t ot he l e
ftoft he space c l
oth. T here is
,h oweve r, as tanding -
wave a nd e nergy c irculation b etween t he cloth a nd the c onduc ting s hee t.
The a nalogous t ransm iss
ion -f
ine a rrangemen t i silustra ted inF ig. 1 0-7b .
I
nt he c as eo ft he plane w ave, the perfectly c onducting s heete fective ly
i
s
ola tes t he r egion o fs pace behind i tf rom t he e fect
s o ft he wave . I n a
r
ough ly a na logous manne r
, t he s hort
ing b ar o n the t ransm ission l ine
r
educe st he w ave b eyond i tt o as mal
l v a
lue .
At ransm iss
ion l ine may a lso b e termina ted b y p
l acing a n i mpedance
a
cros s t he l i
ne w hich i se qual to the charac terist
ic i mpedance o ft he l ine,
1Thi
sr e
sult may al
so bea pproxima ted b
ythe u
se of ala
rge s
tack o
fp a
rallelsheets
o
fsuitable res
istance and spac
ing e x
tending a
n apprec
iable d
istance
, a
s m easured in
w
aveleng ths, i
nthe di
rection o
ft ravelo ft
he i
nc
ident wave, t
he wave b
eing gradual
ly
a
bsorbed a s i
tpenetrates t
he sta
ck.
4
10 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
0

a
s i n Fig
. 1 0-6b, a nd di
sconnec t
ing t he l i
ne b eyond i t
. A lthough t h
is
p
rov ides ap racticalm ethod o
ft erm ina ting at ransm iss
ion l i
ne, there isno
a
nalogous c ounte rpart i
n the case o f aw ave i n space, becau se iti snot
p
os s
ible to " disconnec t" the space t o t he right of the term ina t
ion. A
r
egion o f space may o n
ly be iso
la ted o r shielded, a s by ap er
fectly con-
d
uc t
ing s heet.
1
0-8. T he P oyn ting Vector in C onduc ting Med ia
. A s sume t hat a
p
lane w ave i straveling i
n auniform c onduc ting m edium . L etu sf i
nd the
value o f the P oyn ting vecto r Sf or the
wave . S uppo se tha t the w ave i sli
nearly
polarized a nd t raveling in t he p os
itive x
d
irec tion w ith E i n the yd irection a nd H
i
nt he zd i
rec t
ion, asi nFig
. 1 0-8. L e tthe
bounda ry o f the c onduc t
ing m ed
ium b e
a
t x= 0 ,a nd l e
t
E y = Eoe
m (
10
-63a
)
a
nd
H
. =H
oei 6"-E
) (
1
0-63b
)
F
rom (9-
124 ) t
he s
ca
lar magn
itude o
fthe
a
verage Poynt
ing v
ecto
ri s

=R
e S = 4R
e tv1: = -
i
-
E0H
0 R e
(
10
-64)
or
=4
E01
/0c
os E w
att
s/me
te r2
(
10-65
)
where E0 = amp litude o f electric f ie
ld
(
volts/me ter)
Ho = ampl itude o f magne tic fie
ld
(
amp/me te r
)
x
=0
=p hasedife rence between e lec-
FIG
. 1 0-8
. Field co mponents of
t
r
ic a nd magne t
ic f i
eld s (
r ad
wave inc onduct
ing med ium.
o
rd eg)
The P oyn ting vector i se n
tirely i
nt he xdirection int h
is cas
e. I f E0a nd
Ho a r
e r ms values
, t he f actor 4 i
n ( 10-65
) i s omitted. F or ac onduct -
i
ng m edium , i
sv ery n ear
ly 4 5
°. R e
turn ing to af urthercons ide ra
tion
o
f t he a verage P oynt ing v ector
, t he intr
in s
ic i mpedance Z . ise qual to
Ev/ H. so that (10-64) c an b e e
xpressed
= 4R
e/1
,11:2
e =4
1f
1.1
2Re2 =-
4
1 e2
1 02R c w
att
s/me
ter2 (
10
-66
)
T
his i
s ave
ry useful re
lation si
nce
, ifthe i
n
trin
sic impedance 2, o
f a
c
onduct
ing medium a nd also the magnet
ic fi
e
ld Ho at the sur
face are
k
nown, itg
ives t
he average P oyn
ting v
ector (
or a
verage power pe
r unit
a
rea
) in
to t
he conducting m ed
ium .
SE
C
. 1
0-8
] PLANE WAVES I
N CONDUCTING MEDIA 4
11

E
xamp le. A p lane 1,000 Mc/sec traveling w ave in a
ir with peak elect
ric fi
e
ld
i
n
tensity of 1v
olt/me terisin
cident normally on alarge c
oppers heet
. F ind the a
ver-
a
ge power abso
rbed b y the s
heet p
er square meter ofarea.
S
olu
tion. F irs
tl e
tt he i
ntr
insic i
mpedance ofc opperb ecalcu
la ted a
t 1
,000 Mc/sec
.
F
rom ( 10
-43)

-1 +
i 3767 \Fir \
117
.
1
V2 t
r

F
or c
oppe
r I
L
, =e
, 1a
nd a = 5
.8 X 1
0 7 mhos/me
ter
. H
ence t
he r
ea
l p
art o
f 2
.is

.
\/
27 X 1
03 X 8
.85 X 1
0- '
3
R
e 2
, =(
c
os 4
5°)(376
.7)
5
.8 X 10
'
=8
.2 X 1
0-3 o
hm

Next w
e fi
nd t
he value o
f Ho a
t the s
hee
t (t
angent t
o t
he s
urface
). T
his i
svery
n
ear
ly double H f
or t
he i
nc
ident wave. Thus

E 2X 1
H
o •2 = amp/me
ter
Z 3
76.7

F
rom (
10
-66
) t
he a
verage p
ower p
er s
qua
re me
ter i
n
to t
he s
hee
t i
sthen

S
,
„ = 2 )2 8
.2 X 1
0-3 = 1
.
16 X 1
0 -'w
att /
meter 2
2k
376
.7

The powerfr
om aw ave a
bsorbed by aconduct
ing med ium may a lso be
c
onvenient
ly regarded in t
erms of t
he current induced in the med ium.
S
ince J = fE, t
he current d
ensity J i
n the medium v aries in the same
mannera sthe e
lec
tric f
ie
ld E
. T hus f
or aplane w ave i
ncident norma l
ly
o
n ac onduct
ing m ed
ium , a
s i
nF ig
. 10
-8, the c
urrent-density va
riation is
e
xpres
sed b y
= j oe -
x/de —
j(shE amp/me
ter2 (
10
-67
)

where J o =c urrent d ensi

ty a t surface of the med ium ( x =0). T he
v
ariat
ion o ft he magn i
tude o fJ( or E) as af unct
ion oft he di
stance xis
p
ortrayed b y t he exponen tial c
urve i n Fig. 10-9. A ssum ing that the
c
onduct ing medium e x
tend s inf
ini
tely f a
r in the pos
itive xd i
rect
ion, the
t
otal curren
t p er u n
it w idth (i
n zd i
rection) induced in the conduct
ing
medium b y the w ave isgiven by the integra
l o fthe magn i
tude of Jfrom
t
he sur
face oft he med ium ( x =0) toi nf
inity. T hat i
s,

K = IJ
I d
x = Jo "e
-x/6 d
x = Job (
10
-68
)

where K = cur
ren t per un
it width (sheet c
urrent d ensi
ty) (amp/me ter)
J
o =c urrent dens
ity at s
urface (amp/me ter 2)
5= 1/e depth ofpenetrat
ion ( meter
s)
Thus t
he a
rea undert he e
xponentialcurve inFig. 10-9 isequaltothe area
u
nde r t
he s
tep curve
. I tfo
llows that the t
ota
l curren t Kp erun
it wid th
i
se qua
l to what would be obta
ined if J maintained t he cons
tant amp l
i-
.
112 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
0

o
r

E
xponen
tia
l c
u
rve

2
6 3
6 4
6 56 66
— I,-
FIG
. 10-9
. R elative magnitude ofelectr
ic fi
e
ld E or cur
ren tdensity Jas afunction of
d
epth ofpenetra tion 5f
or apl
ane wave trave
ling in xd
i
rec t
ion in
to conducting medium .
The absc
issa give sthe p
enetrat
ion dis
tance xa nd ise
xp ressed i
n 1/edepths (
5). T he
wavelength i
nt he conductor e
quals 2T5
.

t
ude Jofrom the s
ur
face to ad
epth 6and w
asz e
ro el
sewhere. This g
ives
added s
i
gnif
icance to t
he 1/
e d
epth ofpene
trat
ion 6.
Now t
he average power absorbed p
er un
it area of the c
onducting
medium is
, f
rom (10-66
),
= Re4 (
10-69)

o
rsi
nce H
o =Ka
nd R
e 2c = R
,

= 4K 2R w
att
s/me
ter
' (
10
-70
)1

where K = Jo6= c urrent p er unit w idth, asi n (1

0-68) (amp/me ter)
R = 1/a6= r e
sistance of as qua re sheet ofconduct ing m edium o f
t
hickness 6( ohms p er squa re)
T he res
istance R i n (10-70) issome time s re
ferred to as the skin resi
st-
a
n c
e, since ath igh frequenc iest he cur rent may b ec on
fined t o av ery th
in
l
ayer. R e
ferring to Fig. 1 0-5, Rist he r es
istance of asqua re sheeto ft he
medium o f t
hickne ss 6= h a s mea sured b etween t wo oppos i
te edge s
.
1
0-9. C i
rcuit A pplication o f t
he P oyn t
ing V ector
. I n f i
e
ld theo ry w e
d
eal w ith point function s such a s E
, H , and S. T hus
, Ea nd H g ive the
e
lectric and magne tic f i
e
lds a t ap o
in t a nd S the powerd ens i
ty at ap oint.
I
n d ealing with w ave s i n space itisc onven ient to u
se s uch p o
in t func-
INote t
he s
imilar
ity b
etween (10
-70) a
nd t he c
i
rcu
it r
e
lation f
or t
he power di
ssi
-
p
ated in a
n impedance w
ith area
l par
t (r
esis
tance) Rasgiven b
y P 11102R w
atts
.
SE
C
. 1
0-9
] PLANE WAVES I
N CONDUCT
ING MEDIA 4
13

t
i
ons. O n t he o
ther hand, i
n deal
ing with c
i
rcuit
s itisusual
ly more
c
onvenien
tt oe mploy i
nteg
rated quant
itie
ssuch a
s V
, I,and P
. T hatis
,
Visthe vol
tage between two p
oints a
nd ise
qual t
ot he l
i
ne i
n
tegra
l o
fE
b
etween the po
ints
, or
V = f2 E
•d1 (
10
-71
)

T
he quan
tity Iisthe c
urrent t
hrough ac
onduc
tor w
hich i
sequa
l t
o t
he
i
n
teg
ral ofHa round t
he conduc
tor or

/ = f H •d
l (
10
-72
)

The q
uant
ity P i
s
,f o
re xample
, t
he powerdis
sipa
ted
i
n alo
ad and i
sequaltot he i
n
tegra
lo fthe P
oynt
ing I
mag
ina
ry

T
c
yl
inde
r
v
ectorove
r asurface e
nclos
ing t
he lo
ad, o
r

SS
P = 9. •d
s (
10
-73
)

f
l
ow
a
pp
A
s an i
ing i
roach
n
lus

. S
tra
to a l
t
o
ion l
ad o
uppos
e

e t
t u
f i
ha
s f i
nd the a
mpedance Z
t t
he lo
, u
ad i
ve
s
s al
rage p
ing t
ong
owe
he f
, s
l
i
e
ld
ender
,
r
I
r
od-
shaped d evice, a
s s
uggested inFig
. 1 0-
10. L et
a
n imagina ry c yl
indr
ical s
urface be c
onstructed, as
i
nd
icated, t hat e nc
loses the load. T he a ve
rage
p
oweri nt he load is
,from (9-125)
,
FI
G.1
0-10. T he p
owe r

P
s. =56Re S •d
I
s — i9 R 6
e (
E xH*
I
) •d
s
i
n al
t
he i
o
n
ad i
tegra
sequa
l o
l t
f t
o
he
(
10
-74
) n
ormal componen to f
t
he Poyn t
ing v ector
F
rom t he g
eome try E a nd H a ren ormalt oe ach othe r o
ver asurface e
nclos-
a
nd b oth t angen t t o t he c urved s urface o f the i
ng t
he lo
ad.
i
magina ry cyl
inde r. T he con tr
ibu t
ion o f t he fl
a t
e
nd surfaces of the c ylinder t o (1
0-74Y isz ero si
nce E i sn orma l t
o these
s
ur
face s
. T hus, t he total ave rage powe r P..
, in t he lo
ad i sgiven by the
s
ur
face i n
tegral o f the r ea
l p art of the c omplex P oynting v ector over
t
he curved surface o f the cylinde r
. F rom t he geome try t h
is reduces to
t
he rea
l p ar
t of t he line integral of Eb etween t he ends o f t
he cylinder
mu
ltipl
ied b y the l i
ne i n
tegral o f H* around t he c yl
inde r
. T ha t i
s
,'
P
.. = -I
FR
e f
E •d
l.5
6
' H* •d
l (
10
-75
)
o
r
P
., = -i R
e V
I* w
att
s (
10
-76
)
w
here V = f
E •dl =vo
ltage between t
he ends o
fthe c
y
linde
r (
o
rlo
ad)
(
volt
s)
I* = fH* •dl =current t
hrough l
oad (amp
)
1
E
, H*, V
, a
nd 1
* a
re c
omp
lex q
uan
tit
ies (
pha
sor
s). F
ors
imp
lic
ity t
he d
ot C
)is
om
itted
.
4
14 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
0

T he n
ega t
ive sign i
n (10
-75) a nd (10-76) resu
lts f r
om the f ac
t t hat
E xH* o n the cy
lindr
ical sur
face i sinwa rd
, mak ing S n egative w ith
r
espect t
o d s
. T hus
, from the f
ie
ld p o
int o fview t he power enter
ing a
l
oad i snegative power
. C onver
sely, the p ower leaving a generator is
p
ositive power. Om itt
ing the n
ega t
ive sign and n
oting thatI*i n (10-76)
i
st he c
omp lex con
jugate o
fI ,w e have
P
.. = V0I0 R
e e
a
t = ;
F f0 c
IT o os t w
att
s (
10
-77
)
where t= time p hase angle b e
tween c urrent a nd v o
ltage . No te that
V = Voe m and / * = In (10-77) V o and /0 a re amp litudes
(
peak va
lue s
). I fr ms v
aluesa re used, the fa
c tor i s om
it ted. E quation
(
10-77) i
s af am i
liar ci
rcuit relation. I t has been d eveloped h ere as a
s
pecia
l case o
ft he more g eneral fie
ld relation of (10
-74 )
.
The quantity co s tin (10-77) i scalled the p owerf actor
. H ence, by
a
nalogy cos ti n (
1 0
-65) may b e ca
lled the p owerfactor oft hem edium.
S
ince the load impedance Z = V /I
, w e al
so h ave from ( 10-76) (om i
t-
t
ing t
he negative sign) t
ha t
=4
/
02 Re Z = 4
/0 2R (
10
-78
)
where R = r es
istance ofl o
ad ( r
eal part ofZ) (ohm s
).
10-10. G eneral Developmen t oft he Wave E quat
ion . In t h
is chapter
a
nd i n Chap. 9,w e have dealt e nt
irely with p
lane w aves t
ravel
ing int he
xdirect
ion. T he w ave equation w a
s developed fort h
is s
pecial c
ase, and
a
ppropr ia
te s o
lutions w ere o btained. A mo re gene ra
l developmen t of
t
he w ave equat
ion w i
ll now b eg iven, and itw
illbes hown thatf or aplane
wave itreduce s t
o the expre s
sions o btained prev
iously.
Maxwe ll
's curl equat
ion s are
,a
p , a
E
Vx H = J-r — =0E-re — (
10
-79
)
a
t a
t
a
nd
a
B a
x
vxE = —— = — a
i (
10
-80
)
a
t
-
at

Taking t
he c
ur
l o
f (
10
-80
) a
nd i
n
troduc
ing t
he v
alue o
f v xH f
r
om
(
10-79)
,

V x(
V xE
) = a
(
vx1
1) — — (
o-E —
a
E) (
10
-81
)
a
t a
t
a
a
t
B
ut by avector i
den
tity
, mean
ing
ful on
ly i
nre
ctangu
larc
oord
ina
tes
,the
l
e
ft-hand s
ide o
f (
10-81) c
an b
e e
xpre
ssed
V x(
V xE
) =V
(V •E
) — V2E (
10
-82
)
Eq
.uat
ing (1
0-82
) and (
10
-81
), a
nd n
oting t
hat i
n s
pace h
aving n
ofr
ee
c
harge V •E = 0
,
8
2
E a
E
v
2E =ge g
cr T t- (
10
-82a
)
SE
C
.10
-10
] PLANE WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA 4
15

A
ssum
ing h
armon
ic v
aria
tion o
fthe f
i
e
ld w
ith t
ime
, (
10
-82a
) r
educe
s t
o
= (- c
epe j
c
alla
)E = 72E (
10
-83a
)
o
r
V2E — 72E = 0 (
10
-83b
)

F
rom (
10
-82
) w
e c
an a
l
so w
rite
Vx Vx E-F-
y 2E = 0 (
10
-83c
)
A
ll of the above f our equa t
ion s are vecto r w ave equations i n E. I n
(
10-82a) the time i sexplicit, while in the other t hree i
tisi mp l
icit
, h a
r-
monic var
iation wi th time b e
ing assumed . The e qua t
ions (10-83)i nco r
-
p
orate al
l four o f Maxwe ll's equa t
ions. Maxwe ll
's t wo curl equa tions
a
re the s
tart
ing p o
int f ort he w ave equation , and the equat
ions o f( 10-83)
s
at
i s
fy them. Maxwe ll's t wo divergence e quations are a
lso satif
ied .
For aplane w ave t r
ave ling int he xdi rection with E inthe yd i
rec tion
(
E =j E
,,) Eq. (10-82a) r educe s to
a
2E, a
2E, a
E,
(
10
-84
)
a
x2 a
t
2 ± A
u
r —a
t

w
hich i
sthe s
ame a
s (
10
-9)
. I
f o= 0
,
a
2Ev 32
( E,
(
10
-85
)
a
x2 a
t2
wh
ich i
sthe same a
s ob
tained fo
r alo
ssles
s med
ium i
n C
hap
. 9
. T
hese
a
re s
ca
lar wave e
quat
ions.
I
f Edoe
s not c
hange wi
th time (
E s
tatic
),
v
2E = 0 (
10
-86
)

I
f Ei
s ah
armon
ic f
unc
tion o
ftime
, t
hen (
10
-84
) b
ecome
s
a
2E,
= -cem
eEy j
wac
rE, (
10
-87
)
a
x2
o
r
.
92E
2_ ,
y2
Ev = 0 (
10
-88
)
ax
w
hich i
sthe s
ame a
s (
10
-13
).

PROBLE MS
10-1. A med ium ha
s ac onduct ivity a = 1 0-, mho/me tera nd arelat
ive pe
rm it
tivity
e
,=5 0
. A ssume that these v a
lues d o n ot change w ith frequency a nd t
ha t a
, = 1.
Doest he medium behave like aconducto ror adielectric a
t afrequency o f(
a)5 0 k
c/sec;
(
b) 10 4 Mc/sec?
AI
M.: (
a) r/w
e 7
20 = c onducto r; (b
) o /w 3
.6 X 1 0-3 = di
electr
ic.
1
0-2. Ap lane 1,
590- Mc/sec wave i stravel
ing i n a med ium for wh ich e
,
a
nd a = 0 .
1 mho/me ter. I fthe r ms electr
ic fie
ld i ntens
ity of the w ave i
s1 0 vo
lts/
meter, wha t are (
a) the c onduc t
ion c urrent d ensity, (b
) t he displacement current
d
en s
ity, and ( c
) t
he t
otal c ur
rent d ensity?
4
16 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
0

1
0-3 . What i st he 1 /cd ep th o fp ene tration o f a1 59 - Mc/ se cw ave i nto amed ium f o
r
which a = 1 0 6 mho s/me ter a nd µ , = 1? A ns.: 4X 1 0-6 m eter.
1
0-4 . D eterm ine t he 1 /e d epths a nd t he 1p er c ent d ep th so fp ene t ration o f aw ave
i
nto a n i nf
in ite med ium f or w hich a = 1 0 6 mho s/me ter a nd a ., = 2a t t he f olow ing
f
requenc ies: ( a) 6 0c ps; (b) 2 Mc / sec ; (c
) 3 ,000 Mc/ sec.
1
0-5. ( a
) D eve lop t he wave e qua t
ion i n Ef or ap lane w ave t rave l
ing i nt he yd i
re c-
t
ion in ac onduc t
ing med ium . T ake E i nt he zd irec t
ion . A s sume h armon ic v a r
ia tion
o
fE . ( b)S ta te as olu tion f or aw ave t raveling i nt he nega tive yd ire ction . P rove t ha t
i
ti s as olution .
1
0-6. Ap lane 1 59 - Mc/ sec w ave i st rave l
ing i n amed ium f o rw h
ich e r = µ , = 1a nd
= 1 0 6 mho s/mete r
. How f ar mus t t he w ave t ravel t o d ec rea se i n amp litude t o
1
3.5 p er c en t ( l/O ) o f it
s o rig ina l value?
1
0-7. How l ong d oes i tt ake f o
r t he c ha rge d en s
ity i n a med ium , w ith c on s tan ts
a 1
0 6 mhos/me te r, e ,= =1 ,to d ecrease t o 1p er c en to fi tso rig inal v alue?
An s
.: 4 . 07 X 1 0-17 s econd .
1
0-8. What i st he i ntrins ic i mpedance o f t he med ium o f P rob . 1 0-7 f or a3 0,000 -
Mc /sec w ave?
1
0-9. A 1 59 - Mc/ sec p lane w ave t r
ave ling i n al o
s s
le ss d iele ctric med ium w ith
er = 4a nd µr = 1 i si nc
ident n orma l
ly o n al arge ,t h
ick c onduc t
ing s hee t. T he c on -
s
tant sf ort he s hee ta re a 3 =1 0 6mhos/mete ra nd e ,=M= 1 . I ft he amp li tude o fthe
i
ncident t rave ling w ave i s1 0 v olts/me te r
, wha t ist he a ve rage P oyn ting v e cto ri nto
t
he s hee t?
1
0-10 . Ah alf s pace o f a ir a nd a h a l
f s pace o f al os
sle ss d ielec tric med ium M a re
s
epara ted b y as hee t of c oppe r. Ap lane 1 ,000 - Mc/ sec t rave ling w ave i n t he a ir
s
pace i si n ciden t n orma lly o n t he c opper s hee t. T he amp li tude o f t he e lec tric f ie
ld
i
nten sity o f t he i ncident t r aveling w ave i s1 00 v olts/me te r. T he c oppe rs he eth a sa
t
hicknes s o f 9 .6 X 1 0-6 m eter a nd h as c ons tant s a= 5 .8 X 1 0 7 mho s/me te r a nd
e
, = 1. The c onstan ts f or t he d ielec tric med ium A l a re e ,= 4a nd p = 1 .
Dete rm ine ( a) t he r um v alue o f the e lectric f i
eld i n the c oppe r s he et j ust i nside t he
s
urface a d
jacen tt o t he d ielec tric med ium M ;( b) t he r ms v a
lue o ft he e l
e ctric f i
eld at
ap o
int i nt he d ielec tr ic med ium M a t ad is
tance o f 1me te rf r om t he c oppe rs hee t; (c
)
t
he r ms v alue o f t he magne tic f i
e
ld H a t ap oint i n t he d i e
le ct r
ic med ium M a t a
d
istance o f 1me te r f r om t he c opper s hee t
.
1
0-11. Ap lane t ravel ing w ave w ith a nr ms e l ectric fie
ld i nten sity o f 1v olt/me teri s
i
ncident n o rma lly o n al arge b ody o f salt w ater w ith c on stan t s a- = 4 mho s/me te r
,
e
,=8 0, a nd = 1 . A t wha t d epths i st he r ms f i
eld inten s
i ty e qua l to 1 0p v/me ter
a
tf requenc ie so f( a)1 00 kc/ s ec a nd ( b
) 1 0 Mc/ sec?
Ans.: ( a
) 4 .3 me te rs; ( b) 0.62 me te r.
1
0-12 . Ap lane t r ave l
ing w ave i n ai r with magne tic f i
eld amp l
itude H I i si nciden t
n
orma lly o n t he b ounda ry o f al arge c onduc ting med ium . T he f requency a nd t he
c
on stant s o f t he med ium a re s uch t ha t Z . =0 .02L 4_ 5
° o hms f o
r t he c onduc t
ing
medium . C a
lcu late without approximation the magnitude of t
he magne t
ic fi
eld II,
a
t t he conducting b oundary, and c ompare with the approximation t
ha t HI 2H 1.
Wha ti sthe er
ror i nvolved inthe approx
ima tion?
1
0-18. C a
lcula te the conductivi
ty required for ashee t of s
pace clo
th mm i n
t
hickne ss
.
1
0-14. A med ium h as the c
onstants µ X 1
0-7 henry/meter, e 1 0-1 f
1 arad/
mete r
, and a = 1 0-6 m ho/meter
. A t afrequency of 1
59 Mc/sec find (
a)the in
trins
ic
impedance o ft he medium ; (b
) the phase ve
locity of aplane wave inthe medium .
 CHAPTER 1

TRANS MISS
ION L
INES

1-1 . I ntroduc t
ion . A sm en t
ioned i nC hap. 1 0
,t here i sac lose a nalogy
b
e tween p lane w ave s in u nbounded m edia a nd g uided w ave s o n t rans-
m
is sion l ine s
. T he s ubjec t oft ran sm ission l i
nes i scon side red f urthe r in
t
his c hap te r, a nd a ddit
iona l c ompa risons a re made b etween w aves i n
s
pace a nd w aves o n transm is s
ion l i
ne s
.
At ransm ission l i
n e may b ed efined a s ad evice f o
rt ran sm it t
ing o rg uid-
i
ng e ne rgy f rom o ne p oin t to a no the r
. U sually i ti sd esired t hat t he
e
ne rgy b e c onveyed w ith max imum e f
iciency, lossesi nh eat or r adia t
ion
b
eing a s s ma ll a
sp o ss
ible.
Transm ission l ines may b e of many f o
rm s and s hape s. I tw il
l b e c on-
v
en ien t t o c l
assify t ransm ission l ines o n the b as
is o ft he field c onfigura -
t
ion s, o r m odes, w hich t hey c an t ransm it. T hus t ransm ission l ines may
b
ed ivided i nto t wo ma in g roups, ( 1
) t hose capab le oft ransm it
ting t rans-
v
erse e lect romagne tic (TE M ) mode s a nd ( 2) thos e able t o tran sm it o nly
h
ighe r
-o rde r modes . I n aTE M mode b oth the electric a nd the magnet ic
f
i
elds a re e ntirely t ransve rse tot he d irec t
ion o fpropaga tion . T he re isn o
c
omponen t o f e
ither E o r H i n t he d irect
ion o f t ransm iss
ion . H ighe r-
o
rde r mode s
, o nt he o therh and, a lway sh ave atl easto ne f i
eld c omponen t
i
nt he d irec tion o ft ransm ission. A ll t wo-conduc torl ine s such a s c oaxial
o
r t wo-w ire t ransm i ss
ion l ines ar e examp les o f TE M -mode t ype s, w h
ile
h
ollow s ingle -conduc tor w ave g uides ( see Chap . 1 2
) ord ie
lec tr
ic r ods a re
e
xamp les o fh ighe r mode t ype s
.
To s umma rize
, t r ansm i
s s
ion l ine s may b e classif
ied a s fo
llow s
:

1
. TE M-mode type: Ea nd H ent
ire
ly transve
rse
Example
s: All two-conducto
r types such as c
oax
ial a
nd two-wire
l
i
nes
2
. H
igher mode type
: Eo rHo rboth h
ave componentsint
he d
irect
ion
o
ftransmiss
ion
Examples
: Hollow sing
le-
conductorw ave gu
ides a
nd d
ie
lec
tric rods

I
nt he a
bove d
iscu
ssion weh ave used t
he t
erm "transmiss
ion line" a
sa
g
eneral
, al
l-
inc
lusive express
ion. I n c
ommon p re
sen t
-day u sage, how-
e
ver, t
he t
erm "
line" or" t
ransm is
sion li
ne" i
susual
ly restr
icted tothose
d
evices wh
ich can transmit TE M mode s, wh
ile the te
rm " guide" or
4
17
4
18 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
Cl
am.
. 1

"wave guide" i s employed fo

r t hose devices which can t r
ansm it only
h
igher
-order mode s. T he remainde r o
f t h
is chapter deals specif
ical
ly
w
ith tr
ansm iss
ion line
s ofthe two-conducto rtype, wave gu
ide sb e
ing dis-
c
ussed in Chap. 12
.
1
1-2. Coaxial, Two-w ire, and I nf
ini
te-plane T ransm ission L ines.
The mostcommon f ormso f TE M-mode t ransmis
sion li
nesa re the c
oaxial
El
i
ne Hl
i
ne

I
n
fin
ite
c
onduct
ing
s
heet
s

(
c
)

(
d)

(
e) (
g
)

FI
G. 1-1
. Evolut
ion o
ftwo-wire a
nd c
oax
ial t
ran
smis
sion l
i
nes f
r
om i
nf
ini
te-pa
ral
lel
-
p
lane t
ype b
y means o
f t
rans
itiona
l f
o
rms.

a
nd t wo-wire t ypes
. Many o the r form s
, in fact a n inf
inite v ar
iety of
t
hem, are also poss
ible. Howeve r, a
ll may b eregarded a sd er
ived f rom a
b
asic or p a
ren t form. T hus l
et u s consider the i nf
inite-paralle
l-plane
t
ransmiss
ion l ine as the ba
sic two-conduc tor type. Th is type consists o
f
t
wo p ara
llel-plane conduc ting sheets of inf
ini
te e xtent. Ac ro
s s se
ction
t
hrough s uch a l i
ne i sshown in F ig
. 1 -1a. C onsidering only a TE M
wave
, Ei se verywhe re normal a nd H e verywhe re p ara
llel to the sheets
.
SE
C. 1-3
] TRANS MISSION L
I NES 4
19

A na pprox ima tion t ot he infin ite -pa ra llel-plane t ransm is s

ion l ine isp ro-
v
ided b yt he p aralle l-s trip line s hown i np er spec tive i nF ig. 1- 1b . H ere
t
he s hee ts h ave b een r educed t o f orm l ong p a rallel s t
rips o f wid th b . A
c
ross s ection o f t his l ine i s p o rtrayed b y F ig . 1- 1c. I n t he r egion
b
etween t he s trip s Ea nd H a r e o r
ien ted t he s ame a sf ort he infin ite-shee t
l
i
ne. Howeve r, E a nd H a lso e x tend o ut s
ide t he r egion b etween t he
s
tr
ip s, the H l ines f orm ing l oop s t ha t e nclo se e ach s tr
ip .
Now l e
t t he s tr
ip s o f the l ine o f F ig. 1 -1c b e c urved a way f rom e ach
o
the r at t he e dge s
, a s s ugge sted b y F ig . 1 -1d . C on t
inu ing t his p roce s s
,
we end u p w ith t he t wo-conduc to r t ransm is s
ion l ine s hown i n F ig. 1 -1e.
As a no the r v a ria tion , l et the s trip s of t he l i
ne o fF ig . 1 -1c b e b en t in
t
he s ame d irec tion , a s s ugges ted i n Fig . 1 -1f. C ontinu ing t his p roce ss,
we arrive a t t he c oax ia l t ransm is sion l i
ne p or trayed i n Fig . 1 -1g .
T hus w e may r ega rd b oth t he t wo -w ire t r ansm ission l ine ( Fig . 1 -
1e )
a
nd t he c oax ial l ine ( Fig . 1 -1g ) a s f orm s t ha t c an b e d e r
ived f rom t he
p
arallel-p lane t ype .
I
nt he f ol
low ing s e ctions o ft his c hap te rt he p rope rtie so ft wo-conduc tor
t
ransm is sion l ine s a re d eveloped b y a n e xten sion o f o rd inary c ircu it
t
heo ry t o t ake i nto a ccoun t the f i
nite v eloci ty o f p ropaga tion a long t he
l
i
ne, a nd c ompa r
isons a re made w i th c orre spond ing r e
la tions f or p lane
wave s in s pa ce. The d eve lopmen t a pp lies t o c oax ial, t wo -wi re, or a ny
t
wo-conduc to r t ype o ft ran sm is sion l i
ne c arry ing o ly T
n Em waves .
11-3. T he I nfinite Un iform T ransm iss ion L ine . C ons ide r t
he u niform
t
wo-w ire t r an sm is sion l ine s hown i n F ig. 1 -2. I n e arlier c hapte rs
e
xpres sion s w ere d eve loped f or t he c apa citance a nd i nduc tance p er u nit
l
ength o fs uch al ine. I ft he l i
ne i sn o t l o
s s
le ss, t he l ine w ill also h ave a
s
er
ie s resistance a nd as hun tc onduc tance t ha t may n eed t ob econs ide red .
The n et e fec t o ft he s eriesr e
sis tance a nd i nduc tance c an b ee xpres sed b y
t
he s e
rie s i mp edan c e Zp er u nit l eng th. T hu s'

Z=R j
uL = R j
X o
hms/me
ter (
11
-1)

w
here R = s
er
ies r
es
istance (
ohm s/meter)
L=s er
ies i
nductance (
henrys/meter)
=radian f
requency (= 2-
f)
X =ser
ies r
eactance (
ohms/me te
r)

The n
et efect of t
he s
hun t conduc
tance and capac
itance may b
e
e
xpres
sed b
y t he s
hun
t adm
ittanc
e Yp er u
nit l
eng
th. T hus

Y=G j
ue = G j
B mho
s/me
ter (
1
1-2
)
.
1 I
n p
revious chapters s
uch quant
itie
s as the s
er
ies i
nductance a
re exp
re s
sed a
s
L
ido ,-L
11
,w here L i
sinduc
tance a
nd dor 1isl
ength
. Howeve r,tosimpl
ify the e
qua
-
t
i
ons, Lwil
l h e under
stood he
re t
o mean induc
tance pe
r l
ength.
4
20 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1

whe
re G = shunt conductance ( mhos/mete
r)
C=s hunt capac
itance (farads/meter
)
c
o= rad
ian frequency ( = 2Tf)
B=s hunt s
usceptance ( mhos/meter)
Cons
idernow a ninf
inites
imal sect
ion dxofthe li
ne, and l
et aharmoni-
c
a
lly varying wave be present on the l
i
ne. L e
t the v o
ltage ac
ross the
l
i
ne be Va nd t
he c
u r
rent through the l
i
ne be I(Fig
. 1 -2)
. T he v
oltage

1
(
1 )

I I
dV
V

i
0 )
H ( '1 1
2

F
lo. 1-2
. Two
-wire t
ransm
iss
ion l
i
ne.

d
rop dV overthe l
eng
th o
ft he s
ec
tion d
xi se
qua
l t
othe /
Zdrop p
eru
nit
l
eng
th multipl
ied b
y the l
ength o
fthe s
ect
ion
, o
r

dV = I
Zdx (
1
1-3
)

w
here I = l
i
ne c
urren
t. T
hus

dV _
I
Z (
1
1-4
)
dx —

The change i
ncur
rent dl b
etween t
he ends o
fthe s
e
ction dxisequal t
o
t
he shunt cur
rent VY fl
owing a
cros
s the l
ine f
r
om one wire t
o t
he othe
r,
mu
ltipl
ied b y t
he l
eng
th ofthe s
ect
ion
, or

d
l = VY d
x (
11-5
)

w
here V = v
oltage a
cros
s t
he l
i
ne. Thus

d
l — vy
(
1
1-6
)
d x

D
ife
ren
tia
ting (
1
1-4
) a
nd (
1
1-6
) w
ith r
e
spect t
o x
,we o
bta
in

d2V d
Z d
I d
Z
=I --1
- Z — = I — + ZVY (
1
1-7
)
de d
x d
x d
x
d21 dY vdV dY
(
1
1-8
)
d
x2 = V dx m 'dx = V dx ± Y
IZ

O
n au
nifo
rm l
i
ne Z a
nd Y a
re i
ndependen
t o
f x(
do n
otv
ary a
long t
he
SE
C. 1-3
] TRANS MISS
ION L
INES • 4
21

l
i
ne)
, and s
od Z/dx a
nd dY /
dx arezero
.' Thus, f
o
r au
nif
orm l
i
ne (
1
1-7
)
a
nd (1
1-8
) reduce t
o
d2V
— ZY V = 0
dx2
a
nd
d
'I
— ZYI = 0

Equations ( 1 1-13) and ( 11-14) a re the b asic dife rent

ial e
qua tions or
wave e quations f or a u ni
fo rm t ransm is s
ion l ine. I n mathema t
ical
t
erminology t hey a re li
nea r d iferential e qua t
ion s o f the s
econd o rder
w
ith constan tc oeff
ic
ients
. T hey a r
e t he mo stg ene ral way o
fe xpressing
t
he naturall aw r ela
ting the v a
riation ofv oltage and c urrentwith distance
a
long a u n
ifo rm t ransm iss
ion l ine
. Howeve r
, t hey t e
ll us n othing
s
pecif
ica
lly a bout t he v oltage o r c urrent d istr
ibu tion o n ap ar t
icular
t
ransmission l ine. F or th
is w e mus t fi
r s
t o bta
in a s o
lution appropriate
t
ot he imposed c ondit
ions. A s at rials olution of( 11-13) le
tuss ub s
titute

V =
f
r
om w
hich
d2V
, 2e
yx
dX 2

T
hus
, (
1
1-13
) b
ecome
s
(
7 2 — ZY
)ev
r =0
a
nd
12 — ZY = 0 (
1
1-18
)

Fo
r an onuniform (
t
ape
red) t
ran
smis
sion l
i
ne t
he t
e
rms w
ith d
Z/dx a
nd dY /
dx
mus
t be r
e
ta ined
. F rom (
11-4
)
Idv
=Z
-dx (
11-9
)

s
o t
hat t
he f
i
rst t
e
rm o
n t
he r
i
ght s
i
de o
f (
1
1-7
) c
an b
e w
ritten

I d
Z 1dZ dV d
(
ln Z)dV
= (
11-10
)
d
x Zd
x d x d
x d
x

S
ubs
titu
ting (
11-10
) i
n (
1
1-7
),

(
121
7 d
(
In Z)dV
ZY V = 0
dx2 d
x d
x

I
n al
i
ke manne
r (
11-8
) b
ecome
s

d
i/ c
l
an Y) d
l
ZY I = 0
de d
x d
x

Equations (
11-
11) and (
11-12
) are b
asic d
iferen
tia
l equat
ions f
or anonun
ifo
rm t
rans
-
m
ission li
ne. F or aun
iform li
ne t
hey reduce t
o (1
1-13) and (
1
1-14)
.
4
22 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1

Equat
ion (
11-18)
, known a
s t
he a
uxi
lia
ry equat
ion, ha
s two unequa
l
r
oo nd — VZ
ts + V Z Y a Y, s
o t
hat t
he g
enera
l so
lut
ion f
o
r (11
-13) is

V = Ciorz
Y
- z C2e- N
rzY
- (
1
1-19
)

whe
re C1 and C2 are c
onstants
.
I
f( 1
1-14) iss
olved inthe same f
ash
ion a s (11
-13), weo btain aso
lution
f
o
r /s imila
ri nform to (1
1-19) bu
t having t wo mo re c
onstants
. I nstead
o
f s
olving for /in th
is manne r
, le
t us proceed a l
ong a nother a
venue of
a
pproach and obta
in asolution f
or /f
rom ( 11-19). T od oth
is,le
t( 1
1-19)
b
ed iferent
iated w
i th r
espect t
o x
. R ecalling also (1
14 ), we ob
tain

dV
=C
i / Ye
" — C2 N
/-7 e
r-V
zY =I
Z (
1
1-20
)
dx

f
r
om wh
ich i
tfo
llows t
hat

I— Cl C2 ' (
1
1-21
)

Th
is i
s aso
lut
ion f
or t
he c
urrent
. T
o e
valua
te t
he c
ons
tan
ts, w
e n
ote
f
rom (
11-19
) t
hat w
hen x = 0

V=C
1 + C
2 (
1
1-22
)

where V isthe i
nstantaneous v o
ltage atthe po
int x = 0ont he l
ine
. We
may regard th
is voltage a
st he sum o ftwo vo
ltage
s which, i
ng enera
l, are
unequal in amplitude and v ary h armonica
lly with time
. L et VI a nd
V2 be the amp l
itudes of the v oltage
s. T he quantit
ies C1 and C2 a re
c
onstants with r
espect to xb u
t may b e r
egarded a
sv ar
iableswith respect
t
o time. Thus w e may put
1 = Vle
C iw
g (
11-23)
a
nd
C2 = V2e
2
.' (
11-24)
Therefore (
11-22) becomes

V = Vlo
w
' ± V20
" (
1
1-25
)

a
t x= 0
. S
ubs
titu
ting (
1
1-23
) a
nd (
1
1-24
) i
n
to (
11-
19) a
nd (
1
1-21
)
y
ie
lds
= vi
eiw
to
,/2
17x e me -
2 x (
11
-26
)
a
nd
= Vie
" e
vn -
, Vse
w
' e_v
z-
-p. (
11
-27
)
/
NAZTY Nrtj"

T
he q
uan t
ity NT H = -yi
sca
lled t
he p
ropagat
ion c
ons
tant
. I ng
ene
ral
i
tiscomplex, w
ith a r
ea
l pa
rt ac a
lled t
he at
tenua
tion c
ons
tan
t a
nd an
SE
C. 1-3
1 TRANS MISSION L
INES 4
23

i
mag
ina
ry p
art f
i c
a
lled t
he p
has
e c
ons
tan
t. T
hus

(
1
1-28
)
o
r
a= R
e N
7217
- (
1
1-28a
)
a
nd
= I
m V ZY (
1
1-28b
)
I
ntroduc
ing (
1
1-28
) i
n
to (
1
1-26
) a
nd (
1
1-27
) a
nd r
ear
rang
ing
, w
e o
bta
in
V = Vle
a
leJ
t'i
l-P
z) + V2e
-az
e
) (‘
"-P
z) (
1
1 -2
9)
a
nd
V
1
/ — e
ase j
(
cri+Ps ) V2 e —az e j
(
tut—
/h) (
1
1-30
)
VZ
/Y
Equa t
ion ( 11-29 ) i st he s olu t
ion f or t he v o
ltage o n the t ransm is sion
l
ine
. T he s o
lu tion h as t wo t e
rm s
. The f i
rs t term , i nvolving c o
t+
r
epre sen ts a w ave t raveling i n the n ega tive xd i
rec tion a long t he l ine.
The magn itude o f t his w ave a t x = 0a nd t= 0i s VI,a nd the fac to r e a
x
i
ndica te s t hat t h
is w ave d ecrea ses in magn itude a s i tp roceeds i n t he
n
ega tive x d irec tion . T he s econd t erm, i nvo lving 0 .4 —$ x, repre sen ts a
wave t rave l
ing i nt he p ositive xd i
rec t
ion a long t he line. T he magn itude
o
ft his w ave a t x = 0a nd t= 0i s V2, a nd t he f a
c tor e
—ax i
ndicate s t ha t
t
his w ave d ecrea se si n magn itude a si tproceeds i nt he po s
itive xd irec tion .
The f a cto rs eax a nd e -axa re at
t enuation f acto rs
, ab eing t he a t
tenua tion
c
onstan t. T he f acto rs ei
( at48x
- )a nd e ga
i -rix
> a re p ha sef actors
, f i b
eing t he
phase c ons tant.
I
ft he v oltage si n ( 11-29 ) w ere replaced b y e lectric fi
elds, t he equa t
ion
would a pp ly t o t wo t raveling w ave s in ac onduc t
ing med ium .'
T he s olu t
ion f or /i n (1 1-30) a l
so h as t wo t e
rm s, the f i
rst term r ep re-
s
enting a c urren t w ave t raveling i n t he n ega tive x d i
rec t
ion a nd t he
s
econd t erm a c urren t w ave t raveling i n t he p ositive x d irection. T he
t
otal c ur rent a t a ny p oin t i s the r e
sul tan t o f t he t wo t raveling -wave
c
omponen ts
.
C
onf ining o ur a tten tion n ow t o as ing
le w ave t raveling i nt he n ega tive
xdirec tion a sr epre sen ted b yt he fi
rs tterm so f( 11-29 )a nd ( 1
1-30 )
,w en o te
t
hat Va nd I a re i d entica l func tion s of xa nd t . The amp litude s d ife r.
Taking t he ratio o ft he v oltage V a cross t he l ine tot he c u r
ren t /t hrough
t
he l ine f or as ingle t raveling w ave, w e o btain t he i mpedance , Zo, w hich
i
sc alled t he cha ract eristic, o r surge, imp edan ce o ft he li
ne. Tha t i s
,

V l
z
7 =\ = zo
o
hms (
1
1-31
)

1F
or a wave in aconduct
ing med
ium (a> we
) w e h
ave a = = 1
/6
, where a i
s
t
he a
ttenuat
ion cons
tant, 13t
he p
hase c
ons
tan
t, and 6the 1
/e d
epth o
f pene
tra
tion
.
Compare (
10-16
).
4
24 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
1

This impedance is af
unct
ion of the s
er
ies i
mpedance Z p
er un
it l
eng
th
a
nd s hunt admittance Y per un
it length
. E xpanding Z a
nd Y as in
(
11-1) and (1
1-2)
, w e o
bta
in, f
rom ( 1
1-31)
,

R+jc
oL
Z0— G +j
c
oe o
hms (
1
1-32
)

Whe
re R a
nd G a
re s
mal
l or w
here t
he f
r
equency i
sla
rge s
otha
t01
/
,>> R
a
nd c
oC>
>G , (
1
1-32) r
educe
s t
o

Z
o = — o
hms (
1
1-33
)

w
here Zo = c harac
te r
is t
ic impedance ( ohms)
L=s er
ies i
nduc tance (henrys/me ter
)
C=s hunt capacitance (fa
rad s/meter)
I
n (11-33) Zoisentirely r
eal
, orr e
sist
ive, sothati
nt his c
ase w
e may
, t
o
b
e expl
icit, s
peak of t he c
haracte
rist
ic res
istance Ro o
f the l
i
ne. That i
s
,
f
o
r this case

Z
o = —=R
o ohm
s (
1
1-34
)

I
n general, whe
re R and G cannot be neglec
ted, Zo iscomplex and the
t
erm "cha racte
ris
tic impedance" should be used. Howeve r
, ifR a nd G
a
re n
eglig
ib le
, Zo i
sreal (= Ro)and the term " charac
teris
tic r
esis
tance"
may b
e used .
When R a nd G a
re sma
ll
, but notnegl
igible, (1
1-32) may bereexpressed
a
pproxima tely i
n the f
o
llowing fo
rm :

a G R)]
Z = [ 1 j - (
1
1-35
)
2
wC 2
c
oL
Thus Zo f
o
r t
h
is c
ase i
s
, i
ngene
ral
, c
omp
lex
. Howeve
r, i
f
G_R
(
1
1-35a
)
C L
Z
oi srea
l.
The r
elation
s deve
loped above f
o
r t he c
haracter
ist
ic impedance o
f a
u
niform transmis
sion l
i
ne a
re summarized i
nT able 1-1.
TABLE 1-1
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE OF TRANS MISS ION LINES
Cond
ition Cha
racte
ris
tic i
mpedanc
e, o
hms

G
enera
l c
ase Zo — = \
JR +
Y G j
o
,
,C
\i
L
c [1
— (2wG 2R j]
Sma
ll l
o
sse
s Z
o —

L
oss
les
s c
ase
,t R = 0
,G 0 Zo R
o

tTh
is c
ase a
l
so a
ppl
ies w
here t
he l
o
sse
s a
re n
ot z
ero b
ut (
0
.
/
. > Ra
nd o
i
C >G
.
SE
C
. 1-4
] TRANS MISSION L
INES 4
25

T
he p
hase v
e
loc
ity vo
f aw
ave t
rave
ling o
n t
he l
i
ne i
sgi
ven b
y w
/t
1.
T
hat i
s
,
C
O C
O C
O
V- - - (
1
1-36
)
0 1m7 Im N/
21,

I
fthe l
i
ne i
slo
ssles
s o
r R <c
aL a
nd G < c
o
C,

c
o 1
v= — m
ete
rs/s
ec (
1
1-36a
)
c
o V a.
' V . C

where L = ser
ies inductance (henrys/me te
r)
C=s hunt capacitance (fa
rads/me ter)
1-4. C ompa r
ison o f C
ircuit and Fie
ld Q uant
ities. It isi n
tere
sting
t
o compa re s
ome o ft he r
elat
ions for tr
ansm iss
ion lines d
eveloped inthe
p
receding sect
ion w ith corre
spond ing re
lations for w ave
s d eve
loped in
e
arl
ier chapters
. F or example, consider t
he transm is
sion-
line equa
tions

dV
—
dx =Z
I =(
R ±j
c
oL)I v
ol
ts/me
ter (
1
1-37
)

a
nd
d
I
-
& = YV = (
c G ±j
c
oC)V amp/me
ter (
1
1-38
)

T
he co
rre
spond
ing r
e
lat
ions f
or apl
ane wave t
r
ave
ling i
nthe xd
irec
tion
w
ith E i
n t
he y d
i
rect
ion
, as ob
tained f
rom Maxwel
l's t
wo c
ur
l equa-
t
i
ons
, are
d
E,
= —
jcopl
i, v
olt
s/me
ter2 (
1
1-39
)
dx
a
nd
d
ll
.
dx =(
c
r+j
c
oe
)E„ amp/me
ter2 (
1
1-40
)

I
n the se r e
la t
ions h armonic v a r
ia t
ion w ith t ime is assumed, a nd t he
d
iferen tiation s with respect to time h ave b een p er
formed .
Compa ring ( 11-37) with ( 1
1-39 ), we n ote tha t -M I i
n t
he w ave case
c
orresponds t o Z=R+j col
, f or t he line. C ompa r
ing ( 11-38) wi th
(
11-40), w e s ee tha t a+ jam for t he w ave c orresponds t o Y=G±j c
uC
f
or the line.
Furthe r compa risons ofthe circuit r e
lat
ions u s
ed forl i
ne sand the fi
eld
r
e
la t
ions e mployed f or wavesa re made i nT able 1 -2
. T he f
i
rst column
g
ives t he c i
rcuit q uan t
ity a nd t he last column t he corresponding f i
eld
q
uan ti
ty . T he c enter co
lumn i ndica tes the mk sc uni
ts, w h
ich a re the
s
ame f or co rrespond ing ci
rcuit a nd fie
ld rela t
ions.
4
26 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
1

TABLE 1-2
CO MPAR
ISON OF C
IRCUIT AND FIELD RELATIONS

C
ircu
it r
e
lat
ion
mka
c u
nits F
ie
ld r
e
lat
ion f
o
r s
pace wave
f
or t
ran
smis
sion l
i
ne

Z =R j
c
uL o
hms/me ter —
jcoµ
Y •
=
gG j
ue mhos/me
ter ±:
U
de

C
haracter
ist
ic i
mpedance o
hms I
ntr
ins
ic i
mpedance =

1 V
eloc
ity = 1
V
eloc
ity =
r
, me
ter
s/sec
\a-
0
S
er
ies i
nductance = L h
enrys/meter P
ermeabil
ity =
S
hunt c
apacitance c f
arads/me
ter P
ermi
ttivi
ty = e
Vol
tage _ V
v
olt
s/me
ter E
lec
tric f
i
eld = E
D
istance x
Current _I
amp/meter Magnet
ic f
i
e
ld = H
D
istance x

1
1-5
. C
harac
ter
ist
ic -
impedance D
eterm
ina
tions
. The c
orre
spondence
o
f Lt o µa nd C t o e( s
ee T able 1 -2 ) i
so f p articu lar intere s
t. Thus ,i f
s
pace i sd ivided u p i nto tr
an smission -
line cells, µi sthe s e
rie sinduc tance
p
eru n
i t l e
ng th ( or d epth) o f ac ell
, wh ile ei st he s hunt c apac i
tance p er
un
it l eng th ( or dep th ) of ac ell
.'
The t r ansm ission -l
ine -ce
ll c oncep t ( s
ee S ecs. 4 -20 a nd 9 -9
) iso f con-
siderable v a
lue in c onnec tion w ith t he determi-
n
a t
ion o ft he c
haracter is t
ic i mpedance o floss
less
t
ransm is s
ion lines o pera ting int he TE M mode .
I
nne
r Ou
ter F or i n
s tance, c onside r t he t ransm iss
ion l i
ne
c
onductor c
onductor po rt
rayed i nFig. 1-3 . L et the s pace between
F
lo. 1-3 . C oaxial trans- the c onduc tors b e d ivided i nto c urvilinear
m
ission li ne o
f n oncircular
squa res b y graph ical -fi
eld -mapp ing m ethods.
c
ross sect
ion .
E ach s qua re represen ts t he end o f at r
an smis-
s
i
on -
line c
el
l of c
haracte
rist
ic impedance Z
'c,= V i
Ve
.- Then
, t
he c
har
-
a
cter
istic i
mpedance ofthe l
ine i
sgiven b
y

Zo = —
n o
hms (
1
1-41
)

w
here N = n
umbe r o
fc e
lls i
n s
er
ies
n= numbe r o
fc e
lls i
n p
aral
lel
=charac
ter
istic impedance of o
ne c
el
l ( = .
VIt
/
7
e,- w
here i
s
p
ermeabi
lity and eispermit
tiv
ity o
f med
ium f
i
lling l
i
ne)
In e
arl
ierdi
scus sions (see, f
or example, Secs. 2
-27
, 4-20
, 5-19
, a nd a
lso 9
-9) se
ries
i
nductance i
n henrys p er me ter iswri
tten as L I1 o
r Lid, wh
ile shunt capac
itance in
f
arads p
er meter isw r
itten a s C/
/ or CId. T o simp
lify t
he equations i
nthis c
hapte r
,
t
he le
tte
r Lb yitsel
fi su nder s
tood tob e the s
eriesinductance i
nh enrys p
er mete
ra nd
t
he le
tter Cthe shunt c apacitance infarads per meter.
SE
C. 1-5
1 TRANS MISSION L
INES 4
27

This m ethod may b e a ppl

ied t o t wo-
conducto r transmiss
ion l ine s o
fa ny
s
hape . T he cha rac terist
ic i mpedance o fl o
ssless high
-frequency l ines of
a
ny s hape c an a l
so b e obtained b y as imple d -e measurement . F or
e
xamp le
, i fw e w ish t o fi
nd the c haracte
ris
tic i mpedance (o
rr esistance ) of
t
he line shown i nF ig. 1 -3 b y th
is m ethod
, the c onductor c
ro s
ss e
ction is
d
rawn t o s cale ' w i
th c onduc t
ing
Re
sis
t ance pa
per
pa
int ( such ass ilve rp aint)o n as heet Rs o
hm s/
square
o
f resistance c lo th o r p aper o f uni-
f
orm r es
is tance R . pers qua re ass ug-
g
ested i n F ig
. 1 -4.2 T hen b y con-
n
ec t
ing t he term ina ls ofa no hmme ter
t
o the inne ra nd o uterc onduc to r
s, as
i
ndicated , a d - c r esistance R „, is
measured .' T he c haracteristic i m-
p
edance o ft he l ine ist hen

Zo = k
R. o
hms (
1
1-42
) O
hmme
ter
F
ig. 1-4. D
etermination o
fc ha
racter-
i
s
tic i
mpedance o
ft r
an smis
sion l
ine b
y
where k = ZVR . = Vi i
/
e—/R
. ( di-
s
imple d
-c m
easuremen t
.
mensionless
). T he quantity k isa
c
onstant factor t
hat i
sequaltot he rat
io o
fthe in
trins
ic i
mpedance Ni.4
/
—e
o
ft he m ed
ium inthe l
ine tothe re
sistance R
. pe
r square o
fthe r
es
istance
c
l
o th or paper u
sed in t
he m easuremen t
. T hus
, ifthe l
i
ne isai
r-f
il
led,
=376.7 ohms and (
11-42) become s

a 3
76.7
L
I0 - o
hms (
1
1-43
)
R
.

H
ence
, i
fspace c
l
oth (
R. =3
76.7
) i
sused a
s t
he r
e
sis
tance c
l
oth
,

Zo = R
. o
hms (
1
1-44
)

a
nd t
he o
hmm
eter r
e
ads d
i
rec
tly t
h
e c
hara
cte
ris
tic i
mpedan
ce o
fth
e l
i
ne.

E
xamp le 1
. Find the c
haracteris
tic impedance (o
rr es
istance
)o fthe lo
sslesscoaxia
l
l
i
ne shown inFig
. 1 -5
. T he li
ne isa i
r-f
il
led.
S
olut
ion. D iv
iding the s
pace b etween t he c
onductors in
to curv
ilinear squares o
r
c
e
llsb y g
raph
ical f
ie
ld mapping, w eo btain atota
l o
f 18.3 s
quaresinp aral
lel and 2in

S
ince o nly t he s
hape isi mpor tant, the cross sect
ion may b e s
caled t
o any con-
v
enien t s
ize.
2 It i
si mpo rtant t
hat there be g ood con tac
t b etween the c
onduc tor c
ross s
ect
ion
a
nd t he res
istance ma ter
ial
. O ne oft he simplest ways o
fe nsur
ing t h
is i
sb y t
he use
o
fs i
lve r pa
int .
3 Supposing t hat t
he res
istance p aper between t he conductors were marked of in
c
urvilinear s qua re
s, R„
, w ould be g iven b y R„, (N/n
)R .
, w he
re N = n umbe r of
s
quare s i
n s er
ie s
, n= n umbe r o
f squa re
s i n para
llel
, and R. =r es
istance p
ers quare
(
that is,resistance of o
ne square )
.
4
28 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS I
CHAp
. 1
1

s
er
ies
. The c
haracter
ist
ic i
mpedance o
f each c e
ll is 376
.7 o hms. Hence
, from
(
11-41), the charac
teris
tic i
mpedance o
f
t
he li
ne of F
ig. 1-5 is

N , 2
Zo = -
7 Z° = -
, 18
.-3
3 76
.7 = 4
1.2 o
hms

I
f ac ross se
ction of t
his l
i
ne isdrawn to
s
cale w ith conduct
ing p a
int on asheet of
s
pa ce cloth
, the va
lue 41.2 o
hms w ould be
mea sured direct
ly o n an ohmmeter c on-
n
ected b e
tween t he inner and o ute
r
c
onductors .

When t he a bove r es
istance -mea s-
u
remen t me thod i sa pplied t o o pen
t
ype s ofl i
ne,such a s at wo-w ire line
,
Outer T
ransmiss
ion t
he s hee t o f r esistance ma te
r ia
l
c
onduc tor l
i
necel
l
s
hou ld ex tend o ut to ad istance t hat
F
in . 1-5 . Coaxia
l t ransm iss
ion l i
ne
w
ith 1 8.3 transmission-line c el
ls i n i
sl arge compa red w i
th t he line cro s
s
p
arale l and 2inseries. s
ection i fa ccurate r esults are t o be
obtained .
A
l though t he g raph ica l and d -c measu remen t me thod s can b e a pplied
t
o t wo-conduc tor l i
ne s o f any s hape
, t he re are some c onfigura tions t hat
y
ield t o as imple c a
lcu la t
ion . Thus , f or the c ase u nder c onside rat
ion

z
o
=N
whe re the characte ristic i mpedance

t
he va
lue o
f Zo c
an b
e de
termined b
r
f
,
y ak
now ledge o
o
hm

f La
s

nd C f
o
rt he l
i
ne.
(
1
1-45
)

Thus
, obta
ining L fr
om ( 4
-67) and C fr
om ( 2
-81
), the c
harac
teri
stic
i
mpedance of ac
oax
ial l
ine (
as i
nFig. 1
-5) isgiven b
y

Zo = N1 .
r ei
N?
n 2
1-= 0
a .367 .
N? l
eog-
a
b
o
hms (
1
1-46
)

I
fthe
re i
snof
e
rromagne
tic ma
te ria
l p
resen
t, µ= A
oand (
1
1-46
) r
educes
t
o
138 b
Zo = VZ. l
oga- o
hms (
11-47
)

whe
re e
,= r elative p
erm i
ttiv
ity o
fm edium fi
ll
ing li
ne
a= out s
ide radius o
finner c
onduc tor
b= inside rad
ius ofouter c
onduc tor
l
og =l ogarithm to base 1
0 =0 .4343 natural l
oga
rithm (
1
n)
F
or an a
ir
-fi
lled line e
, = 1,and (
11-47) become s
b
Zo = 1
38 l
og -
a o
hms (
1
1-48
)
SE
C. 1-5
1 TRANS MISS
ION L
IN E
S 4
29

E
xamp le 2. The a
ir-f
i
lled c
oaxia
ll i
ne inFig
. 1-5 h
as ar
adius r
a
tio b
/a = 2
. F
ind
i
t
s cha
rac te
rist
ic i
mpedance.
S
olu
tion. F rom (1
1-48)
Zo = 1
38 log 2 = 4
1
.4 ohms

The v
alue o
bta
ined p
rev
ious
ly b
ygraph
ica
l me
thods a
gree
s w
el
l w
ith t
h
is e
xact v
alue
.

I
n asim
ilar w ay
, the c
haracte
rist
ic impedance
may b
e obtained for atwo-wire li
ne, a
s in F
ig.
1-6
. T hus, ifD >> a,we have
-
Zo = \?- ln —D = 0
.73 .
\1-
m l
og D o
hm s F
lu. 11-6. Two-w
ire
T e a e a
(
1
1-49) t
ran
smiss
ion l
i
ne.

I
fthe
re i
snof
e
rromagne
tic mate
rial p
resen
t, µ = µ0 a
nd (
1
1-49
) r
educe
s
t
o
2
76
Zo = , l o
g o
hms (
11-50
)
Ve r a

w
here C
r= relat
ive permitt
ivity o
fm edium
D =c enter-
to-center s
pac
ing (see F
ig. 1-6)
a= radius ofconductor (
in s
ame u n
its a
s D)
I
fthe med
ium i sair
, e
,
. =- 1and (
11-50) b
ecome s

Z0 = 2
76 l
og7
1-
. o
hms

T
he cha
rac
ter
ist
ic i
mpedance
s o
bta
ined a
bove a
re s
umma
rized i
n T
able
1-3
.
TABLE 1-3
CHARACTER
ISTIC IMPEDANCE OF COAXIAL AND T WO
- WIRE L
INES

T
ype o
fli
ne C
harac
ter
ist
ic i
mpedanc
e, o
hmsf

C
oax
ial (
f
i
lled w
ith med
ium o
fre
lat
ive p
erm
itt
ivi
ty Z .= 1
38
l
o
b
g -(
s
ee F
ig
. 1-5
)
a

C
oax
ial (
a
ir-f
i
lled
) Z
o 1
38 l
og-
a (
s
ee F
ig. 1-5
)

Two
-wire (i
n med
ium o
f r
e
lat
ive p
erm
itt
ivi
ty E
r) 2
76 D
(
D > a) Z
. = .V; l
og —
a (
s
ee F
ig
. 1-6
)

Two
-wire (
i
n a
i
r) (
D >
>a) =2
76 l
og —(s
ee F
ig. 1-6
)
a

tL
oga
rithms a
re t
o b
ase 1
0
.

t i
I s a
ssumed t
hroughou
t this s
ect
ion that t
he l
ine i
s l
os
sles
s (or
R<
<wL a
nd G <
<co
C) and a
lso t
hat t
he c
urren
ts a
re c
onf
ined t
o t
he c
on-
4
30 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1

d
uctors urfacest ow hich t he radi
i r e
fer. T his condit
ion isa pproxima ted
a
t high frequencies o wing t o the s ma
ll dep th ofp enetrat
ion. Th is con-
d
it
ion may a lso be approx ima ted a t low frequencies b y the use of t
hin-
wa
lled tubes. I ti salso assumed t hatt he li
nesa reo perat
ing int he TE M
mode.
1-6. T he T erm ina ted U ni
form T ransm ission L ine. I n S ec. 1 -3
t
he li
ne w as considered t o be ofi nf
inite length. L e
t u s n
ow a na
lyze the
s
i
tua t
ion w he
re a line of c haracterist
ic i mpedance Zo i st erminated in a
l
oad i mpedance ZLa s i n Fig
. 1 -7. T he l o
ad i sat x= 0 ,and p os
itive

C
omponen
twav
es
T
o
tal I
n
c
ident R
e
flec
ted
w
ave w
ave wave
/
0 /1

t _
L.
zo
1
10

Z
=2 z
=0
F
la. 1
-7. T
erm
ina
ted t
r
ansm
iss
ion l
i
ne.

d
istance xi sm ea sured t o the le
ft along t he line
. T he t otal vol
tage a nd
t
otal c urrent a re e xp ressed a s the r esultant o f t wo t ravel
ing w aves
mov ing ino pposi te d irections as o n an inf
inite t r
ansm ission line
. H ow-
e
ver, o nt he t
erm ina ted l i
ne the wave t ot he right may b er egarded a sthe
i
nciden t w ave a nd t he w ave t o t
he l e
f t as the reflected w ave, with the
r
ef
l ected w ave r e
la ted t o the inc
iden t w ave b y the l oad i mpedance ZL .
At ap oint on t he l ine at ad istance x f rom t he l oad let the voltage
b
etween t he wire s a nd t he current through o ne w ire d ue t o t
he incident
wave t ravel
ing t o t he r ight be des
igna ted V o and / 0, respectively.' L et
Vi a nd Ii be the v oltage a nd c urrent d ue to t he w ave t raveling to the
l
e
ftt hati sref
lected f rom t he lo
ad. T he resu
ltan tv ol
tage V a t apointo n
t
he l i
ne isequa lt ot he s um o ft he vol
tage s Voa nd VIa tt he point. T hat
i
s
,
= 1
%
0 +f
T
i (
11-52
)

w
here T
o =Voe
7
: (
the fa
ctor eh
" isunde
rstood t
o b
ep resent)
VI= Vie-7 x
+
it (t
he facto
r eh
" isunder
stood t
o be pre
sent
)
-
y= propagation con
stan t = a±
= p
hase sh
ift atload

The dot (
) i
ndicate
s expl
icitly tha
t lo and Jo a
re c
omplex f
unc
tions o
f pos
ition
(
phasors
). The modu lus, o
r absolute va
lue
, of Vo isV0 (
t
hat i
s
, Vo =1 70
1
. 1
)
. L ike-
w
ise the a
bso
lute va
lue of Jo i
s 10 (
t
hat i
s
, /
0 =1 01
).
SE
C. 1-6
] TRANS MISSION L
INES 4
31

A
t t
he lo
ad (
x =0
) w
e h
ave V
o =V
o a
nd 1
.i =
7 = V
IA s
o t
hat a
t
t
h
e l
oad
j
r v
i .
1
-
7
0
=T
i
oa=P
. (
1
1-53
)

w
here i
1,-
=ref
l
ect
ion c
o
eff
ici
entf
orv
o
ltag
e(d
imens
ion
les
s). I
tfo
llows t
hat

7 = Vo
1
. (
e7. (
1
1-54
)

The r
esu
ltant c
urren
t 1a
t apo
int o
n t
he l
i
ne i
sequa
l t
othe s
um o
fthe
c
urrent
s to a
nd I at t
he p
oin
t. That i
s
,

=1
0+ (
1
1-55
)
w
here to = /0e
7
x-0

/1 =
=pha
se d
ife
rence b
etween c
urren
t a
nd v
oltage
A
t t
he l
oad

To = To I
t = P
i (
1
1-56
)

whe
re Ai = r
ef
le
ction c
o
eff
i
cien
t f or cur
ren
t (d
imens
ion
les
s). I
t f
o
llow
s
t
hat
1 = /oe-A
(e7
z i
n
e— r
x
) (
1
1-57
)

Now ii
,and may b
e e
xpressed i
n t
e
rms o
fthe c
harac
ter
ist
ic imped
-
a
nce Zo a
nd t
he l
oad i
mpedance ZL.
' Thus w
enote t
hatatany p
ointon
t
he l
ine

Z
o =
1,0
=
v
o/6 =
V1 V1
= — — /6 (
1
1-58
)
10 IO i —
I

w
hile a
t t
he l
oad (
x =0
)

(
1
1-59
)

I
t f
o
llows f
ro m (
11-55
) t t t
hat a he l
oad

V _V
o _V
o— (
1
1-60
)
ZL Z
o Z
o Z
o

But 1
7 = V
. 0 ± VI
;s
o w
e h
ave

f
o +V
i _f
o—
z
o
1A
lthough the impedances ZL a nd Zo a
re (i
ngeneral) a
lso c
omplex q
uant
ities
, t
he
d
otove rthe l
e
tterwil
l,f o
rs impli
city,be omit
ted. I fi tb
ecomesneces
sary t
oi nd
ica
te
t
he abso
lute va
lue, o
r modu lus, of ZL,t
his wil b
e d one b
y the u
se o
fb a
rs (
thus t
he
a
bso
lute value o
f ZL equals IZL
I = V R L2 XL2 )
.
4
32 ELECTRO MAGNETICS

S
olv
ing f
o
r T
1/P
0 y
ie
lds
1
11
.
_
ZL— Zo _ .
fo ZL± Zo — P'

F
or rea
l load i
mpedances ZLr
ang
ing f
rom 0 t , p
o 0 ,range
sfr
om —
1 t
o
+1 inv a
lue.
I
n asim i
lar way i
tcan b
e s
hown t
hat

ZL— Zo
k
i= ZL+ Z
o
- I
N (
1
143
)

Now t
he ra
tio 1
7/
. 1atany poin
t xon the l
i
ne g
ivesthe impedance Z
.a t
t
he po
intlook
ing t
owa rd t
he l
oad
. T aking t
his r
at
io and i
ntroduc
ing the
r
e
lation (
1
1-63) i
n (1
1-57) f
or 1,we o
btain

f v
o „e
l
' ± kee —rz
Zz = — = (
1-64
)

No
ting (
1
1-58
) a
nd (
1
1-62
), t
h
is c
an b
e r
eexp
res
sed a
s

ZL-
I
-Zotanh -
y
x
Z
. = Zo o
hms (
1
1-65
)
Z
o + ZLt
anh 7
x

where Z
. =i mpedance a t distance xlo
oking toward lo
ad (ohm s)
Zo = c
ha racterist
ic i mpedance o
fl i
ne (ohms)
ZL = l
oad i mpedance ( ohms)
-
y= propaga t
ion c onstant (a ±ji
g)
x= distance f rom load
This i
sthe g
ene ral expression for t
he impedance Z
. at adistance xf
r
om
t
he load
.
I
fthe l
i
ne iso pen-circuited, ZL= 0 a nd (
11-65
) reduce
s t o

Z
o
Z
. = — Zo c
oth -
y
x (
1
1-66
)
t
anh -
y
x
I
fthe l
i
ne i
sshor
t-c
ircu
ited
, ZL= 0 a
nd (
1
1-65
) r
educe
s t
o
Z
. = Zo t
anh -
y
x (
1
1-67
)
I
tist
o b
e n
oted t
hat
, i
ngene
ral
, 7i
scomp
lex ( I0
= a- )
. Thus
'
s
i
nh axcs$
o 2
;-I
- jc
osh a
xsi
n13
x
t
anh 7
x = (
1
1-68
)
c
osh a
xcos0
x ± jB
inh a
xsi
n0x
o
r
tanh a
x -
I- jt
an f
i
x
t
anh 7
x = (
1-69
)
1+ jtanh axtan O
x
I
tistobenoted t
hatthe p
roductofthe i
mpedance o
ft he l
i
ne when i
tis
o
pen-c
ircu
ited and when i
ti sshor
t-c
ircu
ited e
quals the squa
re of t
he
IS
ee A
ppend
ix f
o
r o
the
r h
ype
rbo
lic r
e
lat
ions
.
SE
C
. 1-6
] TRANS MISSION L
INES 4
33

c
harac
ter
ist
ic i
mpedance
. T
hat i
s
,

Zo2 = (
1
1-70
)

where Z
o. =Z. for o
pen-c
ircuited l
i
ne (ZL = co)
Z
.. =Z.f or s
hor
t-circu
ited l
ine (ZL = 0
)
I
ft he l
i
ne i
sl o
ss
lea
s (a =0 ), t
he above r
ela
tions r
educe t
o t
he f
o
llow
-
i
ng: In g
enera
l,

z
. = z
o Z
L j
Zotan /
3
x (
1-71
)
Zo j
ZL t
an /
3
x

When t
he l
i
ne i
sopen
-cir
cuited (
ZL =

Z
o
Z
. =jt
an I
3
x — j
Z oc
ot/
3
x (
1
1-72
)

When t
he l
i
ne i
ssho
rt-
circu
ited (ZL = 0
)
,
Z
. =j
Z ot
an t
i
x (
1
1-73
)
We note that ( 11-70) i sa lso fu
lfil
led o n the loss
less li
ne. F urthermore,
t
he impedance f or a n o pen - or short-
c
i
rcuited lo
ssles sline isap ure re
actance .
zL
The impedance r e
la t
ion s developed z a,
a
bove a pply t o al u niform t wo-con- •
d
uctor lines
, s uch a s c oax ial and t wo-
FI
G. 1-8. Terminated t
ransm
iss
ion
w
ire l
ines
. T hey g ive the i nput imped - l
i
ne.
a
nce Z. of au niform t ran smission line
o
flength xa nd c harac teristic impedance Z o terminated i n aload ZL (
see
F
ig. 1-8). T hese relations a re summa rized inT ab
le 1 -4
.
TABLE 1-4
I
NPUT IMPEDANCE OF TER MINATED TRANS MISS
ION L
INEt

G
ene
ral c
ase L
oss
les
s c
ase
L
oad c
ond
ition
(
a 0
) (
a =0)

ZL + Z
o t
anh T
x ZL± j
Zo t
an S
x
Any v
alue o
f l
oad Z
L Z
. ,
= Zo Z
. .
:
. Zo
Zo + ZLt
anh 7
x Z
o 4
-/ZLtan f
i
x

Open
-circu
ited l
i
ne (
ZL = c
o
) Z
. = Zo c
oth 7
x Z
. = —
jZ o c
ot f
i
x

S
hor
t-c
ircu
ited l
i
ne (
ZL = 0
) Z. = Zo t
anh -
y
x Z
. =j
Zo t
an P
x

tI
n t
he t
able 7 = a + j
f
i
, whe
re a — a
ttenua
tion c
ons
tant (
nepe
rs/mete
r) a
nd
p- 2
.
/x = p
hase c
ons
tan
t (
r
ad/me
ter
), whe
re Xi
sthe w
ave
leng
th.

O
n al
o
ssles
s l
i
ne t
he s
t
and
ing
-wa
ve r
a
tio (
S WR
) i
sgi
ven b
y

swR = VO
I
AZ =/
0
1
12 (
11-74
)
V min / mu,
4
34 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
1

I
tfo
llows t
hat
V
o VI 1 ( V1/V0)
SWR — (
1
1-75
)
V
o — V
1 = 1— (
V 1/
V 0)
Bu
t
V1 .
—
V
o = 1
0
.
1 (
1
1-76
)
a
nd s
o
1 ± 1
0
.
1
SWR — (
1
1-77
)
1— 10
,
1

whe
re i,=r ef
lec
tion c oeff
ic
ient fo
r v o
ltage
. Th is r
e
lat
ion isid
entica
l
w
ith t
hat g
iven by (9
-96 ) fo
r the SWR o fplane w
aves
. S o
lving (
11
-77)
f
o
r the magn
itude of the ref
lec
tion coef
fi
cien
t,

SWR — 1
1
0
.
1 = SWR 1
(
1
1-78
)

I
ti so
ften o
finte
rest t
ok now the v
oltage D a
tthe l
oad i
nte
rms o
ft he
v
oltage Vo of t
he in
cident wave. Th i
s is g
iven by t
he tr
ansm
iss
ion
c
o
ef f
i
cien
tf o
rvol
tage r
,
. T hat i
s
, at t
he load

1
7 =#
. ,
f0 o
r T, = -r- (
1
1-79
)
V0
The l
oad i
mpedance may be al
umped element a
s sugge
sted in F
ig
. 1-7
o
r Fig
. 1-8
, or it may b
e the i
mpedance pre
sented by ano
ther li
ne o
f

FI
G
. 1-9
. J
unc
tion o
f t
ran
smis
sion l
i
nes o
fdiferent c
harac
ter
ist
ic i
mpedance
.

c
haracte
rist
ic i
mpedance Z 1 a
s sugges
ted inFig. 1-9
. I nthe l
a
ttercase
(
11-79
) givest
he vo
ltage V oft he wave t
ransmitted b
eyond t
he j
unct
ion.
I
t may be s
hown that t
he coef f
ic
ient r
,isrelated t
o ZLand Z
o by
2ZL
— ZL Z o = 1± 0
. (
1
1-80
)

w
here ZL= l oad impedance presented t
ol i
ne ofcharacter
ist
ic impedance
Zo
0
„ =r ef
lect
ion c oeff
i
cien
t f o
r vo
ltage
A
s ZLranges from 0t o CO r
ange s f
r
om 0t o 2
.
I
tal
so fo
llow s t
hat the tr
ansm i
ssion co
eff
ic
ientforc u
r r
ent i
sgiven by
2Zo
=
— 1+ 0
. (
1
1-81
)
jo Zo ZL

A
s ZL r
ange
sfr
om 0 t
o c
o
, iv
arie
s f
r
om 2t
o0.
SE
C
. 1-7
] TRANS MISS
ION L
INES 4
35

The r
e
lat
ions f
or r
ef
lect
ion a
nd t
rans m
iss
ion c
oe f
icients d
eve
loped i
n
t
his s
ect
ion a
re s
u m mar
ized i
n Tab
le 1
1-5
.

TABLE 1
-5
RELATIONS FOR REFLECT
ION AND TRANS MISS
ION COEFFIC
IENTS

. ZL — Z
o
R
eflec
tion c
oeff
i
cient f
o
r v
oltage
7'— Z.
1 Zo
, Zo — Z1
,
R
efl
ect
ion c
oeff
ic
ient f
o
r c
urrent = Zo

2ZL
T
ransm
iss
ion c
oef
f
ic
ient f
o
rvo
ltage = Z
o ZL 1 ±k "
2Z0
T
ransm
iss
ion c
oef
fic
ient f
o
r c
urrent = Zo ZL I'
1+ I

1+ I+ l
k
.
I
S
tand
ing
-wave r
at
io (
S WR
)
1— l
k
.
I — 1— l
k
.
I

Magn
itude o
fref
lect
ion c
oef
f
ic
ient sW R
S +
—

1-7
. T
ransm
iss
ion-
line Charts
. Trans m
iss
ion-
line c
alcu
lat
ions a
re
o
ften t
re mendous
ly f
aci
litated by t
he u
se o
f t
rans m
iss
ion-
line c
harts
. I
n
p
art
icu
lar
, t
he r
ectangu
lar a
nd t
he Sm
ith impedance c
harts a
re e
xtre me
ly
u
sefu
l i
n mak
ing c
alcu
lat
ions o
n un
ifor m l
oss
less t
rans m
iss
ion l
ines
.
A r
ectangu
lar impedance c
hart i
s i
lustrated i
n F
ig. 1
1-10
.' The
r
ectangu
lar c
oord
inates o
n t
his c
hart g
ive t
he n
or ma
lized r
es tance R
is .as
a
bsc
issa a
nd t
he n
or ma
lized r
eactance X„ a
s o
rdinate f
or p
oints o
n t
he
t
rans m
iss
ion l
ine
, wh
ile t
he c
losed c
irc
les i
ndicate t
he S W R o
n t
he l
ine
a
nd t
he par
tia
l c
irc
les t
he d
istance i
n wave
lengths f
ro m t
he l
oad
. The
n
or ma
lized r
esistance R
. i
s e
qua
l t
o t
he a
ctua
l r
es tance R d
is ivided b
y
t
he c
haracter
ist
ic r
esistance R
o o
f t
he l
ine
. That i
s
,

R =— (
di mens
ion
less
) (
11-82
)
R
o

The n
or ma
lized r
eactance X„ i
s e
qua
l t
o t
he a
ctua
l r
eactance X d
ivided
by Ro
, o
r
X
Xn = (
di mens
ion
less
) (
11-83
)
R
o

Thus
, t
he n
or ma
lized impedance Z
„ i
s r
e
lated t
o t
he a
ctua
l impedance Z
by
= Z = R ±i X
z Ro Ro R
o (
di mens
ion
less
) (
11-84
)

1For methods o
f c
onstruct
ing th
is cha
rt s
ee, f
o
r example
, M.I
.T. Radar S
chool
S
taf, "Pr
incipleso
fR adar," J.F
. Rein
tjes (
e
d.)
, McGraw-Hil
lBook C
ompany, Inc
.,
New York, 1946
, p
p. 8
-64.
.
1
36 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
Cmtp
. 1

2
.
5
I 0
.
20 —
0.2
25
-
-
---
-
--
\o
we
2
.
0
c
f
.
7
4
1
.
5 c
0
.
15
-4
3
1
.
0
I1 S
WR c
i
rc
l s
0
.
10 2
1
.
5

0 05 1
5 2
0 2
5 3
.
0 50
3 .
2
5
N
orma
l
ized r
e
sis
tance R
,

i
\
0
.
40

—
1.0 N

0
.
35
—
1.5

—2
.
0
4 11 1,
-
--
---
--
0
.
30 —
0.2
75
—
2.5
FI
G
. 1-10
. R
ectangu
lar i
mpedance c
har
t.
T
he char
t may a
lso b
eused f
o
radmi
ttance
s,t
he n
ormal
ized a
dmi
ttance
Y
„ being g
iven b
y
R
o
Y
. =G . ±jB ) = T- (
, = YR
( d
imension
less
) (
11-85
)

A
n e
xamp
le w
i
ll b
e g
iven t
o i
lus
tra
te t
he u
se o
f t
he r
e
ctangu
lar c
har
t.
Examp le 1. R eferring t o the termina ted
t
ransmission l i
ne w ith s hort-c
ircu
ited s tub
s
hown i n Fig
. 1-11 , t he load ZL = 1 50 j
50
ohms. The l ine and stubs h ave acharacterist
ic
impedance Zo =R o = 1 00 o hms. F ind v alues
f
or di a nd d: such t hat t here isno r e
flected
wave at A (S WR = 1 )
.
So
lution. The n orma lized v a
lue of the load
i
s
Z =— ZL = 1 50 j
50
= 1
.5 +j 0
.5
" R o 1
00
The c
harti sthen en
te red a
tthe p
oint 1
.5 -
I-P.5
FT°
. 1-11 . Term inated transmis- a
s indica
ted b y Pi i n F
ig. 1-12
. F or c
lar
ity
s
ion line w ith s ing
le ma tch
ing most ofthe rec
tangula r a
nd ci
rcu
lar coord
inate
s
tub. B oth the s
tub pos
ition (d 1) l
ines a
re omitted in this f
i
gure
. P oint Piison
a
nd it
sl ength NO a re a
djustable
. t
he SWR c i
rcle fo
r which SWR = 1 .
77. Hence ,
SE
C. 1-7
] TRANS MISSION L
INES 4
37
•
t
he SWR a t Bis1 .77
. Now , moving a
long t
he SWR = 1 .
77 c
irc
le away f
rom the load
(
c
lockw ise
), w e proceed to the p o
int P2. Th is isj
ust w
avelength (90 e
lec
trical
d
egrees) fr
om t he poin
t P3 tha t li
es o
n the SWR = 1 .77 c
irc
le at R. =1 . A t PI,
wh
ich i s0.
194 w ave
length from t he l
oad, t
he normal
ized impedance i
s0. 78 - j
0.41.
Moving wavelength farthero nthe char
tg ivesthe i
mpedance w ave
leng th f
arther
f
rom the l
oad ort he a
dm it
tance att he s
ame loca
tion (
0
.194 wavelength f
rom the l
oad).

x
,

0
.
194X
-j
0
.58 0
S
WR =
1 7
1

ToYn =-
ea
Fu
t
. 1-12
. Worked e
xamp
le u
s
ing r
e
ctangu
lar i
mpedance c
har
t.

S
ince t
he s
tub i
sconnec
ted inpara
lle
l t
o the l
ine
, i
tisc
onvenien
tto dea
li nadm it
-
t
ances
. T o do t
h
is, t
he c
har
ti snow cons
idered tobean a
dmit
tance c
hart
, the po
int
P
,g iv
ing t
he n
ormal
ized a
dmittance a
t ad
istance o
f0.
194 w
ave
length f
r
om t he l
oad a
s

Y
„ =1
.
0 +j
0
.58

T
he a
ctua
l a
dmit
tance i
s1/R 0 t
ime
sth
is v
alue
, o
r
0
.01 + j
0
.0058 mhos
F
o rthere toben or eflect
ion at A( Fig. 1-11) requiresthatthe stub present ano
rma l-
i
zed admittance t
ot he li
ne of -j0.58,sot hatt he re
sultant Y. =1 .
0 +j 0and
,h ence,
t
he impedance looking t othe ri
gh t a
tt he junction is100 j
0 ohms . An ormalized
a
dm i
ttance Y . u. - j0.58 (pure susceptance) i sindicated a
t 1 34,and w e n
ote that
t
he distance required f r
om a s hort ci
rcuit ( Y„ = ± o ) t
o obtain t h
is va
lue i s
wave
leng th. T hus t he requ
ired stub length
d2 = 1
-= 0
4 .
167 w
ave
leng
th
T
he r
equ
ired d
i
stance o
fthe s
tub f
r
om t
he l
o
ad a
s o
bta
ined a
bove i
s
d
, =0
.
194 w
ave
leng
th
4
38 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
1

A Smith c har
t' i silustrated i n Fig. 1-13. I n th
is c har
t t he rec-
t
angula
r d iagram h a
s b een trans formed (see Prob. 1 4
- 11) so that a l
l
i
mpedance v alues fa
ll within the c i
rcular p
eriphery. T he chart coordi-
n
ates g
ive t he norma l
ized r e
sistance a nd reac
tance. T he SWR c i
rcles
a
reusually notincluded b ut may b econstruc
ted asn eeded with acompa ss
c
ente
red o n the center point of the chart
. F or example, the SWR = 2
c
i
rcle i
ss hown i n Fig. 1 -13. The SWR i su ni
ty a t the cente
r o f the

0
.
40 0
.
35
FI
G
. 1-13
. S
mith i
mpedan
ce c
ha
rt.

c
ha rt a
nd i nf
ini
ty at the per
iphery . T he dis
tance from the lo
ad i sindi-
c
a ted around t he periphery oft he c har
t. F or i
nstance, a
t ad istance of
110 waveleng th f
rom al oad for w h
ich R „ < 1a nd X . = 0the i mpedance
mus t c
orrespond to some v a
lue o n t he s
traight l
i
ne c ons
tructed f r
om t he
c
en ter of the char
t t o the per
iphe ral point marked 0 .
1 w aveleng th as
i
nd icated inF ig
. 1 -13. T he fact t hatdistance i
sp roport
ional toa ngular
position around the p er
iphery i so ne of the pr
incipal advantage s of t
his
t
ype o fcha rt
.
1P
.H.S
mith
,Tran
smi
ssion L
i
ne C
a
lcu
lat
or, E
lec
troni
cs, 1
2, 2
9
-31
,Ja
nua
ry, 1
939
.
SE
C. 1
1-7
1 TRANS MISS
ION L
INES 4
39

A
n e
xamp
le w
i
ll b
e g
iven t
o i
lus
tra
te t
he u
se o
fthe Sm
ith c
har
t.

Example 2. C ons
ide rt he t
e
rm inated l
ine with two s
hort-c
ircuited s
tubs por
trayed
i
n F
ig. 1- 14. The p osition at which t
he stubs connec
t to the l
ine i
sfixed
, as s
hown,
b
ut the s
tub l e
ngths, di a nd d2,a
re adjus
tab le
. Th is k
ind ofarrangement isc a
lled a
d
ouble-
stub tuner. T he l oad ZL = 5 0 +j 100 o hms. T he li
ne a nd stubs have a
c
haracter
istic impedance Zo = Ro = 1 00 ohms . F ind the s
hortest v
aluesof diand d
2
s
uch that there i
sn o refl
ected w ave at A
.

F
lo. 1-
14. Doub
le-
stub t
uner w
ith s
hor
t-c
ircu
ited s
tubs
.

S
olu
tion
. The n
orma
lized v
alue o
f t
he l
oad i
mpedance i
s

5
0 -
Ij100
Z
. = —0
.5 -
Ij1
.0
1
00

The chart ( F
ig. 1- 15) i se ntered a t t h
is n orma lized i mpedance a s indica ted b y t he
p
oint Pi. C onstruc t
ing a SWR c urve t hrough PI ,w e n ote t hat the SWI l
. at B( Fig.
1-14) is4 .6. N ext, construc ting t he diame tric l i
ne through PI,w el oca te P 2h a
l fway
a
round t he c onstant SWR c i
rcle from P i. Thus , the n o
rma lized l oad a dmi ttance i s
0
.4-j0.8. Now , mov ing c lockw ise a long the c ons tant SWR c ircle from P 2 ad istance
o
f waveleng th a way from t he load ( t
owa rd t he g ene rator ), w e arrive b ack a t Pi.
Thus at the p oint D t he norma l
ized a dm it
tance o ft he ma in l i
ne ( l
ook ing t oward t he
l
oad) is0 .5 + P .O
. S ince t he r ef
lection a t A mus t be z ero , w e may a nticipa te t he
f
act thatt he adm ittance oft he ma in l i
ne at A( withou tt he s tub o flength dic onnected )
mustf al
lo n the ci
rcle marked CI ( Fig. 1- 15 ). The refore , a t the junction o ft he s tub
o
f length d2 t he adm ittance mus t fal
l o n this c i
rcle r otated b ack ( coun te rclockw ise)
Iwaveleng th to the p osi
tion i ndica ted b y the c i
rcle ma rked C2.
The a dm ittance a dded b y the stub o f leng th d 2 wil
l c ause t he t otal a dm ittance t o
move from Pia long ac onstan tc onduc tance l ine. I n orde rt oe nd u po n the c ircle C2,
wecan move e i
thert ot he l e
ft, ar
riv ing a t P 3, o
rt o the right , arriv
ing a t P 4. Mov ing
t
o P3 results ins horter stubs ; so we w ill make t he stub o fs uch l e
ng th as t o b ring t he
t
otal adm ittance t o Pg. Th is requ ires as tub a dm ittance ( pure s uscep tance ) of

Y
. —
j(1
.0 — 0
.
14) = —
j0.86
.

Ashor
t-c
ircuited s
tub has a
n i
nfin
ite SWR s o t
hat the adm
ittance a
t po
ints a
long t
he
s
tub a
re on the c
i
rcle a
t the p
er
iphery o f t
he cha
rt. A t t
he short c
i
rcuit t
he adm
it-
t
ance i
sinf
inite (
point Pi
). The refore
, inorde
r to pre
sent avalue

Y
„ —
j0.86 (
po
int P
.)
4
40 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1

t
he s
tub l
eng
th mus
t b
e g
iven b
y

d
, =0
.388 — 0
.25 = 0
.138 w
ave
leng
th

Next, mov
ing a
long t
he c
ons
tant SWR c
urve f
r
om Pa t
o P1,we f
i
nd tha
t the l
ine
a
dm it
tance at Ai
sY „ -
=1.0 +j0
.73
. Hence astub a
dmi
ttance o
f Y„ —
j0.73 i
s

<
*t.
6
4,
•e
\
e
.
31 0
.
10 0
.
15

FI
G.1-15
. Worked e
xamp
le u
s
ing Sm
ith c
har
t.

r
equ
ired in o
rder t
o make the t
ota
l norma
lized a
dm it
tance a
t A e
qua
l to 1.
0 ±j
0
,
a
nd there
fore t
he a
ctua
l impedance a
t Aequal t
o 100 + 1
0ohms. Av alue

Y
. = —
j0.73

f
a
lls a
t p
oint Ps. There
fore t
he l
eng
th o
f t
he s
tub i
sgiven b
y

d1 .
=0.40 — 0
.25 = 0
.
15 w
ave
leng
th

C
onnecting t
his stub b
r
ings t
he t
ota
l admi
ttance (
o
r i
mpedance
) t
o t
he c
ente
r o
fthe
c
hart (
point P9)
.
T
o summa rize
, the r
equ
ired s
tub l
eng
ths a
re

d1 = 0
.
15 wave
length
d
, =0 .
138 wave
length
 -

SE
C. 1-8
] TRANS MISSION L
INES 4
41

I
fwehad m
oved t
oP.i
n
stead o
ftoP h w
ewould h
avee
nded u
pwi
th l
o
nge
rst
ubs
,
n
amely
,
d
1 =0.
443w ave
leng
th
d
: =0.
364 wave
leng
th

1-8. O ne-fourth-wavelength T ransformer. T he

re are many si
tua
-
t
i
onsw he
re as ec
tion oftr
an smis
sion l i
ne k w
avelength l
ong may b
euse
ful
.
S
uch as ect
ion isc a
lled a1-wavelength tr
ansformer
.
Cons
ider, for i
nstance
, that we w ish to c
onnect at r
ansmiss
ion l
i
ne o
f
1
00 ohm s cha
ract er
ist
ic impedance t o aload of200 ± j0ohm s
, a
sshown
i
n Fig
. 1-16 . Th is may be done w i
th a 4-wavelength t
ransfo
rmer o
f

I '÷ ' I
— L—
Zo•
.100 4
, 4=200+
10
• -T -
F
io
. 1-16
. O
ne-
fou
rth
-wav
eleng
th t
r
ans
form
er.

s
u
itable c
harac
ter
ist
ic i
mpedance Z
'o. F
rom (
1
1-71
) w
e n
ote t
hat when
x = iwave
length (
f
ix =r/2)

Z = (
Z;
) 2 o
r Z
;) = N
/Z a
. (
1
1 -8
6)'
z Z
z
,

I
n t
he p
resent e
xamp
le ZL = 2
00 + j
0 o
hms
, w
hile Z
. mus
t b
e e
qua
l t
o
1
00 + j
0 ohms
. I tf
ol
lows t
hat

= V200 •1
00 = 1
41 o
hms

There fore, a4 -wave leng th s ec

tion o f l ine o f cha racter istic i mpedance
=l e
, = 1 41 o hm s prov ide s the d e s
ired t r ans
fo rma t
ion , e l
im ina t
ing a
r
ef
lec ted w ave o n t he 100 -ohm l ine.
A
lthough t he reflected w ave i se l
im ina ted a t the d esign f r
equency ( or
waveleng th ), there w ill be reflection a t s l
igh t
ly d ife rentf requenc ie s
. I n
o
the r w ord s
, t he tr ansforme r is af r
equency -sensitive d ev ice. A ll tran s-
f
orme rs or ma tching d evice s are f requency -
sen s
i t
ive a lthough s ome a re
more s o t han o the rs. Tho se d ev ices wh ich c an p rov ide a pprox ima tely
t
he d e s
ired t ransfo rma tion o ver ac ons ide rable b and o f f requenc ies a re
c
alled b road -band t ransforme rs, w hile t ho se wh ich c an d o ito ve r only a
small b and a re called n ar row- band t ransfo rme rs
.
An intere s
ting a pplica t
ion o fthe 4 -wave leng th t ransfo rme r pr
inc iple is
t
o t he I -wa velength p la
t e
, w hich c an b e u sed t o e l
im ina te p lane w ave
r
ef
lec tion. Thus , f or examp le, ap lane w ave i na ir i nc
iden t n orma lly o n
ah a
lfs pace fil
led w ith al oss
le ssd ielectric med ium o fr elative p e rmittiv i
ty
er = 4w i
ll b e p artially reflected a nd p artia l
ly t ran sm itted . T he reflec-
1Z
,
'he
rei
sth
e g
eome
tri
cmean o
f ZLa
nd Z
..
4
42 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
Cum
.. 1

t
i
on may be e
l
iminated
, a
s shown i
n F
ig. 1-17
, by placing a p
late o
f
w
ave
leng
th th
ickness
' b
etween t
he a
i
r and t
he d
ie
lectric medium pro
-
v
ided t
he p
late h
as a
n i
n
trinsic impedance

=VZ0Z1 (
1
-87
)
A
i
r w
here Zo = i
ntr
ins
ic i
mpedance o
fair
Z1 = i
ntr
ins
ic impedance o
f d
ielec
tric
e
r= 1
medium
I
n t
he p
resent e
xample
,

Zo = =3
76.7 o
hms
e
o
Z
o
-3
76.7
-1
8
8 o
hms
N/
T
1
The
refore t
he i
n
trin
sic i
mpedance o
fthe p
late
FIG. 1-17. One-fourth-
must b
e
waveleng
th p
late
.
Z
; = =2
66 o
hms
a
nd h
ence i
t
s r
e
lat
ive p
erm
itt
ivi
ty mus
t b
e
( Z )2
er =
4 =2
I
tisa
ssumed int
h
is i
lus
tra
tion t
hat n
ofe
rromagne
tic ma
ter
iali
spre
sen
t
a
nd s
o µ= µo
•
PROBLE M S
1-1
. At r
ansmis
sion l
ine o
f 1
00 o
hms cha
racter
ist
ic r
es
istance i
ste
rmina
ted i
na n
i
mpedance o
f 1
50 — j100 ohms
. C a
lcu
late the i
mpedance at apo
int o
n the l
i
ne -
1
w
aveleng
th f
r
om t
he l
oad
. T
he c
a
lcu
lat
ion s
hou
ld b
e c
hecked u
s
ing a
n i
mpedance
c
har
t.
1-2. The SWR o
n al
o
ssles
s l
i
ne i
s 5
. F
ind t
he magn
itude o
f t
he r
ef
lect
ion
c
oeff
i
cients
.
1
1-3. A l
ine o
f 100 ohms characte
ristic impedance i
sterm ina
ted i
n al oad o
f 100
j
100 ohms. F ind the r
ef
lect
ion a nd transmiss
ion coef
fic
ients f
or v
oltage. A lso
f
i
nd the SWR
1-4. Con
firm Eq. (1
1-35)
.
1
1-5. Au n
iform tr
ansmiss
ion line ha
s constants
R = 1
0-2 o
hm/me ter
G = 1
0-6 mho/meter
L 1
0-6 h
enry/meter
C = 1
0-2 f
arad/meter
A
t af
r
equency o
f 1
,
590 c
ps f
i
nd (
a
) t
he c
hara
cte
ris
tic i
mpedance o
f t
he l
i
ne; (
b
) t
he
p
hase ve
locity o
f wave propagation o
nt he l
i
ne; (
c
) t
he p
ercentage t
o wh
ich t
he voltage
o
f atravel
ing wave decreases i
n 1km .
Ana
.: (a) 3
7.5/ —20'; (
b) 2
.96 X 1
0 2 me
ter
s/sec
; (c
) 8
5 percent.
'
It i
sto be n
oted t
hat t
he p
late t
h
ickne
ss i
s measured i
n t
e
rms o
f t
he wave
leng
th
i
n t
he p
la
te.
 TRANS MISSION L
INES 4
43

1
14 . F ind t he h igh-frequency c harac ter
istic i mpedance o f a n a i
r-fi
lled coax ial
t
ransm ission l ine h aving a r adius r atio b /a = 4 , where b i sthe inside radius of t he
o
ute r conduc tor a nd ai st he outside r ad ius o
f the i nner conductor.
1
1-7. F ind t he high -frequency c harac teris
tic i mpedance o f atwo-w ire transmission
l
i
ne i na i
r w ith a c onductor r adius of 1mm a nd ac enter-
to-center spacing o f 5cm .
1
1-8. At ransm is sion line consists oft wo parallel wire
so fdiame ter ds ymme tr
ically
l
ocated i nside o f ac ylindrical c onductor o r shield. T he wires are s eparated b y a
c
enter -
to-center d istance o f2d. The i n side d
iame ter ofthe outer conductor o rshield
s 5
i d
. F ind t he h
igh -f
requency c harac ter-
i
s
tic i mpedance o ft his li
ne fort wo dife ren t
TE M mode s o f o peration, ( a
) w ith t he
g
ene rator c onnected b etween t he w ire s
(
shield not c onnec ted ),a ssugge sted inF ig.
1-18a ; a nd ( b
) w ith t he g enera tor c on-
n
ected b etween b o th w ires and t he shie ld,
a
s in Fig. 1- 18b. (
a) (
b
)
1
1-9
. The max
imum e
l
ectr
ic f
i
e
ld i
n
- F
lo. 1-18
. S
hie
lded t
wo-w
ire t
rans
-
t
ensity in ac oaxial cab
le i s10,000 v o
lts/ m
ission li
ne with two TE M modes of
meter when ac onstant voltage of 100 vo
lts o
peration
.
i
sa ppl
ied between t he c
onductor s. I fthe
o
utside radius of the inne r conduc tor is 1 cm
, f i
nd the in
side rad
ius o
f the o
uter
c
onducto r
. An
a
.: 2.
7 cm.
11-10. Ac oaxia
l transm iss
ion line consist
s o
fa n inner c
onductor o
fdiameter dand
A as ymme trical
ly s i
tuated o uter conduc tor
—t— having the cross sect
ion o f an equ i
la teral
z t
r
iang le with a side leng th of 2.5d. F ind
R
o y
t
he h igh-
frequency c ha racterist
ic i mped -
- r— ance of th
is line when i ti sa i
r-f
illed a nd
when itisf i
l
led with p olystyrene .
FI
G
. 1-19
. I
l
lus
tra
tion f
orP
rob
. 1-11
. 1
1-11. R e
ferring to Fig. 1 -19, R0 = 1 00
ohms, and ZL = 1 50 -I
-j50 ohms . F ind dand /
4
,s uch t
hatthere i
sno r
ef
lected w
ave
a
t A. Ans.
: d=0 .
348x; = 1
41 o hms
.
11-12. R eferring to Fig
. 1-20 , Ho =2 00 o
hms, 14
, =1 00 ohms, a
nd ZL = 5 0 +
j
50 ohms . F ind Z . when the w avelength i
s 5meters
.
11-18. Conf irm t he f
actthat when
X )
;
.
1
(
It = 0
.443 w aveleng th and d2= 0.364 4
wavelength t here isal
so nor ef
lection
a
t A f o
r t he d ouble
-stub t uner of Z0
F
ig. 1 -14.
1
1-14 . Re ferring t o the d oub le
-
s
tub tuner ofF ig. 1-21, Zo = R0= 5 0

2meters c 1 me
ter

—t —

z
, R
o 1
4
; z
,
• -r
FI
G
. 1-20
. I
lus
tra
tion f
o
r P
rob
. 1-12
. FI
G
. 1
-21
. )
ouble
-stub tuner wi
th
o
pen
-circu
ited s
tubs fo
r P
rob. 1-14.

o
hms and ZL = 1
25 — 3
65 o
hms. Find the s
hor
tes
t l
engths d1a
nd c
12 s
otha
tthe
re i
s
n
o r
ef
lected w
ave a
t A
. No te t
hat t
he s
tubs a
re o
pen
-circu
ited
.
4
44 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1

1-15 . Ap lane 3 00
- Mc/sec wave isinc
ident n ormal
ly o n ala
rge slab of mater
ial
h
aving a , 1and e ,= 6. Find the t
hickne s
s (in meter s
) and re
lative permitt
ivity
r
equired for aplate p
laced o
nt he s
lab i
nordert oel
im inate ref
lec
tion of aw ave i
nc
ident
n
orma lly on the sl
ab.
1-16 . Show t hat when the s
eries r
e
sistance R a nd the shunt conduc tance G o
f a
t
ransmis s
ion l i
ne are s ma
ll
, b u
t n ot neg
ligible
, the at tenuat
ion c onstant may b e
e
xpressed b y

a - - - -
2 L 2 C

a
nd the p
hase cons
tant b y
1-17
. C ons
idert ha
tt he re
sul
tant current d
istr
ibut
ion al
ong at
ransm
iss
ion s
ystem
i
sthe r
esu
ltant oftwo tr
aveling waveso fdife
rent mode butofthe s
ame f
r
equency a
s
g
iven b
y
I= heio
.1 -0
o
.) '
,ego
s-As-0

whe
re /
0 = amp l
itude o f fi
rst w ave
/
1 = amp l
itude o fse cond w ave
0 =2 T/X 0
=w aveleng th of w ave 1
1 =2
0 r/X i
XI = waveleng th ofw ave 2
=2rf
f= frequency
=p hase angle (arb i
trary )
Confirm Mar sh 's resul
t1 t hat in the general case where /
0 and /1 a
re funct
ion s o
f x
a
nd w here /
3
0a nd 1 3 may b e ofo pposi
te si
gn ( waves inopposite d
irec
tions) or o
fthe
s
ame s ign (wave si nsame d irection), phase ve
locity ofthe r
esu
l tan
tw ave isgiven by
co
A
v
B C
where A = 1 02 + I t
' 2I Ol
tc os D
B =/ 010 - I/ 1201 /
0/
1(0 1 A-0 ) c
os 14
C (, d l ,
_1,dI0 ) . / .
/
odx 1dx s
in

D =( 1
3
1 —t 3
o)x + 8
1-18 . Two t r ave
ling w aves (d
ifferent mode s) ofc onstan t amplitude a nd t
he same
f
requency a re tr ave
ling in the p os
itive x d irection w ith d iferent v e
loc it
ies al
ong a
t
ransm iss
ion l i
ne. L etthe current amp litude d ue t ot he fi
rstw ave b e /0a nd i
tsw ave-
l
ength X0a nd the amp litude due tot he second w ave b e IIa nd itsw aveleng th Xt. F or
t
he c ase w he re 01 = 4 1
30 and It = 0 .5/0 make a g raph s how ing t
he r esultant current
d
istribution I /a s afunction of x(abscissa)f o
r ad istance o fs everalw ave lengths
. A lso
d
raw a c urve o n the same g raph s how ing t he v elocity of t he resultan t wave a s a
f
unc t
ion o fd istance.
1-10 . P rove t hatf or auni
fo rm losslesstran sm ission line the norma lized impedance
wave leng th f rom t he load equals the n orma l
ized a dm ittance a t the l o
ad. T his i
s
u
sefu li nc onve rting impedance st oa dm ittances ( orv i
ce v ersa)o ni mp edance charts.
1J
.A . Ma rsh, "A S
tudy ofPhase Ve
loc
i ty onL ong Cyl
indr
icalConductors
," P h
.D.
d
is
sertation, D epar
tment of Electr
ica
l E ng
ineering, Ohio S
tate Un
iversi
ty, 1 949
;
Measured C ur
rent Dist
ribut
ions on H e
lical A ntenna
s, Proc
. I.R.E.
,3 9
, 6 68-675
,
J
une, 1951.
 CHAPTER 1
2

WAVE GU
IDES

.
\
1
( 1
2-1 . I n
troduc t
ion . I n C hap. 1 w e c onsidered t he s ubject of two-
c
onduc to r tr
ansm ission l ine
s w h
ich a re c apab le o f guiding e nergy f r
om
p
ointt op o
inti n TE M modes . T h
is chap te rd eals w i
th t he transmission
o
f e nergy i n higher -orde r mode s
. T hose d evice s w hich c an t r
an smit
e
nergy o nly inh ighe r-orde r mode s a r
e u sually c a
lled w ave guides
.
A
l though w aves c an b e guided a long t wo -conduc tor t r
ansm iss
ion l i
nes
i
nhighe r-order modes , w es hall notc onside rt his t ype ofo peration except
i
n the ca se o
ft he infinite-paralle
l -plane t ransm ission l ine
, a nd itw i
ll be
c
onven ien t t
o u se this t ype o fline t r
ansm itting a h ighe r-order mode a s
t
he s t
arting poin t for o ur dis
cus s
ion o fw ave g u
ide s
.
1
2-2 . TE Wave i n t he I nf
inite-pa rallel-plane T ransm ission L ine.
Considert he t wo conduc ting sheet si nFig. 1 2-1 r epresen t
ing ap or
tion of
a
n i nf
inite-paralle
l-p lane t r
an smis s
ion l ine. A s d i
scussed i n Chap. 1 ,

D
i
rec i
o
n of
p
r
opaga
tion

Fm
. 1
2-1
. I
nf
ini
te-parale
l-p
lane t
ran
smis
sion l
i
ne.

t
hese sheets can transm it aTE M w ave with E int he zd i
rection. T hey
may also beused tot ransm it higher-order mode sp rovided t he waveleng th
i
ss ufic
iently short.
Letu s cons
ide r the higher-order mode w here the el
ectric fi
eld ise very-
where int he yd i
rec t
ion , with transm is
sion i n t
he x direction. T hat is
,
t
he electr
ic fi
e
ld h aso nly anE yc omponen t
. S ince E yist ransverset ot he
d
irect
ion o f transm iss
ion , this mode may b e d esignated a s at ransverse
e
l
e c
tric, or TE , mode . A lthough E i s eve
rywhe re tr ansverse, H h as
l
ongitudinal, as w ell a s transverse, componen ts. A ssum ing p erfectly
c
onduc ting sheets, b ounda ry c ondit
ions r equire t hat E , vanish a t the
4
45
4
46 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS 1
CHAp
. 1
2

s
heets. Howeve r, E„n eed n otbez e
ro atp oints removed from the shee t
s.
I
tisp oss
ible tod e
te rmine t he propertieso f aTE w ave ofthe t
ype u nder
d
is
cus s
ion b y regarding i ta s made u p oft wo plane TE M w aves r ef
lected
o
bl
ique ly back a nd f o
rth b etween t he sheets.
F
irst, howeve r, l
etu sc ons idert he s
ituation thate x
istsw hen two p lane
TE M w aveso ft he same f r
equency t ravel
ing i nf r
ee space i
nte
rse ct ata n
a
ngle, as sugge sted i n F ig. 1 2
-2. I t is assumed t hat the w aves a re
l
i
nea r
ly p o
larized w ith E n orma l to the page. Wave f r
onts o
r s urfaces
o
fc onstant pha se are indica ted for t
he t wo w aves
.
The sol
id l i
nes ( marked "max" ) show where t he fi
e s am
ld i aximum
w
ith E d irec
ted o ut f r
om t he page
. T hese lines may b e r
ega rded a s
M
ax M
ax

W
avef
ron
ts
M
a
i o
fwave A
m
in W
ave A

Z
ero f
i
e
ld
l
i
nes

M
aximum
f
i
eld

W
ave B
.

W
ave
fron
ts
o
fwave B
F
io
. 1
2
-2. Two p
lane TE M wave
s t
rave
ling i
n f
r pace i
ee s ndife
ren
t d
i
rec
tion
s.

r
epresen ting the crests o fthe w ave s
. T he dashed l i
nes ( marked "m m " )
s
how w here the f i
eld i s am inimum , tha t is
, w here E i so f max imum
a
bsolu te magn i tude b ut directed i nto t he p age
. T hese lines may b e
r
egarded a s r
epres enting t he t roughs o f the w ave s
. Now w hereve r the
c
rest o f one w ave c o
inc ides w ith the t r
ough o f the o ther w ave t here is
c
ancella t
ion , and the r esultant E a t that p oint isz ero. Whe rever c rest
c
oincide sw ith cresto rt rough w ith trough t here isr e
info rcemen t, and t he
r
esultan t Ea t thatp oint doub les. R eferring t oF ig
. 1 2-2, i
ti sthe refore
a
ppa rent t hatata l
lp ointsa long t he da
sh -dotl ine
st he fi
eld isalway sz ero,
whi
le a long the l i
ne i ndicated b y da
sh a nd d ouble d ots the fie
ld w il
l b e
r
e
in forced a nd w i
ll h ave its max imum v alue .
S
ince E i szero a long t he d ash-dot l i
ne s
, b ounda ry c onditions w il
l b e
SE
C. 1
2-2
1 WAVE GUIDES 4
47

s
atisf
ied at p
lane, perfect
ly c onduc ting sheets pl
aced along t hese lines
n
o rmal to t
he page
. T he w ave s
, howeve r
, will now be ref
lected at t he
s
heets with an ang
le o f ref
lection e qua
l t o t
he a ng
le of inc
idence , a nd
wavesinciden
tf rom the outside w il
l not penetrate t
ot he r
egion b e
tween
t
he sheet
s. B uti ftwo plane w aves (A and B) are l
aunched b etween t he
s
heets f
rom the le
ft end, they w il
l trave
l to the ri
ght via multiple ref
lec-
t
ions be
tween the sheets, as sugge s
ted b y the wave paths in Fig. 12-3a.
C
onduc
ting s
hee
t

W
ave B \ B

(
a)
W
ave A

C
onduc
ting s
hee
t'

C
onduc
ting s
hee
t-.
.

(
b
)

C
onduc
ting s
hee
t,

F
lo. 12
-3. (
a) Wave p
aths a
nd (
I
s
) w
ave f
r
onts b
etween i
nf
in
ite p
ara
lle
l c
onduc
ting
s
heet
s act
ing a
s awave g
uide
.

The w ave f ronts ( norma l to t he w ave p a

ths ) for t hese w aves a r
e a si ndi-
c
ated i nF ig. 1 2-3b. H ere t he f i
eld b etween t he s heets i st he same a s in
F
ig. 1 2
-2, w ith s ol
id l inesi ndica ting t hat Ei so utwa rd ( a max imum ) and
d
a shed l inest hat Ei si nwa rd ( am inimum )
. A t t he s he et
s t he resultan t
Ei sa lway s z ero.
A
lthough t he t wo c omponent w ave sw eh ave b een c ons idering a rep lane
TE M -mode w ave s
, t he resultan tw ave belong st o ah ighe r-orde r TE mode .
I
t i sa n i mpor tan t p rope r
ty o f t he TE -mode w ave t ha t i tw i
ll n ot b e
t
ransm itted u n
le ss t he w aveleng th i s suffi
cien tly s hor t
. T he c ritical
wave leng th a t w hich t ransm i ss
ion i s n o longe r p ossible i s c a
lled t he
c
utoffw avelength . I ti sp oss
ib le b y av ery simple a nalysi s
, w h
ich w illn ow
b
e g i ven, t o calcula te t he c utof w avelength a s af unc tion o f the s hee t
s
pac ing.
Referring t oF ig. 1 2-4,l e
tt he TE w ave ber esolved i nto t wo c omponen t
wave s t raveling i n t he x'a nd x " d irections. T hese d irection s make a n
a
ng le 0 w ith r espec t t o the c onduc t
ing s hee ts ( and t he x a xis
). T he
e
lectric f ie
ld i si n the y d i rec t
ion ( norma l t o t he p age ). T he s pacing
b
e tween t he s heetsi sb . F rom F ig. 12-4 w e n ote t hat E i
,
t o
ft he x'w ave
nd E
a t"
,oft he x "w ave c ance la t ap oint such a s Aa tthe c onduc t
ing s hee t
448 ELECTR O MA G N ETICS [
CHAP
. 1
2

a
nd re
info
rce a
t p
oin
t Bm
idway b
etween t
he s
hee
ts p
rov
ided t
hat t
he
d
i
stance

CB = BD = C
'B = X
0 (
1
2-1)

w
here X0 = wave
length of TE M w ave in unbounded s pace fi
l
led wi
th
s
ame medium a sbetween t
he s
heets
. T hus
, if i
sinto the p
age (
nega-
t
i
ve) a
tt he p
oint C a
nd E;iso
uto fthe page (
pos
itive) atthe po
intD,t he
t
wo waves wi
ll cance
l at A
. T hey wi
ll al
so re
inforce a
t Bs ince b
yt he
A
' C
onduc
ting s
hee
t A

W
avefron
t o
f W
avefront o
f
x
"wave x
' wave

C
on
duc
t
ing s
h
eet
FI
G. 1 C
omp
2-4
. on
entw
ave
sbe
tween i
n
f
ini
te-pa
ral
lel
-plan
eco
ndu
cting s
h
eet
sac
ting
a
s aw
aveg
u
ide
.
t
ime t
he f
i
e
ld — E
„
" moves f
rom C t
o Bthe fi
e
ld —E
; w
i
ll h
ave moved
f
rom C
' t
oB. Mo re g
ene
ral
ly w
e may w
rite

n
X0
CB = —4 (
12
-2)

w
here n = a
n i
n
tege
r (
1
, 2
,3, ...)
.
' I
tfo
llow
s t
hat
b . n
X0
AB s
i
n 0= s
in 0= (
12
-3)

o
r
2
b .
X
0 =—
n s
i
n 0 (
12
-4)

w
here )to = wavelength (me
te r
s)
b= spacing ofconduc t
ing s hee
ts ( me
ters)
n= 1,2 ,3, ...
0= angle b e
tween c omponen t w ave di
rect
ion and conduct
ing
s
heets
A
ccording to (1
2-4) wenote thatf o
r ag iven s
heetsepara
tion bt
he l
ongest
w
avelength that can be t
ransm it
ted i n ahigher
-order mode o
ccur
s w hen
1F
or ne
v
en, t
h
e fi
eld h
al
fway b
e
twe
en t
h
e s
h
eet
s i
sze
ro
, w
i
th m
aximum f
i
e
lds
e
i
thersi
deo
fth
ecent
erl i
n
e.
SE
C. 1
2-2
] WAVE GU
IDES 4
49

0= 90
°. This wave
length i
sthe c
utof w
ave
leng
th X
. o
f t
he h
ighe
r-
o
rde
r mode
. T hus, f
or 0= 9
0°,
2
b
X
. =—
n (
12
-5)

E
ach v
alue o
f nco
rre
sponds t
o ap
art
icu
lar h
ighe
r-o
rde
r mode
. When
n= 1
,w e f
i
nd t
hat
X
. =2
b (
12
-6)

Th
is isthe longest w avelength wh ich can be t
ransmit
ted b etween t
he
s
heet
s in ahigher-orde r mode. T ha t i
s
, the s
pacing bmus t b
e at l
ea
st
i wave
length f or a h ighe
r-o rde
r
mode t
o be t
ransm itted. x
0=X.
. 0=90
°
.
When n = 1,the w ave issaid to 0 (
a)
b
e the lowest of the h igher
-o rde
r -
t
ypes
. When n = 2, w
e have t
he
n
exthighe
r-o
rde
r mode a
nd f
orth
is A0 <k
e
, 0
<90
°
c
ase
X
. =b (
12
-7) (
6
)

Thus the s
pac
ing bmustb eatleas
t
1wavelength f
orthe n = 2mode t
o A° << Am 0<
<90°
b
et r
ansm i
tted
. F o
r n= 3
,X.,=l b,
(
c
)
e
tc
.
I
ntroducing (
12
-5)in(12
-4)yie
lds

X0
s
i
n 0= .
7
—
x
0
0 (
12
-8)
o
r
. Xo (
d
)
0= a
rcsm — (
12
-9)
X
.
H
ence
, at c utof f or any mode
Ful. 1 2-5. (a, b, c
) R ef
lec t
ion o f waves
(
X0= X0
) t
he angle 0= 9 0
°. Unde r b
e tween w al
lso fw ave guide. ( d) T rian-
t
hese c ond it
ions t he c omponen t g
le s how ing relat
ive magn itude o f phase
waves for t h
is mode a re r ef
lec ted v
eloc ity v ,group v e
locity u , a
nd e nergy
b
ack a nd forth b etween the s hee ts
, v
eloc ity v,0 i
nt he gu
ide,t op hase velocity
v
o o f t he c omponen t w ave ( equal t o
a
si nFig. 12-5a,a nd d onotp rog ress
phase v eloci
ty o f wave ina n unbounded
i
n the x direction. H ence t here i s med ium ).
ast
and ing w ave between t he shee t
s,
a
nd n o ene rgy isp ropaga ted. I ft he w ave leng th X oi ss l
igh tly less t han
X
., 0i sle
s st han 90 ° a
nd t he w ave p rogre s ses int he xd irec t
ion a lthough
making many r ef
lec t
ions from t he sheets, a s inF ig. 12-5b. A sthe w ave -
l
ength isfurthe rreduced, 0b ecomes l ess,a si nF ig
. 1 2-5c,u ntila tv ery s ho rt
wavelengths t he transmission f or this mode a pproache st he c ondi tions i n
a
n u nbounded med ium.
4
50 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CRAP
. 1
2

I
t isapparent f
rom F ig
. 12-4 that ac onstant phase po
int o
f the TE
wave movesinthe xdirect
ion with avelocity vtha
ti sgrea
terthan tha
to f
t
he component waves. T he phase v
eloc
ity v oo
ft he component w
ave sis
t
he s
ame asf or awave ina n u
nbounded m edium ofthe same k
ind asf i
l
ls
t
he space b
etween the conduct
ing sheets. T ha
ti s
,

1
1
, 1 1 - l
t
.10 = m
ete
rs/s
ec (
12
-10
)
•
w
here A = p
ermeabil
ity o
fm edium (
henrys/mete
r)
e= p
ermitt
ivity o
fm ed
ium (f
arads/meter
)
F
rom Fig. 1
2-4 i
tfo
llows t
hat
ve A '
C
— =A
—
'A =c
os0
v
or

v
o 1
v— c
os8 VI
;CO
S m
ete
rs/
sec (
12
-12
)

Acco rding t o (12-12 ) the p ha se velocity vo f a TE w ave a pproache s a n

i
nfinite v a
lue a st he w ave leng th isi n
creased t owa rd t he cu
tof v a
lue. O n
t
he o ther h and, va pp roache s the p has e velocity vo i n an u nbounded
med ium a st he w aveleng th b ecome sv ery s hort
. T hus ,the pha se ve
loci ty
o
f ah ighe r
-order mode w ave i nthe g uide f ormed b y the shee tsi salway s
e
qua l t o or grea ter than t he v e
lo c
ity i n a n unbounded med ium . T he
e
nergy , however , ispropaga ted w ith the v e
locity oft he zigzag c omponen t
wave . Thu s v „
, = vo c os0 . A ccording ly, the e nergy v eloc i
ty v n i
e s
a
lways e qual t o or l es
s t han t he v eloc ity i n an u nbounded med ium .'
When , fo
ri nstance , the w ave leng th a pp roache sc utof , the pha se ve
locity
b
ecomes i nf
inite, w h
ile t he e ne
rgy v eloc ity a pproache s zero . T hi
s i s
a
no ther w ay of s aying t hat t he w ave d egenerates i nto a stand ing w ave
a
nd d oes n ot propaga te e nergy a t the c u tof w aveleng th or l o
nge r wave -
l
eng th s
. The r e
la t
ive magn itude s oft he v ar
ious v elocitiesa re shown b y
t
he t riangle in Fig. 12 -5d.
S
ince t he w aveleng th i sp ropor tiona l t o the p hase v e
locity, t he wave -
l
eng th X o f the highe r-o rde r mode i n t he g u
ide i sg iven in t e
rms o f t he
wave length Xe i na n u nbounded med ium b y

X
0
X— (
12
-13
)
c
os 0

1The w
avegu
ide b
ehave
sli
ke a l
o
ssles
s d
i
spe
rsive med
ium
. I
tfo
llow
s t
hat

V
ol
U = V
,. =
V

whe
re u = g
roup ve
locity
,v.
. =energy v
eloc
ity
, vo = p
hase v
eloc
ity i
nanu
nbounded
med
ium, v= p hase v
e
locity i
ngu
ide.
SE
C
. 1
2-2
] WAVE GUIDES 4
51

The inf
inite-pa ra
llel
-p lane t ransm iss
ion l i
ne w e have been considering
i
so bv
ious ly n ot at ype t hat c an b e app lied i n p
ractice. A ctual w ave
g
uides for highe r-o
rde r modes u sua l
ly t ake t he form o f asingle hol
low
c
onducto r
. T he h ol
low r ectangu la r g u
ide i s ac ommon f o
rm . T he
a
bove a nalys
is f or t
he i nf
in ite-pa ral
lel-plane t ransmission li
ne isofp rac-
t
i
cal value, however , b ecaus e t he proper ties of TE -mode w aves, such as
a
re di
scu ssed a bove, are t he s ame i n ar e
ctangu lar guide of width ba s
b
etween t wo infini
te p arallel p lanes sepa rated b y ad is
tance b . T h
is
f
o
llows f r
om t he f act tha t ifi nf
in i
tely c onduc ting sheets ar
e introduced
n
ormalt o Ebetween t he p arallelp lanest he f i
e
ld i snotd i
sturbed. T hus,

C
onduct
ing
s
hee
ts

t
EY
I
I

(
b
) (
c
)
Fut
. 12
-6. (
a
) Inf
inite
-para
lle
l-p
lane transmis
sion l
i
ne a
cting a
s a wave g
uide f
or TE
wave. Eisin yd
irect
ion
. ( b) Shee
ts in
troduced n
ormal t
o Ev. (c) Hol
low rectan
-
g
ular w
ave g
uide
.

i
f aTE -mode w ave w i
th e lectric fi
eld i nt he yd irec tion i stravel
ing i nt he
xd i
rection a si nd ica ted i nF ig. 12-6a, t he introduc tion o fs heetsn orma lt o
E
y, a s in F ig. 1 2 -6b, d oes n ot disturb t he fi
eld. T he c onduc ting s heets
n
ow f orm ac omp le te e nc losure o fr ectangu lar shape . P roceeding as tep
f
urthe r, l e
t t he s hee ts b eyond t he r ectangu lar e nc losure b e removed ,
l
eaving t he h ollow r ectangu la r w ave g uide s hown i n Fig. 12-6 c
. The
c
utof w aveleng th s f or t he TE mode s a s given b y ( 12-5 ) for t
he i nf
inite-
p
a ral
lel-p lane l ine a lso a pply f or this r ectangu lar g u ide i fthe w idth bi s
t
he s ame a s the s pac ing b etween t he p lane s
. F or t he t ype of TE mode s
we h ave t hus f ar c on s
idered ( E
, c omponen t o nly) t he d imens ion d ( Fig.
1
2-6 c) isn ot c ritica l. .
A
lthough t he a bove s imp le a naly sis y i
eld s info rma tion a bout c utof
waveleng th, p ha se v eloc ity ,e tc
.,i tg ive sl i
tt
le i n
fo rma tion c oncerning t he
f
i
eld c onfigura tion a nd f ails toc onsider mo re c omp lex h igher-orde r mode s
i
n wh ich, f ore xamp le, Ei st ransve rse b ut w i
th b oth ya nd zc omponen t
s.
To o btain c omp le te i nfo rma t
ion c once rning t he w ave s i n ah ol
low w ave
g
uide , w e shall s olve t he w ave e qua tion s ubjec t to t he b ounda ry cond i-
t
ions f o
r t he g uide . T his i sd one f or the h ol
low r ectangu lar guide i nt he
n
ex t section .
1
52 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
2

1
2-3 . T he H ollow R ectangu la r Wave G uide .' I n S ec. 1 2-2 c e
r tain
p
roper tie s ofa n i nf
in ite-pa rallel -p lane t ransm i ssion l i
ne a nd o f ah ollow
r
ectangu lar g u
ide w ere o btained b y c onsider ing t hat t he h ighe r mode
wave c on s
i stso ft wo p lane TE M c omponen tw aves a nd t hen a pp lying t he
b
ounda ry c ond ition t ha t t he t angen tial c omponen t o f t he r esul tan t E
mus t v anish a t t he p erfec t
ing c onduc ting w alls o f t he g uide. T h
is
method may b ee xtended t op rov ide mo re c omp lete i nfo rma t
ion a bou tt he
wave s i n ah ollow w ave g u
ide . Howeve r, in t his s ection w e s hall u se
a
no the ra pp roach , w h
ich i nvolve s t he s olution o ft he w ave e qua tion s ub-
j
ect t o t he a bove -ment ioned b oundary c ondition f or t he t angen tial c om -
p
onent o fE.
I
n t his m ethod w e st art w ith Maxwel 's equa tions a nd d evelop aw ave
e
qua t
ion i nr e ctangu lar c oo rdina te s
. T his cho ice o fc oord ina tes i s made
i
n o rder t hat t he b ounda ry c ond i tions f or the r ectangu lar g u
ide c an b e
e
asily a pplied l ater. T he r estric tions a r e then i ntroduced o f h a rmon ic
v
a r
ia tion w ith r esp ect t o t ime a nd a w ave t rave ling i n t he x d irection
(
direc tion o fg uide ). N ext ac ho ice i s made o ft he t ype o fh ighe r-orde r
mode t o b e a nalyzed . T hus w e may c ons ide r at ran sve rse e lectric ( TE )
wave f or wh ich E . = 0o r at ransve rse magne tic ( TM ) w ave f o r wh ich
H. =0 . I f, f or e xamp le, w e s elec t t he TE t ype, w e k now t ha t t here
mus t b e a n H . c omponen t s i
nce ah ighe r mode w ave a lway s has al ongi-
t
udina l f i
e
ld c omponen t a nd E . b eing z ero m ean s t hat H . mu st h ave a
v
alue . I ti st hen c onven ien t to w rite t he r ema ining f i
eld c omponen tsi n
t
erms o f H. N ext as olution o f as cala rw ave e qua tion i nH .i so b tained
t
hatf i
t st he b ounda ry c ond itions o ft he r ec
tangu la rg uide. Th iss olut ion
i
ss ub s t
i tuted b ack i nto t he e qua tions f or t he o ther f i
eld c omponen ts
(E„
, E ., H „, a nd H . )
. I n t his w ay w e e nd u p w ith a s et o f e qua tions
g
iving t he v ariation o f e ach f i
eld c omponen t w i th r espec t t o s pace a nd
t
ime. Th i s m e thod o f s olu t
ion i sv ery g ene ral a nd may b e a ppl ied t o
many p rob lems .
We s hall d evelop t he m e thod i n deta il for TE w ave s in ah o
llow r e
c-
t
angu la rw ave g u ide. F irst, h oweve r, t he procedure w ill b e o utlined i n
s
tep f orm a sf ol
low s:

1
.Start wi
th Maxwel 's equat
ions.
2
. Apply r
estr
iction o
fharmon ic var
iat
ion wi
th re
spect t
otime.
3
. Apply rest
riction o
f h armonic v a
ria
tion and attenua
tion w
ith
r
espect t
ox .
4
. S
elect t
he type or mode of wave (TE in t
hi
s case
; so E
. = 0and
H
. 0
)
.

1L
.J .Chu a
nd W. L
.B ar
row
, El
ectr
omagne
tic Wav
esi
nH o
llow M
eta
l T
ube
so f
R
ectangula
r C
ross S
ec
tion
, Pro
c. I
.R
.E., 2
6
, 1
520-
1555
, D
ecember
, 1
9
38. S
ee a
ls
o
r
e
fe
r ence
si nB
ibl
iog
raphy.
 SE
C. 1
2-3
] WAVE GUIDES 4
53

5
. F
ind e quations forother four fi
e
ld components ( E
„, E,
, H,, and H,
)
i
nt erm s o
f 11.
6
. Develop scala r wave equat
ion for H.
7
. S
olve t h
is w ave equation for H. sub
ject t
o bounda ry condit
ions of
wave guide.
8
. S
ub st
itute H ,b ack i
nto equations ofs
tep 5
,giving as e
to fequat
ions
e
xpressing e ach fi
eld componen t as afunct
ion o f space and time
.
Thi
s con st
itu tes t
he complete solu
tion o
fthe p rob
lem .

B
eginn
ing now w
ith step .1o
fthe p
rocedure
, w e have f
rom Maxwe
ll
's
c
ur
l equat
ions i
n r
ectangula
r coord
inates t
he fo
llowing se
t o
f si
x s
ca
lar
e
quat
ions:
O
H
, a
H
— —E — (
12
-14
) I
a
y O
z
a
H, OH, x, aE
(
12
-15
) 2
.
_
a
z —a x —a." tv = n
e a

O
H
, a H, O
E
—a E
, —e =0 (
12
-16
) 3
O
x a
y a
t
O
E, a E,▪ O H, n
a
y =
(
12
-17
) y
O
E, O E, ▪ OH, n
(
12
-18
) J—
az — a
z a
t ="
a
E, O E,• O H, n
(
12
-19
)
=
F
rom Maxwell
's d
ivergence e
quat
ions i
n r
e
ctangular c
oordina
tes w
e
h
ave i
nspace f
r
ee f
rom charge t
he f
o
llow
ing t
wo s
calarequat
ions:

a
E
, a
E
aE,
, =0
— (
12
-20
)
O
x O
za
y
O
i
l, ,a
H, ,a
H
,
— — =0 (
12
-21
) c
r
a
x a
y a
z

5
: ) Let u
s as
sume n ow t
hat any f
i
eld componen t va
ries harmon ical
ly wi
th
.t
ime and di
sta nce a
nd a
lso may a
ttenuate w
ith d
istance. Thus
, c
on-
f
i
ning our a
ttention to waves t
rave
ling in the posit
ive x d i
rection, we
h
ave, f
or i
nstance, t
hat t
he fi
e
ld componen t E, i
se xpressed by
E
, = Eie
m -7
x (
12
-22
)
w
here 7 = p
ropaga
tion cons
tan
t = a± j f
i
. Introduc
ing t he r
e
str
ict
ion
o
f (
12
-22) i
nto t
he equa
tions
, (
12-
14) t
hrough (
12
-21) reduce t
o
OH, a
H,
—y ——
a z —(
a a ±j
c
oe
)E. =0 (
12
-23
) /
6

a
H
,
+
.y
11, —(
a +j
c
ae
)E, =0 (
12
-24
) /
a
z
4
54 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
2

O
H,
—71
1, ——
ay — (
a ±j
c
oe
)E, =0 (
12
-25
)

a
E
, .
9
E
„ .
J
wii x=°
d (
12
-26
)
a
E
,
± 7E
, +iwMH =0 (
12
-27
)
a
z
a
E
z .
—7E
, — -
r-+3
(
4
1.
1H, =0 /
:r (
12
-28
)

—7E
, + a
E
,-± -
T
y a
E
,
i -= 0
w 1
( (
12
-29
)

_7H. + a
H
, =0
(
12
-30
)
a
y a
z

The a
bove eight e
quations may be simplif
ied b y in
troduc
ing a ser
ies
i
mpedance Z and s
hunt a dm
ittance Y
, a nalogous to atr
ansmi
ssion li
ne
(
s
ee Table 1-2)
, where
/
)
Z= — jc
op o
hms/met er (1
2-31)
Y= j
c
oe mhos/met er (1
2-32)

S
ubs
titu
ting t
hese r
e
lat
ions i
n (
12
-23
) t
hrough (
12
-30
) y
ie
lds

a
H
, a
H
„
— — YE. =0 / (
12
-33
)
a
y a
z
a
H,
± -
y
11
, — YE
, =0 / (
1
244
)
O
z

-
-yH
„ — — YE
, =0 (
12
-35
)

a
E
, a
E
,
— —ZH. =0 (
12
-36
)
a
y a
z
a
E
,
O
z ▪-
yE
, — ZH
„ =0 (
12
-37
)

a
E
,
—7E
, — —
ay — ZH
, =0 (
12
-38
)

v ,a
E
„
—7
.
0x (
12
-39
)
a
y a
z
a
H
, a
H
, 2Y (
12
-40
)

These a
re the general equat
ions for the s
teady-sta
te fi
e
ld of awave
t
ravel
ing i
nt he xdirect
ion. No r e
str
ictions have a
syet b
een made a
sto
t
he mode of the wave or the s
hape of the gu
ide . We are now r
eady t
o
p
roceed with step 4 and i n
troduce the condition f
or aT E wave t
hat
=0 . T he e
qua t
ions then reduce to
SE
C. 1
2-3
] WAVE GUIDES 4
55

aH. _ OH, =0
(
12-41
)
a
y a
z
a
m + 7H
. — YE
„ =0 (
12
-42
)
a
z
a
H.
— —
a
y — YE
. =0 (
12
-43
)

a
E
, — a
E
„ — ZH z = 0 29 (
12
-44
)
a
z
7E, — ZH„ =0 37 (
12-45
)
—
•yE „ ZH, =0 3 (
12-46
)
(
3
E„ a
E
, 0
(
12
-47
)
ay a
z 32
.
a
i
l a
i
l
—71
11 z= 0 32 (
12
-48
)
a
y a
z
P
roceed
ing t
o st
ep 5
,l e
t us r
ewri
te t
hese e
quations s
o t
hat e
ach fi
eld
c
omponent i
sexpre
ssed i
ntermsof Hz. Tod o t
h
is, wenote f
r
om (12-45)
a
nd (12
-46) t
hat
E. _ E
„ _Z
ohms (
12-49)
H„ — H
. —

T
he ratio E,/ H
„orE ,/H Zi
s aq uan
tity wh
ich c
orr
esponds,inthe cas
eo fa
w
ave g uide
,t othe character
ist
ic impedance o
f at
ransmiss
ion l
ine
. S ince
(
12-49) involves o
nly transverse fi
eld c
omponents
, it may b
e cal
led t he
t
r
an sv
ersei mpedance Z„„ ofthe wave gu
ide.' Thus

Z =E
y = —E
. = Z =j
(
oki
/
7
; T
/
y 7 o
hms (
12
-50
)

I
ntroduc
ing (
12
-50
) i
n
to (
12
-43
) a
nd s
o
lving f
o
r H
y y
ie
lds

—
1 a,
(
12
-51
)
1
1 '= (
7 — Y l
Z„ a
y

I
n al
i
ke manner w
e h
ave
, f
r
om (
12
-42
),

—1 M.
H (
12
-52
)
8 = I — YZ„ a
z
Now
, s
ubs
titu
ting (
12
-52
) i
n
to (
12
-50
), w
e o
bta
in
—Z„
,
E — (
12
-53
)
" 7 — YZ„ (
3
z
a
nd s
ubs
titu
ting (
12
-51
) i
n
to (
12
-50
)

E
. = 4 (
12
-54
)
-
y — YZ
„, a
y
z
.
.isa
l
so o
f
ten c
a
lled t
he "
cha
racte
ris
tic i
mpedance" (
o
fthe g
uide
).

;
 4
56 ELECTRO MAGNETICS CsA
[ p
. 1
2

Equa t
ions (1
2-51) t
hrough (12-54
) e xpress the four t
ransverse f
i
eld
c
omponen tsinterms o
f H. T h
is completes st
ep 5 .
Proceeding n
ow to st
ep 6, we can obtain a w ave equat
ion in Hz by
t
aking the y d
erivat
ive of (
12
-51), t
he zd erivat
ive o f (
12
-52)
, a nd s
ub-
s
t
itu t
ing b o
th i
n (12
-48
). Th is yi
elds

1 1aw
. a_0
2
1
-1
,)
—7
Hz — YZ
„,\ a
y2 a
z2 f = - (
12
-55
)
o
r
a
u x a
2
H.
+ — Y
a
z
2 Z
„, +y
)H z = 0
(y 512 (
12
-56
)
a
y2
c
P
utt
ing k2 = 7
(7 — YZ
„,)
, (
12
-56
) r
educe
s to

3
2
H. a
2
H.
ay2 + az2 +k
2Hz =0 '
•
/ (
12
-57
)

T h
is is apart
ial dife
—ren
tial equation of the se
cond o rder and fi
rs
t
c _
•
e
.
_. I
tis as
ca
larw
ave e
qua
tion i
n H. I
tappl
ies t
o aTE w ave i
na
C
—uid- e
—ofany c
ross
-sect
ional shape
. Th is completes s
tep 6.
) Step 7istofi
nd as o
lut
ion of (1
2 -57
) t ha
ts at
isf
iesthe boundary condi-
tions fort
he wave gu
ide underconsideration, wh
ich i
sah o
llow rec
tangular

D
i
rec
tion o
f
p
r
opaga
tion

FI
G
. 1
2-7
. C
oord
ina
tesf
o
r h
olow r
e
ctangu
lar w
ave g
uide
.

t
ypea sshown inF ig. 12
-7. T he width oft he guide is z1,and the he
igh tis
yi. Assuming t hat the w a
lls are perfectly c onduc t
ing , the t angen t
ial
c
omponent o f E mus t v an
ish a t the guide s urface
. Thu s
, a t the side
wa
lls E,
, must be zero
, a nd at the top and b ottom s urfaces E , mus t be
z
ero. The p roblem n ow isto f i
nd a so
lu t
ion o f (12-57) s ubject to these
b
ounda ry c
onditions. T he method o f "separa t
ion o fv ariables" may b e
employed i
no btaining the s
olution. T hus, Hz i n (
12-57) i s afunction of
yand z. H ence w e may seek as olut
ion o ft he form

Hz = YZ r47 (
12
-58
)
whe
re Y = af
unc
tion o
f yo
nly, t
hat i
s
, Y =f
(y
)
Z = af
unc
tion o
fzOi
1T
1S
ome
time
s t
he n
ota
tion f
(y) o
r Y
(y) i
sused t
orepre
sent afunct
ion o
f yo
nly
, a
nd
o
r Z
(z) af
unct
ion of zo
nly. However, t
osimp
lify n
ota
tion, t
he s
ymbols Ya
nd
SE
C
. 1
2
-31 WAVE GU
IDES 4
57

S
ubs
titu
ting (
12
-58
) i
n (
12
-57
) g
ive
s
d2Y
Z—
d
y2 Y—
d
2Z 1
c21
7Z = 0 '
1 5
- (
12
-59
)
d
z2
D
ivid
ing b
y YZ t
o s
epa
rate v
ar
iab
les
,
1d2Y 1d2Z
+ (
12
-60
)
Zdz2
- - - k2
d
y2

The fi
rs
t term is af
unction o
f yalone
, the s
econd te
rm is af
unct
ion o
fz
a
lone
, w hi
le k2 i
s ac
onstant
. F orthe t
wo terms (
each i
nvo
lving ad
ife
r-
e
nti ndependen
t v ar
iable) t
oe qua
l aconstant r
equ
ires t
hateach t
erm b
e
aconstant. T hus we can wr
ite
1d2Y
1
--
7 d
y2
= —A
i (
12
-61
)
a
nd
1d2Z
= —A 2 (
12
-62
)
d
z
2
whe
re A1 a
nd A2 a
re c
ons
tan
ts. I
tfo
llow
s t
hat
A1 A2= k2 (
12
-63
)
Equat
ions (
12-61
) and (12-62) each i
nvo
lves b
ut o
ne i
ndepend,e,
r -- '
v
ariab
le. Asolut
ion o
f (
12-61) i
s
Y=e
lsi
n b
ay z C
,.re X) (
12
-64
)
S
ubs
titu
ting (
12-64
) i
n (
12-6
1) y
ie
lds

b
a = (
12
-65
)
Hence (
12-64
) i
s as
o
lut
ion p
rovided (12-65
) i
sfu
lfi
lled
. A
nothe
r s
o
lu-
i
on is
Y = c2 C
os by (
12
-66
)
I
f(12
-64) a
nd (
12-66
) a
re each as
olu
tion f
o
r Y, t
he
irsum i
sal
so asolu
-
t
i
on, o
r
Y = c1s
in Nr
2f1y c2 co
s V riy (
12
-67)

I
n t
he s
ame manner as
o
lut
ion may b
e w
rit
ten f
o
r Za
s

Z = eas
i
n N
/ T2z c4 c
os -
Vit az (
12
-68
)
S
ubs
titu
ting (
12
-67
) a
nd (
12-68
) i
n
to (
12
-58
), w
e o
bta
in t
he s
o
lut
ion
f
o
r 1
-.as

1
. = cicssin N sm VA2 Z CA IC
/A i OS '
VA ysin VA-2z
cic4s
in yc
os VA
--2
z c
2c 4c
os N
/TI yc
os -
V742z (
12-69
)

Zare used i
n Eqs
. (
12
-58) to (12
-68), i
nc
lusive, t
o indicate f
unct
ions o
nly o
f yor z
,
r
e
spectively
. Ya nd Z i
n these equat
ions should not be con
fused w
ith admi
ttance
a
nd impedance, f
orwh
ich these symbols a
re al
so used.
4
58 ELECTROMAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
2

Equa t
ion (12-69) i
s as o
lution fo
r H, b u t any te
rm i sal
so a so
lut
ion.
T
ak ing the las
t term as the so
lution, w e note that on i
ntroduc
ing th
is
s
o
lu tion f
or Hz into (
12-53) and (12-54) the boundary condit
ions f
or t
he
h
ollow re
c tangular g
uide can be s
atisfied provided tha
t

)
1 (
12
-70
)

a
nd
N
/A 2 ="
-17 CO (
12
-71
)
Z
i

where m a
nd nare i
n
tegers (
0
, 1,2,3, ...) . T hey may b
ee qua
lt othe
s
ame i n
teger o
r t
o d
iferent i
ntege
rs. T he so
lu t
ion f
or Hz now assumes
t
he fo
rm
n
yy n
trz
= Ho COS 1 cos — (
12
-72)
Z
1

where Ho = c 2c
, = ac onstant
. I f (12-72
) is mu lt
ipl
ied b y ac ons
tant
f
actor, itisst
il
l as o
lu t
ion. T ha
t is
, the f
acto
rs hould not i
nvo
lve yo rz
a
l
though i t may involve x and the t
ime ( t
)
. A ccordingly
, (12
-72 ) may
b
e mu ltipl
ied b y the exponentia
l factor in (
12-22) since th
is gives t
he
v
ariation assumed f o
r t he f
i
elds wi
th r e
spect t
o xa nd t. The comp le
te
s
o
lu tion for Hz then becomes
i
t=
Hz = Ho c
os n
i
ry cos C
1 8
- 12 1
- (
12
-73
)
Y
i zi

T
his c
ompletes s
t
ep 7. T o p
erform step 8,E q
. (12
-73) i
ss ubs
tituted
i
n
to (12
-51) t
hrough (1
2-54
), g
iving the s
olutions f
o
r the t
ransverse f
ie
ld
c
omponents a
s
7
11, f
i
r. w ry mrz
Hy = — s
in — c o
s (
12
-74)
h Y
i Y
i zi
H = 7
110 —
y c
m o
z1
sn
ry s
n mz
i r
Y z
i
e
m _7x
y (
12
-75
)

=•y
Z„H
2o m
4
. rc
- o
s nry s
i
n mz
z
(
12
-76
)
z1 y z
= -
yZ r .n
yj 0 n ry mr
z t—
yz
k2 — si
n — CO8 e
iw (
12
-77
)
y
i zi

Equations (12-73) to (1
2-77), i
nclus
ive, to which may be a dded Ez = 0
,
a
re the solut
ions t hat we have s
ough t fo
r the fi
e
ld componen ts o
f a TE
mode in ah o
llow re c
tangularg u
ide ofw idth z
ia nd h
eighty i
. Th iscom-
p
letess t
ep 8.
Turning our attention now t
oa ni nterpre
tation o
ft he s
olu t
ions f
orthe
f
i
eld component s
, let u
s cons
ider the si
gnif
icance oft
he intege r
sma nd n
.
I
ti sa pparent that for m = 1a nd n = 0 w e have only three fi
e
ld corn
-
SE
C
. 1
2
-31 WAVE G
UIDES 4
59

ponent s H, H„ a nd E „ a nd, furthe r

, t hat e ach o ft hese c omponent s h as
no v a
riation w ith respec t t o yb ut e ach h as ah a
l f
-cyc le v ariation w ith
r
espec tt oz . F ore xamp le, E ,h as as inuso idal v ariation a cros st he g uide
(
in the zd irection
), b eing amax imum i nt he centera nd z e
ro a tt he w alls
,
a
nd h as no variat
ion a s af unction ofy .
I
fm = 2 ,t here is ava riation o ft wo h alfc ycle s (fu
ll cycle v aria tion ) o f
e
ach f i
eld c omponent a s af unction o fz . When n = 1 ,t here i s ah a
l f
-
c
ycle v ariation of e ach f i
eld c omponen t w ith r espec t to y . H ence w e
may c onclude t hatt he v alue o fmo r ni ndicate st he n umbe ro fh alf- cycle
v
a r
ia t
ions o fe ach fi
eld c omponent w ith r espec t to za nd y ,r espec tive ly.
Each c omb ination of ma nd nv a
lue sr epre sents ad iferent f i
eld c onf igura -
t
ion or mode i nthe g uide. S ince w e are d ea
ling h e
re w ith TE modes , it
i
sc onven ient t o d
esignat e t hem b y a dd ing t he s ubscrip t mn s o t ha t, in
g
ene ral
, a ny TE mode c an b e designa ted b y t he n otation TE. „, w here
m =n umbe r ofh a
lf- cycle v ar
iations i nt he zd irection ( usua l
ly t aken a s
t
he l a
rge r transverse d imens ion of t he g uide ) a nd n = n umbe r o f h a
l f
-
c
ycle v ar
iations int he yd i rection (usua lly t aken a st he s mallert ransve rse
d
imens ion o ft he gu
ide ).
Thu s, fo
r aTE io mode m = 1 ,a nd n = 0 ,a nd w e h ave, a s m en tioned
a
bove , only three componen ts E „ Hi,a nd H ,t hata re n ot z e
ro. T he s i
x
f
i
eld c omponen ts f
or t he TE lo mode a re

E
, =0
E,= 7Z
„H o ws. w
k2 m—
z
e N i-71
Zi Z

E
, =0
7
2 . (
12
-78
)
H
, =H
o C
os—e v
"-
51
H
„ =0

H = 7H
° 7 s
i
n —
z1 zi

The variation of t hes e component s as af unction o f zi sportrayed i n

F
ig. 12
-8a. T here isn o variat
ion w ith r
espec t toy . T his mode h a
st he
l
ongestc utof w aveleng th ofa ny h
ighe rorde r mode , and hence the lowest
f
requency o ftransm is sion in ah ol
low — r
ed- a
ngula r w ave gu
ide mu st be i
n
t
he TE lo m ode
.
The variation o f the f i
e
ld c omponen ts a s af unction of zfor t he TE E,
mode (m =2 , n=0 ) i ss hown i nFig. 12-8b.
InFig. 12-9a the fi
eld c onf
igura t
ion o fthe TE io mode isi lus
tra ted fo
ra
g
uide cross s e
ction a nd i n Fig. 12-9b for al o
ng i
tud ina
l s ec
tion o f the
g
uide (top v i
ew )
. T he fi
eld c onf
iguration f o
r a TEN mode i ss hown i n
c
ross s
ection i nF ig
. 1 2-9c and inl ongi
tud inal section (t
op v iew) i n F
ig.
1
2-9d.
4
60 ELECTRO M AGN E
ll C
S I
Ct
iAP
. 1
2

H
,

z
=b z
=0 z
=b Z= 0

m=1 m=2
n=0 n=0
(
a
) (
b
)
F
lo. 1
2-8
. V
aria
tion o
f f
i
e
ld c
omponen
ts f
o
r TE
loa
nd TE 2
0 mode
s i
n ah
ol
low r
ec
tan
-
g
ular w
ave g
uide
. (Wave t
r
ave
ling o
ut o
f p
age
.)

T
E10 T
Ezo Eli
n
es s
o
lid
H l
i
nesd
ashed
-
y
zp l
ane
(
wave o
u
t
-1
/
1
-

o
fpage
)

(
a) (
c
)

A 4

El
i
nes e,
p_
d
own
I eA
•
upl
ane
I(
wave d
own
p
age
)
i
ll
i
i
I ,
\ 0 /'
El
i
nes
u
p se
;
;0 96-
0

(
b
) (
d)
F
IG. 1
2-9
. Fie
ld c
onf
igura
tions f
o
r TE i
o a
nd TE 2omode
s i
n ah
ol
low r
ec
tangu
lar
w
ave g
uide.
SE
C
. 1
2
-3] WAVE G
UIDES 4
61

C
onside
r nex
t t
he TE i mode (
m =1
,n= 1
)
. T
he f
i
e
ld c
omponent
s
a
re g
iven by
E.= 0
E
, = 7
Z "Ho r c
osr
-
'1 s
l i
n Ir—Z e
i
w
a -7
z
V z1 Y
1 z
i
E
, — -
y
Z Ho r . T
y i
-
..
y s
in— co
s— e m -i
x
y
i zi
l
ry i
rz . (
12
-79
)
H
. = Ho cos — cos — ei
`" " z
Y
i z
i
H = 7
11
° 7
4
- s
i
n7-
—
1
.Y c
os—
1
r
z
k2 yi yi zi
r
z .
H =7
11° c
os—
1 s
y i
n
* k2 z
i

For t his mode f i

ve fi
eld c omponen ts h
ave a va
lue, o
nly E. be
ing every-
where a nd a lway s zero. T he v ar
ia t
ion o
fthe fi
ve f
i
eld component swith
r
espec t t o za nd y i ss hown i n F ig.
1
2 -
10 . I ti sas sumed t ha t the g uide
h
a s as qua re c r oss sec
tion ( y
i =z i
).
The f i
eld c onfigura tion f or t he TE ii
E y

mode i n as qua re g u
ide i si lus trated
i
nc r oss s ection i nF ig. 1 2
-11a a nd i n
l
ongi tud ina lsection ( s
ide v iew)i nF ig.
1
2-11b .
The s o
lu tion w eh ave o btained t ells
u
s w hat mode s a r
e p os s
ible i n t he
h
ollow r ectangu la r w ave g u
ide .
However , t he p art
icula r mode o r
mode s t hat a re a ctually p re sent i n Hz

a
ny c ase d epend o nthe g uide d imen -
s
ions, t he m ethod o f e xciting t he
g
uide , a nd t he i rregula r
ities o r dis-
c
ontinu ities i n t he g uide. The r e- Hy

s
ultan t f ie
ld i n t he g u
ide i se qual t o
t
he s um o f the f i
e
ld s o f all mode s
p
resen t
.
R
e turn ing n ow t o ac on s
ide ration
H
.
o
ft he g enera ls ignificance o ft he s o
lu -
t
ion, w e h ave f r om ( 12-63), ( 12-70 ),
a
nd ( 12-71 ) tha t
FI
G
. 1 2
-10
. Var
iat
ion of f i
e
ld com-
23 p
onen
ts fo
r TEi m ode in asquare
(n
ir) 2
— (m
—ry = k2 ( 12-80 ) w
ave gu
ide. (Wave tr
ave
ling o
ut of
Y
i p
ag
e.)
462 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
2

/ Pos
it
ion o
fend v
i
ew

1 -

,
‘
`‘ 0I
I

I1
.
t
t 1
/1
, 11 \ / I
ll

E
nd v
i
ew S
i
de v
i
ew t
h
rough s
e
ction a
-a'

(
a) (
b
)
F
lo. 12
-11. F
ield c
onf
igurat
ions f
or TEu mode i
n as
quare wave g
uide
. El
i
nes a
re
s
ol
id, and H l
i
nes a
re d
ashed.

F
rom (
12-56
), (
12-3
1) a
nd (
12-32
) k2 i
sgiven b
y

k
2= j
wµ(
o. j
c
o€
) (
12
-81
)

As
suming a l
o
ssless d
ie
lectr
ic med
ium in t
he g
uide
, we c
an p
ut a = 0
.
Then e
qua
ting (12
-80) and (
12
-81) a
nd s
o
lving f
or 7y
ie
lds

=
1i 2 (M
1 )2
c
o
sis, (
4 4
- t
;:2 (
- 12
-82
)
y zi

At suficien t
ly l ow f requenc ies t he l a
st t e
rm i n (
12 -82) i ssma l
ler t
han
t
he sum o ft he fi
rstt wo term su nde rt he squa re-roo tsign. I tfollowst ha t
f
or th
is c ond it
ion 7 i sr eal a nd
, t here fore, t hat the w ave i sat tenuated .
Under thisc ond i
tion i ti ssaid t hatt he w ave ( or mode )i sn otpropaga ted .
At suficien t
ly h igh f requenc ie s the l a
st t erm i n (12-82) i slarger than
t
he sum o f the fi
rs t t wo t erms u nder t he s qua re
-roo t sign. Unde r t his
c
ondit
ion 7 i si mag ina ry, a nd t herefo re the w ave isp ropaga ted w i
thout
a
ttenua t
ion .
At some i ntermed iate frequency t he righ t-hand s ide of ( 1
2-82 ) i
sze ro,
a
nd h ence 7 = 0 . T his frequency i sc al
led t he cutofff requency for t he
mode u nder c ons
ide ra tion. A t frequenc ie s highe r t
han c utof t h
is mode
p
ropaga tes w ithou t a ttenua tion, w hile at f requencie s lowe r than cutof
t
he mode i sattenua ted.
To summa r
ize:
At low frequenc ie s
, c as mall
, 7r eal
, g uide o paque
At cutof, c oin
te rmed iate, 7 = 0 ,t ransition c ondition
At high frequenc ie s
, wl arge, 7i mag ina ry, g u
ide tr anspa rent
Referring to (1
2-82), itisto b
e no
ted t
hat V(7)
21
.
4
ei
— se
qua
l t
othe p
hase
c
onstan t fi
bf o
r aw ave trave
ling i
n an u
nbounded med
ium o
f t
he s
ame
d
ie
lec tr
ic ma teria
l as fi
l
ls the g
uide
. Thus we can wqe

-• = — f
i2o r
ec
iproca
l m
ete
rsN , (
12
-83
)
SE
C. 1
2-3
] WAVE GUIDES 4
63

w
here f
t
o =N
/co 2a
€ =2r/X0 =phase c
ons
tant i
nan u
nbounded m
edium
X
o =w
avelength inan u
nbounded med
ium
2
k = + ( zi )2

Thus
, a
t f
r
equenc
ies h
ighe
r t
han c
utof $
o >k
,and

= Vi
c2 1
30
32 = (
12
-84
)

whe
re f3= 2 r/X = phase constant i
nguide
X= w avelength inguide
A
t sufic
iently high f
requencie
s ($o > k
)w e note t
hat t
he phase c
onstant
1
3
in the gu
ide approachesthe phase c
onstant Poi
na nunbounded m ed
ium .
On t
he other hand, a
t fr
equenc ie
s l
ess t
han cutof 00 < k
,a nd

'
Y = 1/k 2 — 0
02 = a (
12
-85
)

whe
re a = attenuation c
onstant.
A
t sufi
ciently low f
requencies ($o k
) w
e no
te that t
he at
tenua
tion
c
onstant aa pproaches a constant value k
.
A
t the cu
tof frequency, po = k,and -y= 0
. T hus
, at c
utof

n
r
O w = +
7
- ) (
12
-86
)
VY
1/

I
tfo
llow
s t
hat t
he c
u
tof f
r
equ
ency i
s

c
ps (
12
-87
)
f
e — 2 V1u
e
.
4 (YI Z
i
1 2 + (1
" 2

a
nd t
he c
u
tof
fwa
vel
eng
th i
s
2
r 2
X
o
. = m
ete
rs (
12
-88
)
V(nr/y i)
2 ( M T/E1) 2 V(n/y i)
2 ( M/E1) 2

where X
., =w avelength i
na nu nbounded m edium atthe cutof fr
equency
(
or, mo re c onc
i se
ly, the cutoff wavel
ength)
.' E qua
tions ( 1
2-87) and
(
12-88) gi
vet hecutof f
requen
cy a nd c
utof
fw ave
l eng
th f
ora ny TE,.f
tmode i
n
ahollow r
ectangular g
uide
. F ori n
stance, t
he cutof wave
leng f aT
th o ,
mode is
X
.
. =2 zi (
12
-89)
T
his i
sident
ical w
ith t
he va
lue f
ound i
nthe l
a
st s
e
ction s
i
nce zi = b
.
A
t f
requencie
s above c
utof (
so > k
)
, 2 /m l-\ 2

= -0
102— 1
c2 = Ni
w 2t
i
t — (= )
i
t (— (
12
-90
)
Y z
i
INote t
hat k= I
ntroduc
ing t
h
is v
alue o
f k
, (
12-84
) c
an h
e u
sed t
o r
e
late
X
, Xo,and X
„ when X
. <X.
4
64 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
2

I
tfo
llows t
hat t
he p
hase v
e
loc
ity vi
nthe g
uide i
sequa
l t
o

vo
m
ete
rs/
sec (
12
-91
)
= • = V1 — (
nX
0/2y
i)2— (
mX0/2z
i)'
o
r
V
o
V = (
12
-92
)
• — (
x
0/x
„e)2
w
here vo = 1
/N rµ; =phase v
eloc
ity in a
n unbounded med
ium (f
or ai
r
vo = 3 X 1
0
' mete
rs/sec
)
X
o =w aveleng
th i
nanu nbounded med
ium (i
ns ame u
nit
sas yia
nd

X
oc = c
utof wave
length (
in s
ame u n
its a
s X
o)
The r
at
io v
/v
oa s af
unct
ion oft
he wavelength Xoi
sshown i
nFig
. 1
2-12 f
or
s
evera
l TE modes i
n aho
llow wave g
uide o
fsquare c
ros
ssec
tion (
y
i =z 1
)•

2
.
5

2
.0
Z).
-o
r
V0 4d

1
.
5

1
.
0
0 0
.5z
, 10z
, 1
.
5z, 2
.0z
,
W
ave
leng
th N
o
F
ra
. 12-
12. Re
lat
iv ephas
ev e
loc
i ty (
v
/v
,)orre
la
tivetr
ansv
ersei
mpe
dan
ce(Z,.
/Zd
)as
af
unc
tion o
fthew ave
length X1
)fo
rT Emode
si n ah
o
llow s
qua
reg
uid
e(he
igh
ty ,e
qua
l
t
owidth z)
1.

I
nt he a bove analysis there isnoa ttenua t
ion w hatsoevera tf r
equencies
a
bove c utof. T hi
t itaironL.the a s
sump tion o fperfectly conducting
g
uide w al
ls and al os
sle ss die
lectric m edium f i
lling the guide. Howeve r,
i
fthe w a
lls are not p
er fectTY -c
ondUc t
int r t he m edium i sn otloss
less
, or
b
oth,t here isat
tenua tion.' T hus,i na ctualw ave guidest here i
sattenua-
t
i
on at f requencies g
r eater than c utof a l
though i ti susually s ma
ll c
om -
p
ared w ith the at
tenua t
ion a tfrequenc ies le
ss t han cutof.
I
fthe g uide i
sf i
l
led w ith ai
r,the dielectric lo
ssi susually neglig
ible c
om -
p
ared w i
th l o
ssesi nthe g u
ide w al
ls,s ot hatthe a ttenuation atf r
equencies
1T
hat 7m
ay hav
eboth ar
ea
la nd a
n i
mag
ina
ry p
ar
tatfr
equenc
iesgr
eat
ert
han
c
u
tof may b
esh
own byso
lv
ing (
12
-81)fo
r 7u
ndert
he
seco
ndi
tions
,with an
ote
qua
l
t
ozer
o.
SE
C
. 1
2-3
1 WAVE GU
IDES 4
65

g
r eatert han c utof i s main ly d et erm ined b yt he conduc t
iv i
ty o ft he g u
ide
walls
. T he fa ct t
ha t the g uide w alls ar e n otp erfectly c onduc t
ing m ean s
t
ha t the t angen tia
l c omponen t E t o ft he e lectric f i
eld i sn o
t z ero a t the
walls b ut has af init e v alue. However , f or w a
lls made o f ag ood c on-
ducto r
, s uch a s coppe r, E g w ill g enera lly b e s o s mall t hat t he a bove
a
na ly s
is ( based o n E t =0 ) i sn ot a fec ted t o a ny a ppreciab le e xten t
.
Howeve r, as ar esult o ft he fin
i te w a
ll conduc tivity ai sn ot zero. T hus,
i
n mo st practical p rob lem s w he re t he w all c onduc tivity i sh igh ( but n ot
i
nfinite) the field conf igura tion i nt he g uide , t he w ave leng th X ,t he pha se
c
ons tan t I, the p ha se v elocity v ,e t
c., c an a l
l b e c a
lcula ted w i th hi gh
a
ccu racy o n t he assump tion t ha t t he w alls h ave i nf
in ite conduc t
iv i
ty , as
d
one e arl
ier i n thi
s s ection. T he s mal
l ( but n ot zero ) attenua t
ion may
t
hen b ec alcula ted s epa rately,u sing ( 10-66 ) t of i
nd t he p owe rl o
s tp eru nit
a
rea i n the g uide w all
, i tb eing a ssumed t hat t he H -fie
ld d istribu t
ion i s
t
he s ame a sw ith p erfec tly conduc ting w alls.
F
inally, let u sde term ine t he v a
lue o ft he t ransve r se i mpedance Z „f or
TE mode s in ar ectangu la r hollow g u
ide . T hus, f rom ( 12-50),

Z
V S
= i C .

,
*

y
(
1
2-93
)

A
tfr
equenc
ies h
ighe
r t
han c
utof 7 = 0
; s
o

O
n.
l Zd
zv
s — = o
hms (
1
2-94
)
# V 1 — (X0 A
cte) 2

w
here Zd =in
trins
ic i
mpedance o
f d
i
elec
tric m
edium f
i
l
ling g
uide
(= Vi iTe) ( f
or a ir
, Zd = 3 76.7 o hms )
X
o =w aveleng th ina n u nbounded m edium
=c utof w aveleng th ( i
n same u n
i ts asX o)
The ratio ofZ „ (transve rse i mpedance ) to Zd ( intrinsic i mpedance ) as a
f
unction o fthe w aveleng th Aoi sshown i nFig . 12- 12 fo
rs everal TE mode s
i
n ah ollow w ave g u
ide o fs qua re cross s
ection ( yi =z i
)•
Thus f a
ro nly TE -mode w aves h ave b
een c on side red
. T ofind t he fi
eld
r
e
la t
ions f ort ransve rse magne t
ic ( TM ) mode w ave sw ep roceed p recisely
a
si nt he eight-step l i
stg iven e ar
lier inthiss ection e xcep tt hatw he re TE
a
ppea rs w e sub st
itute TM a nd w here E. a ppea r s we s ubs t
itute H, a nd
v
ice ver sa
. I n the TM w ave H . =0 , and t he l ong
i tud inal fi
eld c om -
p
onen t i sE.. T h
is a na
ly s
i s w il
l n o
t be car r
ied t hrough h ere (see P rob.
1
2-6). Howeve r, it may b e m entioned that ( 12-88 ) for t he cutof w ave-
l
ength a pplies to b o
th TE a nd TM w aves a s d oe s (12-91) f o
r the p hase
v
elocity,b u tt h
isi sn ott he c asew ith (12
-94)f ort he tr
ansve rse impedance
(
see Prob . 12-8). T he n ota t
ion f o
r any TM mode , in g eneral, is TM. .
where m a nd na r
ei n tegers ( 1
, 2 ,3, ...) . I ti st oben oted t ha
tn either
mn or n may b e equa lt oz ero for TM w aves. T hus,t he lowe s
tf requency
4
66 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
2

TM wave t
hat w
i
ll b
e t
ransmi
tted by ar e
ctangu lar wave guide ist he

t
i
g
TM 1,mode.
We have seen t ha
t each mode i n a
ID
Y
1 wave guide h as a p articular c u
tof
(a) wavelength, veloci
ty, and i mpedance.
When the fr
equency i shigh e nough to
z
, p
ermit the transmiss
ion o f mo re than
o
ne mode, the re
sultantfield isthe s
um
(
b
) o
fthe f
i
eldsofthe ind
ividua
l mode fi
e
ld s
i
n the g u
ide. I f the fi
elds of o ne
mode are much st
ronger than t
hose of
FI
G. 1
2-
13. R ectangu
lar w
ave g
uide t
he others
, t h
is mode p redominates.
w
ith TEzo mode only
. Whether a c
ertain mode wil
l p
redom i-
n
ate o
rno
t, w
hen ag
uide c
an a
l
so t
ran
smi
t o
ther mode
s, d
epends l
a
rge
ly
o
n the method o
fexc
itat
ion and on t
he s
ymmet
ry ofthe g
uide
.'
F
o rexample
, s
uppose t
hat are
ctangula
r w
ave g
uide
, as s
hown i
ncr
oss
s
ection i nFig
. 1 2-13a,isexc ited inthe
TE N mode . The v ariation o f E „
a
cro sst he g
uide issinusoidal,a sshown( a)
i
n F ig
. 1 2-
13b . S uppose n ow t hat z1
S
c
rew
e
xceeds 1w ave length sotha tt he TE20
mode c an also b e tr
an sm itted
.2 I f
o
nly t he TE N mode i sexcited,n o TEN T
o
tal
w
ill appea r provided tha t the guide i
s(b)
p
e r
fectly regula r. Howeve r, in p
rac-
t
ice ce r
tain a symme tr
ies a nd i r
regu-
Ey o
f
l
ar
itie
s w ill b
e present, a nd the
se wil
l T
E
,0 (
c
)
t
end toc onvertsome o ft he TEN-mode m
ode
e
nergy into TE 20
-mode e nergy. T hus
,
i
f an a symme t
rically l ocated screw E
„of
p
rojects i nto the g uide a s i n Fig
. T
E20

1
2-14a, t he t
otal E „ f
ie
ld w il
l tend t
o m
ode
b
ecome a symme trical
, as suggested in FIG
. 12-1
4. Rectangular wave g
uide
F
ig. 12-14b. Th is total fi
e
ld may b e w
ith TE20 mode i nduced f
rom TE10
mode by asymme tr
ical
ly pl
aced p
ro-
r
e
solved in
to TEN a nd TE N compo-
j
ec
tion (
screw)
.
n
ents a
s shown i
n Fig. 12
-14c and d
.
I
f b
oth TE N and TE N modes can b
etransmi
tted
, the f
i
eld i
nthe g
uide
b
eyond the s
crew locat
ion wi
ll have e
nergy i
n both modes
. I n e
fect
1Nonpropagating mode s may a
lso bepresent (
nearirregular
itiesord i
scont
inuit
ie s
)
i
n addit
ion to t he propagat
ing mode s, but the nonp ropagating mode s a
ttenuate
r
apid
ly with d
istance. The l owe
stf r
equency mode that ag uide can t
ransmitisoften
c
al
led t
he dominan t mode
. Howeve r
,i ft
he fr
equency ish;gh enough totransmitother
modes t
he dominant mode d oes n
ot neces
sari
ly predomina te
.
2But yi < X0/
2s o thatno TE,),mode ( E i
n zdi
rect
ion ) istr
an smi
tted.
SE
C
. 1
2-3
] WAVE GU
IDES 4
67

t
he screw i s ar eceiving a ntenna t hat ext ract s e nergy f rom t he i n
ci-
d
ent TE N- mode w ave a nd r eradiates i t s o a s t o e xc
i te t he TE 20
mode. Howeve r, i f the f requency i s decrea sed s o t hat o nly t he
TE N w ave can b e t ransm itted, t he asymme tric f i
eld ( Fig
. 1 2
-14b ) w i
ll
e
xistonly int he vicinity oft he s c
rew a nd f a
rthe rd own t he guide t he fi
eld
w
ill be enti
rely int he TEN mode . T o avoid t he p roblem s of mu l
tiple-
mode transm iss
ion, aw ave g uide i susually opera ted s ot hato nly one mode
i
scapab le oft r
an sm iss
ion. F or ins
tance , toe nsure t ransm ission o nly in
t
he TEN mode , zimus tb el esst han 1w aveleng th a nd yil e
sst han w ave-
l
ength. B ut to a l
low t ransm i
ssion o f the TEN mode , z1 mu st e xceed
wavelength. H ence zi mu st b e between I Fa nd 1 w aveleng th, a nd a
v
alue of0 .7w aveleng th iso ften used s i
nce this i sw ellb elow 1w ave length
a
nd y e
t e nough mo re t han 4w avelength s o tha t t he velocity a nd t rans-
v
erse i mpedance v alue sar e no t too cr
itical af unc tion o ffrequency . We

TABLE 1
2-
1
RELAT
IONS FOR TE
„,
,, MODES IN HOLLO W RECTANGULAR
WAVE GUIDESt

Name o
fre
lat
ion R
ela
tion

C
utof
ffr
equency
c
ps
2N
1 e\
6T
i Ns±

C
utof w
ave
leng
th 2
me
ter
s

N
i
()+(
7
Y
P
hase v
e
loc
ity V
o
v
inX
oN 2 i
ntX0V
k2y
, k2z
,
v
o
me
ters/
sec
0
,0 V
X,/
w
here v = I/Vi
m

T
ransve
rse i
mpedance Zd
z oo

‘
1-
.
Zd
-
o
hms
\
11 — C d2

w
here Zd

tAl
lo fthe r
e
lations a
lso a
pply t
o TM„,
,
, mode
se xcep
tf orthe t
ransverse
-impedance
r
e
lation. T he v
elocity and i
mpedance r
e
lat
ions involv
ing (Xo/X
0.) 2a
pply no
t on
ly to
r
ec
tangu la
r gu
ides b ut al
so t
o TE mode s i
n h
ollow s i
ngle-
conduc tor gu
ides o
f any
s
hape.
4
68 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
2

r
eca ll t ha t a t c utof ( z, =iw aveleng th) t he v e loc ity a nd i mpedance
app roach i nfin ite v alue s
. The h eigh t yImay b ea ss malla sd e s
ired w ith -
out p reven ting t ransm ission o ft he TE i o mode . T oo s mall av alue o fy i
,
howeve r
, i nc rea ses a ttenua tion ( because o fp owe rl os t int he g u
ide w alls)
and a lso r educes t he p ower -hand ling c apab il
ities o ft he g uide. I ti soft en
t
he p rac tice t o make y i = zi/ 2
.
The r elation s d e rived i n t his s ection f or TE mode s i n ah ollow r ec-
t
angu la r w ave g uide ( see F ig . 1 2-7) a re s umma rized i nT able 1 2-1.
12-4. Ho llow Wave Gu ides o f O ther S hape . I n S ec. 1 2-3 w e con -
s
ide red t he r e ctangu lar w ave g u
ide . T h
is i s o nly o ne o f a n i nf
ini te
variety o f f orm s i n wh ich s ingle-conduc tor h ollow w ave g u
ide s may
b
e made . F or e xamp le , t he w ave g u
ide c ould h ave a c ircula r' c ross
s
ection a si nF ig. 1 2 -15 c
, a n ellip t
ica l' cro ss section a si nF ig
. 1 2-15d, o ra
r
een tran t' c ros ss ec tion a s i n 1 2-15f.
Al
lo ft hese f orm s a nd many o ther s may b e r ega rded a sd erivab le f r
om
t
he r ectangu la r t ype ( Fig. 1 2- 15a ). T hu s the s qua re c ro ss s e
ct ion ( Fig.
1
2- 156 ) i s as pecial c ase o f t he r ectangu lar g uide . B y b end ing o ut t he
walls t he s qua re g uide may b e t rans formed t o t he c i
rcu la r s hape ( F
ig .
1
2- 15 c)
. B yf latten ing t he c ircu larg uide t he el
lip tica lf orm o fF ig . 12-15d
i
so btained . O n t he o the rh and , b yb end ing t he t op a nd b o
t tom s urface s
o
f t he r e ctangu lar w ave g uide i nward t he form s hown i n F ig. 1 2-15 e is
o
b tained . As t
illf urthe r mod if
i cation i st he reen tran tf orm i nF ig. 1 2
-15f .
The v a
lue o fr ega rd ing t hese a s r e
la ted f orm si st ha to ften c er tain p rope r-
t
ies o f ag u
ide o f ap articu la r s hape may b e in te rpo lated a pprox ima tely
f
rom t he k nown p rop erties o fw ave g uide s ofc lose ly r elated s hape .
Fore xamp le ,t he l onge stw ave leng th t hatt he s qua re g uide ( F
ig. 1 2-156 )
w
ill t ran sm it i se qua l to 2 b. T his isf or t he TE i o m ode. T his informa -
t
ion may b e u sed t o p red ict w ith f air a ccuracy t he l onge st w aveleng th
t
ha t ac i
rcu la r g uide c an t ransm it. T hu s, ift he c ross-sec tiona l a rea o f
t
he s qua re g uide i st aken e qua l t o the a rea o ft he c ircu la r gu ide,

b2 = T (
d
-2)
2 (
12
-95
)

whe
re d = d
iame
ter o
fci
rcu
lar g
uide
. I
tfo
llow
s t
hat

d= 1
.
136 (
12
-96
)

S
ince X
.
. =2
6 f
o
r t
he s
qua
re w
ave g
uide
, w
e o
bta
in a
s t
he c
utof w
ave
-

'G. C. S outhwor th, Some Fundamenta

l E xper
imen ts w
ith Wave Guides
, Proc
.
I
.R.E., 2
5, 8 07-822, Ju
ly, 1
937.
2 L.J
.C hu , Electromagnet
ic Waves i
n Hol
low Ellip
tic P
ipes o
f Meta
l, J
. Appl
ied
P
hys., 9
,S eptembe r
, 1938
.
3S. B
. C ohn, Prope r
tie
s of R
idge Wave Guide
, Proc
. I.R
.E., 3
5, 7
83-789
, August
,
1
947.
SE
C. 1
2-5
1 WAVE GUIDES 4
69

l
e
ngth f
o
rthe c
i
rcu
lar w
ave g
uide

2
X
.
, = 1
.
13 d= 1
.
77d (
1
2-97
)

Th
isa pproxima te value e
xceeds t
he exac
t value by 4p e
r c en
t.
The procedu re fo
rc arry
ing out acomplete ana
lysis o
ft he propert
iesof
aw ave g u
ide o f any shape isf
ormally the s
ame a s in Sec
. 1 2
-3 for t
he
r
e
ctangu larg uide. I tisusua
lly mos
t convenient, howeve r
, t
os etu p t
he
e
qua t
ions i n ac oo
rdinate sys
tem such that the wave-guide surface
s can

(
a
)

(
b
)

(
c
)
-
J
I L

C D I
d)

Fm
. 1
2-15
. F
orms o
f h
ol
low s
i
ngle
-conduc
tor w
ave g
uide
s.

b
e s pecif
ied b y afi
xed v a
lue o f ac oo rdina te. T hus, as we have s een, a
r
ectangu lar guide isc onven iently h andled w ith r e
ctangular coo rdinate s
,
t
he g uide surfaces being s pecifi
ed b y y= 0 , y= y '
, z= 0 , and z = z i
.
L
ikew ise, ac i
rcular w ave g uide i s readily a nalyzed u sing c ylindrical
c
oord inates
, t he gu
ide s urface b e
ing s pecified b y r= rt. R e
fe rr
ing t o
F
ig. 1 2-
15d and e,these s hapes c an bea na lyzed u s
ing e l
lip
tical-hype rbo l
ic
c
oord inates
. However ,i fthe guide surface c annotb especif
ied in asimp le
manner ,asi nt he a
bove -men t
ioned c ase s
, t he application ofthe b ounda ry
c
ond ition (Et =0 ) may b ecome s o diff
icu lt as to make a n exact ma the-
matical analysis o
fp rohib itive comp lexi ty.
1
2-5. Attenua t
ion a t F requenc ies L ess t han C utof. I t h as b een
s
hown t hat at frequenc ies l e
ss than c utof , w aves a r
e n o
t t r
an sm itted
4
70 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
2

t
hrough ho
llow si
ngle
- conductor gu
ides bu
t a
re attenuated
. L et us n
ow
c
a
lculate t
he magnitude oft h
is a
ttenuat
ion. F rom (12-85) t
he a
ttenua-
t
i
on constant f
o
r ar ectangular g
uide a
t fr
equencies l
e
ss than c
utof is

2 2
7A2
(
12
-98
)
a = \I(n
Yr1 ( 7
1) 2 — (-
X
°
- )

No
ting (
12
-88
), t
h
is c
an b
e r
e
exp
res
sed a
s

a=22
r[
\(
'
!
°-
V
t
)
o
ci
2—1=0.
\1
(
,0)2—1 n
epe
rs/met
er (
12
-99
)

where X0 = wave
length i nan unbounded m ed
ium (meter
s)
=cutof w avelength (meter
s)
The a
ttenuation constant aa s g
iven in (1
2-99) a
pplie
s not o
nly t
o rec
-
t
angular gu
ides b ut t
o h o
llow sing
le-conductor g
uides o
f any c
ros
s-sec
-
t
i
onal s
hape.
I
fthe f
r
equency i
s much l
e
sst
han c
utof (
X
o>> X
oc)
,Eq
. (
12
-99
) r
educe
s
t
o t
he approx
imate r
e
la t
ion

2
-
a•
-
•
-
•— n
epe
rs/me
ter (
12
-100
)

whe
re Xo
c =c u
tof wavelength (me
ter
s). S
ince
, i
ndea
ling w
ith v
oltage
,
1nepe
r equa
ls 8.
68 d
ecibels (
db)
,'

2
r X 8
.68 5
4.5
a = d
b/me
ter (
12
-101
)
A
o
c xoc

Example
. Ac er
tain wave g
uide h as a c
utof wave
length x
.
,‘ o
f 10 cm. F ind t
he
a
ttenuat
ion p
er meter a
long t
he guide fo
r an appl
ied wave
length X0 o
f 1me te
r.
So
lut
ion. Since x.> x„
,, E
q. (12-100) o
r (12
-101) c
an be u
sed, y
ielding

a=2
0T n
eper
s/me
ter
, o
r 5
45 d
b/me
ter

Th
is i
s ave
ry h
igh r
ate o
fat
tenua
tion
,the a
ppl
ied f
i
eld f
a
lling t
o an
egl
igib
le v
alue i
n
avery s
hor
t d
is
tance
.

Asimp le at tenua tor operating at f r

equencies le
ss t han cutof i silus-
t
rated i
n l ongi tudinal sect
ion i n Fig. 12-
16. A me tal tube
, a c
t ing as a
wave gu
ide , h a s lo
ops arranged a t e ach end, a
s s hown , to coup le f
rom
c
oaxia
l tr ansm i s
sion lines in
to a nd o ut of t
he w ave g uide
. O ne of the
l
oops i
s moun ted o n amovab le plunge r s
o that the dis
tance b etween t he
l
oops i
sv a r
iab le. I fthe applied w avelength Xo is much longer t han the
c
utof w aveleng th X„c of the g u
ide, a nd the loops are n ot in t oo c
lose
p
roximity, t he a ttenua t
ion i s as given b y (12-100 ) or (12-101 ). F or
1Note t
hat a1 -neper a
ttenuat
ion means a r
eduction to 1
/e of t
he or
iginal va
lue
.
C
onversely
, an i
ncrease o
f 1neper means a
n i
ncrease t
o e(=2.7183) t
imes the o
r
igina
l
v
alue
. Hence , f
or v o
ltages 1neper i
sequa
l t
o 2 0 l
ogio e= 8.68 d
b.
SE
C. 1
2-6
] WAVE GUIDES 4
71

i
nstance, if Xo, 1 0 c m and Xo is much greate
r (1 meter or more)
, the
a
ttenua tion increases 5.45 d b per cent
imeter of o
utwa rd movemen t o
f
t
he p lunger
. T his type o f at
tenua tor i
s very u
seful but has the di
s-
a
dvan tage o
f ah igh in
sertion loss
, thatis
, ala
rge i
n
itialattenuat
ion w hen
i
nserted in acoax ial l
ine. S ince 13= 0,there i
sno change in p
hase with
c
hange i np
lunge r po
sition.

C
oup
l
ing l
o
ops M
oveab
le p
l
ung
er

/-
Co
axia
l
l
i
ne

C
oax
ial l
i
ne w
ave g
u
ide
F
ia. 1
2-16
. A
ttenuato
r f
or u
se a
t f
r
equenc
ies l
ss t
e han c
utof
f
.

1
2-6. Attenua t
ion at Frequenc
ies G reater t
han C utof
f. If the wave
g
uide ha
s p erfect
ly conducting wa
lls and the medium fi
ll
ing the g
uide is
l
o
ssle
ss, there isnoattenuation a
tfrequenciesgreate
rt han c
utof. T hu
s,
a = 0
,a nd from ( 1
2-84) we have fo
r ar e
ctangular gu
ide tha
t

7 = = .
\1/7
1 2 (m7 N
2 0 1 A2
2

(
12
-102
)
kY1 z
i
) k
x
./
o
r

=x _(
)
) 2= \J-(
x
.
)
2
00 (
12
-103
)

The p has e c ons tan tf i a

sg iven i n ( 12-
103 ) a pplies n oto nly t or ectangu la r
g
uides b ut t oh ol
low s ingle-conduc to rg uide s ofa ny cr o
ss -sec t
iona ls hape.
The b ehav ioro ft he p hase cons tan tf tfo r this case a nd f ort he c ase d is-
c
ussed i n S ec. 1 2 -5 i sc ompa red o n t he c ompo si
te g raph i n F ig. 1 2 -
17.
Here t he p ropaga tion c onstant 7i sshown a s ordina te vs. t he w ave leng th
X
o in a n u nbounded m ed
ium a s a bscissa. T he r ea
l p art o f - y (=a ) is
p
lotted a s t he s o
lid c urve a bove t he xa xis a nd t he i mag ina ry p art (= 13
)
a
st he d a shed c urve b elow t he a xis. A tv ery s ho rtw ave leng th s (Xo 0)
,
aisz ero, a nd 1 3a pp roaches a n i nf
inite v a
lue t hat i se qua l t o i3
o f or a n
u
nbounded m edium . A s Xoincreas es, d ec reas es untila tc u tof ( X
o =
i
sz e ro. A t st
ill l onge r wave leng ths, r
ema ins z ero, b u t ad oe s n ot.
A
t s uf i
cien t ly l o ng w aveleng th s ( X0 >> X..), aa pp roaches a v alue o f
2
1
-/X .
c a s i ndica ted . T h
is d iag ram a pplie s t o l o
ssless h o
l low s ingle-
c
onduc to r g uides w ith c ross s
e ctions o fa ny s hape .
A
ctua l g uide s a re n ot los
sles s s o t hat ai s n ot z e
ro f or X o <X . a s
i
ndica ted i n F ig. 1 2-17. Howeve r
, f or a i
r -f
il
led g uide s o f ag ood c on -
d
uc t
ing ma te rial, s uch a s copper , tii s subs tan tial
ly a s i ndica ted f or
X0 < X .
., w hile a i ss mall but n ot n eces sarily n egligible. T o c alcu late a
f
ort his e ase, w en ote ( see Fig. 12 -18) t hat t he a verage p owe ri nt he g u
ide
1
72 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CmAP
. 1
2

2
r
A
o
c

,
x
=
a0V
(ty-
1
=
R
e

=0

i
0
.
5 X oc A„ ‘ 1
.
5X o, 2
.0A„

I =0

a
=
I
mT
i
s-a
= 00
1,- (
tY

2
A
ce
F
lo. 12-
17. Composi
te graph show
ing attenuat
ion c
onstant aand p
hase c
onstant /
3fo
r
alo
ssle
ss ho
llow s
i
ngle-conductor waveguide a
s afunc
tion of t
he wave
length X0 i
nan
u
nbounded medium.

P
o

G
u
ide Wave
w
al
ls \i d
i
rec
tion

x
=0 I S
r
ihp
FI
G
. 1
2-18
. P
owe
r l
o
st i
nwa
lls o
f wave g
uide r
e
sul
ts i
nat
tenua
tion
.

v
ar
ies w
ith t
he d
i
stance xi
nthe d
i
rec
tion o
ftr
ansm
iss
ion a
sgi
ven b
y
p = p
oe-
2ax w
atts 12 -
( 1
04)

w
here average Po = p
ower a t r
e
ference po
int (x =0)
x= distance i
n direct
ion of t
r
ansmiss
ion t
hrough g
uide
(meter
s)
T
he f
acto r 2inthe e
xponent ispres en
t b
ecause powe
r isp
roport
iona
l to
f
i
e
ld squared. I tfo
llow s t
hat

_1 —dP/dx
n
eper
s/me
ter (
12
-105
)
a 2 P
S
ze. 1
2
-6) WAVE GU
IDES 4
73

I
n (12-
105) —dP/dx r epresents the decrease i
n power per un
it di
stance
a
long the g
uide at apart
icu larl o
cat
ion, w hi
le P ist
he powertransmitted
t
hrough the guide a
t that loca
tion.'
Thus
, inw ords t
he attenua t
ion cons tant inneper
s pe
r u n
it di
stance i
s
e
xpressed b
y
p
owe r lo
st pe
r u ni
t dis
tance
a—
t
wice the p
owe rtransmit
ted

I
fthe med
ium fi
ll
ing the g
uide i
slo
ssles
s, the d
ecrea
se i
npower per u
nit
d
i
stance i
sequal to t
he p
owe r l
o
st per un
it di
stance i
n t
he wa
lls o
f the
g
uide
. T his i
s
d
P 1
i
f(S.,),. ds = f d
l (
12
-106
)

where (S
..). = a verage P oynting v
ector i
nto wal
l (average wi
th re
spect
t
ot ime
). T he surface integra
l in(12-106
) istaken over ast
rip o
flength
d
x o f t
he i n
terior s ur
face o f the wave g u
ide (Fig
. 1 2
-18)
. The l ine
i
ntegra
li n (1
2-106 ) istaken around the i
ns
ide ofthe gu
ide (same p
ath as
t
hat fo
r strip
). I n general, t
he ave
rage P oynt
ing vector i
s

= R
e E xH* (
12
-107
)

S
ince E a
nd H a
re n
ormal
, the magn
itude o
fthe average P
oyn
ting v
ector
i
nto t
he c
onduct
ing wa
ll medium is(s
ee F
ig
. 12-
18 )

(&
)„ = R
elin HAZc = l
it
ii2R
eZ. (
12
-108
)

w
he re ihi
l =a b
solute v
alue (or magni
tude ) o
fthe c
omponent ofHt an-
g
ent tothe conduct
ing surface o
fthe gu
ide wa
lls
R
e Z. =real p
artoft he i
ntr
insic impedance o
fthe c
onducting wa
ll
medium (=
I
ntroducing (
1
2-108) i
n (12
- 106
) yie
lds

d
P R
eZ cf I
H
t112 d
l (
12-109
)
d
x 2

Now t
he p
owe
r t
r
ave
ling t
hrough t
he g
uide (
i
n xd
i
rec
tion
) i
s

P = ff d
s w
att
s (
12
-110
)

w
here i
nth
is c
ase t
he s
ur
face i
n
teg
ral i
staken o
ver t
he g
uide c
ros
s s
e
c-
t
i
on. Itfo
llow
s tha
t
P=-
1ReZ
,
, I
f 1
1
,21 2d
s (
12
-111
)
1
I
ti sto be noted t
hat the at
tenuation i
n th
is case i
sd ue t
o an ae
tual power lo
ss
(
Jou
le hea
ting ofguide wa
lls)
, wherea
sa tfrequenc
ie sle
ssthan cutof noJoule h
eating
e
fect i
sinvolved, t
he at
tenua t
ion be
ing due to the i
nabi
lity o
ft he g
uide t
otransmit
t
he h
igher
-order mode.
4
74 ELECTRO MAGNET1CS [
CHAP
. 1
2

where I
-1
, 21= a
bsolute value of c omponent of H tangent to ac
ros
s-
s
ect
ional plane t
h rough the g
uide (
Fig
. 12-
18)
ReZ „, =rea
l p ar
t oftransve r
se impedance o
fguide
T
he re
fore, t
he a
ttenua t
ion constant ais, i
ngenera
l, g
iven by

_ R
e Z
, d
l
n
epe
rs/me
ter (
12
-112
)
e Z
— 2R .
,f I
H
I2
1 2d
s

where R eZ , =r eal p ar t of the i ntr

ins ic impedance o f g u
ide w a
lls ( con-
ducto r)
ReZ . =r eal p a rt oft ransver se impedance o fg u
ide
1
-1
, 11= a bso lu te v a
lue o fc omponen to fH t angen tt ot he c
onduc t-
i
ng s urface o ft he guide w al
ls (integra ted around i nterior
s
urface o fg uide )
IHt2 1= ab solute v alue o f c omponen t of H t angen t t o p
lane o f
c
ross s ection t hrough g uide ( i
ntegra ted o ve r the c ross-
sectiona l area)
Equation ( 12-112) a ppl ies toa ny mode i na ny g u
ide. F ore ach mode t he
a
ttenua t
ion c ons
tan t mus t be c a
lcu lated using ( 12-112 ), wi th value s of
I
H, IIand I H
,21 corre spond ing t o the fi
eld d i
stribu t
ion f or tha t mode . I f
t
he guide w al
ls are o fg ood c onduc ting ma teria
l,w e may a s
sume , w
i th b ut
l
i
ttle e
rror,t ha tthe H -field distribu t
ion u sed in(1 2
-112 ) i sthe same a sf or
p
erfect
ly c onduc ting w alls. T he fo
llow ing examp le ilus trate sana pp lica-
t
ion of (12-112 ) to as imp le prob lem .

Examp le. F ind t he a

ttenuation c onstant fo
r a3 00- Mc/sec TE M w ave in an
i
nf
inite
-pa ralle
l-plane t
ransmiss
ion l i
ne with aspacing between p lanesof 10 cm
. T he
p
lanes or w a
lls a
re made ofc oppe r
, and the medium be tween t he planes i
sair
.
S
olution. F or a TE M w ave the transver
se impedance e quals the in
trins
ic imped-
a
nce; so (12-112) becomes

2R
e d
y
0

f
a= (
12-113
)
2R
e Zd 10 0 1
11,2
12 d
zdy

where yi = a
rbitrary di
stance al ong conducting wa
ll (s
ee Fig
. 12
-1)
z
i =spacing between w a
lls ( me
ters)
Re L =r eal part o
fi n
trinsic i mpedance of c
onduct
ing w a
lls (
ohms
)
Re Zd = r
eal part of intrinsic i mpedance of die
lectr
ic medium b e
tween w
alls
(Zd isent
irely real for l
oss
less medium)
The i
ntegra
l with H i, i
nvolvest he powerlost i
none wal
lo ft he li
ne. The t o
talp ower
l
osti
nb o
th w a
lls i
st wice th
is;h ence t
he fa
ctor 2inthe nume rator. F o
r aTE M w ave
H iseverywhere para lle
l to the w a
lls a
nd n o
rmal to the di
rection of p
ropagation so
t
hat both 1,1 and li n are perpendicula
r to the p
age instead of as s
uggested in F
ig.
1
2-18
. I tfol
lows tha t 'Ha l I H
,,I = aconstant
. H ence, (12-113) r
educes t
o

R
eZ,
,y i ReZ
,
,
a (
12-114
)
R
e Z yiz
, z
iRe Z
SE
C. 1
2-7
] WAVE GUIDES 4
75

F
orcopper a
t300 Mc/sec
,Re 2
, —4.
55 X 10-
3 o
hm,w hi
le f
o
rai
rRe Z
a 3
76.7 o
hms
.
T
here
fore
a 1
.2 X10 -•n
eper/meter
or
a= 1
.
04 x 1
0-3 d
b/me
ter

Thus
, t
he a
ttenua
tion amoun
ts t
o a
bout 1d
b f
o
r 1
,
000 me
ter
s o
fli
ne.

12-7. Waves T ravel

ing Paralle
l to aPlane B oundary. I nthe previous
s
ect
ion w e conside red the a
ttenuation o
f ag uided w ave due t
o the power
l
ost in the w a
lls o f t
he w ave gu
ide. I n th
is se c
tion some of the phe-
n
omena a ssoc iated with this powe r l
o
ss o r powe r fl
ow are d
iscussed in
more detail
.
Considert he plane bounda ry b
etween t wo m edia shown inFig
. 12-19a,
a
ssum ing t ha t m edium 1 i sair and med ium 2 i s aper
fect conductor.

M
edium 1 D
i
rec
tion o
f M
ed
ium I
(
a
i
r) (
a
i
r)
e
n
ergy f
l
ow
D
i
rec
tion o
f
f
l
ow
•
1
4®
.•• ,
.E,
.M
edium 2(
p
erfe
ctc
o
nduc
to W
:
•
a =o
o M
ed
ium 2( conducto
rwi
th
f
i
n
ite c
onduct
ivi
t ya)
(
a) (
b
)
F
lo. 1
2
-19
. TE M w
ave t
r
ave
ling t
o r
i
ght a
l
ong s
ur
face o
f p
erfe
ctly c
onduc
ting
med
ium
.

F
rom t he b ounda ry c ond i
tion t hat t he tangent ial componen t oft he el
ec-
t
r
ic fi
eld v anishe s at t he surface o f ap er
fect c onduc tor, the el
ectric fi
eld
o
f a TE M w ave t r aveling p ara l
lel t o t he b ounda ry mus t be e xactly
n
orma lt ot he b ounda ry as p o
rtrayed i nt he figure
. However , ifm edium
2has af in
ite c onduc tiv ity a there w ill be at angent ial el
ectric fi
e
ld Ez a t
t
he bounda ry , and, a s ar esult
, t he electric fi
eld of aw ave travel
ing a long
t
he bounda ry h as af orwa rd ti
lt
, a s s uggested i n Fig. 12-19b. F rom t he
c
ontinuity r e
lation f o r tangen t
ial e l
ec tr
ic f i
e
lds , the fi
eld o n bo
th s i
de s o
f
t
he bounda ry is E.
The direction a nd magn itude o ft he p ower f l
ow p er unit area are given
b
yt he P oyn t
ing v ecto r
. T he ave rage v alue ( w
ith r e
spec tt otime ) o
ft he
Poynting v ectori s

S
.
. = R
e E xH* w
att
s/me
ter
' (
12
-115
)
A
tt he s
urface o
fthe c
onduct
ing med
ium (F
ig. 1
2-19b
) the powe
rin
to the
c
onductor isin t
he nega
tive y d
i
rec
tion
, and f
r
om ( 12
- 115
) it
s a
verage
4
76 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
2

v
alue p
er u
nit a
rea i
s
'
S
„ = R
e E
.H: (
12
-116
)

T
he s
pace r
e
lat
ion o
fE„ H
. (
o
r 1:
),a
nd S
„iss
hown i
nFig
. 1
2
-20a
. B
ut

_ z
(
12
-117
)

whe
re Z. =i n
trins
ic i
mpedance o
fconduc
ting m
edium
, so t
hat (
12
-116
)
c
an be wr
itten
S
, = --1
11,1
1: R
e Z
, = R
e Ze (
12-
118
)

where H. =1 , 0e
g ) -7 x
=H. oe-r
o
wi -t
)-71 = c
omp lex con
jugate o
fH .
=phase lag o
f H, wi
th r espect t
o E.
The re
lation f
or the Poynting vec
tor i n (
12-
118) i
sthe s
ame a
s g
iven i
n
(
12-108).
M
edium 1
(
ai
r)

H
, E
, H
, S
.
r ===r
M
edium 2

(
a
)
FI
G
. 1
2-2
0
. F
ie
lds a
nd P
oyn
ting v
ecto
rats
ur
face o
f ac
onduct
ing med
ium w
ith w
ave
t
rave
ling p
ara
lle
l t
o s
ur
face
.

A
t the s
urface o
f t
he conduct
ing m edium (F
ig. 12
-19b) t
he p
owe
r p
er
u
nit a
rea f
l
ow ing p
ara
lle
l to the s
urface (
xdi
rection
) is

Sz = R
e EH :(
12
-119
)

T
he s
pace r
e
lat
ion o
f E ,H
. (
o
r 1), a
nd S
. i
silus
tra
ted b
y F
ig
. 12-20b
.
B
ut
E
„
— Zd (
12
-120)
H
,

whe
re Zd = i
n
trin
sic i
mpedance o
f d
ielectr
ic m
edium (
a
ir)
. I
t f
o
llow
s
t
hat
S. =41
/, 02 R
e Zd (
12
-121
)

The t
o
tal a
verage P
oyn
ting v
ecto
r i
sthen

I 02
=i
S. j
S, = (
iRe Zd — jR
e Z
.
) (
12
-122
)

The r
e
lat
ion o
f Sa,t
o it
s xand ycomponent
si si
lus
tra
ted i
nFig
. 1
2-20c
.
I
tistobenoted t
hatthe a
verage p
ower f
l
ow (p
er u
nita
rea
) i
snotpa
ralle
l
The component o
f t
he ave
rage Poynt
ing vector i
n t
he y d
i
rec
tion i
s M O" b
ut
t
o s
impli
fy notat
ion wesha
ll wr
ite 2
, f
or (S
,
,,),
.
SE
C
. 1
2-7
] WAVE GUIDES 4
77

t
ot he s
ur
face bu
ti nward a
ta na ngle 7
. T h
i sangle i
salso t
he s
ame asthe
a
ngle of f
orward ti
lt of t
he a ve
rage elec
t r
ic fi
eld (see F
ig. 1
2-19b)
. I f
medium 2w ere per
fect
ly conduc t
ing, rw ould be ze
ro.
I
ti so
finte
restt oeva
luatet he ti
ltangle rfor acouple o
fprac
tica
ls i
tua-
t
i
ons . This isdone inthe f
ol
low ing examp le
s.

E
xamp le 1
. F ind the f
orward ti
lt a
ngle rfo
r av er
tica
lly p
olar
ized 3
,000
- Mc/sec
w
ave trave
ling i
n ai
r along ashee
t of c
opper.
S
olu
tion. F rom (12-122
) the t
i
lt angle ri
sg iven b
y

R
e Z
.
r a
rctan (
12-123
)
R
e Z
e

A
t 3
,000 Mc/se
c, weh ave f
or c
opper t
hat Re Z
, 1
.44 X 1 0-2 o
hms
. The i
ntr
ins
ic
i
mpedance o
fair i
sindependent o
ffrequency
. ( Re Z d = 3
76.7 o
hms
.) Thus

1
.
44 X 10-
2
= a
rctan =0
.0022
°
3
76.7

Although 7i sn otz ero i

nt he above examp le,i tisvery s mal
l,s otha t Eis
n
ea r
ly n ormal t o t he c opper surface a nd S n early parallel to it
. Th is
sma l
lv alue oftil
ti st ypicalat mo s
ta ir
-conduc torb ounda r
ie sb u
ta ccoun ts
f
or t he p owe r fl
ow i nto the conduc ting m edium . I fthe conduc tivity of
med ium 2i svery l ow o rifitisad ie
lectric m edium, 7m ay amoun tt o af
ew
d
eg rees. T hus t he f o
rwa rd ti
lt o f av ert
ically p o
la r
ized r adio w ave
p
ropaga ting a l
ong p oor ground i ss uf i
cient to p roduce a n a ppreciable
h
o rizon tal electric f ie
ld c omponen t
. I n the B everage o r wave a ntenna
t
his h orizon tal c omponent i sutil
ized t o induce em fs along a h orizontal
w
i re orien ted p arallel t o t
he di
rec t
ion o ftransm ission oft he w ave
.
In con trast to E xamp le 1,inw hich m edium 2i scoppe r, the fo
llowing
e
xamp le c on
side rs t he case offresh w ater as medium 2 .

Examp le 2
. F ind the forward ti
lt ang
le 7 f
or av erticaly polar
ized 3,000
- Mc/sec
wave t
r ave
ling i
na ir a
long the s
urface of asmooth fresh-water lake
.
So
lution. A t 3,
000 Mc/sec t he c onduct
ion c urrent in fr
esh w a
ter is n
egl
igible
c
ompa red w i
th the displacement current (s
ee Fig. 10-2), 8
0t ha t the l
ake may b e
r
egarded as adie
lectric medium of re
lative p
ermittivity e, 80
. Thus

r a
rctan 1 =6
.4°
N
/T.0

I
n this c
ase t
he f
orward ti
lt o
f 6
.4° i
ss uff
ic
ien t t
o b
e r
ead
ily d
etected b
y ad
irect
measurement o
f t
he d
irect
ion o
f t
he e
lectric f
ie
ld.

The angle 7 d
iscussed above i s an average v a
lue. I n gene
ral
, t he
i
n
s tantaneous di
rection of t
he electr
ic fi
eld varies a
s af unction o
f time.
I
nt he case o
f awave ina i
rtravel
ing along acopper sheet, E.a nd E.a
re in
p
ha se oc
tature (45° phase d
iference), so t
hat a t o
ne instant oftime the
t
otal fi
e
ld E may b eint he ydi
rection and p e
riod late
ri twi
llb einthe x
4
78 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
Cn&P
. 1
2

d
i
rect
ion. A s afunct
ion oftime t
he lo
cus o
ft he ti
po f Edescribes ac
ross-
f
i
eld e
l
lipse (
s
ee Sec
. 9-15
), as p
ort
rayed inF ig. 12-21, f
o
r a3 ,000 Mc pe
r
s
ec wave i
n a
ir t
ravel
ing along a copper s
heet (in the x d
irection) a
s in
E
xamp le 1
.
1T
he el
lipse i
sn ot t
o sca
le, t
he a bs
cissa va
lue s being mag-

r
=0
.
0
2
'
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
e
l
e
c
t
r
i
c
f
i
e
l
d
i
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y V9
1
2
. 0'
6
7
.
5
'
1
3
5 45
'
1
4
7
.
5
' 2 .
5
'LI
1
8
0
'
3
6

d
e
g
r
e
si
n
0 4
t
o
0
5

2
0
2
.
5 3 7
.
5
'
' 3
2
5 1
5'
2
4
7
.
5
' 2
9
2
.
5
'
2
70
'
(
a) (
b)
Fm. 1 2-21. (a
) Magn itude v aria
tion wi
th t ime of E, and E. component s o f Eina ir
a
t the s ur
face of ac opper region for a3,000- Mc/sec TE M w ave travel
ing p ara
llel to
t
he surface. ( b) R e
sultant v aluesof E(space vec
tor)a t2 2
.5° i
ntervals o
vero ne cycle,
i
lustra t
ing e l
iptical cros
s-field at the surface of the copper region. The w ave i s
t
raveling to the ri
ght. Ab scissa va
lues are magn if
ied 5
,000 times as compa red to the
o
rdina te values
.
l
f

1
47
.5 °
1
35 °
0

2
2
.5 r=0
.002
°

C.
:re" 4
5 °
6
7
.5° 9
0
F
in. 12
-22
. P oynting vec
tor inair a
t ap o
in t on the s
urface of acopper r
eg
ion f
or a
3
,000
- Mc/sec TE M wave trave
ling a
long t
he surface (
tor i
ght). The P oynt
ing v
ector
i
sshown at 22.5° i
nte
rva ls o
ver one-ha
lf cyc
le. The o rd ina
te values a
re magn
ified
5
,000 t
imes a
s compared t o t
he ab
scissa v
alues.

n
if
ied 5,000 times. T he posit
ions of Efor v
arious va
lues o
fc o
tare i
ndi
-
c
ated. T he var
iation of the ins
tantaneous Poynting v
ecto
rf orthi
sc as
e
i
s shown i n F
ig. 12-22. H ere the o
rdina
te v a
lues are magnif
ied 5,
000
t
imes. I tistob en oted thatthe ti
pofthe Poynting v
ectortrave
ls a
round
t
he el
lipse tw
ice per c yc
le.
1P
.E pste
in,K ra ft
lin
iend iagramme f
ir d
ie Ausbre
itung d
er Wel
len i
nd erd
raht
losen
T
elegraph
ie b e
i B erucksichtigung d
er B
odensehafenheit
, Jarhb
. drah
tlo
sen T
. u.
4
, 1
76-187, 1910.
SE
C. 1
2-8
1 WAVE GU
IDES 4
79

Whe reas c oppe r h as ac omp lex i ntrin s

ic i mpedance , f r
e sh w ater, a t
t
he f r
equency c on side red i n E xamp le 2 ,h as ar eal i n trins ic i mpedance .
I
tf ollow s tha t t he E .a nd E „ c omponen ts o ft he t otal f i
eld E a re i nt ime
pha se s o t ha t t he c ross -field e l
lip se i n t h
i s c ase c ollap ses t o as traigh t
l
ine ( l
inear e ross-field ) w ith af orward t i
lt o f6 .4°.
1
2-8 . T he S ing le-w ire O pen Wave Gu ide. I n t he p rev ious s ection
weh ave s een t ha t aw ave t rave ling a long a na ir-conduc to ro ra i
r-dielec tric
bounda ry h as al ong itud ina l (E.) c omponen to ft he e lec tric f i
e ld, resulting
i
n af orwa rd t i
lto ft he t o tale lec tric f i
eld. H ence t he P oyn ting v ec to ris
note n ti
r ely p aralle l tot he b ounda ry b ut h as ac omponen t d irected f rom
t
he a iri nto t he a djacen tm edium ,a ss ugge sted i nF ig. 1 2-20c . T hi st end s
t
o k eep t he e nergy i nt he w ave f r
om s pread ing o ut a nd t o concen tra te it
n
ea r t he s urface , r esulting i n ab ound w ave, o r s urfa ce w ave. T he p ha se
v
eloc ity o f s uch a b ound w ave i sa lway s l e
s s t han t he v eloc ity i n f ree
s
pace . A lthough t he f i
eld o ft h
is g uided w ave e xtend st oi nfinity, s uch a
l
arge p ropo rtion o ft he e nergy may b e conf ined w ithin af ew w ave leng ths
o
ft he s ur face t ha t t he s urface c an b e re garded a s a n o pen t ype o fw ave
g
uide . I ts hou ld b e n o ted , h oweve r, tha t e ven t hough t he f orwa rd-tilt
e
fec t i sp re sen t a l ong a l
l f i
nitely c onduc ting s urface s
, t he b ound w ave
may b e ofn eg l
ig ib le i mpor tance w i thou t al aunch ing d evice o fr e
la tive ly
l
arge d imens ion s ( severa l w ave leng th s a cro s
s ) t o i n
i tia te t he w ave . I f
t
he s urface i sp erfec tly s moo th a nd p erfec tly c onduc ting , t he t angen tial
c
omponen t o f t he e lect ric f i
eld v an ishes , t here i sn o f orwa rd t i
lt o f t he
e
lec tric f i
eld, a nd n o t endency w ha teve r f or the w ave t ob e b ound t o t he
s
ur face .
I
n 1 899 S ommer fe ld's howed t hat aw ave c ou ld b eg uided a long ar ound
w
i re o ff in
i te c onduc tivity . Z enneck 2p ointed o utt ha tf ors im ilarr easons
aw ave t rave ling a l ong t he e arth' ss urface w ou ld t end t ob eg uided b yt he
s
ur face . Mo re r ecen t
ly G oubau a h as s hown t hat t he g uid ing a ction o fa
s
ing le r ound c onduc ting w ire c an b eg reatly e nhanced b y at hin dielec tric
c
oa ting , t he r adia l e x ten t o f t he s trong f ield b eing s uf icien t
ly s mall
t
ha t t he c oa ted w i re f orms ar e
la tive ly e fi
cien t o pen t yp e o fw ave g u
ide .
Mod ifica t
ion o ft he s ur face , a sb yc orruga tion , c an a lso e nhance t he g uid-
i
ng a ction . Howeve r
, t o i n
itia te t he g uided w ave a l ong t he wire w i th
g
ood e f
i c
iency r equ ire s ar e
lative ly l a
rge l aunch ing d ev ice, i ts func tion
b
eing t oe xc ite amode , c losely r ela ted i nf orm t ot he g uided mode , o ver a

A. S
ommer fe
ld, F or
tpflanzung elektrodynam ische r Wellen an e
inem zy
lindr
ischen
L
eiter
, Ann. P hys. u
. C hem.
, 87, 233, Decembe r
, 1 899.
J
. Zenneck, Uber d ie Fortpflanzung ebene r elecktromagne t
ischer Wellen l
angs
e
iner e
benen Leiterf
lache und ihre Beziehung zur d
raht losen Te
legraphie
, Ann.P hy
sik
.,
S
er. 4
,2 8
, 846-866 , Sept. 2
0, 1907.
G. Goubau , S ur
face Wave s a nd Their App lication t o Transmis
sion Lines
, J.
Appl
ied Phys.
, 2 1
, 119- 1128, November , 1950.
4
80 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
2

d
iamet er of perhap s seve ra
l w aveleng ths. H ence t his type of gu
ide i s
p
rac t
ical only at very high f r
equenc ies.
Ad ielectr
ic-coated s i
ng le
-w ire w ave g u
ide with t ypical d
imen s
ions i s
i
lustrated i n F ig
. 12-23 . T he d i
elec t
ric coat c on s
ists of al ayer o f
e
name l o f r
ela
tive perm ittivity e ,
. = 3h aving a t
hickne ss ofo n
ly 0.0005
waveleng th
. T he w
ire d iame ter is0 .02 w ave
length. T he conf
iguration
o
ft he electr
ic fi
eld li
nes i nthe l aunche r and along t he wire gu
ide iss ug
-
g
ested i nthe fi
gure. T he mode o n the wire i
s aTM t ype
, but iti
sl ike a
p
lane TE M w ave to ac onsiderab le distance from t he wire
.
x
i
al ,E l
i
nes Co
ax
ia
l
L
o
on
ng

[
l
i
ne L gcoated
c
onduc
ting w
ir
e -
r

1W
ire d
0
.
iame
02X
ter 3
X f
H
orn ty
pe
H
orn ty
pe w
i
th co
ating c
olle
ctor
l
auncher 0
.
0005A t h
ick
 WAVE GUIDES 4
81

1
2-3
. F ind the p hase v e
locity o fthe TE 10-mode w ave in P rob. 12-1 at af r
equency
o
f 1
.5 times i
ts cutof f requency . Ans.: 4X 1 0s me te
rs/ sec.
1
2-4
. F ind the reflect
ion a ngle 0ofthe TE, o-mode w ave inP rob. 12
-1a t af
requency
o
f2.5 times i
ts cutof f requency .
1
2-5
. Ap lane 1 ,590- Mc/sec w ave i
n ai
r i stravel
ing p arallel t o t
he b oundary o f a
c
onducting med ium w ith H p ara
lle
l to t
he b ounda ry . T he c onstant s f
or the c on-
d
uct
ing med ium a re u = 1 0 8 mhos/meter and o r = µ
, = 1 . I
ft he rms fi
eld in
ten sity
o
f t
he travel
ing w ave i s 5volt s/meter
, fi
nd t he average p owe r per unit area l o
st in
t
he c
onduc t
ing med ium . Ans
.: 1.4 X1 0-
2 w att/me ter'.
1
2-6
. S how t hatt he f
ie
ld component sfor aTM w ave in ah ol
low r ectangulars ingle
c
onductor wave g uide ( s
ee Fig . 12-7
) are g
iven b y

E
. = E0 s
i
n n
jr-s
Y i
n m " eh
.
,
8-7.
I
l
l z
,
E
y . —7E0m rcos —
nry s
in
. m
—rz e
l
k2 y , 1
/ z
,
7E 0my . nry ma
E
s = —k
l i s
z in —y, c
os -z-
,

=0
H
z „
. .n
ry mrz
z
, s
i
n —
y
, c
os

H
. = 7Y og
Eon
y
r nry . mrz .
c
os s
in eo
g- T.
y
, L
u zi

12-7. Show that t

he transverse i
mpedance o f a TE wave i
n are
ctangu
larguide i
s
e
qua l to Z
.,
. =Z o(X/X0
), whe re Zo i
st he in
trins
ic impedance o
f t
he medium
, Xt he
wavelength inthe g
uide,a nd X0 t
he wavelength i
na nunbounded medium oft
he s
ame
materia
l as fi
l
ls t
he gu
ide.
12-8. Show that t
he tr
ansver se i
mpedance o f a TM wave i
n are
ctangu
lar g
uide i
s
e
qua l t
o

Z„ = Zo — (/
1
1 7 )2 — (m
°i ° Y
X Zo — (X
° Y
2
z,

1
2-9
. Show t
hat the a
ttenuation c
ons
tant f
o
r a TE,0 w
ave a
t f
r
equenc
ies a
bove
c
utof i
nan i
nf
in
ite-para
lle
l-plane t
ran
smiss
ion l
i
ne o
rguide i
s

2R
eZ. (
X,/2d)'
a
n
eper
s/me
ter
dR
eZa •
Vi — (x
,/2d)'

whe
re R e Z. =r eal par tofi n
trins
ic impedance o
fw al
l medium (conductor
), ReZ a
=rea
l p art of i n
trinsic i mpedance of medium fil
l
ing g u
ide (d
iele
ctr
ic), d= w a
ll
s
pac
ing , and No = w ave length inu nbounded medium.
1
2-10. S how t hat the a t
tenua t
ion constant f
o
r a TE „
,„ wave a
t f
requencie
s a
bove
c
utof ina n inf
inite-para l
lel-p
lane transmiss
ion l
ine o
fs pac
ing dis

a
R
eZ. 2
(X 0
/X„
)2
dReZa _ (xop1
4 )
/ :

whe
re X = c utof wavelength.
1
2-11. A TE M wave istrave
ling i
nairp ara
lle
ltot he p
lane boundary o
f ac
onduct-
i
ng medium. S how t
ha t i
f K = NV, whe
re K = sheetc ur
ren tdensi
ty (amp/me
ter),
p
. =s ur
face cha
rge density
, and v = v
elocity o
fw ave, i
tfol
lowst hat K =H, where
Histhe magnitude o
ft he H fi
e
ld o
ft he wave.
4
82 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
2

1
2-12. Write t
he equationsg iving the var
iation o
fe ach fi
e
ld c
omponent with yand z
f
or a TE1
2 wave in as quare conduc t
ing g uide (y
i =z i
)•
1
2-13. Ske
tch the v ar
iation of the fi
e
ld c omponen ts as f
unc
tions o
f yand zfor t
he
g
uide and mode of Prob. 12-12.
1
2-14. In an i
nf
inite-paral
lel-plane air-f
il
led tran
sm ission l
i
ne of 2cm spac
ing fi
nd
t
he a
ttenua t
ion c onstant af or a TE M wave a nd f
or a TE
1 0wave at 1
0
,000 Mc/sec.
The p
lanes are made o f coppe r
.
1
2-15. Find t he a
t tenuation c ons
tant a for aho
llow si
ngle
-conductor wave g
uide
a
t an appl
ied frequency o f0 .75 ofthe lowest c
utof f
r
equency fo
r the g
uide
.
1
2-16. In an i nf
inite-paralle
l-plane transmis
sion l
ine s
how that at aw ave
length
Xo,l
e
ss than cutof , t
he attenua tion constan
t fo
r aTM i
o mode i
s

2
a
V1 — (
X 0/
2b)'

where a = a
ttenuation c
onstant f
or TE M wave.
12-17
. An air
-fi
lled ho
llow re
ctangula
r w ave gu
ide has c
ross
-sect
ional d
imens
ions
yi = 6 cm a
nd zi = 1 0 cm. Find the cu
tof f r
equenc
ies for the f
ol
lowing mode
s:
TM 10 ,TM 2 o,TM 1 1, TM 21.
Ans.: TM io a nd TM 20 n ot passed; TM i 2 ,920 Mc/sec ; TM 2 1 3,940 Mc/sec .
12-18 . Ah ol
low r ectangu larw ave g u
ide o fdimens ions y i = 3cm a nd zl = 1 0 cm i s
f
i
l
led w ith a l o
ssles s d ielectric o f re
la t
ive p erm ittivity 2 . ( a) F ind t he t ransve r se
i
mpedance f or aTE 2 o m ode att wice it
sc utof f requency . ( b) F ind t he p hase v elocity
o
f the TE 2 0 m ode a t t w ice i t
s c utof frequency .
12-19 . A TE M w ave i strave ling ina n i
nfinite-para llel-plane t ransm iss ion l ine with
1
0 cm w al
l s epara tion . G iven t hat the p eak v alue ( i
n t ime ) o f the e lectr ic f i
eld i s
1
00 v olts/me ter a nd t ha t the w al
l conduct ivity i s5 .7 X 1 0 7 mhos/me ter, f i
nd ( a) t he
a
ve rage P oyn t
ing v ec tor i nto t he w a
lls; (b) the a ttenua tion c onstant i n d ecibe ls p er
meter. The f requency i s3 00 Mc/sec .
1
2-20 . S how t ha t t he s o
lu tions fo r the fie
ld c omponen ts o f a TE mode i n ar e c
-
t
angu lar g uide s atisfy Maxwel 's equa t
ions.
1
2-21 . A 1 00- Mc/sec TE M t raveling w ave i n a n i nf
inite a ir-f
il
led p ara llel-plane
t
ran sm iss
ion l ine w ith 5cm s eparat ion h asa ne lectric fie
ld i n
tens ity of 1 00 v olt s/me ter
a
t ap oint P . I f t he g uide w alls have a n i ntrinsic i mpedance who se r eal p art i s
0
.1 o hm , (a) f i
nd t he a verage p ower at Pi n t he direction o f t ransm ission p er me ter
w
id th o f guide ; (b) f ind t he a verage P oynting v ector i nto o ne w al
l a t P ; ( c) f i
nd t he
e
lectric fie
ld i ntens ity a t ap oint 5 00 me ters from P i n t he di rection o f t ran sm ission .
1
2-22 . I n ah o
llow r ectangu la r wave g uide w i
th TE i o mode s how t hat t he r at
io o f
t
he v oltage V b etween t he top a nd bottom o f t he g u
ide ( at t he m iddle ) to t he l ongi-
t
udina l c urrent I o n t he u pper o r lowe r i n
side s urface i sa n i mpedance g iven b y
Z V/I (
Ty 1/2 z i)Z„ , whe re yi = h e
igh t o f g uide , zi = w idth o f g uide , a nd
Z„ = t ransve rse i mpedance .
1
2-23 . S how t ha t t he a t
tenua tion constant f or a TE„ ,„ w ave a t frequenc ie s above
c
utof i n ah ollow r ec tangu la r w ave g u
ide o f height yi a nd w id th z ii s

a
2R
eZ,
[(X
oPt
o,)! (
z
1/2 0
1
z1 R
e Z
d V 1— (
X
0/X
00 2

1
2-24
. Show t
hat t
he g
roup ve
loci
ty n in ah ol
low rectangu
lar s
i
ngle
-conductor
w
ave gu
ide (
equa
l t
o t
he v
eloc
ity o
f energy t
ranspo
rt) i
sgiven by
 WAVE GUIDES 4
83

v
o 1— (4
21 2— (
" .
)2
2
2
y, 2
z
i

v
o — (ty

where X0 = w
avelength i
n unbounded med
ium a nd X. =c utof waveleng
th. Both
Xo a
nd X should be d
is
tingu
ished f
rom X,the wave
length i
nt he g
uide
.
N o
te t
hatitfo
llows t
hatut, = v
.2,w
here v = p
hase v
e
loci
ty i ng
uide and 1
4 =p
hase
v
elocity i
nan unbounded medium.
 P
P 7
, -3
.
2_7
!
).
0

CHAPTER 1
3

ANTENNAS

1
3-1 . I nt roduc tion. I n p rev ious c hapters o ur a ttention h as b een
f
ocused o n s i
tua tion s w here the e nergy isconfined w ithin as ys
tem o r i
s
g
uided a l ong i t
. No c on s
ide ration h as b
een g iven t o radiation, t hat i s
,
t
he l o
ss o f e nergy f rom a s ystem i n
to free space . Wh ile t ran sm ission
l
i
nes o r w ave g uide s are u sua lly made s o a s t o m inimize r adia t
ion ,
a
ntenna s a re d e
signed t o radia te energy as e fec tively a s p ossible. I n
f
act
, r adia tion i st he primary f unction of at ran sm itt
ing a ntenna .
I
n g ene ra l, at ransm itt
ing a ntenna m ay b
ed efined a st h
es tructur ea ssoci-
a
ted with t h
er egion oft ransi
tion b etween aguided w avea nd afree- spa cew ave,
o
rv ice ver sa f or ar eceiving an tenna. I nt h
isc hapt er af ew oft he f unda -
mental p roper ties ofa ntenna s a re di
scussed.'
1
3-2 . P ropaga t
ion T ime a nd Wave length. T he w ave r adia ted f rom
a
na n tenna s p read so uti na l
ld i
rections much l i
ke a ne xpand ing s pher ical
s
oap b ubb le h aving t he a ntenna a t it
s center. T he time i tt ake s t his
wave t o re ach ad istance rf r
om t he antenna ( ors ource) is

s
e
conds

where r= d istance (meter

s)
c= v eloci
ty ofl i
ght (= 3X 1 08m e
ters/sec
)
The quanti
ty r /cisthe propagation time fo
r the wave.
Al
l points a t adistance r f
rom t he antenna h ave the same pha
se.
'
O
ther pointso fident
icalp hase a
re s
ituated at arad
ialdistance o
f 1wave
-
l
e
ng th (o
ri ntegral mult
iplesthereof
) ass uggested i
nFig. 13-
1, t
he wave
-
l
ength be
ing g iven by

X = =c
T m
ete
rs (
1
3-1
)

where c= v
eloc
ity o
flight (=3 X 1
0 m
ete
rs/
sec
)
f= f
r
equency (c
ycles/sec
)
T=1 /f = p
eriod (s
ec)
1For a more d
etai
led t r
ea tment o
f a ntenna s see
, for e
xample
, J
. D. Kraus, "An-
t
ennas," McGraw -Hil
l B ook C ompany, I nc.
, New Y ork, 1
950
.
2It i
sassumed t
hat risl arge c
ompa red w ith the si
ze o
fthe an
tenna a
nd al
so that r
i
s measured f
rom the phase center o
f the a ntenna.
4
84
SE
C. 1
3-3
] ANTENNAS 4
85

C
ons
tant
p
hase
c
i
rc
les

F
lo. 1
3
-1. C
ons
tant p
hase c
i
rcle
sof f
i
e
ld r
ad
iated f
r
om s
ource
.

1
3-3
. R etarded P oten
tials. I n d eal
ing w ith an
tenna s or r
adiating
s
ystem s the propaga t
ion time i s amatte r ofgreat i
mportance. T hus, i
f
a
n a l
terna ting current i
sf lowing in the s hor
t element in F
ig. 1
3-2, the
e
fec t o
f t he current isnot fe
lt instantaneous ly a
t the po
int P but only
a
f
t er an interval equal t
ot he time required forthe d
isturbance t
op ropa-
g
ate over t he di
stance r.
A
ccording ly
, i n
stead of writing the c
ur rent
/as
I = /0s
inw t (
13-2)
wh
ich impliesinstantaneous p
ropagat
ion ofthe
e
fectoft he cur
ren t
,w ec an i
n
troduce the t
ime
o
fpropaga tion (or r
etardat
ion time 1
, a
) sdone
b
yL orentz, and w r
ite
no. 13-2
. S
hort c
urren
t-
[
i
] = /0 s
i
nw — (
1
3-3
) c
arry
ing e
l
ement
.

where [I
] iscalled the re
ta rded c
u r
rent
. T he b
rackets [ Jmay b e added,
a
s here, t
oi nd icate expl
icity that the current i
sr e
tarded.
E
quation (1 3-3)i s as
tatemen to fthe fa
ct that th
ed i
sturbance a t atime
tand at ad i
s tance rf rom t he element i scaused by ac urrent [I
] that
o
ccu r
red a t a n e a
rlier time t— ( r
/c)
. T he time diference r /c i
st he
i
nterval required f o
r the d i
sturbance to travel t
he di
stance r .
I
tisto b e n oted that w e d
ealt with retarded quantit
ies in C hap
. 9i n
c
onnec t
ion w ith w ave propaga tion, a
lthough t he te
rm " re
ta rded" w as
C
alled r
e
tarda
tion t
ime b
ecause t
he p
hase o
fthe wave a
t Pi
sre
tarded w
ith r
e
spe
ct
t
o t
he phase o
fthe c
urrent i
nthe e
lement by a
n ang
le of/
c.
4
86 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
3

n
ot us
ed . F o
r e xample
, in Chap. 9 as
o
lution o
f t
he wave e
quat
ion is
g
iven that involves s
in (c
o
t -f i
x
) w h
ich i
ssimi
lar i
n f
orm to t
he tr
igo
-
n
ometric function in (
13-3
) s
ince'

s
i
n w --
r) = s
i
n (
c
o
t -f
i
r
)

w
here /
3= w/c =2
r/X = p
hase c
ons
tan
t
I
n c
omplex f
o
rm (
13-2
) i
s
'

[
I] = ioejw (g = Io
e i
(w
g—P
r) (
13
-4)
I
n the more g
enera
l s
ituat
ion where t
he c
urrent i
sdi
str
ibuted w
e may
w
rite f
or t
he re
tarded c
urrent d
ens
ity

[
J
1 =J
o
ei“
g -̀
( ) = je a
(
.
(-P
r) (
13
-5)
I
ntroducing thi
s va
lue of current den s
ity in (4
-176) f o
r the vecto
r
p
otentia
l, we obta
in a r
e
tarded v
ector p
otentia
l that i
sa ppl
icable i
n time
-
v
arying si
tuat
ions whe
re the d
is
tance sinvolved are s
ign
ifi
can tinte
rms o f
t
he wavelength
. Tha t is
, t
he re
ta rded vector po
tentia
l is

[
A
l =I
L) d
v =q J
o
eiw(
e r
e
) d
v (
13
-6)
4 W J vr 4
r ,
L
ikew
ise t
he s
c
ala
r p
o
ten
tia
l V may b
e p
ut i
nthe r
e
tarded f
o
rm

[
V
] = --
Al -
(-
1
2 1d
v (
13
-7)
+
Im o r
w
here [
V] = r
e
tarded s
ca
lar p
oten
tia
l

[
p
] =p
o
ej" (
t
-
1
c )= r
e
tarded c
hange d
ens
ity (
cou
lomb
s/me
ter
s)
1
3-4. The Smal
l Loop Antenna
.3 In C
hap. 8itwas s
hown t
hat the
i
nductance L o
fan i
nducto
r that i
sve
ry s
mal
l compa
red wi
th t
he wave-
l
ength i
s
A
L=9 6—•
h d
i
enrys (
13-8)

Thee xp
r e
ssion sin (c
o
t -0 x) inC hap. 9ref
ers to ap
lan ew av
et ravel
ing i nt
hex
d
i
r e
ct ion. T he r e
lation sin( 0
0 -? lc) or sin ((
4 -0r) refe
rs to as pher
ical wave
t
rave
l ing int h
e r ad
ial di
rection. A n important po
intofd iferen
ceb etw een aplane
a
nd as ph
erica
lw avei sth
at ap l
anew aves ufersn oat
tenuation (i
n alo
s s
lessm ed
ium )
b
ut as pher
ical w ave does becau s
e ite xpands over ala
rge r a
nd la
rg er reg
ion asit
p
ropaga tes
.
2 It i
sund e
rstood t ha
t th e ins
tantan eous va
lue ofcurrent isgiv
en e i
th e
r by the
i
magina ry (Im) ort he r
eal (Re) parto ft h
e exponent
ialexpress
ion in( 13
-4).
3S.R amo a nd J.R. Wh inn ery, "F
ieldsa nd W avesinM odern Radio," John Wiley
&Son s, In
c.
, N ew Y ork, 1944, p.1 8
9.
SE
C
. 1
3
-4] ANTENNAS 4
87

where A // i si n
teg ra ted along t he e ntire l e
ng th ofthe c onduc to ro fw hich
t
he i nduc to r i s made . Th is r e
la tion n eglects the e fects ofp ropaga tion
t
ime.
S
uppo set ha tt he i nducto rc onsi stso f as ingle-turn w ire loop situated in
a
ira si lus trated i nF ig. 13-3. A tl ow f r
equenc ies, w here the loop circum -
f
erence i s v e ry s mall c ompa red w i th t he
waveleng th, t he i nduc tance L i sa sg i ven b y
(
13-8). A ssum ing t ha tthe wire i sp er f
ec tly
c
onduc ting ,t he lo op h aszero resis tance ,a nd
t
herefo re t he i mpedance Z a ppea ring a tt he
l
oop t e
rm ina ls i s ap ure r eactance ( that I
i
s
, Z =j c
oL )
.
C
on side rn ow t ha tt he frequency i sr ai
sed )
s
uficien tly s o tha t t he loop c i
rcum ference -
i
sas ignifican tf rac t
ion o f aw ave leng th ( say
o
ft he o rde r o f w ave length o r mo re )
. A s Term
inals
i
t stand s
, ( 13-8) i sn o
t a dequa te f or this FIG. 13
-3. W i
rel oop.
s
i
tua tion s ince i tn eglects the p ropaga t
ion
t
ime. Howeve r, b y replacing A b y t he retarded v ecto rp o
ten tial [A
], as
g
iven i n( 1 3-6), E q. ( 13-8) may b ea pplied t ot h
iss i
tua t
ion . I tisassumed
t
hatt he lo op i ss malle nough s ot ha tt he c urrenti ss
ub stan tia
lly ofu niform
amp
litude a
nd i
n p
hase a
round t
he l
oop
. Th
is i
s ag
ood a
pprox
imat
ion
f
o
r as ma
ll l
oop w
ith a c
i
rcum
ference o
fle
ss t
han 4
-wave
leng
th. T
hus
,
(
13-8
) b
ecomes
[
A
]
L= — •d
i h
enry
s (
1
3-9
)

jo
eic
w-so
w
here [
A
] = d
v h
enry
-amp/me
ter
4
i
r
I = Ice" amp
F
or t
he c
ase o
f aw ire l
oop w
ith c
urren
t o
f amp
litude /0,[
A
] r
educe
s t
o

u
o/ 56
[
A
] = d
l
' (
1
3-10
)
4
2- r

w
here the int
eg rat
ion isc
arr
ied o
ut a
round the e
nt
ire l
oop
. T he i
nf
ini
-
t
e
simal elemen t ofp a
th l
eng
th d
l
' isa
t adistance rf
rom t
he e
l
emen t d
l
,
a
ppear
ing i n (1
3 -9
), ass
hown i
nFig. 1
3-3
.
S
ubst
i tut
ing ( 13-10
) f
or [
A
] i
n (
13-9
) yi
elds

L= e
-0 *
1
r dr •d
i
4
2
.
o
r

L = Tic
°96
96 c
os 0d
l
'dl (
1
3-12
)
4
88 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
3

E
xpre
ssing e-i
oint
e
rms o
fit
s r
ea
l a
nd i
mag
ina
ry p
art
s,

L = 10 c
osO
r - js
i
nOr c
os 0d
l
'dl
(
13
-13
)
4
w T
r

When a i
s much sma
ller than the wave
length (
r X
), f
i
r is much l
e
ss
t
han un
ity Or << 1
)
. I tf o
llow s tha
t cos'f
i
rthen a
pproache
s unity, a
nd
s
i
nO rapproaches z
ero
, so t
ha t

L= 9
6 c
os 0d
l
'dl h
enry
s (
13
-14
)

Thi
s isN eumann 's low
-frequency i nduc
tance fo
rmu la fo
r awire l
oop.
Th
is r
elat
ion i sac
tually (1
3-8) app
lied to awire l
oop.
However, at h
igher f
requenc
iesf i
r may become sign
ifi
cant s
o t
hat i
tis
s
een f
rom ( 1
3-13) tha
t Lh as both real a
nd imag
inary parts
. T ha
t i
s,

L =L
' jL" h
enry
s (
13
-15
)
where L
' =R eL
L
" =I mL
I
tf o
llows t
hat t
he t
e
rmina
l i
mpedance o
fthe l
oop i
s

Z =j
c
oL = -c
o
L" ja
i' o
hms (
13
-16
)

Thus
, t he rea l part o
f L( = L') i st he true induc tance, while cotimes t he
i
magina ry p arto fL( = c oL"
) i s aresi stance. Th is res
istance isn o
td ue to
t
he res
is t
iv i
ty o ft he wire oft he l oop b ut isina dd i
tion toa ny such r es
ist-
a
nce. I n f act
, i n the p resen t d i
s cus s
ion t he r es
istivity of the w ire is
a
ssumed t o b e zero (0. = 0) . There fore a," i scalled ar adiat
ion r esis
t-
a
nce, since t he p ower dissipa ted i n t his re
sistance ( = 1/
0 2wL" w at t
s) i s
e
qual to t he p owe r r
adiated i n to space .
Le
t u s n ow p roceed t o fi
nd t he v alue of this radiation res
istance f or a
l
oop tha ti ss mal b utn ot negl igibly s mal
l compa red w i
th the w aveleng th
(
c
ircum fe rence a bout 1w aveleng th o rl es
s). F rom ( 13-16) thi
sr ad iat
ion
r
es
istance i sgiven b y
8
R = c
oI mL=c ow, s
inr'r cos 0d rdi (
13-17)

U
sing t
he f
i
rst t
wo t
e
rms o
fthe s
e
rie
s e
xpans
ion f
o
rsi
n8r
,

R =-
47 9
w 6
96 -1
-
7r1 c
os 0e
l
'dl (
13
-18
)

2
.
No
ting t
hat r= 2
asi
n (
0
/2) a
nd t
hat d
l
' = ac
1
0
,

R = r 9
6J
O -4
(3a
3
1
)8
s
i
n' c
os 0d
0dl (
13
-19
)
SE
C. 1
3-4
] ANTENNAS 4
89

o
r
=c
o
i
loV
ia)3-
4
R 1
2 T a
l (
1
3-20
)
A
lso
, s
i
nce d
l = ad
o
,

R= "
4463
(1)3 f2' aa — n
om oi
re (
1
3-21
)
12 0 6
or
2

R =3
1
,171 (,
i) o
hms (
1
3-22
)

where A = ire = a rea o

fl o
op ( meters 2)
X= w avelength ( meters)
Equa t
ion (1
3-22) givest he radiation res
istance o
f asmallloop a
ntenna.
I
t isa bout 2p er cent i
n e rror w hen t he lo
op area is0.
01 w ave
length 2
(
ci
rcum ference a bout 4 w aveleng th)
. F or s mal
ler loops the error
d
ecreases. E quation ( 1
3-22 ) w as developed here for ac i
rcula
r loop.
However, ital
so a ppl
ies t
ol oops ofo thers hape (s
quare
, tr
iangular
, etc
.)
p
rovided the ar
ea i sequal to A.
E
xamp le
. F ind the radiat
ion r
es
istance o
f as
i
ngle
-turn c
i
rcu
lar l
oop w
ith a c
i
r-
c
umference o
f iw avelength.
S
olu
tion. The area of the lo
op i
s

A = re = r W s .0
.00497X 2

Hence t
he r
adia
tion r
e
sis
tance i
s

R =3
1
,171 (
0
.00497
)2 — 0
.77 o
hm

Thi
si sas mal
lv alue ofr adiation r
es
i s
tance. H owev er
,i ft
he r
esi
s tance
o
ft he lo
op d ue to the res
i st
iv i
ty o fthe wire issmall compared with the
r
adiat
ion r e
sistance, the l oop may b e a n ef
f
icien
t r ad
iator. A s t
he f r
e-
q
uency i sd ecreased ( c
ircum ference in wavelengths les
s), t
he radiation
r
es
istance rap id
ly r educes t o such a s mal
l v a
lue that for p
rac
tical p u
r-
p
oses radia
tion i sneglig
ib le.
The c hange i n behavior oft he lo
op a s the frequency i si ncrea sed may
a
lso b e e xplained q ual
i tative
ly a s fo
llow s
. C on s
ider t he s ma ll s qua re
w
i re loop s hown inF ig. 13-4. T he l
oop i sinthe x -y p
l ane with i t
sc en ter
a
tt he o rigin. A s
sum ing t hatt he l
oop i ss mal
l c ompa red w i
th t he w ave -
l
ength ( 1<<X )
, a n al
ternating e m
f applied a t the terminals w ill c ause a n
a
lterna ting c urrent Io f u n
iform amp litude a t a l
l p oint
s o f t he l oop.
A
cco rding t o ( 7
-151) t hi
s t ime-chang ing c urrent p roduce s a n e l
ec tric
f
i
eld E . A t al a
rge distance x1 along t he x ax
i s the total el
ec tric f i
eld is
t
he r esultant o f contr
ibu t
ions El a nd E3 c aused b y the c urrent i n sides
1a nd 3 .1 T hese componen t fi
elds ar
e s ubstan tia
lly e qual in magn itude
2S
ide
s 2a
nd 4y
ie
ld n
o f
i
e
ld a
t x
l
.
4
90 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
3

b
ut opposi
te in phase as indicated by t
he p hase diag
ram in F
ig. 1
3-5a,
s
o t
hat the t
ota
l fi
eld isnegligib
le.
S
uppose now that the s
ize oft he l
oop i
sno t negl
igible c
ompared wi
th
t
he wave
length but that e
ach s i
de is
, s
ay, 4'
-w
2 avelength l
ong. Itisst
ill

S
qua
re l
o
op

T
e
rmina
ls
Fm. 1
3-4
. S
quare l
oop
.

a
ssumed t hat t
he ins
tan taneous current isuni
fo rm around t he loop
. I n
t
h
is c ase the fi
e
ld c omponen t E3 a t x1 isno t in opposite pha se with
r
e
spect t o Ei but isretarded b y 30° ( = 3
60 0/12), a
s indicated in Fig.
1
3-5b. T his re
tardation r e
sult
s from t he f
act t hat s
ide 3 of the lo
op is
f
a
r ther f
rom xi than side 1,so that the componen t f
i
eld E 3 t
akes longer
t
or each x1and hence i
sd elayed intime or r
etarded inp hase with respect
t
o El. T he re
sultantelectric f
i
eld E isnotnegligible a
nd represents afi
eld
E3

E3

(
a) (
6
)
Fm. 13-5
. (a
) Phase r
ela
tion o
f e
lec
tric fi
e
lds a
t x1 d
ue t
o square l
oop (F
ig. 1
3-4)
when 1issma
ll c
ompared wi
th awaveleng
th and (
6) when 1i
sabout 2 w
avelength
(
0.083X
).

t
hati sr ad iated by the l oop. I n this case the l oop may b e regarded a sa n
a
ntenna .
T he above p icture i so versimp lif
ied, but i ts erve s to ilustrate the fact
t
hat a lthough r adiation i sn egligible w hen t he l oop i ss mall compa red
t
ot he w ave leng th (1< <X ), t he r adiated fi
eld may b es ignif
ican t when t he
l
oop p erime ter i
s w aveleng th. I fthe perime ter ( and area) isi n
creased
f
urther t he r adiated f i
eld b ecome s even mo re i mpo rtant.
13-5. T he S hort D ipo le A ntenna . A s hort l inear c onduc tor iso f
ten
c
al
led as hor tdipole
. I n the f ol
low ing di
scus sion , as hortd ipole isalway s
o
f f i
nite l e
ng th even t hough i t may b e v e
ry s hort. I f t he dipole is
v
ani shingly s hort
, iti sa n i nfinitesima l d
ipo le
.
A ny linear a ntenna may b e rega rded as c ompo sed o f al a
rge n umbe r
_o f
s
hort d ipo les connec ted i n se r
ies. T hus
, ak now ledge o f t
he p roperties
o
ft he sho rtd ipole isu seful i nd ete rmining t he p roper t
ieso fl onger dipoles
-

SE
C. 1
3-5
] ANTENNAS 4
91

o
r conducto r
s of mo re c
omp lex shape such a
s a
re common ly used in
p
ractice
.
L
etu sc ons
ider ashortdipo
le such asshown i
nFig
. 13-6a
. The l ength
1i
sve ry s
hortcompa red w
ith the wave
length (
1<<X)
. P latesatthe ends
o
f the dipole p
rovide capaci
tance l o
ading. The sho
rt length a
nd t he

{ .
—End p
l
ate

A +q
-,
d0

T
ransm
/
iss
ion
I1
I t 1
,
l
i
ne

—4
(
a) (
b
)
F
lo
. 1
3
-6. (
) S
a hor
tdi
pol
ean
tenna a
nd (
b
) i
t
s e
quiva
lent
.

p
resence o f thes e plates r
esult i n au ni
form c urrent I along the entire
l
ength 1o ft he dipole. T he dipo le may bee nergized b y abalanced trans-
m
ission line, ass hown . I tisa ssumed t hat the transm i
ssion li
ne do
es n ot
r
adiate, a nd its presence wi
ll t herefore b
e disrega rded. R ad
iation from
t
he end p latesi sa l
so cons
ide red t o be n
egl
igib le
. T he d
iame ter doft he
d
ipole iss mal
l c ompa red with i ts l
ength (
d< <1). Thus , f
or purposes of
a
naly s
is w e may c ons
ider t
ha tt he
s
hort d ipole a ppea rs as in F ig.
1
3-6b. H ere itc onsi
sts s
imp ly o f
athin conduc to ro flength 1with a
u
niform c urren t I a nd p oin t
c
harge s qa tt he ends. A cco rding
t
o ( 3
-61) t he c urrent and c harge
a
re related b y
d
q _I
(
1
3-23
)
d
t —
L
e t us now p
roceed to f
ind the
f
i
elds e ve
rywhere around a short
d
ipole. L et t
he dipo
le oflength 1 T

b
e p laced co
incident with the z no . 1
3
-7. R
e
lat
ion o
f d
i
pol
e t
o c
o
ord
i-
a
xis a nd with it
s center at thenat
es.
o
r
igin a
s in F
ig. 13-7
. A t any po
intPt he e
l
ectr
ic fi
e
ld ha
s, i
ng enera
l,
t
hree c
omponen t
s, Es, Eo,a nd E,
, as shown. I t i
sa s
sumed that the
medium s
urrounding the d
ipole i
sair o
r vacuum.
From (
7
-151)t he e
l
ec t
ric f
i
e
ld in
tensi
ty E atany po
int P i
sexp
ressed by

a
t
E = —VV — —
a
A v
olt
s/me
ter (
13
-24
)
4
92 ELECTRO MAGNET1C
S [
CHAP
. 1
3

where V = e
lec
tric s
cala
r potent
ial a
t p
ointP( vo
lts
)
A=v ector po
tentia
l at po
intP( henry-amp/mete
r)
From (4
-168
) the magnetic f
ie
ld H at a
ny point Pis

H =—
1 V xA amp/me
ter (
13
-25
)

whe
re i.
to = permeab il
ity ofa i
r
A=v ector potentia
l at p o
intP( henry-amp/me ter)
I
fthe scalar p o
ten t
ial Va nd the vec tor potent
ial Aa t t
he p o
int P a
re
k
nown, the e l
ectric and magne tic fi
e
ld s Ea nd H a t Pcan then be d
ete
r-
m
ined b y mean s of (13-24) and (13-25 )
. S ince w e a
re i
nterested i
n t
he
f
i
e
ld s not only at p o
in ts nea
r t he dipole but also a
t dis
tance s t
hat a
re
c
omparab le to and larger t
han t he w avelength, we mus
tu se the r
eta
rded
p
otent
ials given i n (
13-6) and (13-7)
. T hus we have

a
[
A]
E = —V
[V] — = —V[V
] —j
w
[A] v
olt
s/me
ter (
13
-26
)
a
t
a
nd

H =— 1V x[
A
] amp/me
ter (
13
-27
)
AO
w
here

[
V] —
4
r
1
eo 1 p
o
e at
-
r)
d
v v
olt
s

[
A
] =2
"° J
oej
w
(g-0 d
v h
enry
-amp/me
ter
4
w f
„

The e lectric a nd magne tic f i

elds d ue to a ny c onfigura tion o f c urrents
a
nd c ha rges a re given b y ( 1
3 -26 ) a nd ( 13-27), w here t he r e
ta rded s calar
p
oten tial [V] i s aq uan tity t ha t d epend so nly o nthe c harge s (sta t
iona ry),
a
nd t he retarded v ectorp oten tial[ A
]i s aq uan tity thatd epends o nly ont he
c
urren ts
. Equa t
ion ( 13-27 ) i ndica tes tha t the magne tic f i
eld H d epend s
o
nly o nt he curren ts,w h
i le (13-26 )i ndica tes tha tthe electric fi
eld Ed epends
o
n b o
th t he c urren ts and t he c ha rge s
. Howeve r
, t he efec to ft he c harges
d
ecrea ses mo re r apidly w ith d i
s tance t han t he e fect o f the c u rrents so
t
hat i nd eterm in ing t he r adia tion f ie
ld ( at large distances f rom ac urrent
a
nd c harge d i
st r
ibu tion ) o n
ly t he c u r
ren t s need b e c on sidered . S ince
t
he r e
ta rded p oten t
ials w i
ll b e u sed e xclusive ly in the f o
llow ing d evelop-
men t the b racke ts will b e om i
t ted f or t he s ake o f simpl icity, i tb eing
u
nde rstood t hat t he p oten tials a re r e
ta rded .
We s hal
l n ow p roceed t o f i
nd t he elect r
ic a nd magne tic f i
elds e very-
where f rom a s hor t dipo le b y f i
r st determ ining t he reta rded v ector a nd
s
calarp otentials a nd t hen s ubs titu ting t hese v a
lues i n( 13-26) a nd ( 13-27)
a
nd p e r
fo rming t he ind ica ted o pera t
ion s.
SE
C. 1
3-5
] ANTENNAS 4
93

R
efer
ring t
oFig
. 13-7 o
r 1
3
-8, t
he c
urrent i
sen
tire
ly i
nthe zd
i
rect
ion.
H
ence, itf
ol
lows that t
he r
e
tarded v
ector po
tentia
l h
as on
ly a z c
om-
p
onent
. I t
s va
lue is
1
/2 1
' P

A
, = l
A
t = -1
/
2 S d
z (
13
-28
)
f

where /0 = amp litude ( peak v a

lue i ntime) ofcurrent (same ata ll po
in t
s
a
long d ipole) (amp )
=pe rmeab il
ity off r
ee space ( =4r X 1
y 0- 7 henry/me ter)
d
z =e lemen t o flength o fc onductor (meters
)
=rad ian f requency ( = 2s1 w here f = fr
equency i nc ps)
t= time ( sec)
8= distance f rom dz t op o
in t P(see F
ig. 13-8) ( mete
rs)
/
3= p ha se con s
tant ( rad/me ter) (= 2r/X, w here X = w avelength
i
nm eters)
I
f the dis
tance f rom t he d ipole is la
rge compa red w i
th i ts length
(
r>> 1)and ift he w avelength i sla
rge c om-
p
ared with the l eng th (X> 1 )w e can put
s= r and n
eglec tt he magn itude a nd phase
d
iferences o
f t he c ontr
ibut ions from t he
d
iferent pa
rts o ft he wire
. ' T hus (13-28)
b
ecome s
A. =m o idei
c
wt-0,)
(
13-29
)
I
rr
The e
lec
tric charge i
sconf
ined to the
e
ndsofthe dipole
;s ot
urn
ing o
ur a
ttent
ion
z
j
t
n
ow t o t
he retarded s
ca
lar p
otent
ial
, i t
s
v
alue i
s
h
+-d
v= g
o [
egw
t-8 .
0 ei
(
.
t-0
.2
) 1
v
olts F
io. 1 3
-8. G
eome
try f
o
r s
hor
t
4
7ao 8
1 8
2 j
d
ipo
le.
(
13-30
)

w
here qo = ampl
itude (p
eak va
lue i
n time) of c
harge a
t e
nds o
f d
ipo
le
(
coulombs)
si = d
istance f
r
om upper e
nd o
fd ipole t
oP
8
2=d istance f
r
om lowe
r end o
fd ipo
le toP
F
rom (13
-23)

q= Id
t =— (
1
3-31
)
i
w
1I
f ri
sl a
rge compared wi
th /but ).i
sn o
tl a
rge compa red wi
th /,we may put a2
=r
i
n t
he denom inator i
n (
13-28) a
nd neglect t
he di
fferences in magni
tude. H oweve
r,
i
nsuch cases we shou
ld r
etain sin t
he exponent
ial express
ion sin
ce the d
ife
rence i
n
p
hase o
ft he contr
ibut
ions may be s
ignif
icant
.
4
94 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
3

w
here q = qoe
i
(44 '= retarded c
harge (cou
lombs
)
I = Ioe
i
(w -
0 1
)= r
etarded c
urren
t (amp )
I
tfo
llows tha
t
/0
q
o = (
13
-32
)
3
w
s
o t
hat (
13-30) c
an be r
eexpres
sed

Io eg
.
e—s
..
)]
V= (
13
-33
)
4
7
reo
ico L s1 8
2

When r> 1
,the l
i
nes o
fle
ngth si a
nd s2 f
r
om t
he e
nds o
fthe d
ipo
le t
o

-
\
T P
o p
o
int

—
cos 0
2

D
i
pole
—
2COS
FI
G
. 1
3
-9. Re
lat
ions f
or s
hort d
ipo
le when r>
>1.

t
he p
oin
t P may b
e c
ons
ide
red p
ara
lle
l, a
s s
hown i
n F
ig
. 1
3
-9, s
o t
hat

si = r— —co
s 0 (
13
-34
)
2
a
nd
8
2=r —
2 c
os 0 (
13
-35
)

S
ubs
titu
ting (
13
-34
) a
nd (
13
-35
) i
n
to (
13
-33
) a
nd c
l
ear
ing f
r
act
ion
syi
eld
s

V — Ioe
i
("40 ' ±(
1
/2) c
os O
l
e 2c
o
s e c
o
.e]
- ) — [
r— (
1
/2) c
os 0
1
e 2

4r
eojw L r2
(
13
-36
)
whe
re t
he t
e
rm (12 COS 2 0
)/4 i
n t
he d
enom
ina
to r h
as b
een neg
lec
ted in
c
ompar
ison wi
th r 2 s
ince r >
> 1
. By de Moivre
's t
heorem, (13
-36
)
b
ecomes

V — Ioe
g.
t —o
r
) 0
1co
s 0 .. 1
3
1cos 0
) ( 1
4
/
reojoo
2 c
os 2 js
i
n 2 r cos 0
)

— (
cos co
s 0 .f
t
/cos 0
) /
js
i
n r— —cos 0
)1 (
13
-37
)
2 2 2
SE
C. 1
3-5
] ANTENNAS 4
95

S
ince i
tisa
ssumed t
hatt
he waveleng
th is much g
rea
tert
han t
he l
ength
o
ft he d
ipo
le (
X> /)
,
c
os0/co
s 0— c osrl c
os 0 1 (
13-38)
2
a
nd
./0cos 0 / 3
/co s0
s
i
n (
13-39)
2 2
I
ntroducing (1
3-38
) and (
13
-39
) i
n
to (
13
-37
), t
he e
xpre
ssion f
o
r t
he
s
ca
lar potentia
l r
educes t
o

V = /0/
e
gwt -P
) cos 0(
1 c1
4
re oc r-
rjo
)'r
, vo
lts (
13
-40
)'

whe
re to = amp litude ( peak v alue i nt ime ) ofc urrent (amp)
/= l ength o fd ipole ( mete rs)
4
.7 = radian f r
equency ( = 271f, w he re f = frequency in cps)
=p ha se c onstant ( rad/me te r) ( = 2 7/X, where X = wave leng th
i
n me ter s
)
=t ime ( sec)
=a ngle b etween d ipole a nd r adius v ector oflength rtop o
int P
(
dimens ion less)
e
o=p erm ittivity o ff r
ee s pace ( = 8.85 X 1 0 -" f
arad/me te r
)
c= v elocity o fl i
gh t ( = 3X 1 08 m eters/sec)
j= c omp lex o perato r ( = N /7 1- 1
)
r= d istance f rom c ente r ofd ipole t o point P (meters
)
Equat
ion ( 1 3-40) g ives t he r etarded s calar p o
tential and (13-29) t he
r
eta
rded v ector p oten tial at ad istance ra nd a t an ang
le 0from a s hort
d
ipo
le. The o nly r estr
ictions a re t hat r> 1a nd X> > /. B e
fo re s ub-
s
t
ituting these v alues i n ( 13-26 ) a nd ( 13-27 )
l
e
t us express Ei n p o
la r coord ina te s
. T hus,
i
np o
lar coordina tes ( see Fig. 1 3-7),

E= E
i
eEe a
.E. (
13-41
)
FI
G. 13-10. Reso
lution of
Now i
npo
lar c
oord
ina
tes
v
ecto
r potent
ial i
nto A,a
nd
A= a
eAe as
o
i
to (
13
-42
) Ae c
omponents.
I
n o
ur c
ase A h
aso
nly azc
omponen
tsot
hat2
1
, =0
,and f
r
om F
ig
. 1
3
-10
Ar = A
, c
os 0 (
1343
)
= —A zs
i
n 0 (
13
-44
)
I
n p
ola
r c
oord
ina
tes w
e a
l
so h
ave f
o
r t
he g
rad
ien
t o
fthe s
ca
lar p
oten
tia
l
a
V ,ae 1a
v 8V
VV = -
r -, r s
i
n 0 0
4, (
13-45
)

INo
te t
hat 1
/e oc = '
,
Joe N
/ A4
Q/0 = 3
e 76.7 o
hms
.
4
96 E
LECTROMA.
GNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
3

I
tfol
low
sfr
om (
13-26
) a
nd t
he a
bove r
e
lat
ions t
hatt
he c
omponen
tso
fE
a
re
a
v a
v
, = —j
E c
oA, — = —j
c
oA,c
os 0— (
13-
46
)

1aV a
V
E
. = —7
. =j
c
oA,s
i
n 0— (
13
-47
)

1 aV 1 av
E4,= —
jcoA 4,— (
1348
)
rs
i
n 0a
ct
e n o
rs
i

Now in
troduc
ing t
he value o
f A, f
r
om (13
-29) and V from (
13-40
) i
nto
t
hese e
quat
ions
, we f
i
nd that E
, = 0(s
ince V i
sindependen
tof s othat
av
/ao = 0) and a
l
so that

= Iol
e
i
(ws -s
r
)co
s 0( 1 1
E
, (
13
-49
)
2
i
reo r mp
c •
ar3
)
a
nd
Iol
e
i
(wt -s
o s
i
n 0(i
t
°r
E8 = 41 r
e0 C j_ 1 j_'• 1) (
13
-50
).
2 —I
—
c
r2 c
ur:

T
urning o
ur a
ttent
ion n
ow tothe magnetic f
i
e
ld, t
h
is may b
eca
lcu
lated
b
y (13
-27)
. I n pola
r c
oordina
tes t
he cur
l ofAi s

a
, [8(s
in 04) 0
( 1
v xA —
n e
rs
i a
e
as [ai
l, a
(
rsi
n 0
)A,1 + a
4 .[a
(rA e) °
A, (
13 5
1)
+ rs
in e O
r r O
r 0
0 -

S
ince A, =0 , t he f
ir
s t and fourth t e
rm s of (13-51) are z ero
. F rom
(
13-29
), (1
3-43)
, a nd (13-44) w
e n ote that A, and A . a
re independent of
c
A
,s otha
tt he s
econd a nd th
ird terms of(13-51
) are also z
ero. T hus
, on
ly
t
he la
st two te
rm s i
n (13-5
1) c
ont ribute s
ot hat V xA h a
so n
ly a c om -
p
onent. I nt
roduc ing (13-43) a nd (13
-44) into (13-51), performing t
he
i
ndica
ted operations
, a nd substituting th
is result into (13-27), w
e fi
nd
t
hatH , =H e = 0a nd that

= I
H
I lol
e 0 s
i
n 0(
co 1
)
(
13
-52
)
c
r r

Thus the e
lec
tric and magnet
ic fi
eldsf
rom the dipole have o
nly th
ree com -
ponentsE,, E., and 14
. The c omponen t
s Eo,H ,,a nd Heare everywhe re
z
ero.
When ri sv e
ry l a
rge, t
he terms invo
lving 1 /r2 and 1/r
' in (13
-49 ),
(
1 3
-50), and (13-52) can b
e neglec
ted in c
ompa r
ison w i
th terms in 1/r.
Thus, inthe f
arf i
eld E
,isnegl
igible a
nd weh ave e fec
tively o
nly two f
i
eld
SE
C
. 1
3
-5] ANTENNAS 4
97

c
omponen
ts, E
eand I
-
1
,, g
iven b
y

=j
c
0/ 0/
e
i (*-o
r)s
i
n 0 .
301 0,
8
l
-3 -s
r
) s
i
n 0 (
13
-53
)
4
we ee
'
r
ja
elegw
i -P)s
i
n •/
o
il
/egee
. r
-)
= - s
i
n 0 (
13
-54
)
4W 4wr

T
aking t
he r
a
tio o
fEe t
o 14,a
s g
iven b
y (
1
3-53
) a
nd (
1
3-54
), w
e o
bta
in

Ee = —
1 = \I
A
t
o
- =3
76.7 o
hms (
13
-55
)
H
, t
o
e eo
This i sthe intrinsic i mpedance o ffree space.
I
ti sto b e n oted tha t Ee a nd 1-
14,are i n time phas
e i
n the f
ar f
i
eld.
Thus, Ea nd H i nthe f ar fi
eld ofthe sphe r
ica l wave f
rom t
he d
ipo
le are
r
e
la ted i n t he s ame manne r as in ap lane
t
ravel ing w ave. B oth are also p
ropo r
tiona l
t
o s in 0 . T ha t is
, b oth a re max imum
when 0= 9 0° a nd am inimum w hen 0 = 0
(
in t he direction o ft he dipo le a
xis)
. T his
v
aria tion o f Ee ( or ILO w ith angle may b e
p
or trayed b y af ie
ld pattern a si
nF ig. 13
-11 ,
t
he l ength po ft he radius v ector be
ing pro -
p
or t
iona l t o t he v alue o f the f ar fi
eld
D
(
E yo rH ,$)int ha td i
rec tion from the dipole.tp
ole

The p a
ttern i n F ig
. 1 3-11a i sone-half ofa (
a)
t
hree-d
imens ional p attern a nd i lustrates
t
hat the fi
elds are a func t
ion o f 0b ut are
i
ndependent o f f p
. T he p attern i n Fig.
1
3-11b istwo -dimensiona l and represents a
c
ross s
ect
ion t hrough the three-dimens ional
p
attern
. T he t h
ree-dimen s
ional f ar-f
ield (
b
)
p
attern of t he short d ipo
le i sd oughnut -
s
haped, w h
ile the two -dimen s
iona l pattern \Dipo
le
h
as the s
hape o f af i
gure ofe ight. FIG
. 13-11. (a) Three
-dimen-
From ( 1
3 -49)
, ( 13
-50 ), and ( 13-52) w e s
i
onaland ( ) t
b wo-d
im ens
ional
f
i
e
ld patt
e rn offa
r fi
eld (Ee o
r
n
ote t hat for as mal v a
lue of rthe e l
ec tric He) f
r
om as h o
rtd i
pole
.
f
i
eld h a s two componen ts, Er and E e
, b oth
o
f which a rei ntime phase quadra ture wi th the magnet
ic fi
eld H,. T hus,
i
nt he near fi
eld
, Ea nd H a rere
lated a si n astanding wave. A tintermedi-
a
te distances, E . and Er can app roach t ime p hase q
uad rature with ea
ch
o
the rs otha tthe to
ta lelec
tric f
i
eld v ectorr o
tatesin aplane paral
leltot he
d
irection o f propaga t
ion, exhibiting t he p henomenon o fcross
-fie
ld (see
S
ec. 9-15 )
.
I
n t he far fi
e
ld t he energy flow i sr eal. Tha t is
, the energy f l
ow is
4
98 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS I
CHAp
. 1
3

a
lways r
adially outward. T his energy is r
adiated. A s afunct
ion o f
a
ngle i
ti s max
imum a t t
he e qua
tor (0 =9 0°). I n t he n
ear fi
e
ld t he
e
nergy f
low i s la
rgely r
eact
ive. T hat is
, energy fl
ow s o
ut and b ack
t
wice p
er cycle without b
eing radiated
. The re isalso angular energy
f
l
ow (i
nt he 0direct
ion). This energy p
icture issugge
s ted b
y Fig
. 1 3
-12,

P
o
lar ax
is
0
=0 °

N
ear f
i
e
ld
F
ar
f
i
eld

ETi
ato
r

7 .1i eR
ee
n a
ryc
gtfi
v
oil
i .-
.
.
.
.-
.„-
- Ra_
d
iated-
1
.

S
hort I
, f
l
ow
d
ipo
le I
I
I
I
Fm
. 1
3-
12. E
nergy f
l
ow i
n n
ear a
nd f
a
r r
eg
ions o
fsho
rt d
ipo
le.

w
here t he arrows represent the di
rec
tion of e
nergy f
low a
t succe
ssive
i
n
stan ts
.'
L
et us n ow cons
ide r the s
i
tuation a
t very l
ow fr
equenc
ies
. Th is wi
ll
b
e referred to as the quasi-
stat
ionary ca
se. No t
ing (13
-32)
, the fi
eld
c
omponen ts c
an be expressed

Er = q
o
lc
'';
:r
o
re:
cos 0(
jw 1
)
& ± 7
3 (
13
-56
)

= qol
e
i
(.4
-0 "
)si
n 0 0
)2 _ j
u
t ,
t
__ 1)
E0 (
13
-57
)
42
rE0 c2r cr2 I 7
-
1— 3 ——

Ho = /
0
/0"
4—4
Pwr
)si
n 0(c0
.
)+ -
r 1
i
) (
1
3-58
)
r
A
s the frequency approache
s z ero (c
o 0
), the t
erms wi
th w in t
he
n
ume ra
to r c
an be n
eglected
. A lso ei(‘
"-
00 approache
s uni
ty. T hus
, f
or
t
he quas
i-stat
ionary (o
r d-c
) case 2 t
he fi
eld c
omponent s b
ecome
= qolc
os 0
(
13
-59
)
2w
e or3
g
otsin 0
E8= (
13
-60
1
4w
e or3

H
o = 101si
n 0
(
13
-61
)
4
irr2
The i
nstan taneous d
irection and t
ime r
ate o
fenergy f
l
ow p
er u
nit a
rea i
sgiven by
t
he instan
taneous P oynt
ing v ector (= E xH)
.
I For t
h
is c ase the wavelength isvery l
a
rge (X—. )s
o t
hat X>>> 1 . We al
so
h
ave r> 1a nd h ence i
n thi
s case X > r
.
SE
C. 1
3-5
] ANTENNAS 4
99

The electric f i
e
ld c omponen ts
, ( 13-59) a nd ( 13-60), are the same a s
(
2-9) and ( 2- 10) f o
r as tat
ic electr
ic dipo le, w h
ile the magne tic f
i
eld com -
p
onen t 14,i n ( .
13-61) ise quivalent to ( 4
-7 ) for ac urrente l
emen t
. S ince
t
hese f i
elds v ary a s 1 / r2 o
r 1 /r'
, t hey a re efectively c onf
ined to the
v
icinity oft he d ipole a nd radiation isn eg l
igible. A t high fr
equencies in
t
he f a
r f i
eld, h oweve r, w e note from ( 1
3 -53) and ( 13-54 ) t
hat the fi
e
lds
(
Eea nd H ,0)v ary a s 1/r. T hese fi
elds a re radiated a nd hence are o
ften
c
a
lled t he r adiation f ie
ld s o
ft he dipole.
T
he e xpre ssions f o
r t he fi
e
lds f r
om as hor td ipole
, d eveloped above, ar
e
s
umma rized i n T able 1 3-1. I n the t able t he restriction appl
ies that
r> 1a nd X> > 1 . T he three fie
ld c omponen ts n ot li
sted are everywhere
z
ero, tha t is
, E , =H , =H e =0 .

TABLE 1
3-1
F
IELDS OF A SHORT D
IPOLE

Corn
-
G
ene
ral e
xpres
sion F
ar f
i
e
ld Q
uas
i-s
tat
iona
ry
p
onent

Io
l
ei(
4"- c 1±.
os 0r 2 11 0 g
e
lc
2
1
30 os 0
E
,
2
reo LCr _
I j
cur 2
Ter3

Io
l
ei (w
g-P
o s
i
n 1
Ijr
. i 1i j
0 j_ 1 _ 60 hei
( -8
.) si
n 0 1 q
d si
n 0
E
s
4rt
o O
r 'cr2 'jcarz r X 4
ver
s

bol
e
'' ' s
i
n 0rt
.
) + 1 j
l oe
i(
.10
-' )s
in 8
1 /0/s
in 0
1
0 4
7
r c
r 1 2
r x 4
I
rri

I
fweh ad b
een in
terested o
nly i
nthe far f
i
e
ld, the d
eve
lopmen tfo
llow-
i
ng (
13
-29) c
ould h
ave been much s
impl
ified
. T he sca
larpotent
ial Vdoes
n
ot c
ontr
ibute t
o the f
ar fi
eld s
o t
hat both E a
nd H may b e d
etermined
f
rom A a
lone. T hus, f
r om (1
3-26
), Eo and H o o
f t
he fa
r fi
e
ld may b e
o
bta
ined ve
ry simply f
rom

Eo j
E
l = —j
r
.
0A (
13-62)
a
nd

Ho = 1
11 = T
E
° = —4
j) o (
1
3-63
)

w
here Zo = VIT:r
e
o =376
.7 o hm
s. O r Ho may b
e o
bta
ined d
i
rec
tly
f
r
om (13
-27) and E
e f
r
om this
. T hus
1
Ho = I
HI = — Vx A (
13-64)

a
nd n
eglec
ting t
e
rms i
n 1
/r 2,

E
e =l
E
l = =p
—oV xA (
1
3-65
)
5
00 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
3

T he fi
e
ld relat
ions in T able 13-1 are those for asho rtdipole. L onger
l
i
nea ra ntennaso rlarge antenna so fothers hape may b er egarded as made
u
po f many such shortdipole s
. H ence the fi
e
lds ofthe se la
rge rantenna s
may b e obta
ined b y i
ntegrating t he fi
e
ld con tr
ibutionsf rom a l
l the s ma
ll
d
ipole s making up the antenna .
13-6. R ad
iation Resistance o f aS hort Dipole. B y t aking the surface
i
nteg ra
l of the average P oyn t
ing v ector o ver any surface e nc
losing a n
a
ntenna t he tota
l powe r radiated b y the antenna iso btained. T hus

P = fS
.
, •d
s w
atts (
13
-66
)

where P = p owe r radiated ( wat ts

)
S
.,
. =a verage P oyn t
ing v ecto r ( wa tts/me ter 2)
The simp lest surface w e m igh t c hoo se i s asphe re with t he a ntenna in
q
uestion a t the cen ter
. S ince t he fa r-field equa t
ion s for an a ntenna are
s
imple r than the n ear-f
ield relation s, itw il
l be to our a dvan tage t o make
t
he r adius of t he s phere l arge c ompa red with t he d imen s
ion s of the
a
ntenna . I n this w ay the su r
face o ft he sphere l i
es in the far fie
ld, and
o
nly t he fa
r-f
ield c o mponen t
s n eed b e c onsidered.
Assum ing n o losses
, the p owe r r adia ted b y the an tenna i sequa l to t
he
a
verage p owe r delivered t o t he a ntenna t e
rm inals. Th is i s equal to
/02R
, w here /0 isthe amp l
i tude ( peak v alue i
nt ime) o fthe c urrenta tthe
t
ermina ls and R i st he radia t
ion r e
si stanc e appea r
ing a t t he t e
rm ina
ls.
Thus
P =4
1 02R 13 -
( 67)

a
nd t
he r
adia
tion r
e
sis
tance i
s
2
P
R = J 2 o
hms (
1
3-68
)

w
here P = r
ad
ia ted power (wa
tts
).
L
etusnow carry t
hrough the c
a
lcula
tion
, a
so u
tlined a
bove
, i
norderto
f
i
nd the r
ad
iation re
sistance o
f ashort d
ipo
le. T he power r
ad
iated i
s

P= S
.
. •d
s = jRe (
E xH*
) •d
s (
1
3-69
)

I
n t
he f
a
r f
i
e
ld o
nly E
t a
nd 1
/0 a
re n
ot z
e
ro s
o t
hat (
13
-69
) r
educe
s t
o

P= fR
eE.H:a
,
. •d
s (
1
3-70
)

w
here a
,
.=u nit vecto
r in r
adia
l d
irec
tion
. T hus t
he powe
r flow i
n t
he
f
a
r fi
eld i
sen
tirely radia
l (norma
l to s
ur
face o
f s
phere o
f in
tegra
tion
).
Bu
t a
,
. •d
s =d s
; s o
P= R
e Eel
:ds (
13
-71
)
SE
C
. 1
3-6
] ANTENNAS 5
01

whe
re Ett a
nd H: a
re c
omplex, H: be
ing t
he c
omp
lex c
onjuga
te o
f 1
4.
Now E
. = HoZ ; s
o (
13
-71) becomes

P= jRe 1 ,
1:Z d
s4 = I
H 01
2Re Zd
s (
13
-72
)

S
ince R
e Z = VA
0/e
o a
nd d
s = r2 s
i
n 0d
0dc
t
.,
`

1Vi
g
o
P =- — f 14
1 2r2 s
i
n 0d
ede
l
) (
13
-73
)
2 f
o o

w
he re t
he a
ngles 0a
nd 4
,are a
sshown i
nFig
. 1
3-7 a
nd IH4,
1i
sthe a
bso
lute
v
alue (o
r ampli
tude) o
fthe H fi
e
ld. From (1
3-54
) th
is i
s

w
/ o/s
i
n 0
I
H•
1 = (
13
-74
)

S
ubs
titu
ting t
h
is i
n
to (
13
-73
), w
e h
ave

P= 1 \i
i° (1
1 °)2 f 2
1 r rs
i i
n' 0d0d
c
p (
13
-75
)
3
2 e
o 0 Jo

Upon i
n
teg
rat
ion (
13
-75
) b
ecome
s

P= W ar w
att
s (
13
-76
)
t
o 1
2T

This i
sthe power r
adia
ted b
y t
he s
hor
t d
ipole
.
S
ubst
ituting t
he p
ower Pf
rom (
13
-76) i
n
to (13
-68
) y
ie
lds f
o
rthe r
adia
-
t
ion re
sistance o
fthe s
hor
t d
ipo
le

R =.
‘fT
° (
131)2 o
hms (
1
3-77
)
e
o e
n
r

S
ince Nrt
g
o
—/e
o =3
76.7 20w o
1 hms
, (
13
-77
) r
educe
s t
o

R =2
0(
13
1)2 = 8
07 2 () 2 o
hms (
13-78
)

E
xamp le
. F
ind t
he rad
iat
ion r
e
sistance o
f ad
ipo
le a
ntenna -6 w
/1 ave
leng
th l
ong
.
S
olu
tion. F
rom (
13-78)
R 8
00 ('A
y)' =
,7.
9ohms

The r
adia
tion r
esis
tance ofantennaso ther t
han the s
hor
td ipo
le c
an be
c
a
lculated a
sa bove prov
ided t
he f a
r f
i
eld isknown a s af
unct
ion ofang
le.
T
hus, fr
om ( 1
3-68) and (1
3-72
) t he r
adiation r
es
istance a
t the t
erm
inals

S
ince Vp oi
ec. 1
20w =
-
' Ee/l
i, w
e may a
l
so w
rite
p = 1 r
f f0 lEe l
lr2 s
i
n 0c
l
i
fdq
2
4Gr 0
5
02 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
3

o
fan a
ntenna i
sgiven b
y

1
20T
R = y 2 f 1
1
1 2d
s o
hms (
13
-79
)

whe re I HI = amp l
itude o ff ar Hf i
eld ( amp/me te r)
Jo = amp litude o ft e
rm ina l c ur rent (amp )
I
n S ec
. 1 3-4 t he r adia tion r es
is tance o f as ma ll lo op a ntenna w as
o
b ta ined b y av ecto r p oten tial integ rat ion. I ft he f ar fie
ld o ft he l oop is
known , the r adia tion r esistance c an a lso b e obta ined f r
om ( 13-79 ).
I
f w e i n tegra te t he c omp lex P oyn ting v ector (= 1 1-
E xH* ) o ver a
s
ur face e nclo sing a n an tenna , w e s hall o btain, ing ene ral
, b oth ar e a
l p art
e
qua l t o t he p owe r r adia ted a nd a n i mag ina ry p a rt e qua l to the r eac t
ive
p
owe r. Whe rea s the r eal p art, or r ad iated p owe r, i st he same f or a ny
s
urface e nclo sing t he a n tenna , the i mag ina ry, orr eac tive, p owe ro btained
d
epend so n t he s i
ze a nd s hape o ft he s urface e nclo sing t he antenna . F or
al arge s ur face l y
ing o nly i n the fa r field t he reac tive p owe r isz ero, b ut
f
or as urface l ying i n the n ear fie
ld i t may b e ofc on s
ide rable magn itude .
I
nt he case o f av ery t hin l ineara ntenna , itt urnso utt hati fthe s urface o f
i
nteg ration i sc ollapsed s o as to coinc ide w ith t he s urface o ft he a ntenna
t
he c omp lex p owe r s o o b
ta ined d iv ided b y the s qua re o f the t erm ina l
c
ur rent y i eld st he t erm ina li mpedance ( R jX)
, w he re R ist he r adiation
r
esis tance .
13-7 . D i rec t
iv ity a nd G ain. The p owe r rad ia ted b y a n an tenna i s
e
qua lt ot he s urface i nteg ralo ft he a ve rage P oyn ting v ec
tor o ver as urface
e
nclos ing t he a n tenna , a s given b y ( 13-66 )
. C on side r that the s urface i s
al arge s phe re i n the f ar f i
eld w ith t he a ntenna a t the c enter. Then
(
13 -66 ) may b e w r
i tten
P =f
fSr
r 2s
i
n 0d
0th
r
t
• w
atts (
13
-80
)
where S
,
. =r ad
ial c
omponen t o
faverage P
oyn t
ing v
ector (watts/meter 2)
r= rad
ius ofsphere (mete
rs)
The ang
les 0and doare a
s shown in F
ig. 1
3-7
. Now Sr v aries as 1/
r2 s
o
t
hatt he p
roduct Srr2i
sindependent o
fr . This p
roduct Si.
r2 i
sca
lled t
he
r
adiat
ion in
tens
ity U. T hat is
,
R
adia
tion i
n
ten
sity = U = Srr2 (
13
-81
)
Whereas5,
.h asthe d
imens ionsofp owerperarea a
nd i
sexpressed i
nw a
tts
p
er square mete
r, t
he radiation i
ntens
ity U has t
he d
imensions o
fp ower
a
nd isexpressed i
nw a
tt s pe
r uni
t sol
id ang
le (wat
tspersqua re r
ad
ian or
s
te
radian). 1 Thus
, (13-80) becomes
P= 5U d
1
1 w
att
s (
13
-81a
)
w
here d
i
t =e
l
emen
t o
fso
lid a
ngle (
= s
i
n 0d
0c/
6 s
t
erad
ians
).
IS
i
ncer
a
dian
sar
edimen
sion
les
s, Uh
a
sth
edim
ens
ion
sofp
owe
r.
 _

SE
C. 1
3-7
1 ANTENNAS 5
03

Confining our at
tention, as above, to t
he fa
r f i
e
ld, Uisindependent of
rbut, ingeneral, i
s afunc t
ion o fa ngle (
0a nd 0).
Antenna sare of
ten a pp
lied toc oncentrate e
ne rgy i
n ac
ertain d
irect
ion
.
Aq uantitat
ive m easure o
fa n antenna 's a
bil
ity top er
form t
his f
unction i
s
g
iven b y it
s direct
ivity, w h
ich i sd ef
ined as the rat
io o
f the maximum
r
adiation in
tensity to the average radiat
ion intensity
. Tha t is
,

max
imum r adiat
ion i
ntens
ity
D
irec
tiv
ity = D — (
13
-82
)
a
verage r
adiat
ion i
ntens
ity

I
fthe r
adia
tion i
n
tensi
ty i
sthe same i
nal
l d
i
rec
tions f
r
om t
he a
ntenna
'
a
nd equa
l to Uo
, t
he power r
adia
ted i
s

P =i
f Uod
12 = 4
rU o (
13
-83
)

Now Uo i
salso t
he same a
s t
he a
verag
e r
ad
iat
ion i
n
tens
ity
. T
here
fore
t
he d
i
rect
ivity i
sgiven b
y
Um
D = (
d
imens
ion
les
s) (
13
-84
)
Uo

w
here U
„
, = maximum radia
tion in
tensi
ty
U
o =a ve
rage r
adia
tion i
ntensi
ty
B
ut f
rom (
13
-83), Uo = P
/4r so t
hat (13
-84
) b
ecome
s
4
T (
max
imum rad
iation i
ntens
ity
)
D — (
13
-85
)
p
owe
r radiated
o
r
, i
n g
ene
ral
,
D — 4
1-U m (
13
-86
)
fU ci
S
1

A
ny of t
he a
bove re
lat
ions (
13
-84 )
, (
13-85
), o
r (
13-86
) may b
e u
sed t
o
c
a
lcu
late t
he d
irec
tiv
ity o
fan antenna
.
E
xamp le
. Calcu
late t
he d
irec
tivity o
f as
hor
t d
ipo
le.
S
olu
tion. F
rom ( 1
3-8
1) and (13
-72)

U =S
,r2 6
071H 4,
12r2 (
13
-87
)
w
here f
r
om (
13
-74
)
an
/ si
n
I
I (
13-88
)
= 4
7cr
S
ubs
titu
ting t
h
is i
n (
13
-87
),
U 6
07 n 2s
in
' (
13-89
)
4wc

a
nd t
he max
imum v
alue o
f Ui
sgiven b
y
2
Ur
n = 6
07 (
" 1) (
13-90
)
47c

'An antenna having a un

iform r adia
tion intens
ity in al
l directions i
sca
lled an
i
s
otropi
c antenna. I ti
s ahypo thet
ical type. The direc
tivity o
fa ni sot
rop
ic a
ntenna
i
su n
ity
. T his i
sthe sma
lle
st v a
lue that the d
i
rectivi
ty can at
ta in.
5
04 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
3

I
ntroduc
ing (
13-89
) a
nd (
13-90
) i
nto (
13 ) y
-88 i
elds f
o
r t
he d
i
rec
tiv
ity

4
v .
1
v 3
D = (
13
-91)

J
2
r
8 2
s
i
ns d
ede
,
o

Hence
,the d
irect
iv f as
ity o hor
td ipo
le i
s4. Thatis
,the max
imum r
adia
tion in
ten
sity
i
s1.5time
s as much as ift
he power w
ere r
ad
iated u
nifo
rmly i
nan d
i
rections
.

D
irectiv
ity isbased en
tirely on t
he shape o
f the f
ar- (
o
r rad
ia ted
-)
f
i
e
ld p attern
. T he antenna e f
ic
iency isn o
t invo
lved. Howeve r
, the
p
owerg ain
, orsimply t
he gain, o
fan a
ntenna doesinvo
lve t
he ef
ic
iency.
I
tisd ef
ined asf
ol
lows:

maximum rad
iation in
tens
ity
G
ain = G — (
13
-92
)
maximum rad
iat
ion i
ntensi
ty from are
fer-
e
nce a
ntenna w
ith t
he same powerinput

A
ny conven ient t
ype o
fa n
tenna may be t aken as t
he r
e
ference
. I fthe
r
e
ference antenna i
s al
oss
lessis
otropic type (r
adiat
ion i
ntens
ity u
nifo
rm
i
nall d
irec
tions), t
hen t
he ga
in (
designated Go)i sg
iven by

=U
'
(
13
-93
)

whe
re U:
„ = max imum radiat
ion intens
ity f
rom a
ntenna u ndercons
idera
-
t
ion
U
o =r adiat
ion in
tensity from a los
sle
ss (100 pe
r c ent e
ff
ic
ient
)
i
sot
ropic a
ntenna w i
th same power i
nput.
Now U:
,i sr
ela
ted tothe r
adiation in
tensi
ty U .o
f a1 00 p
e rcente f
ic
ient
a
ntenna by arad
iation ef
ic
iency factor k
. T hus
,

kU
G
o = =k
D (
13
-95
)
U
o
Thus, t he g ain of an a ntenna o ver al oss
less i
sotrop ic type e quals t he
d
irectivity i fthe antenna i s100 p e
r cen t e f
ic
ient (k = 1 )b ut islesst han
t
he d irectivity ifany losses are present i nthe antenna ( k < 1 )
.
T he directivity D isn everl es
st han u n
ity. I t
sv a
lue mu stl i
e between
1and i nf
in ity (1 < D < 0) . Ont he othe rhand, the gain (Go r Go)may
l
i
e b etween 0 a nd inf
inity.
1
3-8 . R eceiving A ntennas a nd A perture. A t ransm itting a ntenna
r
adia tese nergy. Ar e
ce iving antenna, o nt he o
therh and, co
llects ene rgy.
I
n this c onnec t
ion itiso ften usefult oc onsiderthatt he receiving a ntenna
p
osse sses a n aperture o r equivalent a rea o ver which i textracts e ne rgy
f
rom ap assing radio w ave.
Thus, s uppose that ar ece
iving a ntenna i simme rsed i n the fi
eld o f a
SE
C. 1
3-8
] ANTENNAS 5
05

p
lane t
rave
ling wave a
s suggested inFig
. 1
3-13a. T he antenna istermi-
n
ated i
n aload ofimpedance Zr = R r jXr
. L e
t t he e
ff
ecti
ve aperture
A
. of t
he antenna b
e defined as the r
at
io of the re
ceived p ower to the
p
ower dens
ity (o
r Poynting vecto
r) ofthe in
cident w ave
. T he rece
ived
p
ower i
se qual t
o IT T,where Iist he t
e
rmina l c
urrent. T here
fore

A /
2R = r
eceived p
ower 3 9
(
1 6
)
,= p
owe
r d
ensi
ty ofinc
ident w
ave -

where A, =e fective aperture (meter

s 2)
I= r ms termina l c
urrent (amp)
S= P oyn t
ing v ector (
orp owerdens
ity
) ofincidentwave (watts/
me
ter 2)
Rr = terminal r
esistance (ohms)
Replac
ing the antenna b yitsequiva
lent
,orT hevenin, g
ene
rato
rh aving
a
ne quivalen
t em f Va nd i mpedance ZA (= RA± j X
.
4), we may d
raw t he
e
quivalentci
rcuits hown inF ig
.13-13b.
The t
erminal current Ii s D
i
rec
tion o
f

Zr
V
ZA
amp (
1
3-97
) 4
1:1 / t
F p
ropaga

p
l
ane w
tion o

ave
f

w
here V = r
ms e mf i
nduced by pa
ss- '
Receiving
a
ntenna
i
ng wave (volt
s) (
a)

ZT = t
e
rm inal or load imped-
a
nce (ohm s
)
ZA = a
ntenna impedance (
ohms)
S
ubst
itut
ing (
1
3-97
) i
n
to (
1
3-96
), i
t (
b
)
f
o
llows t
hat F
la
. 1
3
- . (
13 a
) T
erm
ina
ted r
ece
iving
o2 RT
,
a
ntenna immer
sed i
n f
i
eld o
f p
lane
A °= S
KR A ± R
r)2± (
X A± X) 2] t
rave
ling wave a
nd (b
) equ
iva
lent
c
i
rcuit
.
(
13
-98)
A
ssum ing t
hat t
he a
ntenna i
sloss
less s
o that RA i
sent
ire
ly r
adiation
r
e
sistance (
RA= R,)
,the max
imum p ower wi
ll b
etrans
fer
red t
othe load
when
X T = —X 4 (
13-99)
a
nd
RT= R , (
13-
100 )

Unde
r the
se c
ond
itions t
he e
fec
tive ape
rture i
s a max
imum
, A,
„„ as
g
iven b
y
Vnir V'
A — = (
13
-101
)
4
SR,2 4SR,

T
he e fec
tive a
per
ture A. (
or max
imum efect
ive a
per
ture A.
) h
as a
d
ef
inite
, simply d
ef
ined v
alue f
or a
l
l an
tenna
s.
5
06 ELECTRO MAGNETICS '
CHAP
. 1
3

E
xamp le 1
. F ind t
he max
imum e
fec
tive a
per
ture o
f as
hor
t d
ipo
le a
ntenna
.
S
olu
tion. F rom (13
-10
1)
0̀2
(
13
-102
)
=4
SR ,

The emf i
nduced i
n t
he s
hor
t dipo
le i
s a max
imum w
hen t
he d
ipo
le i
spa
ral
lel t
o t
he
i
ncident e
l
ectr
ic f
i
eld E
. H ence

=E
l v
olts (
13-103)
The P
oyn
ting v
ector
s=E
—2 w
atts/me
ter2 (
13-
104
)
ZI
I

where Zo i
ntr
insic i
mpedance o
f med
ium (
a
ir o
r v
acuum
) (
= VIZ T
e
0
). F
rom
(
13-77) t
he r
adiat
ion r
es
istance
(
1
30 2
R
, = o
hms (
13-
105
)
S
e 6
w

S
ubst
itut
ing these va
lues fo
r 1
.
)
, S, a
nd /
I
, into (13
-102
), t
he max
imum e
fective
a
per
ture of as
hort d
ipole i
s
3
A
., — X1 = 0
.119
)0 (
13-
106 )

Thus
, regardles
s of how s mall t
he d
ipo
le is
, itcan c
ol
lect p ower over an aperture o
f
0
.119 w ave
length 2 a
nd deliver i
tto it
s te
rm ina
l impedance o r l
oad. I t i
sassumed
h
ere that the d
ipo
le i slo
ssless. However, in p
ract
ice
, losses are present due to t
he
f
i
nite conductiv
ity of the dipole c
onductor so t
hat t
he a ctual efective aper
ture is
l
e
ss than

There i
sa n in
teresting re
lat
ion between the max imum e fective ape
r-
t
ure and the d
irect
ivity ofa n an
tenna. I fthe di
rectiv
ity ofa n antenna
i
sincreased, the aperture i
sincreased in d
irect p
roportion. I t fo
llows
t
hat the d
irec
tivit
ie s
, D1a nd D2
, oft wo a
ntenna sare i
nt he s
ame propor-
t
i
on as their maximum e fec
tive apertu
res
, A cm
i and A T
hus

DI A e„
,i
(
13
-107
)
D2 — A em2
or

A e,
,
1 = A em 2 LI (
1
3-108
)

I
fan tenna 1isisotropic, D1 = 1and t he maximum e fec
tive a
perture o
f
a
nisotropic antenna ist hen given by the rat
io ofthe maximum e fect
ive
a
per
tu re to t he directivity of any a ntenna (antenna 2). We h ave
p
rev
ious ly ca
lculated the maximum e fective aper
ture and t
he d
irectiv
ity
o
f asho rt d
ipole
. I ntroducing the
se v alues in
to (13
-108) g
ives
6X2 X2

A,,1 = = 42
r (
13
-109
)

S
ubs
titut
ing t
h
is back i
n (13
-108)
, we o btain the re
lation t
hat the
d
i
rect
ivi
ty o
fany a
ntenna i
sequa
l to 4
7/X 2 t
imes i
ts max
imum e fec
tive
SE
C. 1
3-9
] ANTENNAS 5
07

a
per
ture
. T
hati
s
,
D =—
7 A
4 (
13
-110
)
x
2 4m,

O
rthe max
imum e
fect
ive a
pe r
ture ofany a
ntenna i
sequa
lto X2/
4r t
imes
i
t
s d
irec
tiv
ity
. That i
s
,
x2
A
e„
, =— D =— D X2 (
13411)
4
r 4
r

E
xamp le 2
. An a
ntenna o
perating a
t aw aveleng
th of 2 me
te r
s has a d
irect
ivi
ty
o
f 1
00. F ind the max
imum e fect
ive ape
rture o
f the a
ntenna
.
S
olu
tion. F rom (13
-111) t
he maximum e fec
tive ape
rture o
f the a
ntenna is

1
00 X 4
A .,
,, = = 3
1.8 me
ter
s2
4
T

1
3-9. The Antenna as aT erminated Transmission L
ine. I n t h
is
s
ec
tion i
tisshown that an a
ntenna behaves i
n certa
in r
espect
s l i
ke a
s
e
ction o
f t
ransmis
sion li
ne. Cons
ider, f
or i
nstance, t
he c
oaxia
l trans-
m
ission l
i
ne shown in l
ong
itud
inal s
ec
tion in F
ig. 13
-14a. T h
is li
ne has
I
n
ner t
r
u
ter
c
o
nducto
r\ r c
onduc
tor

E
nergy
f
l
ow

•
_•
• 4
2
0. - -
-
T
EM
m
ode
A
ntenna

t b
r
"-E

A A A
G
round p
l
ane O
uter
TEM TEM T
EM
mode E
nergy f
l
ow mode r
eg
ion
m
ode
T
EM A
ntenna
C
oax
ial l
i
ne mode reg
ion

(
a
) (
b
) (
c
) (
d
)
FI
G
. 1
3-14
. C
oax
ial t
ransm
iss
ion l
i
ne (
a
) w
ith s
tep
s i
ntr
ans
ition t
ostub a
ntenna (
d
).

a
n abrup t discontinuity at t
he p oint A , the d
iamete r o
f the o u
te r con-
d
uctorb eing increased at t
his po
in t
. A s aresu
lt, e
nergy fed in
to t he li
ne
f
rom t he bottom i sp ar
tial
ly ref
lec ted at A, producing a standing w ave
b
elow A . T his issuggested in the figure by the a
rrows, which i ndicate
t
he direction of e nergy fl
ow. T hus, b e
low A t here ise nergy f l
owing
u
pwa rd a nd a l
so r ef
lected energy f l
ow ing d ownwa rd (away f rom A ).
Above A t he energy flow isonly u pwa rd, itbe
ing assumed t hat the l i
ne
5
08 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
3

i
si nfinitely l ong. A bove a nd b elow A t he f i
eld i nt he l ine i so ft he TE M
(
tran sve rse e l
ec tromagne tic ) type , the d irection o ft he e lectric a nd mag -
n
e t
ic f ield l ine s Ea nd H b eing a s sugge s ted i nF ig. 1 3-14a .
Suppos en ow t hatt he i nne rc onduc toro ft he c oax ia ll i
ne i se nded a tt he
p
oint B ,a ss hown i nF ig. 1 3- 14b. I ft he l ine i se ne rgized f rom t he b ottom
a
s b efo re, t he re w i
ll n ow b e ar ef
lection n o t o nly a t A b ut a lso a t B.
Furthe rmo re, t he re w ill b e n o tran smission o fe ne rgy a bove B u nle ss the
c
onduc to r d iame ter i ss u fficient t o a ccommoda te a h ighe r-orde r mode .
Assum ing t ha t t he c onduc to r diame te r i ss uf icien t
, t he mode e xc ited i s
o
f t he TM ( tran sver s
e magne tic) t ype a s p ortrayed i n F ig . 1 3-14b.
Be
low A t he mode i ss t
illo ft he TE M t ype . T h
i si sa lso t he p redom inant
mode b etween A a nd B .
Letu sn ow p roceed as t ep f urthe ra nd c ons ide rt he s i
tua tion p or trayed
by t he l ong itud inal s e
ction i n F ig. 1 3-14 c
, w he re t he o ute r c onduc tor
f
lareso ut i nto ac onica l
, o rf unne l-shaped , s ur face . H e re t he s itua t
ion i s
much a si nF ig . 1 3-14b e xcep t tha t the w ave a bove B s pread s o ut i nto a
l
arge r r egion a s i t move s u pwa rd.
F
ina lly , s uppose t ha t t he o uter c onduc to r i s formed a t A i nto a n
i
nf
in ite f lats hee t, asi ndica ted i nF ig. 13 -14d . We h ave h e
re a r r
ived a ta
f
am iliar a ntenna a rrangemen t w h
ich may b e d e s
cr ibed a s as t ub ( o
r
un
ipo le ) a n
tenna o f l eng th 1 w ith g round p lane , t he a ntenna b eing
e
ne rgized b y ac oaxia l transm ission l i
ne. T he w ave s pread so uta bove A
a
nd i sr adia ted i nto h alfo fs pace. T here i ss t
ill ar eflec tion a tA . T here
i
sa lso a r ef
lec t
ion a t Ba l
though i n t his c a se i ti s mo re c onven ien t to
t
hink o ft he r eflection a so ccur ring i nv ary ing amoun ts o ve ra ni mag ina ry
h
em isphe rica l s urface o f r ad ius 1w ith c ente r a t A . T his h em ispher ical
s
urface may b e r egarded a s t he b ounda ry b etween t he "a ntenna r egion"
a
nd t he " ou te r r egion" a s i ndica ted i nF ig. 1 3-14d . B elow A t he w ave
I
so ft he TE M t ype . T hi s i sa l
so t he p redom inan t mode i nt he a ntenna
r
egion . Howeve r
, i nt he o uter r eg
ion t he w ave i so ft he TM t ype .'
I
ft he w ave r eflected a t B( ora tt he b ounda ry h em isphe re ) ar rive sb ack
o
nt he c oax ia ll ine a t Aw ith e qua l magn itude b u to ppo site p ha se a sc om -
p
ared w i th t he w ave r ef
lec ted a tA , the n et r ef
lec t
ion a t Ai sz ero a nd a l
l
o
f the e ne rgy t r aveling u p t he c oaxial l ine c on tinue s b eyond A i nto t he
a
ntenna r egion . The a ntenna i st hen s aid t o b e ma tched t o t he l i
ne
(
S WR = 1b elow A ). I n o rde r tha t the r ef
lec tions b ei no ppos ite p hase
a
t A , t he a n tenna l ength 1may b e a djus ted t o w ave leng th .2 W ith 1
1In acoaxialt ransmiss
ion l i
ne ene rgy i sconveyed int he die
lectric medium between
t
he c onductors. The c onductor ss erve o nly tog u
ide t
he e nergy
. L ikewise
, the c
on-
ducting structu re of an a ntenna g uide s the e nergy in t he s
ur rounding die
lectr
ic
med ium d ur
ing i t
st rans
ition f r
om a t ransm iss
ion -
line mode t o ar ad
iated mode.
2 I
n g
oing f r
om A t o Ba nd b ack t o At he wave trave
l s w avelength and hence is
i
no ppos
ite p hase with re
spect t o the w ave ref
lected at A. Ow ing t o e
nd ef
fects t
he
l
eng th r
equ i
red i sactual
ly af ew per c ent l e
ss than wavelength.
SE
C. 1
3-9
] ANTE NNAS 5
09

f
i
xed , e ven as l
igh t change inf requency p u tst he r ef
lections i no the rt han
phase o pposit
ion . T hus, a lthough t he s tand ing -wave r at
io may b e
u
n i
ty a t s ome frequency F , ittend s toi ncrea se a s the f requency d epar ts
f
rom F . Howeve r
,t here may b e ac ertain f requency b and o verw hich t he
SWR r ema ins be
low s ome accep table v a
lue . Th is isc a
lled t he impedance
b
and w id th ofthe a ntenna. T he band w id th o f at hin-stub a ntenna , asi n
F
ig. 1 3-14d, iss mall
. B y i
ncrea s
ing t he t hicknes s of t he stub t he b and
w
id th may b e i ncreased. T his isd iscus sed f urthe r in t he n ext s e
ction .
Re
fer ring again t oFig . 1
3-14d , we may i magine t hat t he space o utside
t
he b ounda ry sphe re actsl i
ke at ermina ting i mpedance ZLp laced b etween
t
he e nd o fthe antenna a nd the fl
atc onduc ting s heet
, a ss uggested i nF ig.
1
3-15a . P roceeding as tep further, the a ntenna i ts
elf may b er ega rded a s
atransm iss
ion line ofl ength 1,the equ iva len tc ircu itb eing a si nd
ica ted i n
F
ig. 1 3-15b. As tub o fu niform c r oss
s
ection h as an onun iform c haracte r-
i
s
tic i mpedance . H ence , the e quiva -
l
ent t ransm is sion l ine i sd rawn a s a
d
ive rging ( nonun iform ) li
ne. Ac on i-
(a
) c
al-stub a ntenna , a s i n Fig. 1 3-16a ,
G
round l C
on
ical
p
l
ane a
n
tenna
G
round
pl
ane
(
a
)

(
b
)
T
r
ansmi
ssion Z
„
l
i
ne A
ntenna (
b
)
F
lo. 13
-15. (a
) Stub a
ntenna of u
niform F
la. 13
-16
. (a) Con
ica
l a
ntenna a
nd (
b
)
c
ross s
ect
ion a nd (
b) equ
ivalent trans
- e
quiva
lent t
ransm
iss
ion l
i
ne.
mi
ssion l
i
ne.

h
oweve r, ha
s au niform c haracteristic impedance as indica ted b y t he
e
quivalent line in F ig. 13-16b. I f the terminat
ing or l oad i mpedance
ZL (equiva
len t t o t he b ounda ry h emisphere
) a nd the c haracter
is tic
i
mpedance Zk o f t he a ntenna a re k nown, the input impedance o f t he
a
ntenna a t A may b e calculated u sing ordinary tr
ansm ission-l
ine r ela-
t
i
ons, such as (11-71).'
Re
fe r
ring t o F
igs. 1 3-
15b a nd 1 3-16b, t
he antenna has b een r ep
la ced
b
ya ne quivalent transm ission line w hich a
ctsa s atr
ansforme ror ma tch -
'Th
is p
rocedu
re ha
s b een used b
y Schelkunof
fto ca
lcu
late t
he i
nput i
mpedance o
f
c
onica
l a
ntennas
; S. A
. S che
lkunof , "Electromagne
tic Waves
," D. Van Nostrand
Company
, Inc
., New York, 1943, C
hap. 1 .
5
10 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
3

i
ngs ection b
etween the te
rm inals and s pace a s r
epres
ented b y aload ZL.
Thus, the an
tenna it
self may b e regarded a s at r
ansformer ( or matching
s
e
ction) betw
een atwo-te
rm inalinpu ta nd s pa c
eo r
, inthe receiving case
, as
atransformer between space and t he term inals
.
13-10. Shape-Impedance C ons iderations . T he c a
lcula t
ion o f t he
i
npu t (or t
e
rm ina
l) impedance o fa nt
ennas o feven the simp lest s
hape is
t
edious at be
st, wh
ile fo
ra ntenna so fcomp lex s
hape the calculation may
b
e o fprohibi
tive dif
iculty. F o r
tuna te
ly i tisposs
ible in many c a
ses to

I
r
if
ler
c
onducto
r

O
uter
c
onducto
r

(
b
)

G
round 1
01
p
lane

(
a
) (
c
) (
d)
7
1-- 1(
e
) (
f
)
F
t°. 1
3-17
. Der
iva
tion o
fth
in-
stub a
ntenna (
f
) f
r
om b
as
ic b
road
-band t
ype (
a
).

o
bta in a g ood q ualitative i dea o f t he i mpedance c ha racte r
istic s of a n
a
ntenna f rom i tss hape . T his mo rpho logicala pproach may b ei lus trated
w
ith t he a id o f the a n
tenna s p or
trayed i n F ig
. 13-17. A t ( a
) ac oaxial
t
ransm iss
ion l i
ne ( shown i n lo ngitud inal section) isf lared o ut, w ith t he
r
atio D /d o f the c onduc tor d iame ters ma intained c ons tan t
. T hus t he
c
ha racte r
istic i mpedance o f the l ine isc onstant. I ft he tape ri sg radua l
a
nd D i slarge w here t he line e nds, t his device rad
ia te s with li
t tle or n o
r
ef
lec t
ion o n t he l i
ne a t f r
equenc ie s ranging f rom s ome l ower o r cutof
f
requency t oa ni ndefinite
ly h igh f requency . T his i
st he ultima te i nb and
w
idth . A t frequenc ies above t he c utof f requency t he i mpedance t end s
t
oa pproach ac ons tan t value e qual t o t
he c haracteristic resistance Ro o f
t
he t ransm ission l ine a sindica ted b y the p o
int ( R o,0
) o n the i mpedance
d
iag ram i nF ig . 1 3
- 18.
By b ending t he o u ter conduc tori nto ag round p lane h aving t he s hape
o
f av olcanic c rater, s hown c ut a way i nF ig
. 1 3
-17b, with i nne rc onduc to r
SE
C
. 1
3
-10
] ANTENNAS 5
11

o
f inverted t eardrop form, t he band w id th i s somewha t r educed, but
a
bove t he cutof f r
equency t he input i mpedance s t
il
l tends t o remain
c
lo
se t ot he characteris
tic res
istance o fthe f eed li
ne.
Modi fying the a n
tenna f urther to the form o fF ig. 13
-17c , t
he imped-
a
nce s how s greater v ar
iation w i
th f requency , with a n i mpedance fr
e-
q
uency c urve as suggested by curve C i nF ig
. 13-18.' B elow t he l
owest
f
r
equency ( F) atw hich the impedance i s ap ure r
esistance the curve t
ends
r
ap
id ly t oward a s mal
l resistance a nd l arge nega t
ive r eactance. The

no
. 13
-18
. T
ermina
l-
imp
edan
ce d
i
agram
. Ap o
int o
n t
h
edi
agr
am gi
ves t
h
e r e
s
is-
t
an
ce Rand r
e
actan
ce Xofth
e t
e
rmina
l i
mpedanc
e 2 R j ) a
X t apa
rti
cular
f
r
equen
cy.
f
r
equency F , o r o ne s omewha t below i t
, may b e re
garded a s the c utof
f
r
equency f or t he an tenna. A s the frequency isi n
creased a bove F t he
i
mpedance f requency c urve sp
irals int oward the cha
racter
is t
ic r es
istance
v
alue of the t r
ansm ission li
ne. T h
is i mpedance fr
equency b ehav ior is
v
ery simi
la r to t hat f o
r an open -c
ircuited transmiss
ion line hav ing c on-
s
iderab
le loss.
With each f urther mod if
ication o f the antenna to the forms o f Fig.
1
3-17d, e
,a nd f t he i mpedance v ariat
ion w ith fr
equency i ncrea ses
, t he
i
mpedance o ft he t h
in s tub ofF ig. 13-
17f v ary
ing with fr
equency o ver a
w
ide range a s sugge sted b y the curve f ( F
ig. 13
-18).2 T h
is i mpedance
f
r
equency b ehav ior i sv e
ry sim i
lar to t hat fo
r an open-c
ircu ited t rans-
m
ission l
ine h aving b ut smal
l loss
.
1T
hem
aximum r
e
s
istan
cem
ay b
e af
ewhundr
ed o
hms
.
2 T
hem
aximum r
e
s
istan
cem
ay b
emany t
hou
sand
sofohm
s.
5
12 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
3

I
ft he gradua lly f l
ared a ntenna o fF ig. 1 3 -17a i sr ega rded a s t he b asic
f
orm ( widest b and t ype), t he t h
in s t ub o fF ig . 1 3-17f r epre sent st he mo st
d
egene rate form ( narrowe st b and t ype ). A s w e d epa rt mo re f rom t he
b
as ic form, t he d iscontinu ity i n the l i
ne b ecome s mo re a brup t a t w ha t
e
ven tua lly is t he junc t
ion o f the g round p lane a nd t ran sm ission l ine.
This discontinu ity c auses s ome e ne rgy t o b e refl ected b ack i nto t he line.
The d iscontinu ity a nd reflec tion a t t he e nd o f t he a n tenna a lso i ncrea se
f
or thinne r a ntenna s
. A t s ome f requency t he t wo r ef
lec tions may c om -
p
ensa te , a
sd iscus sed inS ec. 1 3-9
, b ut t he b and w idth o fc ompensa t
ion i s
n
ar row . A ntenna s w ith l arge a nd a brup t d iscon tinu i tie s h ave l arge
r
ef
lec t
ions a nd a c
ta sr ef
lec tion lesst r an s
forme rso r ma tch ing s ections o nly
o
ve r n arrow f requency b and s, w he re t he r ef
lec t ions c ance l. A ntenna s
w
ith d iscontinu ities that a re s ma ll a nd g radua l h ave s mall reflections
a
nd a re , in gene ral, re
lative ly r eflec tion le s
s t r ans forme rs o ver w ide f re-
quency b ands .
The a ntenna s o f F ig. 1 3-17 a re
C
one o
f t he u nba lanced ( unipo le) t ype .
Howeve r
,t he c onc lus ion sr eached a re
a
lso a pplicab le t o b alanced o r s ym -
(
a)
metrica l ( dipole ) t ype s
. F or i n-
1 > 1 s
tance , t he b icon ical d ipole a ntenna
B
i
con
ica
l o
f Fig. 1 3
-19a h a
s ag reate
r b and
a
ntenna w
idth t han t he thin d
ipo le t
ype of
-
4—
1 Image p
l
ane F
ig. 13
-19b. I tist oben oted t
hatif
aconduc t
ing s hee
t (orground plane)
i
sp l
aced c oincident with the image
p
lane (plane o fsymme try) one cone
T
hi
and
n i
tenp
no
le
a II (
b
) i
nFig. 13-
19a isequiva
lent to aconi-
c
a
l a n
tenna as inF ig
. 13-17d e
xcept
f
o
r d etai
ls of the m ethod of f
e ed.
S
imilar
ly o ne-half of t he dipo le
Fm. 13-19
. B
icon
ica
l a
nd t
h
in d
ipo
le a
ntenna ofFig. 13-19b (w
ith g
round
a
ntennas.
s
heet at t he i mage plane) isequiva-
l
ent t
o the s tub ( unipo le) antenna o f Fig. 1 3- 171 I t s hou
ld b e noted
t
hat the termina l i mpedance o f ad ipole a ntenna i st w
ice the terminal
i
mpedance o ft he corre sponding u n
ipole type.
1
3-11. R eceiving-T ransm itt
ing C onsidera tions. I n t he f oregoing
s
ect
ions w e h ave d iscussed b oth t ransm itting a ntenna s that radiate
e
nergy and r e
ceiving a ntenna s that col
lec t ene rgy. I n this se
ction itis
s
hown t hat t he p attern , directivity
, a pe rture, a nd i mpedance o f a n
a
ntenna are the same w hen itisu sed fo
re i
thert ransmission orr e
ception.
However, it is also p o
in ted o u
t t hat t he c urrent d i
stribution o n the
a
ntenna is, in gene ral, n ot the s ame w hen t ransm itt
ing a s itis when
r
ece
iving.
SE
C. 1
3-11
1 ANTENNAS 5
13

I
no rde rtod emons tra te thatt he p a
t tern
, directiv
ity
, e
tc
., a
re t
he same
f
orb oth tran
sm ission a nd recep t
ion , itisnecessa ry t
oshow t
hatrec
iproc-
i
tya ppl
ie stoa ntenna s
. T hus, conside r t
wo a ntennas 1a
nd 2,a
si nF ig
.
1
3-20,w ith media everywhe re tha tare l i
near
,
p
assive, and isotropic
. S ince t he a ntenna s \ntenn
a 2
h
ave t e
rm inals and reciproci ty ist o be dem-
o
nstrated w ith r e
spe ct to t he t wo s ets of
t
e
rm inals, le
t t he a n
tenna s a nd t he l i
near
,
p
ass
ive, and is
otrop
ic med
ia be rep
laced b
y A
n
tenna 1
a
n equiva
lent ne
twork o
flinea
r, pas
sive
, a
nd
b
i
lateral impedance
s. T h
is n e
two rk may FI
G. 1
3-20
. Two a n
tennas
u
sed i
n di
scus
sion o
f rec
i-
t
hen b
e reduced t oane qu
ivalent Tne
two rk
,
proc
ity t
heorem.
a
sinFig
. 13-21. F inal
ly,rec
iproci
ty i
seas
ily
d
emonstrated f o
r th
is network by s
imple ci
rcu
it a na
lysis' and i
tfo
llows
t
hat i
fa n e m
f VI a pp
lied a
tt h
e te
rminal
s of antenna 1 ( s
ee Fig
. 13-20
)
p
rodu
ces ac urrent 1
2 atthe t
erm
inals o
fantenna 2,t h
en ac urr
ent121equa
l

'
2

T
e
rminals T
e
rminals
o
f of
a
n
tenna 1 a
n
tenna 2

• •
F
lo. 1
3-2
1. E
quiva
lent T n
etwork f
or t
wo c
oup
led a
ntennas
.

t
o 112(i n b
oth magn
itude and pha
se) wi
ll be o
btain
ed at t
he t
e
rminals o
f
a
ntenna 1w hen a
n e
mf U2 e
qual t
oV isa pp
lied atth
etermina
lsofant
enna
2
.2 T his isthe r
e
cip
roci
ty r
ela
tion o
rth
eorem fo
ra ntennas
. I nsymbols i
t
s
tates that
0
2
4
(
13
-112
)
11
2 /
2
1

T
he r
at
io '01/
/ 12i
s at
ran
sfer impedance
, b
eing t
he r
atio o
f the em
f
a
ppl
ied a
t a
ntenna 1to t
he r
esu
lting cur
rent a
t a
ntenna 2
. T hus,

VI 7
= 1
2 (
13
-113
)
1
2

L
ikew
ise, t
he r
at
io '
0
2/1
21is at
rans
fe rimpedance
, be
ing the r
a
tio o
fthe
em
f app
lied a
t an
tenna 2to t
he r
esu
lting c
urrent a
t antenna 1
. Thus,

r = Z2
I (
13
-114
)
2
1

IS
ee, f
o
r e
xamp
le, J
. D
. K
rau
s, "An
tennas
," McGraw
-Hi
ll B
ook C
ompany
, I
nc.
,
N
ew Y ork
, 1950
, p
. 2
53.
2It i
sassumed t
hat t
he em
fs a
re o
f t
he s
ame f
r
equency
.
5
14 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
Cam
.
. 1
3

F
rom t
he r
e
ciproc
ity r
e
lat
ion (
13
-112
) i
tfo
llow
stha
t

Z12 = Z21 (
13
-115
)

I
ti sto be noted tha t
, ing eneral
, the tr
ans feri mpedances are comp lex
.
Pat
tern. I fa l
l m edia involved are li
nea r, p
assive
, a nd is
otropic, rec
i-
p
rocity holds,a nd itfo
llow sdirectly t
hatu nderthese condit
ionst het r
ans-
mi
tting and r e
ceiv
ing p at
terns o fa n a
ntenna a re id
entical
. P atte
rn h ere
may refer e
ithertot he fi
eld pattern o
rt ot he powe rpattern,w hich ispro-
p
ortional to the square oft he fi
eld pa
ttern. C onfining our attention to
t
he fi
eld pattern, th
is ism easured for atransm i
tting antenna, asa ntenna

C
ur
ren
t
N
t me
ter

G
ene
rato
r

O
bse
rv a
tion-
-
c
i
rcle

Fm
. 1
3-22
. P
attern mea
surement o
n o
bserva
tion c
i
rcle
.

Ai nFig . 13-22, by observing i t

s fi
e
ld i ntens
i ty with ar ece
iv ing a ntenna
Batp oin ts around a no bservation circle having a ntenna A a ti t
sc ente r
.'
The read ing o f the current m eter a t the t e
rm inals o f antenna B i sa
measure o ft he fi
eld i
ntensity a t t
he o bservation circle. I fthe m easure-
ment p rocedure i sreversed b y interchang ing t he gene rator a nd c urrent
meter ( F
ig. 1 3
-22 ) s
o that antenna B o n the observa t
ion c i
rcle transm its
a
nd a ntenna A r ece
ive s
, itfol
low sf rom t he reciproci ty theorem t hat the
f
i
eld pat tern ofa ntenna A , observed b y moving a n
tenna B a sb e
fo re, wil
l
b
ei dentical t o that o
btained w hen a ntenna A i str ansm itt
ing .
Direc
t ivi
ty a nd Ap e
rtu r
e. D irect
iv ity w as discus sed inS ec. 13-7 f o
ra
t
ransm itting a ntenna. I n g
enera l
, t he di
rectivity i se qual to

D 4
7U„
,
(
1
3-116
)
f Udc
z
The s
ame r
e
sul
ti sobta
ined bykeep
ing t
he p
osit
ion o
fantenna B f
i
xed a
nd r
ota
ting
a
ntenna A a
bout i
ts c
enter p
oin
t.
 SE
C. 1
3-12
] ANTENNAS 5
15

whe
re U
„, = maximum radia
tion i
ntens
ity
U=r adiat
ion i
ntens
ity
dl =sin 0d0d4
) =e lement o
fsolid a
ngle
Now U i
s af
unct
ion o
fa ng
le (0and 0,se
e Fig
. 13
-7) s
o t
hatw
ecan w
rite
U = U
„
,f(0
, 4
) (
13
-117
)
w
here f
(0
, =normalized r
elat
ive s
pace (
t
hree-d
imens
ional
) p
ower p
at-
t
e
rn of antenna (
equal to f
i
eld pat
tern s
quared
). Introduc
ing (
13
-117
)
i
n
to (1
3-116), t
he d
irect
ivity is
D — (
13
-118
)
!
Me, )6/2

H ence , Di sd ependen to nly o nt he s hape o ft he p owe rp at tern. A ss hown

i
n t he p reced ing s ub sec tion, a n a ntenna h as t he same p atte rn f or b o
th
tran sm is sion a nd r ecep tion . H ence , t he d irec tiv ity d ete rm ined w ith a n
antenna 's t ransm itting p attern i si den tical w i th t he d i rectiv ity d eter-
mined w ith t he a n tenna 's r eceiving p atte rn . A cco rding ly, t he t erm
d
irec t
iv ity c an b e a pplied t o b oth t ransm itting a nd r eceiv ing a ntenna s,
t
he d irec tivity o fa n a ntenna b e
ing t he s ame f or b oth situa tions .
Acco rding t o ( 13- 111 ) t he max imum e fec tive a perture A .„
, o f a n
antenna i s e qual t o t he d irec tiv ity o f t he a ntenna t ime s ac onstant.
H ence , t he t erm max imum e fec t
ive a per ture may b e a pplied t o b oth
t
r ansm it ting a nd r eceiving a n tenna s, i tb eing u nde rstood t ha t t he max i-
mum e fective a perture o f at ransm itting a n tenna i s t he s ame a s its
max imum e fec t
ive a per ture w hen r eceiv ing .
I mpedan c
e. When a n a ntenna i st ransm i tting , i t may b e e xc ited a t
only o ne p oint. Howeve r
, w hen u sed f o
r r ecep tion t he a ntenna i s
e
xc ited o ver i t
s entire e xtent b y t he r ece ived w ave.' A s ac onsequence
t
he c ur ren t distribu tion o n t he a ntenna i s
, i n g enera l
, n ot t he s ame f or
t
ran sm is s
ion a nd r ecep tion . Howeve r
, t he a ntenna a lway s b ehaves a s
t
he s ame c i
rcu itr egard le sso ft he mode o fe xci ta tion,s ot ha tt hei mp edan ce
o
f a n a ntenna i s the s am e for t ran sm is sion a nd r eception . T his means
t
ha t i ft he t erm inal i mpedance o f at ran sm it ting a ntenna i s Zr,t he load
impedance r equired f or max imum p owe r t r ans fer w hen t he a ntenna i s
r
ece iving i se qua l toi t
s c omp lex c on juga te Z.
Tha t Zr mus t be t he s ame f or tr ansm is s
ion a nd r ecep tion may a lso be
s
een b y c onsidering ac ircuit o rn etwo rk o f many m eshe s. A lthough t he
c
ur ren ts i nt he n etwo rk a re d ependen t o n the l ocation o rl oca tions o ft he
emf s
, t he c i
rcu it i mpedance s a re i ndependen t o f the d istribu tion o f the
emf s
.
13-12 . Ne two rk R epresen ta tion. I n t h
is s ection t he u sefu lne ss o f
t
he f our -term ina l ne two rk r epre sen ta tion o f F ig. 1 3-21 i si lus tra ted i n
1F
ur
thermor
e, t
he manner i
nwhi
ch t
h
e r
e
ceiv
ing a
n
tenna i
sex
cit
ed d
epend
s o
n
t
h
ed i
rec
tion o
fth
ei n
c
id en
t wav
e.
5
16 E
LECTROMAGNETI
CS [
CHA
P. 1
3

c
onnection w ith t he d evelopmen t of an equa t
ion f or the e fect of o
ne
a
ntenna o n the term inal i mpedance ofanother a ntenna.
Let us consider t he c ase of any two a n
tennas . T he i mpedance Z „
,
i
nF ig
. 13-21 represen tst he mutuali mp
edan ce
' oft he antennas. F ur
the
r,
l
e
tt he currenta tt he t e
rm inals o
fa n
tenna 1b eI i(f
low ing upwa rd a
tthe
t
erminals, to the right into the network, and b ack through Z „
,) and t
he
c
urrent at the termina ls ofa ntenna 2b e /2 (
f
lowing u pwa rd att he t
erm
i-
n
als
, to the le
ft into the n etwork, and back through Z „,)
. A lso le
t

= Z1 — Z
,. (
13-119
)
a
nd
Z2= Z2
2- Z m (
13
-120
)

where Z11= s
e
lf-
impedance o f an
tenna 1 (
tha
t is
, t
he impedance o
f
a
ntenna 1 w hen l
ocated r
emo
te from o
the
r antennas o
r
o
bject
s)
2=s
Z2 e
lf-
impedance ofantenna 2
Then, f
rom K
irchhof's l
aw we h
ave

=/
iZi
l /2Z„
, (
13
-121
)
a
nd
V2= 1
2Z2
2 /1 ZN
i (
13
-122
)

w
here '
01 = em
f a
pplied a
t the t
e
rmina
ls o
fantenna 1
V2= emf a
pplied a
t the t
e
rmina
ls o
fantenna 2
D
ivid
ing (
13-
121) b
yI i w
eo b
tain f
ort
he t
e
rminalimpedance o
fan
tenna 1

,
Z
rt = = Z1
11 - -r (
13
-123
)
L
i

Thus
, if /2Z„
,
// 1i
sappreciable c
ompa red to Z1 t he pre
sence o
fan tenna 2
p
roduces a n a
pprec
iable efect on t
he t e
rm inal i mpedance o
f antenna 1.
S
imilar
ly, div
iding (1
3-122 ) b
y /2 we have for t he t
ermina
l impedance
o
fa n
tenna 2
V
2 7
ZT
2= = 7 r - - - (1
3-124
)
/
2 /
2

I
fan
tenna 2i
sshor
t c
i
rcu
ited (
V2 = 0
) i
tfo
llow
s t
hat
Z.2
" Ti = ZI — (
13
-125
)
L
,
22
Now the mutual i
mpedance oftwo a
ntennasbecome sle
ssa sthe di
stance
b
etween the an
tennas i
sincrea
sed. H ence
, i
tfol
low sfrom (13-125) t
hat
i
fantenna 2is moved f
ar away fr
om antenna 1
,Z „
, approaches z
ero and
'The mutuali mpedance e
qua
ls t
he negat
ive ofthe r
atio o
fthe em
fa tt
he t
ermina
ls
o
fa ntenna 2 (
when itisopen c
i
rcuited) t
o the t
e
rm ina
lc urren
tofa nt
enna 1(
thatis
,
Z
. = —1 )
2// i w
ith a
ntenna 2open c
ircu
ited).
SE
C. 1
3-12
1 ANTENNAS 5
17

t
he i nput i mpedance o f a ntenna 1 a pproaches i t
s o wn s el
f-impedance .
I
fl osses are zero t he re
al pa rt o fthe s e
lf-
impedance i st hen e qua l tothe
r
adia t
ion resistance o fthe an tenna ( t
ha ti s
,R e Z11 = r
ad iation r e
sistance).
The mu tual i mpedance Z . o f t wo a ntenna s isusually a c omp licated
e
xpre ss
ion i nvolving t he si
ze, s epara t
ion , and orientat
ion o fthe a ntenna s
.
Howeve r,i nt he case oft wo s ho r
td ipo le antenna sthe re
la tion isrelatively
s
imp le and ilus tratesc l
ea r
ly t he efec to ft he
se v a
riables. T hus, asindi-
c
ated i nP rob. 1 3-10, the mu tua l impedance o ftwo shor t dipoles c an be
r
esolved i n
to t hree factors
. T he fi
r s
ti s amagn itude facto rinvolv ing the
l
ength o f the d ipoles and t he ir sepa ration, the second i sa n o r
ien tat
ion
f
acto r
, a nd t he t hird is ap eriodic o r comp lex fac
to r ( with r ea
l a nd
i
mag inary p arts) i nvo
lving t he sepa ra t
ion o ft he d
ipoles.

PROBLE MS

1
3-1
. S
how t
hat t
he f
ar
-fi
eld p
attern o
f as
mal
l s
qua
re l
oop i
sgiven b
y

E 1
200
1/ Is
i
n 0A
X2

whe
re 1
1 =re
tarded c
urrent o
n l
oop, 0= a
ngle f
rom ax
is o
f l
oop
, A =a rea o
f l
oop
,
a
nd X = w
ave
length
. C ons
ider t
hat t
he l
oop is made o
f f
our shor
t d
ipoles a
s i
n
F
ig. 13
-4. T he ax
is of t
he loop co
inc ides w
ith t
he zax
is (normal t
o t
he p
lane o
f the
l
oop)
. The p attern t
o be obtained ist hat i
n t
he x
-z p
lane
.
1
3-2. Us
ing a P oyn
ting-vector integrat
ion, s
how that t
he rad
iat
ion r
es
istance o
f a
sma
ll lo
op i
se qua
l to
3
200 (—
A )1 o
hms
X2

whe
re A = a
rea o
f l
oop a
nd X = w
ave
length.
1
3-3
. Show t
hat t
he i
ns
tan
taneous v
alue o
fthe f
a
r e
l
ectr
ic f
i
eld o
f as
hor
t d
ipo
le i
s

.
607/ o
E
s b
,si
n 0c
os (
c
u
t —f
i
r
) v
olts/met
er

whe
re h =l
eng
th o
f d
ipo
le i
nwave
leng
ths (
1
3-4. D eve lop the e xpression for the fa
r-f
ield p attern of at h
in l i
near dipole antenna
waveleng th l ong with t he curren t i
np hase o ver the entire length ofthe a ntenna b ut
w
ith as i
nusoida l v
a r
iation i n magn itude. The c urrent is amax imum a tt he center of
t
he a ntenna a nd zero a t the ends. C alculate and p lot t he re
lative fi
e
ld p attern.
1
3-5. A n a ntenna h as au n
idirectional power p attern g iven by U =c os 0, where
i
sa s in Fig. 13 -7. Uh as av a
lue o nly for 0 < 0< 7 /2 a nd isz e
ro el
sewhe re. F ind
t
he directivity o f the a ntenna. Ana.
: D =4 .
1
3-6. An a ntenna h as af ar
-fie
ld p attern expres sed b y E =c os 20 cos 0. F ind t he
d
irectivity of t he antenna .
1
3-7. An a ntenna t hati s a9 0p er c
ent eficient radiator h as ag a
in of2 50. F ind t he
maximum e fe ctive aperture o f the antenna .
13-8. S how t hat the r atio of t he max imum p owe r P , in the load of ar ece
iving
a
ntenna t o the p ower P , radiated b y at ransm it
ting a ntenna i sequal to

P
,
Pt r
sX
°
5
18 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
3

w
he re A.„„ = maximum e fec
tive aperture o
f re
ceiving antenna, A,„
,, = maximum
e
f
fec t
ive aper
ture o f t
ransmitt
ing antenna, r= distance fr
om r e
ceiving antenna to
t
ransm it
ting antenna, a
nd X = w ave
leng th
. Th is isthe Fri
is t
ransm i
ssion f
ormula.
I
tisa ssumed thatb o
th antennas a
re s
ituated i
nfree space a
nd are r
emo te f
rom other
o
bjects
.
1
3-9. S how thatt he maximum mu tua
l i mpedance Z„
,oft wo a n
tenna ss eparated by
ala
rge distance isZ „
, = (V r)1-
1
12 V ka 7-
2)/2/
rrx
, w he
re Di = directivi
ty o fa ntenna 1,
D2 = direct
ivity of antenna 2
, RI= r adiat
ion res
istance o
fa ntenna 1 , R2 = r ad
ia t
ion
r
es
istance o f antenna 2 , a
nd rx = r/ X =s eparat
ion of antennas ( wave leng ths)
. I t
i
sassumed t ha
t t he re
ceiv
ing an tenna isterminated for maximum p owe r t
ran s
fer.
1
3-10. D emons t ra
te that t
he mu tual impedance o f t
wo s hort dipoles o f le
ng th I
s
eparated b y adistance r(Fig
. 1 3-23
) ise qual t
o

z
. = (
607
/ 2)
(
s
in 8s
i
n 8
'
)(s
in jc
os i
3
r
)
krX

Note t
hat t
he fi
rst f
actor o
n the r
ight-hand si
de i
s a magni
tud
ef a
cto
r, t
he s
econd an
o
ri
entat
ion f
acto
r, and the t
hird a p
eriod
ic, o
r comp
lex
,f ac
tor w
ith r
ea
l and i
magina
ry

F
la. 1
3
-23
. Two s
hor
t d
ipo
le a
ntennas o
f l
e
ngth 1a
nd s
epa
rat
ion rf
o
r P
rob
. 1
3-
10.

p
arts
. No te a
lso that when r = nX/4
, where n = 1,3, 5 ...,Z „
, i
sr eal
, wh i
le if
r= nX/4 , where n = 2 ,4, 6 ...,Z „
, i
si magina
ry . The a ng
les 8and 8 'are as i
n
F
ig. 13-23
. B oth dipoles l
i
e i
n the s
ame plane
. I ti sa
ssumed t hat X>> 1a nd r> 1
a
nd also that t
he current i
sofu ni
form magnitude and c
onstant pha
se on each dipole
.
1
3-11 . The v ar
iation with angle a
nd t
ime o f the f
ar
-fie
ld componen ts f r
om a n
a
ntenna i sg iven b y E'
,/
, =s in 8c 6s
os c in 0.
1 and Ee =s i
n 8s in 4
)cos wt
. F ind t he
d
i
rect iv
i ty o f the antenna.
13-12. S how b y means ofa nequivalent network tha
ta tthe t
erminals o
f areceiving
a
ntenna t he e quivalento r Thevenin generator has a
n impedance Z22 — (Z„
. 2/Zil )a
nd
a
n em f ' 0
1Z./Z ii, whe re Zii =s e
lf-
impedance o f t
ransmit
ting antenna, Z2 = s e
lf-
i
mpedance o f r e
ceiving a n
tenna, Z „
, = mu tual impedance, and V I = emf appl
ied t o
t
erm inals oft ransm itting antenna. Wha t load impedance connec
ted tothe termina ls
o
f the re ceiving a ntenna r e
sults i
n max imum p ower t
rans
fer?
 CHAPTER 1
4

BOUNDARY
-VALUE PROBLE MS

1
4-1. I ntroduc tion. T he solu t
ion o fa n e l
ec tromagne tic field p rob lem
c
ons is ts
, i ng ene ra l, off inding t he s pace a nd t ime v ar ia tion o ft he e lec tric
and magne tic f i
eld s appropr iate t o t he p ar ticu la r c onf igura tion o fd ielec -
t
ric a nd c onduc ting o b
jec ts u nde r c on side ra tion. Mo re s pec ifically a
s
olu tion i so bta ined t o Maxwe l
l's e qua tions o rt he w ave e quation ,a nd t he
a
rb itra ry c ons tan t so ft he s o
lu t
ion a re t hen e valua ted s oa s tos atisfy t he
bounda ry c ond itions i mposed b y t he d ielec tr ic a nd c onduc ting o bjec ts
i
nvo lved . B ecause o ft he i mpo rtant p art t ha t t he b oundary c ond ition s
p
l ay, t he p rob lems a re o ften c a
lled b ounda ry - valu e p r obl ems.
The s olu tion o f ab ounda ry-va lue p rob lem i su sua lly f ac
ilita ted i fi tis
s
etu pi n ac oo rd ina te s ystem i nw hich t he b oundar ie sc an bes pecified i na
s
imp le manne r
. F o r instance , ap rob lem i nvo lv ing ar e
ctangu la r o bjec t
i
su sua lly mo s tr eadily h and led w ith r e
c tangu lar c oord ina tes, ac ylindr ica l
o
bjec t b y c yl
ind r
ica l c oord inates, as phe rica l o bjec t b y sphe rical c oord i-
n
a tes, a ne lip soida l objec tb ye lip tica l-hype rbo lic c oo rdina tes, e tc
. T he
b
oundar ie s in many p rac t
ica l prob lem s a r e n ot s imp ly e xpres sed i n a ny
c
oo rdina te s y stem , a nd o ften i n s uch c a se s r eso rt mus t b e made t o
me thods t ha t a re n ot p urely a naly tica l. ( See t he s e cond f r
om t he l a
s t
p
a rag raph o fS ec. 1 4-5.)
I
n t his c hap te r w e s hall conside r an umbe r o fe lec tro static f ie
ld p rob -
l
em sa nd t heir s olu tion. I n the e xamp lesg i ven i ti sa ssumed t ha ts pace
i
sf ree f rom c ha rge ( p =0 ) so tha t t he p rob lem b ecomes o ne o ff i
nding a
s
o
lut ion t o L ap lace 's e qua tion t ha t s atisf ie s t he b ounda ry c ond itions .
S
ince L aplace 's e qua t
ion may b e r ega rded a s as pec ia l case o f aw ave
e
qua t
ion ( whe re c o= 0 )
, i ti sinst ruc tive , b efo re p roceed ing t o t he s ta t
ic
c
ases ,t oc on s
ide r me thod so fsolut ion f ort he mo re g ene ralw ave -equa tion
c
as ew he re c oisn otz ero. T h
is isd one i nS ec s. 1 4-2 t hrough 1 4-4,s o
lut ion s
t
o t he s c a
la r w ave e qua tion b eing o btained i n rec tangu lar, c yl
indr ical,
a
nd s phe rica l c oo rdina te s
. T hen i nt he s e ction s tha t f ol
low w e c onside r
t
he s t at
ic c ase ( 0) =0 ), w here t he w ave e qua tion r educe s t o L aplace 's
e
qua t
ion , a nd w ork t hrough an umbe ro fe xamp le s. T he use o fc omp lex
f
unc tions a nd c on forma l t ransforma tions f or t wo-d imens iona l p rob lem s
a
re a lso c on side red .
5
19
5
20 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
4

1
4-2. S olut
ion o f Wave E quat
ion i n Rectangular C oordinates
. I n
Chap s
. 9t o 12 w e have dealt with w ave equations ofv arious forms, the
mo s
t g eneral type c onsidered being the vector w ave equa t
ion fo r acon-
ducting med ium ( 10-83c). F or the problems o f th
is c hapter the w ave
e
qua tion o f interest i sthe scalar w ave equation in t he electr
ic scalar
potential V. A s sum ing that the med ium i sl o
ssleas
, t h
is is (see Prob.
1
4 -1)
,
V2V + )92V = 0 (
14-1)
where /32 = co2g
e
w= 2 7
rf ( where f = frequency )
= permeab ility o
f med ium
e= perm itt
iv ity of medium
Harmon ic variation o f V with time i s assumed . I n s tat
ic situat
ions
/
3= 0s o that ( 1
4 -1
) r educes to Laplace's e
qua t
ion

V2V = 0 (
1
4-1a
)

E
qua
tion (
14
-1) i
s asecond-order l
inear p
art
ial d
iferen
tia
l e
qua
tion
.
E
xpand
ing i
tin t
erms o
fr e
ctangular c
oord
inat
es, wehave

= _my (
14
-2)
ax 2 _
__
_
ay2 az2

U
sing t
he me
thod o
fsepa
rat
ion o
fva
riab
les t
o s
o
lve (
14
-2)
, l
e
t

V = XYZ (
14
-3)

w
here X = af
unc
tion o
f xon
ly
Y = af
unc
tion o
f yon
ly
Z = af
unct
ion o
f zon
ly
S
ubst
itu
ting (
1
4-3
) in (
1
4-2) y
ie
lds

v7 d2 Xd 2 Y d2Z
d
x2 + XZ ± XY = —0 2X YZ (
1
4-4
)

D
ivid
ing b
y X YZ
, t
o s
epa
rate t
he v
ariab
les

1d2X j_ 1d2Y j_1d2Z

(
14
-5)
X d
x2 d 1 2d
y2 - z2 =
S
ince t
he s
um o ft
he three t
erms o
n the l
e
ft-hand s
ide is ac
ons
tan
t and
e
ach va
riab
le isi
ndependent
, each t
e
rm mus tequal aconstan
t. Thatis
,
we may wr
ite
1d2X
(
14
-6)
X d
x2 =
or

d2X
ai2X (
14
-7)
dx2
SE
C. 1
4-3
] BOUNDARY -
VALUE PROBLE MS 5
21

a
nd s
imi
lar
ly
d2Y
=a
22Y 14 -
( 8)
dy2
a
nd
d2Z
= a32Z (
1
4-9
)
d
z2
w
here
a1 2 a2 2 a3 2 = _ 02 (
14
-10
)

As
o
lut
ion o
f (
14
-7) i
s
= eo
l ,
. (
14
-11
)

whe
re C1and C2 a
re a
rbitrary c
ons
tan ts tha
t mustb eeva
luated fr
om t
he
b
oundary c
ondi
tions. E i
therterm in(14-11) i
s as
olut
ion
, orthe s
um i
sa
s
o
lution a
s may bev e
rif
ied by sub
stituting the s
o
lution i
n (
14-7
).
I
tfol
lows t
hat agene ral s
o
lut
ion of (14-2) i
s

V= (
Cie
"' C
2e -'
'
)(C
lea
lv C
4e-a
w
)(C
3e 0 + CV -a
u
) (
14
-12
)

where C1, C2
, e t
c., are c
ons
tan t
s.
14-3
. S olution o f Wave E quation i
n Cy
lindr
ica
l C
oord
inates
.' L
et
t
he w ave e qua tion of the s ca
lar
p
oten t
ial( 14
-1 )bee xpanded i
nt erms
o
f c y
lindrical coo rd
inates (s
ee F ig
.
1
4-1). T hat is
,
a2V 1aV 182V
a
p 2 ;o
p I
- pi
- 3
0 2 I
- az2

= —0 2V (
14
-13
)
U
sing t
he method o
f t
he s
epa
rat
ion
o
fvar
iable
s, l
et

V=R
c
l,Z (
14-
14)

w
here R = af
unc t
ion o
f pon
ly
= af
unc t
ion o
f o nly
Z = af
unc t
ion o
f zon
ly
S
ubst
itu
ting (
14-14)i
n(14-13
)yield
s FI
G
. 1
4
-1. C
ylind
rica
l c
oord
ina
tes
.

1d2R 1dR 1 d24, 1 d2Z

(
14-
15)
Rd
p2 p
R d
p +0
1 ,
2do
2 i
Y —#2

T
he l
a
stt
e
rm o
n t
he l
e
ft-hand s
i
de i
s af
unc
tion o
f zo
nly
;sow
ecan w
rite
1 d2Z 2
(
14
-16
)
d
z
2 = al

IS
ee, f
o
r example
, A
. B
. Bronwel
l and R
. E
. Beam, "Theory and A
pplica
tion o
f
M
icrowaves," McGraw
-Hi
ll Book Company
, I
nc
., New York
, 1948
, p.301
.
5
22 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS

o
r
d2Z
=a
,2Z
d
z2

w
here a
, = ac
ons
tan
t. As
o
lut
ion o
f (
1
4-17
) i
s

Z = Cie
'' C
ze -a
'
s

w
here CI a
nd C2 are a
rbi
tra
ry cons
tant
s. Substi
tut
ing a
,2 f
or t
he la
st
t
e
rm on t
he le
ft-hand s
ide o
f (
14
-15) a
nd mu
ltip
lying b
y p2,w
e have

p2d2R
-
r-.
1
7 ; -
? -
d r-1d
d24
-7
0
,
(
a.2 1% 32=
4 0 (
14
-19
)

The t
hird t
e
rm o
n t
he l
e
ft-hand s
ide i
s afunc
tion o
nly o
f (
1
)
;so w
e can
wr
ite
d24
)
= p
at (
14
-20)
dO2

w
here v= ac
ons
tan
t. As
o
lut
ion o
f (
14
-20
) i
s

= C a cos PO ± C4 s
i
n y
i
p (
14
-21
)
Now s
ubst
itut
ing — v
2fo
r the t
h
ird t
e
rm o
n t
he l
e
ft-hand s
i
de o
f (
14
-19
)
a
nd mu
ltip
lying b
y Ryield
s

p 2
d2R
d p 2 p
d
R +R
s 2
a 02) p 2 p 2
1 R = 0 (
14
-22
)

T
his i
s af
o
rm o
fBe
sse
l's e
qua
tion
. L
et
k2 = (
a
.2 + )
32 ) (
14
-23
)
a
nd
u= k
p (
14
-24
)
U
sing t
hese r
e
lat
ions
, (
14
-22
) b
ecome
s
2 d2R d
R
u d
u2 du
u — (
1
4
2 — p2
)R = 0 (
14
-25
)

T
his i
sthe s
t
andard f
orm o
fBe
sse
l's e
qua
tion
. As
o
lut
ion i
s
R =C
5
.I,
(kp
) C I_
,
(kp
) (
14
-26
)

w
here vh
as n
onin
teg
ral v
alue
s, o
r
R = C5.
1.
(kp
) C6A
rn(
kp) (
14
-27
)
w
he re
' v= n = i
ntege
r
J(kp) =B
esse
l funct
ion o
ffi
rst k
ind a
nd o
forde
rn,with a
rgument k
p
Nn(kp) =B
esse
l funct
ion o
fse
cond kind a
nd o
forde
rn,with a
rgument
k
p
IS
eeA ppend
ix, S
e
c. A
-
11, f
o
r ad
i
scu
ssion o
fBe
sse
] f
u
nct
ion
s;a
l
so P
r
ob. 1
4
-12 f
o
r
a
na pp
lica
tion
.
SE
C. 1
4-1
1 BOUN DARY-
VALUE PROBLEMS 5
23

I
tfo
llow
s t
hat ag
ene
ral s
o
lut
ion o
f (
14
-13
) (
f
or v= n
) i
s

V=Z
(
1)R = (
Cie
s' C2
e-a
'
s
)(C a c
os n
4
) + ('4 s
i
n n
4
))1C n(kP
)
(
14
-28) + C6N „
(
kp)
]
whe
re CI ,C2
, etc.
, are c
onstants
.
1
4-4. Solution of Wave Equat
ion i
nSpher
ical C
oo rd
inates
.' S tart
ing
o
nce mo re wi
th t he wave equa
tion o
f t
he s
cala
r potent
ial (1
4-1)
, let u
s
e
xpand t h
is r e
lat
ion in terms of
s
pherica
l c oordinates (see Fig.
1
4-2
). T hat is
,
18
2
v 1 82
v,
2- si
n 20 0 3
a
p 1
- —
P
2 802 -
1
- p 2 0

,2a
v ,c
o
t ea
v
-r —
P a
P P
= —
13 2V (
14
-29
)
U
sing a
gain t
he me
thod o
fsepa
ra-
t
i
on ofvariab
les
, l
et
V=R
IM) (
14-30
)
whe
re R = afunct
ion of pon
ly
P = af
unct
ion o
f 0o n
ly F
la
. 1
4
-2
. S
phe
rica
lco
ord
ina
tes
.
c
l
) = af
unct
ion o
fq !
)on
ly
S
ubsti
tuting (
14
-30) i
n (1
4-29)
, w
e o
bta
in

1 d d
l
i\ 2 1 d i
dP\1 r a

p2R 7
1
; \P d
p1 P
p 2s
i
n 0d n "v
0 Ls' an
1 d24
,
p2
4
, si
n 20 do s
— /
32 (
14
-31
)

Mu
ltip
lying b
y p2 a
nd s
e
tting t
e
rms tha
tare afunc
tion o
nly o
f pe
qualto

2 d
R
)_
w
a. %ehave
(
ap
2 c
t
(
p
0
2p
2a
p
)R =0
(
14
-32
)
L
et
a
,2 = n
(n + 1
) (
14
-33
)
x= (
14
-34
)
w
here a
, = aconstant and n = a
n i
ntege
r.
U
sing t
hese r
e
lations
, (1
4-32
) becomes
d2R d
R
x
2—dx
2 + 2
x—x + [
d x2 — n
(n + 1
)
]li =0 (
14
-35
)

A
. B. B
ronw e
ll a
nd R. E
. Beam, "Theo
ry and App
lica
tion o
f M
icrowave
s,"
M
cG raw-H
il
l B ook Company
, Inc
., New Y ork
, 19
47, p. 31
1. J.A. St
rat
ton,
"
Ele
ctromagne
tic Theo
ry," McG
raw-Hi
ll Book Company
, I n
c.
, New Y
o rk
, 194
1,
p
.399.
5
24 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
4

L
et
R = x-iW (
14-36
)
Then
2 d2W dW 1
x x + [
x2 n
(n 1
) —4
-11V = 0 (
14-37
)

Th
is i
sBe
ssers e
qua
tion o
f o
rder n As
o
lut
ion i
s

W =C
i
./ (x
) C2J
_ (.1.)(
x
) (
14-38
)

But R = W/ VX
, a
nd x = O
p; s
o R = WI V
;57p
.. There
fore

R = C3 .
‘11
2 .
1
„+;
(
13p
) (
—1)-
( a
-"C4 2k
r Na+1
(f
lP
) (
14-39
)

a
nd
R = Caj
n
(i3p
) (
-1) -
( "
-°C 4n
.(
13p
) (
14-40
)

where j
, and n
, are s
pher
i ca
l Besse
lfunct
ions
.'
Now i n
troduc
ing a„' for te
rms wh ich a
re a f
unct
ion o
f po
nly a
nd
multip
lying by s
in' 0
,(14-31) r
educes t
o

s
in 0 d [s (
dP)1
-
a]
i
n
P ± + 20 a
,
2 =0 (
14-41
)

The s
econd t
e
rm i
s af
unct
ion o
f (
f
ron
ly. Thus w
e c
an w
rite

d2c
1
)
= — (
14-42
)
de

where m = a c
ons
tant
. As
o
lut
ion o
f (
14-42
) i
s

5 c
= C os 7
n4
) + C6 s
i
n n
ut
s (
14-43
)

where m isan i
nteger i
fVr epea
ts e
very 2r a
s afunct
ion o
f 4)
. Substi
-
t
uting — m 2f
orthe s
econd t
erm o
f(14-41
), mu
ltip
lying byP
,a nd d
ivid
ing
by s
in 2 0y
ie
lds
OP 1 dP (
ap2 .
m
2

d e2 t
an 0 d
0 s
m2 0) p = 0 (
14-44
)

Th
is i
sca
lled t
he a
ssoc
iat
ed L
egendr
e e
qua
tion
. I
fwe p
ut
a
,2 = n
(n 1
) (
14-45
)
where n = i
nteger a
nd
x= c
os 0 (
14-46
)
Eq
. (
14-44
) c
an b
e w
ritten

d2P d
P m2
— 2
x [
n(n 1
) — x
2 1P = 0 (
14-47
)

IS
ee A
ppend
ix, S
ee. A
-13
.
SE
C. 1
4-5
] BOUNDARY-
VALUE PROBLE MS 5
25

I
f Vi
sindependent o
f4)
, m = 0a
nd w
ehave

d
P
(
1 — x2) —2
x T
x + n
(n 1
)P = 0 (
1
4-48
)

T
his i
sLegend
re'
s e
quation.
As
olut
ion o
fthe a
ssocia
ted Legendre e
quat
ion (14-44
) (
f
or m = i
n
teger
)
i
s
P = CsP „
'"(cos 0
) ± C8Q.
'"(cos 0
) (
14-49
)

w
here
'P „
'"(cos 0
) =associated Legendre f
unc
tion o
fthe fi
r
st kind
Qnm(cos 0
) =associated Legendre f
unc
tion o
fthe s
econd kind
n= in
tege r
As
olu
tion ofLegendre's equa
tion (14-48
) (
for n= in
teger) i
s

P = CP
„(co
s0) + CV
26(co
s0) (
14
-50
)

w
here 2 P
,
,(cos0) =Legendre f
unct
ion o
ft he f
i
rst k
ind
Q
„(co
s0 ) =L
egendre funct
ion o
ft he s
econd k
ind
I
tfo
llow s tha
t ag
eneral s
olu
tion o
f (
14-29) i
s

V = IMP -
=[C
8j6
(4) C0
,
6(3p)
1(C cosm4)
+ C6 s
i
n m
40
)[C7P
n'n
(eo
s0 )-
I
-CsQm
(cos (
14
-51)

whe re Cs,C4,e tc
., a r e cons tan ts
.
The a bove g ene ral s o
lu tion o f the w ave e quation i n sphe rical c oordi-
n
ate s a nd the s olut ions o f the p receding s ect
ions i n r e
ctangu la r a nd
c
ylindr ical coordinate s are n ot direct
ly a pp l
icab le in many s pecia l prob-
l
em s. Howeve r, t hey i lus trate t he m ethod o f a nalysis f or t he mo st
g
ene ral t ype o
fp rob lem .
I
nt he n ex
tf our s ec t
ions e xamp lesa reg iven t oi lustrate t he me thod so f
s
olution o fsome t ypica l bounda ry -value p roblem s involving s tatic f i
elds
(
c
o = #= 0 )
. O ne p roblem i sh andled i n rectangu la r coo rd
ina te s, t wo
i
nc y l
indr ica
l c oord ina tes, a nd o ne ins pherica l coordina tes
.
1
4-5. E xamp le 1. C onduc ting S heetb etween Two C onduc t
ing P lanes.'
Refer r
ing t oFig . 1 4-3, t wo i nf
inite p ara
llel c onduc ting p lates are s paced
ad i
s tance a. A n i nf
initely l ong conduct ing s tr
ip i sp laced b e
tween t he
p
lat esa nd n orma l t o them , a s shown i n the f i
gure.
The width oft he s trip iso nly very s l
ightly l e
sst han t he spacing b etween
t
he p late s
. T he s t
rip i si n
su lated f rom the p lates. L ett he t wo p latesb e
P„
'^ ( c
os 8)i salso cal
led as o
lid z
ona l harmonic of t
he fi
rst k
ind. Q „
." (c
os 8)is
a
l
so called as o
lid zona l harmon ic of t
he second k
ind . S ee Appendix
, Sec
. A-14.
2P„ (cos 8)i sal
so called as urface zonal harmonic of the f
i
rst k
ind. Q . (c
os 8)is
a
lso c
alled as urface zonal ha
rmon ic of t
he second kind. S ee Appendix
, Sec
. A -14
.
3W . E.B yerly, "FourierS er
ies a nd Spherica
l Harmon ics," G
inn & Company , Bos-
t
on, 1893, p.4.
5
26 ELECTRO MAGN ET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
4

c
onnec ted together and a c ons
tan t p
otential Vb e app
lied between t he
p
lates and the conduc ting s
trip
. T he medium b etween the p
latesisa i
r.
S
uppo se tha
t the plate s a
re at z
ero potential a
nd that the st
rip isat a
p
ositive potent
ialof 1v o
lt (V =1 )
. T he problem ist
of i
nd the po
tential
d
is
t r
ibu tion inthe re
g ion M b etween t
he pl a
tes t
o the r
ight ofthe st
rip,
a
si ndicated inthe cros s s
e
ction ofFig. 14
-36.

(
b
)
FI
G. 14-3
. Inf
inite c
onduct
ing str
ip b etween t
wo i
nf
inite p
ara
lle
l c
onduct
ing p
lates
i
n per
spective v
iew (
a) and c
ross s ion (
ect b
).

S
ince t
h
isi s as
ta
tic p
rob
lem /
3= 0and t
he w
ave e
qua
tion r
educesto
L
aplace
's equa
tion
V2V = 0 (
14
-52
)

i
tshould b e possible to f
i
nd t he potential d
istr
ibu t
ion b y solving t h
is
e
quat
ion s ubject to the b
ounda ry condit
ions. T he analyt
ical p rocedure
f
ordoing this wil
l n ow bediscussed
.'
I
tis mostc onvenien ttohandle th
is problem inrectangular coo rdinate
s,
t
he r
e
la t
ion o fthe conductorb oundariest othe c
oordinate axesb eing asin
F
ig
. 14-4a. E xpand ing (
14-52) inthe two rec
tangula rcoordina teso fthe
p
rob
lem ( xa nd y)
, w e h
ave
a2
v
(
14-53
)
a
x2 a
y2 °

Th
is diferentia
l equat
ion isthe mos
t genera
l way o
f expres
sing the
v
aria
tion ofp otent
ial w
ith re
spect t
o xand y
. I ti
s ap
art
ialdiferen
tial
e
quation of the s
econd orde
r and fi
r
st deg
ree
. However, this e
quat
ion
The p
roblem i
s2-d
imens
iona
l (V i
ndependent o
f z
,norma
l to t
he p
age
) s
o t
hat
as
o
lution c
ould a
l
so b
eobta
ined b
y g
raphica
l fi
e
ld-mapp
ing methods
.
SE
C. 1
4-5
] BOUNDARY-
VALUE PROBLE MS 5
27

d
oesn o
tte
llusanything about the p
art
icularpotent
iald i
s tr
ibution i
nthe
p
roblem. For t
his we must obtain as
olution o
fthe diferentia
le qua
tion
wh
ich isa
ppropr
iate t
o the boundary condit
ions o
ft he problem. T he
se

1
1

V
-1 S
t
r
ip P
l
a
tes V=0 y„
.
.
a
tz—**

(
0
,0
) x

(
a)

(
4)

I
n
te
rmed
iate x zl
a
r
ge
(
b
)
FI
G. 1
4-4
. ( a
) B oundary c
ondi
tions for p
otent
ial
-distr
ibution prob
lem of Fig
. 14-3
.
(
b
) Potentia
lv ar
iation b
etween p
lates a
sobta
ined fr
om s o
lution o
fLaplace
's e
quat
ion.

b
ounda
ry c
ond
itions a
re

V =0 a
t y= 0
V =0 a
t y= a
(
14
-54
)
V = 1 a
t x= 0
V =0 a
t x=

P
roceeding now t
o f
i
nd asolu
tion o
f (
14-53) b
y the me
thod o
fs epa
ra-
t
i
on ofv a
riable
s, l
e
t us a
ssume t
hat as
olu
t ion f
or Vcan bee
xpressed a
s

V = XY (
14
-55
)

w
here X = af
unct
ion of xa
lone
Y = af
unct
ion of ya
lone
S
ubst
itu
ting (
14
-55) i
n
to (14
-53) a
nd d
iv
iding b
y XY
, w
e h
ave

1d2X 1d2Y
(
14
-56
)
d
x
2 -I
- dy2 =

I
n (
14-56
) the v
ariab
les a
re s
eparated. Since X a
nd Y a
re i
ndependen
t
a
nd t
he sum ofthe two t
e
rms is aconstan
t (z
ero
), e
ach t
e
rm alone mus
t
e
qua
l ac ons
tant
. Thus , we c
an w r
ite

1d2X _ k
2
(
14
-57
)
d
x
2
5
28 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS (
CHAP
. 1
4

a
nd
d2Y
(
1
4-58
)
dy2 = -4
2

w
he re kequa
ls acons
tant a
nd — k2 = 0
.
These e
quat
ions may b
e r
ear
ranged t
o t
he f
orm

c
l2X
(1
,x 2
— k2X = 0 (
14
-59
)

a
nd
d2Y
k2Y = 0 (
14
-60
)
dy2

Thus
, the s
econd-order par
tia
l d iferen
tial e
quat
ion of (
14-53
) has been
r
educed t
o two se
cond -o
rdero rd
ina ry d
iferent
ial e
quat
ion s
, e
ach i
nvolv-
i
ng but one va
riable
. T hese equations
, (14
-59) and (1
4-60)
, have the
s
olut
ions
X = Cie " ± C2e-k
s (
14-61)
a
nd
Y=C se1" C
4e-i" (
14
-62 )

One may read

ily confirm t
hat these a
re so
lutions by subs
titu
ting them
i
n
to (14-59) a
nd (14-60)
, i
neach caseobta
ining anidenti
ty. I ntroduc
ing
(
14-61
) a nd (
14-62
) i n
to (
14-55
) yields t
he gene
ral s
olution

V = Ci
Csek
zej
l
e
y C2C3
e—k
sej
k
y Clai
ekse—
f
l
oy C2C4
e—k
ze—
j
ky (
14
_63
)

wh
ich r
educe
s t
o
V = Clek
(s±iv
) C; e —k(x±i
io (
14
-64
)

whe
re C
I= C2C2 o
r C
2C 4 and C ; = C2C3 o
r C2C 4,d
epending on w
hich
s
i
gn i schosen in x± jy
.
Because of t
he boundary c ondi
tion V = 0 at x= c o
, C = 0s o t
hat
o
nly the second term of (1
4 -64) applie
s i
n our p
roblem .
' A lso
, u
sing
d
e Mo ivre
's theorem, (
14-64
) t hen becomes

V=C
ite
-kx
(co
sky ± js
i
nky
) (
14
-65
)

Tosa
tisfy t
he b
oundary c
ondit
ion V = 0a
t y= 0
,wes
hou
ld r
e
tain o
nly
t
he imagina
ry p
art o
f (
14-65
). T ha
t i
s,

V = qe -k
xsi
n k
y (
14
-66
)

This i
s apar
ticular s
o
lut
ion o
f Laplace
's e
quat
ion appropr
iate t
o our
p
roblem . Itindicate
s t
hat t
he p
oten
tial Vfa
lls o
fexponentia
lly w
ith x
a
nd a l
so t
hat i
tv ar
ies a
s asi
ne f
unct
ion ofy. T o s
at
isfy t
he bounda
ry

1I
fwewe
rei n
tere
sted i
nthepoten
tia
ldis
tribu
tion t
ot h
ele
f
tin
stead o
ftoth
er igh
t
o
fthest
r
ip (F
ig
. 144),th
eb oundary c
ond
it
ion is V = 0a
t x= — s otha
tC .
J2 0
.
SE
C
. 1
4-5
1 BOUNDARY-
VALUE PROBLE MS 5
29

c
ond
ition V = 0a
t y = ar
equ
ire
s t
hat

k= 7 (
14
-67
)

w
he re n = p
osi
tive i
n
tege
r (
1
, 2
, 3
, ...)
. I
ntroduc
ing (
14-67
) i
n
to
(
14-66) y
ie
lds
n
ry
V = C1
2
1e—n
r" s
i
n (
14
-68
)

A
ll oft he b
oundary condit
ions o f (
1 4
-54 ) are n
ow s at
isf
ied exceptf o
rt he
c
ondition that V = 1at x= 0 ,thati s
, V = 1a t x = 0f o
ra llv a
lueso fy
b
etween 0 a nd a. O bvious
ly ( 14-68) d oes not sat
isfy th
is requirement,
a
nd h ence amore general s
olution isr equired. S ince Laplace
's equation
i
slinear, a more g
eneral so
lu t
ion c an b e obta
ined b y tak
ing t he sum of
e
xpressions l
ike (
14
-68) for diferent integral values ofn. We t hen have

2
7
ry
V=
- Cie
-ri
vas
i
n l2a -
I
- C2e
-, z
2
, i
asi
n —a

3
7
ry
± Cse
—"z
ias
i
n -.
, -± ••• (
7
1 14
-69
)

w
here CI
,Cs
, etc
., a
re n
ew constants
.
E
quat
ion (1
4-69) may b
e expres
sed mo
re c
onc
ise
ly b
y

E
n .

V = Cne-^
i
r
zias
i
n n
-T-
Y (
14
-70
)
a

The s
olu
tion f
or Vgiven by (
14-69
) or (
14
-70) i
sst
il
li n
comple
te s
ince t
he
c
oeff
ic
ients CI,C2
, etc.
, are not eva
luated
. T o find t
he
ir va
lues, we
i
mpose the boundary condit
ion that V = 1at x= 0 s o t
hat (14
-69)
r
educes t
o

1 = CI s
i
n12 ± C2s
i
n 2
-1
.- + C8 s
i
n ± ••• (
14
-71
)
a a a

Now b
y t
he F
our
ier s
i
ne e
xpans
ion

f
(y
) = als
i
n y + a2 s
i
n 2
y ± a
.si
n 3
y -
1
- •••-
Ia,s
i
nny (
14
-72
)

w
here a
. =-
21 rf
(y
) s
i
n n
ydy
. I
tfo
llow
s t
hat f
o
r f
(
y) = 1
W 0

4
a
„ =— f
o
r no
dd
n
7
r
a
nd
a
. =0 f
or ne
ven
5
30 E
T
.F.CTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
4

The
refo
re, f
o
rf(y
) = 1
,(14
-72
) r
educe
s t
o

4 . 1 1
1= (
s
in y •
a s
i
n3y ± s
in5
y + • (
14
-73
)

C
ompa
ring (
14
-73
) w
ith (
14-71
), i
tfo
llow
s t
hat

= = 0
,Cs = FT) = n = .r
r t
i e
bc
.
7

I
ntroduc
ing t
hese v
alue
s i
n
to (
14-71
), w
e h
ave

1
7
. =_
4 e — .1. s in 4_ 4 e-
3./
. si 7u,
n 3 .
a '37 a

,4 57ry
t e
5 "
- ia s
i
n —r
- - t • (
14
-74
)
5
7

Thi s i st he c omp lete s o

lut ion o f L aplace 's e qua tion f o
r t he p o ten tia l V
app ropr ia te t o t he b ounda ry c ond ition s o f t he p rob lem . I t g ive s t he
poten tial Va s af unction o fp os
ition b etween t he p la tes a nd t ot he r ight
o
ft he s tr
ip ( Fig. 1 4-3).
A
lthough a n i nf
inite n umbe r of t erms i sr equ ired f or a n exac t r ep re-
s
enta tion o ft he p otent iald is tr
ibut ion a s af unc tion o f xa nd y,a na pprox i-
ma te s o
lut ion o fp ractica l v alue may b e o btained w i th af i
nite n umbe ro f
t
erms . E ach t e
rm a ttenua te sat ad ife rentr ate. S ince t he h ighe rt erms
f
all o f mo re r ap idly w ith x ,o nly af ew t e
rm s a re n eeded t o g ive ag ood
approx ima tion e xcep tw he re xi ss ma l
l. A t x= 0 , V = 1f o
ra l
lv a lue so f
yb e tween 0a nd a . When xi sv ery l arge, the d istribu t
ion i sv ery n ea rly
e
qua l t o s in T y/a, s i
nce t he c on tribut ion o f t he h a rmon ics h ighe r t han
t
he f i
r s
t may b e n eglec ted . T he v aria tion o f Va s af unc t
ion o f ya t
x= 0a nd a t al arge v alue o f xi ss hown a t ( 1) a nd ( 4) i n Fig . 1 4 -4b.
The distri b uti o ns a tt wo i ntermed ia te v a
lue so f xa re p resented a t ( 2) a nd
(
3). T he a ctua l d ist
ribu tion i ss hown b y t he s olid c urve s
, t he d ashed
c
urve s g iving t he a pp rox ima te dis tr
ibu t
ion a s o bta ined b y f our t erms
(
n = 1 ,3 ,5 ,7)o ft he s e
rie sa t (2) a nd b yt wo t erms ( n = 1a nd 3 )a t ( 3).
I
ti sa ppa ren t t ha t as xd ecrea ses t he e fect o ft he h ighe r te
rms b ecome s
mo re i mpo rtan t.
The p oten t
ia l d istribut ion c an a lso b e p re sen ted b y means o f e qu i-
poten tial c ontour s w i
th o rthogona l f ie
ld l ines a s s ugge sted i n F ig . 1 4 -5.
I
ti sa ppa ren tt ha tg raph ica l fi
eld-mapp ing me thods c ould h ave b een u sed
i
ns tead o ft he a bove a naly tical m ethod t oo bta in a ne ngineer ing s olu tion
f
ort he p o ten tia l distr
ibu tion. B oth a re p rocedu re sf ors olving L ap lace 's
e
qua tion. I ng ene ral
, t wo-d imen siona lp rob lems c an b es o
lved b ye ithe r
t
he g raph ica l o rt he a naly tica l approach . The a na ly tica l m ethod i sa lso
a
pp licab le t o t hree d imens iona l p rob lem s. Howeve r, t he g raph ica l
SE
C. 1
4-5
] BOUNDARY-VALUE PROBLE MS 5
31

m
ethod i
sno
t,without modif
ica
tions
. E xpe
rimenta
lme
thods a
rea
ppl
ica
-
b
l
et o b
oth t
wo- and t
hree
-dimensiona
l p
roblems
.'

F
i
e
ld l
i
ne

S
t
rip
a
t
es
x
l
"
E
qu
ipo
ten
tia
l
FI
G. 1
4-5
. Electr
ic f
i
e
ld l
i
nes (
w
ith a
r
row
s) a
nd e
quipo
ten
tia
ls i
n s
pace b
etween
c
onduc
ting p
lates
.

Tom easure t he potentiald istr

ibu t
ion ofthe above prob
lem i n asimp le
e
xper
imen tal manne rt he s e
tup s hown inFig. 14
-6 can beused. H ere the
p
late
s a re r eplaced b y heavy c oppe r b
ars and the conducting str
ip b y a
h
eavy c oppe r b a
r i n
sula ted f rom the side bars
. A r e
sistance str
ip o f
w
idth ai scl amped t othe b ar
sa ss hown. T he si
de barsare grounded s o
t
hatt he e dge soft he st
rip a rea tzero potent
ial. Ag eneratoro r batte
ry
s
upplies ac onstant e mf b etween t he end b a
r a nd the ground . T he
p
oten t
ial d i
s tr
ibu t
ion c an t hen be mapped w ith the a
id of aprobe a nd a
h
igh-resistance ( vacuum - tube) v oltmeter. T o a vo
id e nd e fects
, t he

H
eavy c
o
ppe
rba
r(g
rounded)

1vo
lt DC
g
enera
tor

V
ol
tme
ter

H
eavy c
oppe
r b
ar (
grounded)

FI
G
. 1
4
-6. E
xpe
rimen
tal m
ethod f
o
r deter mining p
oten
tia
l d
i
str
ibu
tion
.

l
eng
th ( xdimension) o
ft he side ba
rsa nd res
is tance st
rip shou
ld b e la
rge
c
ompa red with the w
idth a . T he curved li
ne s with arrows i
nF ig
. 1 4-6
s
uggest t
he p a
ths ofthe electr
ic fi
e
ld (and c urrent) between the end b ar
a
nd the side bars
. A s m en t
ioned in S ec
. 3-17, as olution o
f L aplace's
e
quation for as t
eady current dist
ribution ( a
s obtained h e
re experimen -
t
a
lly) cons
t i
tutes aso
lution f or t
he analogous static f
ie
ld prob
lem o fF ig.
1
4-3
.
I
f any f unct
ion V s at
isfies Laplace's equa t
ion ( VW =0 ) a nd t he
E
rns
t Weber
, "E
lec
tromagne
tic F
ie
lds
," J
ohn W
iley S
rSons
, I
nc
., N
ew Y
ork
,
1
950
, Chap
. 5
.
5
32 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
4

b
ounda ry conditions, iti s au n
iqu e solut
ion .' No o ther function w i
ll
s
at
isfy the conditions, with the p oss
ible e xception offunctions difer
ing
f
rom V b ya na dditive constan t
. H ence, (14-74) mustb e aunique solu-
t
i
on . An e xperimen ta
l v e
rification of as olution
, such as (14-74)
, i sa
v
erif
ica
tion ofL aplace'se quation a sw ellaso ft he s
olut
ion.
144. E xample 2 . C oaxial L ine. C on s
ide r t
he s ec
tion o f coaxial
t
ransmission l
ine shown i nF ig. 1 4
-7a. O ne e nd (a
t the or
igin) isshort-

L
o
ng
it
udi
nals
e
c
tio
n C
r
osss
e
c
tio
n

L
o
ng
it
udi
nals
e
ct
ion C
r
osss
e
c
tio
n

(
b
)
FIG
. 1
4-7
. (a
) Section o
f coax
ial t
ran
sm iss
ion l
i
ne. (
b
) F
ie
ld d
i
str
ibut
ion s
how
ing
f
i
eld l
i
nes (
with a
rrows) a
nd equipo
tentia
ls.

c
i
rcuited, and the other e nd iso pen. T he o u
t s
ide r adius of t
he inner
c
onduc tor i
sa,a nd t he ins
ide radius o f the outer c onductor isb. T he
c
onductivity o
ft he inner conductor isf in
ite, but the c onduct
ivity ofthe
o
uterc onductora nd oft he sho
rt-circuiting di
sc isa ssumed t ob einf
in
ite.
Aconstantv o
ltage V 1 i
sa ppl
ied between t he i
nnera nd oute
rc onductorat
t
he open end o
ft he l
ine. T he length z1o fthe li
ne i slong compared with
i
t
s radius (z1>>b). T he problem i st o fi
nd the p otential Ve verywhere
i
ns
ide t he l
i
ne, e
xcept n ear the open e nd.
1A g
r
aph
ica
lly o
b
tain
ed f
i
e
ld m
ap o
f at
wo
-dim
ens
iona
l p
r
obl
em i
s l
i
kew
ise a
u
n
iqueso
lut
ion
.
SE
C. 1
4-6
] BOUNDARY-
VALUE PROBLE MS 5
33

T
he b
ounda
ry c
ond
itions f
o
r t
h
is p
rob
lem a
re

(
1
) V = 0a
t z= 0 (
and a < p < b
)
(
2
) V = 0a
t p= b (
and 0 < z < z
r
)
(
3
) V = VI a
t z= (
and p = a
)

There i
salso t
he c
ondit
ion t
hat a
t a
ny di
stance zfr
om the or
igin the
e
lec
tric f
i
e
ld in
side t
he i
nne
rconduc
torand al
so a
long i
tss
urface (
p =a )
i
sgiven by
8V _ V1
(
1
4-75a)
O
z zi

f
r
om w
hich w
e h
ave o
n i
n
teg
rat
ion t
hat

V-
-— z (
14
-75b
)
z
i

A
t z= zl (1
4-75b ) r
educe s t
ot he th
ird boundary condit
ion above .
Th
is i
s astat
ic problem ( 0
) =0 )s o t
hatt he w
ave e quat
ion r educes t
o
L
aplace
's e
qua t
ion V2V = 0 . We w ish t
of i
nd asolution ofth
is e quat
ion
t
hat s
at
isf
ies the bounda ry condi
tions. By s ymme try V isindependent
o
f(A
;s o e
xpand ing Laplace's e
quation i
nt he o
thert wo cy
lindricalc oo
rdi
-
n
ates o
fthe problem ( pa nd z)
, we have
'

a2V , 1aV , a
2 v
-
r-—— - = (
1
4-76
)
8
1
)2 po p Oz'

U
sing t
he m
ethod o
fsepa
rat
ion o
fva
riab
les
, l
e
t

V = RZ (
14
-77
)

w
he re R = af
unct
ion o
nly o
fp
Z = af
unct
ion o
nly o
fz
I
ntroduc
ing (1
4-77
) i
nto (
14
-76) a
nd d
iv
iding b
y RZ y
ie
lds

1d2R 1d
R 1d2Z
(
14
-78
)
d
p2 p
R d
p d
z
2 ="
T
he l
a
st t
e
rm i
s af
unc
tion o
nly o
fz. T
hus w
e c
an w
rite

d2Z
2Z (
14
-79
)
d
z 2 = as

whe
re a, = ac
ons
tan
t. From (1
4-75a) i
tfo
llow
s tha
t si
nce Vi/
z, i
sa
c
onstan
t the s
e
cond d
er
iva
tive i
n (1
4-79
) must be z
ero a
nd, h
ence
, as
IAthough Vi
l sd
ependent only o
n pand z
,t h
is problem i
sno
t two-dimens
ionalin
t
he s
en se t
hatthe p
roblem ofE xamp
le 1istwo-dimensiona
l. Here t
he poten
tial d
i
s-
t
r
ibution for along
itudina
l plane t
hrough t
he axis d
ifers f
r
om the di
str
ibution f
or
a
l
l planes para
lle
l t
o it
.
5
34 ELECTRO MAGN ET 1
CS [
CHAP
. 1
4

mus
t b
e z
ero
. As
o
lut
ion o
f (
14-79
) f
o
r a
. = 0i
s

Z = Ciz-
I
- C2 (
14
-80
)

The l
a
stterm o
f(14
-78
) may n
ow b es
etequa
lt oz
ero s
otha
tthe e
quation
r
educes t
o
d2R + d
R _0
(
14-81)
P d
p2 d
p —
Asolu
tion i
s
R =C ain p+ C4 (
14-81a)

I
ntroducing (
14-81a
) f
or Rand (14
-80) f
o
r Zi n (
14-77), t
he s
o
lut
ion fo
r
t
he potent
ial i
s
V= (Ci
z -I
-C 2
)(CsIn p-
I C4
) (
14-81b
)
o
r
V = Ca I
n p± Cez± C7 in p± C s (
14-81c
)
w
here C 5,C 6, e
tc
., are n
ew constant
s. To eva
luate t
hese c
ons
tan ts
, we
i
n
troduce t he b ounda ry condi
tions
. I
ntroduc
ing the fi
rs
t c ondit
ion
V = 0at z= 0 , (1
4-81c) b
ecomes
0= C
7 i
n p± C
s (
14
-81d
)
For (
14-81d
) t
o b
e sa
tisf
ied f
or a
l
l v
alue
s o
f pr
equ
ire
stha
t C7 = Cs = 0
.
Thus o
ur so
lut
ion r
educes t
o
V = Cf
rzi
n p± Cez (
14
-81e
)
I
ntroduc
ing n
ow t
he s
econd b
oundary c
ond
ition t
hat V = 0a
t p= b,w
e
h
ave
0 = Co l
n b± Csz (
14
-81f
)
A
s the t
h
ird b
ounda
ry c
ond
ition
, V = V1 a
t z = z1 a
nd p = a
, which
y
ie
lds
VI = CE
A' i
n a-
I
-Cs
zi (
14-81g)
F
rom (
14-81f
) a
nd (
14
-81g
) w
e f
i
nd t
hat
VI
c
, — z1 i
n(a
/b)
a
nd
1 i
V nb
C6 —
ziI
n (
a/b
)
I
ntroduc
ing the v
alue
s f
or the
se c
onstan
t s into (
14
-81e
), t
he c
omp le
te
s
o
lu t
ion fo
r t
he p
roblem i
s
zi n(
b /p)
V = V1z
1in (
b/a) (14
-81h)

T
his s
olut
ion s
atisf
ies Lap
lace's e
quat
ion and the b
ounda
ry cond
itions
a
nd,hence
, mus
tr epres
en tthe p
oten
tia
ldis
tribu
tion a
tal
lp o
int
sb e
tween
SE
C
. 1
4
-7] BOUNDARY-
VALUE PROBLEMS 5
35

t
he i nne r a nd o ute r conduc tor s ( a < p< b ) excep t n ea r t he o pen e nd.
This p oten t
ial d istr
ibu tion i sp ortrayed i nF ig. 1 4-7b, t he r e
la tive p oten-
t
ial being i ndica ted fort he e quipo ten tial lines. E lec tr
ic f i
eld l ines ( with
a
rrow s) a re also s hown , b eing n orma l t o t he e quipo ten tials.
I
ti si nteresting t o n ote i n Fig . 1 4-7b t ha t although t he f i
e
ld l ines are
n
o rma l to t he per fect
ly c onduc ting s urface s (ou ter c onduc to r a nd s ho r
t-
c
ircuiting d isc) t hey are n ot no rma l t ot he f i
nitely c onduc ting i nne r con-
d
uc tor. T he c urren t and f ie
ld d irection i nt he i nner c onduc tor i st o the
l
e
f t (— zd i
rection ). C ompa rison o fF ig. 1 4-7b s hould b e made w i th Fig s
.
3
-17 a nd 3 -19. I n F
ig s
. 3 -
17 a nd 3 - 19 b oth i nne r a nd o uter c onduc tors
a
re as sumed t oh ave f i
nite c onduc tivity .
1
4-7. E xamp le 3 . Uncharged C onduc ting C y
linde r i n O riginally
Uniform F ield. C onside ra ni nf
inite ly l ong c onduc t
ing c yl
inde ro fr adius
aass hown i nF ig. 1 4
-8a. T he c ylinde ri satz ero p o
ten tia la nd iss i
tua ted
i
n af i
eld t hat h ad au niform s tat
ic f i
eld i ntensity E0 b e fore t he c yl
inder
was in troduced . T ha t i s
, the o rig ina l p o
ten tial d i
st r
ibu tion i sg iven b y

V=E
op c
os4
) (
1
4-82
)

This mus t a
lso b e the di
str
ibu t
ion for la
rge pa fte
r t he cy
linder isin
tro-
d
uced . H ence ( 14
-82 ) f
orl a
rge pa nd al
so the fact that V = 0a t p= a
c
ons ti
tu te t
he b ounda ry condi
tions. T he p roblem, t hen
, ist o fi
nd V
e
ve rywhe re ou
t s
ide t he cy
linder, t
he potentia
l a nd fi
e
ld b e
ing zero i
nside
t
he c yl
inder.
There isno zv ariation ofpotentia
l so that the problem ist wo-d
imen -
s
ional. I t isa l
so a s tat
ic problem ( c
o =0 ) so that t he wave equation
r
educe st oLaplace's e quat
ion. E xpanding Laplace's equation inthe two
c
ylindrical c
oo rdina te
s oft he p
roblem ( pand 0 )
, w e have

a
2
a
p
V + p aV + a2V 0 (
14
-83
)
p 2
2 ap 0 2
8
=

P
roceeding n
ow t
ofi
nd as
o
lut
ion o
f(1
4-83
) b
ythe m
ethod o
fseparat
ion
o
fv a
riable
s, l
e
t
V = R4
) 14 -
( 8
4)

w
here R = af
unct
ion on
ly ofp
= af
unct
ion on
ly of
S
ubst
itu
ting (
14
-84) i
n
to (1
4-83) a
nd d
iv
iding b
y R4
), w
ehave

p2 d2R j_ pd
R 1d24
) n
(
14-85
)
Rd
p2 d
p 4
)di
62 =

T
he f
i
rst t
wo t
e
rms a
re af
unc
tion o
f po
nly s
o t
hat w
e c
an w
rite

p2 d2R pd
R _ 2

(
14-86
)
T
tdp2 d
p
5
36 EL
ECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
4

(
a)

C
onduct
ing
c
yl
inder

(
b
)

F
lo
. 1
4
-8. (
a) C
ross s
e
ction o
fconduct
ing cyl
inde
r. (
b
) F
i
eld d
i
str
ibu
tion s
how
ing
f
i
e
ld l
i
nes (
w
ith a
r
rows) and e
qu
ipoten
tial
s.

o
r
d2R dR
p2 — ± p— — a
„ 2R = 0 (
14-87
)
dp2 dp
As
o
lut
ion o
f (
14-87
) i
s
R =C
iPI
s (
14-88
)
p
rov
ided
a
, 2 = n2 (
14-89
)

whe
re n i
s a
n i
n
teger
. F
rom (
14-86
) a
nd (
14-89
), (
14-85
) '
r
educes t
o

1d24,
(
14-90
)
n
2 ± 4
;ci
-P = 0
o
r
d24
)
(
14-91)
(
10 2 = _n
24
)
S
ac
. 1
4
-7] B
OUNDARY
-VALUE P
ROBLEMS 5
37

As
o
lut
ion o
f (
14-91
) i
s

4
, = C2 c
osn
C
1
) + C3 s
i
n n
4
, (
14
-92
)

For Vt ovary asi n (

14-82) at l
arge v alues ofp,where t
he fi
eld isu
ndis-
t
urbed by the presence of t
he cylinde r
, require
s that C3 be z
ero
. S ince
L
aplace's e
quation islinea
r, the s
olu t
ion may b ew r
itten asthe s
um ofa n
i
nf
inite number o f par
ticula
r s o
lutions g iven by t
he product of Rfrom
(
14-88) and 4,f
rom ( 14-92) with C3 = 0 ,e ach f
or adiferent va
lue o
f n.
Thus agenera
l s o
lution for t
he p otential is

V = R$ = 1 A
.p" c
os ,
a
4
, + 1 B
.p-1
1c
osn
. (
14
-93
)
n 0 n 0

where A
. a
nd B. a
re n
ew c
ons
tant
s. When pi sla
rge, t
he fi
e
ld isundis
-
t
urbed a
nd mus
tbea si
n(14
-82)
. T hus f
o
rl arge v
aluesof p(
14-93
) must
r
educe t
o t
he f
orm
V = Alpc
os 4, (
14
-94)

B
y c
ompa
rison w
ith (
14
-82
) i
tfo
llow
s t
hat

A
1 =E
0 (
14
-95
)

F
urthe
rmore
, fo
r Vt o va
ry as in (
14-82) when pislarge requ
ires t
hat
A
. = 0fo
r al
l va
lue
s of nexcept n = 1. Thus (
14-93
) r educesto

V = Eopc
os4
)-I
- 1 13
,0-*c
os7
1
4
) (
14
-96
)
n o

I
ntroduc
ing t
he l
a
st b
ounda
ry c
ond
ition t
hat
V=0 (
14
-97
)
a
t
p = a (
1
4-98
)
w
e h
ave f
r
om (
14
-96
) t
hat
Bi B
y
0 = Eoac
os 4
)-I
-Bo + —
a co
s 4
,± —
2 c
a os2
4
) + ••• (
14
-99
)

F
or (14
-99
) t
o be s
at
isf
ied f
or a
l
l v
alue
s o
f 4
)requ
ire
s t
hat B
. = 0f
o
ral
l
v
alue
s of ne
xcept n = 1a
nd al
so t
hat
B1 = — EA
' (
14
-100
)
The c
omp
lete s
o
lut
ion f
o
r t
he p
oten
tia
l i
sthen

V = (E
op — —
E
0a2) c
os 4
) (
14
-101
)
P
or
2

V = 11 — ( I)
L I Eopc
os 4
) (
14
-102
)
5
38 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
4

The potential Ve quals z ero a t t

he c ylinde r and also i ns
ide t he c yl
inde r
.
This s
olution satisfies L aplace 's equa t
ion a nd a l
so t he b ounda ry c ond i
-
t
ions and,h ence
, mus tr epre sen tthe p oten t
iald istr
ibu tion ata llp oin tso n
a
nd ou ts
ide o fthe c y
linde r (a < p< c o
). T hi
sp otential distr
ibu tion i s
s
hown i n Fig. 14-8b. F ie ld l i
nes ( w
ith a rrows) are a lso shown . T hese
l
i
ne sare norma lt ot he e quipo tent
ia ls
. A lls quares i nthis map a r
ee ither
t
r ue or curvil
inea r squares.
1
4-8 . Exa mple 4 . D ie lectr ic
Sphe re in O r
ig inally Un i
fo rm F ield.
Con s
ide r ad ielectric sphe re o f p er-
mitt
iv ity 6 2and r ad ius b a s in F ig.
1
4-9a . T his i s at hree-dimens iona l
(
a
)
p
rob lem . T he s phere i ssitua ted i n
D
i
elect
ric af i
e
ld t hath ad au niform s tatic e l
ec-
s
phere
t
r
ic f ie
ld i ntens i
ty E 2 b e fore t he
s
phe re w asi n
troduced . T ha ti s,t he
v iE li
nes
o
rigina l p oten tial d istr
ibut ion i s
g
iven b y

E
qui-
V = Eopc
os0 (
14
-103
)
_
poten
tia
ls
The medium o utside t he sphere has
apermitt
ivity el. The p roblem isto
f
i
nd V e verywhe re, b oth outside and
D
i
elec
tr
ic i
ns
ide the sphere.
s
phere
— The boundary c ondition s a
re that
V must be as i n (14-103 ) at la
rge p
(
b
) a
nd a l
so t hat t he t angen t
ial com -
p
onen t o
f Ea nd n o rma l componen t
F
lo. 1
4-9
. D ie
lectr
ic s
phe
re i
nor
igina
lly o
fDa re cont
inuous a t a ny point on
u
niform fi
e
ld. t
he sur
face oft he s phere ( p =b )
.
The p
roblem i sas tatic one () =0
4 )
s
othatt he wave equa
tion reduces toLap
lace
's equat
ion. B ysymmetry
t
he d
ist
ribution isindependent o f 0
. Expanding L ap
lace
's e
qua
tion i
n
t
he o
thert wo spher
ica
lc oordinates (
pand 0)
, we have

a
2
wv 1a
2
__
v
__
__ 4
2a
v c
ot ea
v (
14
-104
)
e 2
. _ = 0
p2 a p a p p 2 a
o

U
sing t
he m
ethod o
fsepa
rat
ion o
fva
riab
les
, l
e
t

V = RP (
1
4-105
)

w
here R = af
unct
ion o
nly o
fp
P = af
unc
tion o
nly o
f0
SE
C. 1
4-8
] BOUNDARY-
VALUE PROBLE MS 5
39

I
ntroduc
ing (
14-
105
) i
n
to (
14-
104
) a
nd d
iv
iding b
y RP y
ie
lds

1d i 2d
d
iR\ +
) 1 d l.n 0d
P\ 0
(
14-
106
)
\P , Ps
i
n 0d
e V i de j -
_

The f
i
rst t
e
rm i
s af
unc
tion o
nly o
fp. T
hus w
e may w
rite

d( d
R
(
14-
107
)
(
-
1
7
) P 2 cV )= R
a °
2

w
here a
, =c ons
tan
t. L
ett
ing a
,
'=n
(n + 1
)
, w
here n i
s a
n i
n
teger
,
(
14-
107
) becomes
2 d 2R 4_ 2 _d
R _
n
(n + 1
)R = 0 (
14-108
)
p d
p2 "d
p
As
o
lut
ion o
f (
14-
108
) i
s
R=C
ip" + C
2P-
( "
+" (
14-
109
)
I
ntroduc
ing a
,
'in
to (
14-106
) f
o
r t
he f
i
rst t
e
rm a
nd mu
ltip
lying b
yP, w
e
h
ave
d2P __ 1 d
i P _
,
d02 -
I
- t
an 0d
0 -
F '
2°'
2p = n
1' (
14
-110
)

As
o
lut
ion i
stha
t o
fLegend
re'
s e
qua
tion
, o
r
P = C3P
„(co
s 0
) ± C4Q
,
.(co
s0) (
14
-111
)
A
t 0= 0a nd 0 = r
, Qn(
c
os 0
)becomes i
nfin
ite
. S
ince V r
ema
ins f
i
nite
,
C4 = 0a
nd
P = C3P
,
,(co
s0 ) (
14
-112
)
Thus
, t
he s
o
lut
ion f
o
r t
he p
oten
tia
l i
s

V = RP = (
Cip
" -
I
-C2P-
( "
+")C s
P(co
s0) (
14
-113
)
o
r
V= (
Con ± C5p-(
^4
0 )
- P.(co
s 0
) (
14
-114
)
whe
re C4 and C5 a
re new cons tan
ts. T o make V = Eopc
os 0as i
n
(
14-
103) when p i
s la
rge requires that n= It a
nd C4 = E0
. T hus
,
e
xterna
l t
o t
he s
phe
re (p > b)
, the poten
tia
l i
sappa
ren
tly g
iven b
y

C b
Ve = ( Eop -
I
- c
os 0 (
14
-115
)
P

I
ns
ide t
he s
phe
re V mus
t remain f
i
nite s
o t
hat C5 = 0a
nd t
he p
oten
tia
l
i
n
side (
0 < p< b
)isapparen
tly o
ft he f
o
rm
Vi = Copc
os 0 (
14
-116
)
The cons
tants Cb a
nd C . must s
at
isfy the b
ounda
ry c
ond
ition a
t the
s
urface o
fthe s
phe
re tha
tt he t
angen
tial c
omponento
f Ea
nd norma
lcorn-
tF
or i
s= 1
,P. (
cs 8
o ) —P
, (
cos 8
) =c
os 8(
s
ee Append
ix, S
ec. A
-14
).
5
40 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS [
CHA
P. 1
4

p
onen
t o
fDa
re c
ont
inuous
. Tha
t i
s
,
'

= Et
2 (
14
-117
)
o
r

aV„ _ aV
i
a
t p= b (
14
-118
)
pee pa
°
a
nd
Dn
i = D6
2 (
14
-119
)
o
r

a
v
,
= - a
t p= b (
14
-120
)

S
ubs
titu
ting (
14
-115
) a
nd (
14-116
) i
n (
14
-118
), w
e h
ave

Cf,
b
s 1
,6 — E.
L
a
0, (
14
-121
)

S
ubs
titut
ing (
14
-115
) a
nd (
14-116
) i
n (
14-
120
), w
e h
ave

2
C 5)
Ce
6= —(
2 20 — (
14
-122
)

I
ntroduc
ing b
Sfr
om (
14
-121
) i
n
to (
14
-122
) y
ie
lds

3
e
1E 0
ce — (
14
-123
)
6
2
P
utt
ing t
h
is v
alue f
o
r C6 i
n (
14-
121
), w
e o
bta
in

Cs = b
sE s (26:1-±62 (
14
-124
)
6
2
H
ence
, t
he p
otent
ial d
is
tribu
tion o
uts
ide t
he s
phe
re (
p >b
)is

V
. = E
0 [p b3 e
r
l 6
,
1)]
p2 2
41 e
r
2 c
os0 (
14
-125
)

a
nd t
he p
oten
tia
l d
i
str
ibu
tion i
n
side t
he s
phe
re (
0 < p< b
)is
v _3
e
, iEopc
os 0
(
14
-126
)
2
4
,1 -
I
-el
w
he 1 =r
re 6
, e
la t
ive permitt
ivity of med
ium outs
ide o
fsphere -
=e de
o
6
,
2 r
e
la t
ive permitt
ivity o
f medium i
nside o
fsphere = 6
2
/60
=radius ofsphere
Es = o
rigina
l v
alue o
f e
lec
tric fi
e
ld (
o
r v a
lue at ala
rge d
istance
f
rom sphere)
1I
nplaceo fth
eb oundary c
o
ndit
ion En = E82 w
ecould u
s
eth
ebounda
ry c
ondi
tion
t
ha
t V. =V iata ny po
int o
n th
e su
rfa
ce o
ft he sph
ere s
in
ceifV
. =V;issat
isf
ied
En = Eg2 is a
l
sos a
ti
sfi
ed.
SE
C. 1
4-9
] BOUNDARY-
VALUE PROBLE MS 5
41

These s olut ions s atisfy L ap lace 's e quation a nd t he b ounda ry conditions

a
nd, h ence, mus t r ep resent t he p oten t
ial d istribu t
ion i n the presence o f
t
he d ielec t
ric s phe re.
T he e quipo ten tials, a s given b y (14-125 ) a nd ( 14-126 ), a r
e shown b y
d
ashed l inesi nF ig . 1 4-9b
. T he f i
e
ld lines ( solid) a ree verywhe re n orma l
t
o t he e quipo ten t
ia ls. No te t ha t because t his i s at hree-dimen siona l
p
rob lem t he a reas a re, ing enera l, n o
t c urvilinea r s qua res.
14-9. C on forma l T rans forma tions . I n
t roduc tion. T he s o
lution o f
many t wo -dimens iona l fie
ld p rob lem s i sgrea tly f acilitated b y the u se of
c
omp lex f unc t
ion t heory w ith w hich o ne can t ran sform t he geome try o f
aprob lem i nto as imp ler g eome try o ro ne f o
rw hich t he f i
eld and p o
ten tial
d
istribu tion i sk nown . B ecause t he shape o rf orm o fa ni nfini
tesimala rea
i
sp re served , the se t ransforma tions a re c a
lled c onforma l t r
ansforma tions.
When t his m e
thod c an b e a pp
l ied , w e may o btain a n exac t so
lution.
A ny p oin t in ap lane i ss pecified b y t wo c oord ina te v alues. T hus t he
p
oin t Pi n the x -y p lane i sspe cified i f xa nd y a re g iven. I n comp lex
n
ota tion t he p osition i sdesigna ted b yx j y. Now x j yis acomp lex
q
uan ti
ty . C al
ling t his quan t
ity z( that is
, z= x j y) w e may r e
fe r to
t
he x -y p lane a s the zp lane .'
Letu sb egin b y c on s
ide ring s ome r e
la tions b etween t wo comp lex f unc-
t
ions za nd w w here
z= x j y (
14-127 )
a
nd
w=u j v (
14-128 )

I
fw = z,then u = xand v= y. Itfo
llows thatany point o
nt he zp
lane
(
coo
rdina
tes xa nd y) t
r
ansforms to the same point o n t
he w plane
(
coo
rdina
te s uand v
). T hus
, a
s shown inFig. 1
4-10, the s
quare ABCD
i
nthe zp
lane t
ransfo
rm stothe s
ame square i
nthe w p
lane. H ence t
here

D C

T
ransfo
rms
t
o

A B .
c

zp
l
ane wp
l
ane
(
a) (
b
)
Fm
. 1
4
-10
. C
onforma
l t
r
ans
forma
tion f
o
r w z(
no c
hange
).

The a
bso
lute v
alue (
magn
itude
) o
f zi
s

I
z
i /
4
1 2 1
/2 NAx j
y
)(x —j
y
)
whe
re (
x —j
y) =z
' i
sca
lled t
he c
omp
lex c
onjuga
te o
fz.
5
42 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
4

i
snochange (
w =z
)
. I
tisa
ssumed t
hatt
he s
ca
lesf
o
rthe za
nd w p
lane
s
a
re t
he s
ame.
C
ons
ide
r n
ext t
he c
ase w
here

w=2
z (
14
-129
)
T
hen
u= 2
x (
14
-130
)
a
nd
v= 2
y (
14
-131
)

F
o rth
is ca
se t
here i
s amagnif
ica
tion o
f2,the s
qua
re ABCD i
nthe zp
lane
t
rans
forming, a
s shown in F
ig. 14
-11
, to t
he s
quare ABCD o
f t
wice t
he
s
i
de leng
th in t
he w plane
.

T
r
ans
forms
t
o—. -

A B A •
1
3 I
'

zp
l
ane w p
l
ane
(
a) (
b
)
FI
G
. 1
4-11
. C
onforma
l t
rans
format
ion f
or w =2
z (
l
inear magn
ifi
cat
ion
).

C
ons
ide
r n
ow t
he c
ase w
here

w=z
i o
r z= w2 (
14
-132
)
Then
w 2= (
u iv)
2= u2 j
2uv — v2 (
14
-133
)
a
nd
z= x+ j
y (
14
-134
)
s
o t
hat
, e
qua
ting r
ea
l p
art
s,
x = u2 —v
' (
14
-135
)
a
nd e
qua
ting i
mag
ina
ry p
art
s,
y= 2
uv (
14
-136
)
I
tfo
llows t
hat
Y2
U2 = V2 + X = x (
14
-137
)
4
u2
or
4
u4 — 4
xu 2 — y2 = 0 (
14-
138
)
s
o t
hat
u— Vx
- Vx 2 + y2
2 (
14
-139
)
a
nd
v= = N
/u 2 — x (
14
-140
)
2
u
SE
C. 1
4-9
1 BOUNDARY -
VALUE PROBLE MS 5
43

I
n t h
is ca
se (w =z i
) the square ABCD i n t
he z plane t
rans
forms, a
s
p
ortrayed in F
ig. 1
4-12, t
o the fi
gure ABCD int he w p
lane
. H e
re t
he
f
i
gure shown hasbeen compressed f
rom a90°se
ctori nto a4
5° s
ector
. It
i
sto be no
ted that e
xcept a
t At he ang
les a
re p
reserved
.

T
r
ansfo
rms
t
o-- r-

ap
l
ane wp
l
ane
(
a) (
b
)
Fm
. 1
4-12
. C
onforma
l t
rans
forma
tion f
o
r w =z
i (
angu
lar c
omp
res
sion
).

T
hus f
a
r w
e h
ave c
ons
ide
red t
he c
ase
s

w=z (
no c
hange
)
w=2
z (
l
inea
r magnif
ica
tion)
w=z
i (
angu
lar c
ompression o
ffi
rs
t q
uadrant
)

L
etusn
ow p
roceed t
othe g
ene
ral c
ase whe
re w i
ssome a
rbi
trary f
unction
o
fz. T
hat i
s
,
w =f(
z) (
14-141)

A
sw ehave s een, this r
ela
tion d ef
ine s at rans forma tion of acertain figure
o
rgeome try int he ap lane toa nothe r fi
gu re w hen mapped i nt he w plane.
O
f the many f unctions possible t ho
se w hich p roduce a c onforma l trans-
f
ormation' are tho se for which w i sa n ana lyt
icf unction ofz. T he real
a
nd imagina ry p a
r ts o
fa n analytic func tion s at
isfy L ap
lace's two-dimen -
s
i
onale quation , and hence such f unctions a re usefuli ns o
lving many t wo-
d
imensional f i
eld p roblems. T hus, b efore u sing a f unct
ion, w e mus t
d
ete
rm ine tha t iti sanalytic
. T he n ecessa ry cr
i te r
ia for do
ing t h
is w i
ll
n
ow be d eve
loped .
L
ett he derivative o f acomp lex func tion w b e d ef
ined asf o
llow s
,
d
w Aw f
(
z + A
z) —f
(
z)
— = hm = ur
n f(
z
d
z c
.— oAz z-
e .
o Az

whe
re Az = Ax ± jAy
. For d
w/d
z t
o h
ave a u
nique v
alue f
o
r ag
iven
a
rgument r
equire
s t
hat
,
. Aw
imi —
.
a
z-
.0 az

II
n aconforma l t
rans
format
ion the angle
s and h
ence t
he shape o
f a
n inf
in
i tes
imal
a
rea a
re p
reserved e
xceptatce
rtain po
ints. T hatis
,the p
resentat
ion i
none plane i
sa
map o
f t
he other.
5
44 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS I
CHAp
. 1
4

b
ei ndependen
t o
fthe p
ath b
y w
hich A
z a
pproache
s z
e
ro. T
hat i
s
, i
tis
n
ecessary t
hat

u
•r
n —T
AA_= l
im =
t
h
i n.
AA
t
v (
14
-143
)
AZ-0 jL
AY
o
r t
hat
d
w _a
w _ .
aw
(
14
-144
)
d
z a
x ay

T
hus
, i
fw h
as au
nique d
er
iva
tive w
ith r
e
spec
t t
oz,

O
w d
w a
z _d
w _a
u j_ .a
v
(
14
-145
)
a
x d
z a
x d
z a
x aX j

a
nd
a W = d
w a
z .dw = a
u . a
v
(
14
-146
)
a
y d
z a
y = dz a
y 3 a
y

F
rom (
14
-145
) a
nd (
14
-146
) w
e h
ave

d
w _a
u a
v
(
14
-147
)
d
z a
x 3 a
x
a
nd
d
w = _
a
u a
v a
v .a
u
(
14
-148
)
d
z j6 + a
Y =a
Y 3a
Y

I
tfo
llow
sfr
om (
14
-147
) a
nd (
14
-148
) t
hat

a
u _ a
v
(
14
-149
)
a
x a
y
a
nd
a
u _ a
u
(
14
-150
)
a
x — a
y

Equations (14-149) a nd ( 14-150) a

re k nown as the Cauchy-Riemann c on-
d
i
tions. Ac omp lex f unc t
ion w = u j v whose partia
l d er
iva t
ives are
c
ontinuous a nd satisfy these condit
ion sisanalyt
ic,tha tis
,i th as aun
ique
d
erivative with respec tt oz.t F o
re xamp le
, w = Ciz2a nd w = 2 (x + jy)
a
re analytic, but w=2 x j
y isnot, as may be noted b y applying the
Cauchy -Riemann c ond i
tion s tothesef unct
ions.
El
im inating v f rom t he C auchy-R iemann c ondi
tion s by t ak
ing t he
p
artiald e
riva t
ive o f( 14-149 ) w
ith respectto xa nd t
he p a
rtial der
ivat
ive
o
f (14-150) with r espect toy ,w e obtain
82
u 82
u
=v
2u = 0 (
14
-15
1)
d
x
2 a
y2
tSuch afunct
ion tot
hat pos
se sses ader
ivative a
te very p
ointo f areg
ion i
ss a
id to
b
e analyt
ic over t
hat r
egion. I t t
urns out tha
t simple f
unctions of the a
lgebra
ic,
t
r
igonome tr
ic, o
rexponentia
l type are ana
lytic. T hus
, the f
unctions to =z,w= 2 z,
a
nd to z, c
ons
idered a
tt he beginning o
ft his s
ec
tion, a
re a
ll ana
lytic.
S
ac
. 1
4
-9] B
OUNDARY
-VALUE P
ROBLEMS 5
45

I
n l
i
ke manne
r w
e h
ave
, o
n e
l
imina
ting u
,
82v , 82v
(
14
-152
)
a
zi ay2
Both ( 14-151) and ( 14-152 ) have t he form ofL aplace'se qua t
ion. H ence
e
very a na lyt
ic func tion a utoma t
ically yi e
lds two f unctions each ofw hich
i
s as olution ofL ap lace's e quation.
Since a ngles are p rese rved, t he con stant za nd c onstan t yl i
nes are
o
rthogona l noto nly i nt he zp lane b u
t a lso when mapped i nt he w p
lane.
Therefo re
, i fthe c onstan t xl i
ne s represent t he electric f i
e
ld a nd the
c
ons tant yl i
nes t he e quipoten tials of au n
iform f i
eld d i
stribution they
c
ontinue t orepresen t fie
ld a nd e quipo tentia
l lines w hen mapped i nthe w
p
lane . I t isthis p rope rty w h
ich make s conforma l t r
an sforma t
ions so
u
sefu l ins o
lving t wo -d
imen s
iona l fi
e
ld p roblems .
E
xamp le. T wo p erfectly c o ndu cting s heets in
terse
ct a tright angles
, forming a
c
o
rner a ss hown i nc ross s e
ction i nF ig
. 1 4
-13. I f ap otential dife
ren c
e isa pp
lied
b
e
tw een t h
es he e
tsa nd anoth erc ondu ct o
r
a
t alarged is
tan cei nt hed i
rection o ft h
e
b
i
sector o fthe c orne r
, find t he f i
eld a nd
p
o
ten t
ial d i
stribution i nt h
e v i
cin i
ty o f
t
h
ec o
rner./B isector •

S
olut
ion . T he f i
eld d istr
ibu tion i na
0° c
9 o
rn er wass o
lv ed g r
aph ically i nS ec
. . /
.
2
-
28 ( s
ee F i
g. 2 -
27a ). As o
lu tion m ay ./
a
l
so beo btained b ym ean so f ac onforma l
./
t
r
ansforma tion, t hes o
lution i nt his c as
e
b
e
ing e x act
.' P r oceeding t o o btain a
s
o
lut
ion b ythec o
n forma l-tran s
f orma tion
m
ethod,w erecall( s
eeF ig
.1 4-12)t hatt h
e C
onduct
ing sheets
t
r
ansforma tion w x itran s
fo rm ed a9 0
°
no
. 1 4
-13. N inety-deg r
eec orner
.
s
e
ctor into 45°o r a1 8
0 °s ectori nto 9 0°
.
H
ence t h
is t r
an s
fo rma tion c an b ea ppli
ed t oo u
r p r
oblem .
I
nt h
e zp l
ane l ett hel i
ne y= 0r epresent afla
tc ondu c
ting s heet
. T hen ap o
t en-
t
i
al dif
er ence a pplied b etwe en t h
i s s he
et a nd another paralle
l o ne al a
rge di
stan ce
a
bovei twil
lp rodu ce au n
if orm f i
e
ld d i
str
ibu t
ion a sshown i nFig.1 4
-14a. T h
ed ashed
l
i
nes (y =c onstan t) are e quipo ten tials, and the so
lid l i
nes (x =c o
nstant) are fi
eld
l
i
nes
.
T
het ransforma tion w x iw a sd iscu s
sed e a
rl
ieri nth
iss ect
ion,a nd itwass h
own i n
(
1
4-139)a nd ( 1
4 -
140 )t hat u V(x ± N / x2 y
l
)/2 and v= y /2u -
s
/u' — z. B y
m
eanso ft h
eser e
la t
ion sw ec ano btain t hec oo
rdinates (u, v)i nthe wp lanef o
ra ny
p
o
int (x, y)i nt he zp l
an e
. I nt h
isw ay t h
eu ni
form f i
e
ld ( Fig. 14
-14a)m ay betrans-
f
o
rm ed p o
in t b y point t ot h
e n onun iform f i
e
ld int he 90° c o
rner, ass hown i nF i
g.
1
4
-14 b
, thed a
sh ed l in
esb eing e q u
ip o tent
ialsa nd thes o
lid l i
nese l
ect
ricf i
eld l
ine
s.
T
he tr
ans
formation u
sed in the above e
xample isof t
he exponent
ial
t
ype
. O ther t
r
ansformations o
f th
is type a
re l
i
sted in F
ig
. 14-15, w
ith
t
he na
ture o
f the t
rans
fo rmat
ion shown graph
ically
. I n al
l cases t
he
IH
owev
er, i
nmany a
pp
lica
tion
s ag
r
aph
ica
l s
o
lut
ion m
ay b
eeq
ual
ly s
a
ti
sfa
cto
ry.
5
46 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
.14

I
l
r

zp
l
ane wp
l
ane
(
a) (
b)
F
lo. 1
4-14
. Un
iform f
i
e
ld i
n zp
lane (
a
) t
rans
forms i
n
to n
onun
iform f
i
eld o
f 9
0°
c
orner (
b
).

u
ppe r ha
lf o
f the zplane u
ndergoes either an angular c
ompre ssion or an
a
ngular expans
ion w hen mapped int he w plane. When t he exponen t i
s
l
es
s t han 1, t
here is angu
lar compres sion a nd w hen the exponen t i
s
g
reater than 1
,t here i
sangular e
xpans ion. I tf o
llows, i
n gene ra
l, that
t
ob end the xa
xis s
oa sto make a
na ng le ainthe w plane r
equires at r
ans-
f
orma t
ion ofthe fo
rm
W = ClZ ± CS
a
ir (
14-153)

Z
w
here C1 i
s amagn
ifica
tion f
ac
tor a
nd C2 i
nvo
lve
s d
i
splacemen
t.

w=z 1
4 t
/ r
ans
forms t
o ,
-
(
a=f
)

w=z /
2 t
1 r
ans
forms t
o

(a=ir)
w= :
'tr
ans
forms t
o (
no change)

•
•
W =2 3/2 t
r
ans
forms t
o \ a= —
( 37)
2

w=s 2 t
r
ans
forms t
o c
. (a =2
r
)

zp
l
ane wp
l
ane
F
ic
i. 1
4-15
. T
rans
forma
tions o
fexponen
tia
l t
ype
.
SE
C. 1
4-10
1 BOUNDARY -
VALUE PROBLE MS 5
47

Mo
re g
ene
ral
ly t
he f
unc
tion

w= (
z-x
l
)ai
r (
14
-154
)

r
e
sult
s in at
rans
formation o
f t
he zp
lane
, w hen mapped i
n t
he w p
lane
,
a
ssugge
sted i
nFig. 1
4
-16. T ak
ing t
he zde
rivative o
f(14
-154
) t
oo bta
in

x
,

p
l
ane u
.pl
ane

Fm
. 1
4-16
. C
onfo
rma
l t
rans
forma
tion f
o
r w (
z —x
i
)a/r u
j
.

t
he w v
aria
tion w
ith r
e
spec
t t
o zy
ie
lds

_
d
w
_ =_
a(z _ x
i) (
a/1
9 -1
(
14
-155
)
d
z w•

I
n the mo
re general s
i
tuat
ion whe
re t
he x a
xis i
sbent s
o a
s t
o form a
p
olygon w
ith nangles (
a
l, a
s
, as,...,a.
), w
hen mapped i
nthe w p
lane
,
w
e have

d
w
—
d
z = C1(
z - xii
)
(
avi
r)1 (
- z-x
2
) (a
or
) -q
z - xs)(a
i
lf)
-
1 •••
— (
14
-156
)
I
nteg
rat
ing (
14
-156
),

w = CIJ
.[
(
z -x
i
)ai
l
f)1 (
- z - x2) (ailv) -1 • • • (z d
z (
14
-157
)

Thi
s is t
he S
chwarz-Chr
istofel t
rans
format
ion. F o
r asi
ngle p
o s
itive
a
ngle al a
nd x1 = 0
, (
14-157
) reduces t
o the s
ame fo
rm as (
14-153):
That i
s
,
w=C if d
z =Clzaor C
'
, (
14-158)

1
4-10. Example 6. S lot i
n Inf
ini
te Fla
t Sheet
. C ons
ider t he u
ni-
f
orm fi
e
ld in apara
lle
l-plate c
apac
itorwi
th pla
tesofinf
in
ite e
xtent. Ifa
s
l
ot isc u
t in t
he lower pla
te a
s shown i
n Fig
. 14
-17, t
he r
esult
ing fi
e
ld

1
E0 C
apac
ito
r
p
la
tes
4s
l
o
t
F
ia. 1
4-17
. C
apac
itor w
ith s
l
ot i
nlower p
late
.

d
istr
ibution may be f
ound by an a
ppl
icat
ion of t
he Schwarz-Chris
toffe
l
t
ransfo
rma tion
. I t i
sassumed tha
t the s
pac
ing b etween t
he capaci
tor
p
lates i
slarge compa
red with t
he w
idth o
fthe sl
ot.
5
48 ELECTRO MAGNETI CS [
CHAP
. 1
4

We wish to f
i
nd af unction that transform s t
he uni
fo rm (z
-plane) fi
e
ld
i
ns uch amanne r t
hati t
s map i nt he w plane ist
he fi
eld with the s
lot
ted
p
late. A silust
rated inFig. 14
- 18a,l e
tt he xaxis r
epresentthe uns
lo t
ted
l
owe r p
late o
ft he c
apacitor
. T he slo
t ist o be i
ntroduced between t he
p
oints x1 and xs. B y a n approp r
iate t r
ansformation a map c an b e
o
btained inthe w p
lane inw h
ich t hatp arto fthe xaxisb e
tween x1a nd x:

(
a) (
b
)
l
opl
ane
FIG
. 14
-18. zp
lane p
art
ial
ly t
r
ans
formed
, a
s s
hown b
y d
ashed l
i
nes (
a
), a
nd c
om-
p
lete
ly tr
ans
formed (
b
).

i
ss t
retched d ownwa rd, a
s sugge
s ted b y t
he dashed li
nes i
n Fig. 1
4-18a,
u
n t
il the point x: i
sa t v= - c a nd the x ax
is isfo
lded back on i
tsel
f,
l
eaving ag ap ofw idth s,as inFig. 14-18b
. A s mapped in the w p
lane,
t
he point x1 appearsa t ui a
nd t
he p ointxsa t us
.
The a ppropria
te f unc
tion iso btained from ( 14
-157) by n o
ting that
ai = 21
-, a: = -w, a: = 2a
ra nd also that x: = -x 1and x: = 0
. T here-
f
ore
, int hi
s case (14
- 157
) become s

w=C
1 f R
z - xi)(
2*/
*
) -i
z-(
r
h) -q
z + x1)
(2*
/
*
)-1 ]d
z (
14
-159
)
o
r
X2
W = CIf z
2 -
z
2 x
i
2 d
z = C1 (
z +-
-
21-
) ± C2 (
14
-160
)

When z= ±x
1 ±j 0
,i ti
srequ
ired t
hat w = ±(
s
/2) ±j
0
, w
here 8i
sthe
s
l
ot w
idth
. T he
refore
8
(
14
-161
)

a
nd w
ehave f
o
r C2 = 0t
hat C
1 =8
/4x 1,o
r

8(z x)
_1
(
14
-162
)
4 xi z
The z
-p
lane f
i
eld i
sun
ifo
rm s
ot hatt
he potent
ial V = Eoy
,whe
re E
oi sthe
u
niform f
i
eld be
tween t
he u
nslot
ted c
apacitor p
la
tes
. Now i fai = 8
/4;
(
14-162
) becomes

(
1
4-163
)
SE
C. 1
4-11
) BOUNDARY-
VALUE PROBLE MS 5
49

or

Z = 1[ W ± .V W 2 — (8
- ) 2] (
14
-164
)

T
he p
oten
tia
l i
n t
he zp
lane i
sgiven b
y

V = Eoy = Eo I
mz (
1
4-165
)

There
fore, t
he p
oten
tia
l d
i
str
ibut
ion a
s af
unc
tion o
f p
osi
tion i
n t
he w
p
lane is

V=—
E0 [
v + I
m•Vu 2 + j
2uv —0 —(
- (
14
-166
)
2 2
8) 2]

Th
is i
sthe s
olution t
o t
he problem
. I ntroduc
ing par
ticu
lar v
alue
s ofu
a
nd vin
to (1
4 -
166 )
, t
he po
ten t
ial a
t t
hese po
ints i
sfound
. C onnect
ing

--_
-i
-
- _

sp
l
ane C
onduc
tin g i
/
s
hee
t 1
% i wp
l
ane
\ .
(
a) ‘`
- --
. (
6
)
F
lo. 1
4-19
. C on
formal t
ransformation o
f un
iform fi
e
ld (
z p
lane
) a
bove c
ont
inuous
f
l
at s
hee
t (a) t
o fi
e
ld f
or s
lo
tted sheet (
w p
lane)(b
).

po
in ts o
fe qual potent
ial wi
th d ashed li
nes yie
lds t
he equipo
ten t
ial c
on-
t
our s o
fFig. 14-19b. T he sol
id lines r
epresent t
he e
l
ectric f
i
eld.
14-11
. O therC onformalT rans
forma tions. T h
eTransformaion w = e
t .
Consider t
he function
w = es (
14
-167)
where w = u ± i v
8= z ± j y
By de Moivre's theorem (14-167
) b ecome s

w = u-
I
-jv =e
z
(co
s y-
I
- js
i
n y
) (
14-
168
)
I
tfo
llows t
hat
U = e CO8 y (
14-169
)
a
nd
v
=9 s
i
n y (
14
-170
)

D
ivid
ing (
14-
170
) b
y (
14
-169
) y
ie
lds

v= u t
an y (
14
-171
)
5
50 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
4

Thus
, ac
ons
tan t yl
i
ne t
rans
forms t
o ar
adia
l li
ne when mapped i
nthe w
p
lane
. Squaring (
14
-169
) and (
14-
170) a
nd adding
, we have

12
U = V ex (
14
-172
)

Hence
, ac ons
tant xl ine trans
forms t o aci
rcle when mapped i
n the
wplane. T he t
ransfo
rma tion by this f
unc
tion (14
-167) o
f t
he z p
lane
when mapped in t
he w plane issugges
ted i
n Fig. 1
4-20
. The rec
tangle

zp
l
ane wp
l
ane
(
a
) (
6
1
Fm
. 1
4
-20
. C
onforma
l t
r
ans
forma
tion o
fre
ctang
le t
ose
ctor
.

ABCDEFGA in t
he zplane appears a
s ase
ctor ABCDEFGA i
n t
he
p
lane
.
Th
e T
rans
forma
tion z= ew
. T he i
nver
se o
f (
14
-167
) i
s

z= e
w (
1
4-173
)
or

w=i
nz (
14
-174
)
whe
re w = u i v
z= peo
p= radia
l d
istance
0= angle w
ith re
spect t
o xa
x
is
Now
I
n z= I
np j 0 (
14
-175
)
I
tfol
low
s that
n p= I
u = I n (
x2 -
I y2) (
14
-176
)
a
nd

V= 0= a
rctan - (
14
-177
)
x

Hence (
14-
173 ) t
rans
forms a s
e
ctor i
n the zplane t
o ar e
ctang
le w
hen
mapped i
n the w p
lane.
The T
ransforma
tion w = t
an z
. Consider t
he func
tion

w=t
an z= t
an (
x j
y
) (
14
-178
)
SE
C. 1
4-11
] BOUNDARY
-VALUE PROBLE MS 5
51

w
here w = u + j
v
. S
ince
t
an x ± jt
anh I
/
t
an (
x+i
l
) — 1— jt
an xtanh y (
14
-179
)

I
tfo
llow
s t
hat
u— t
an x(
1 —t anh
' y)
(
14
-180
)
1+ t
an' xt
anh 2 y
a
nd
v= t
anh y(
1+ tan
'x )
(
14
-181)
1+ tan
' xt
anh 2 y
A
dding u2 a
nd v2 y
ie
lds t
he r
ad
ius p2. Tha
t i
s
,
t
an' x+ tanh 2 y
U2 + 1 2 = p 2 -
(
14
-182
)
1± t
an' xtanh 2y
H
ence
, acoaxia
lt r
ansm is
sion l
i
ne int
he w p
lane a
sshown incrossse
ction
b
y F
ig
. 14-21a istrans
formed, when mapped i
n the zp
lane
, into aslab
t
r
ansmis
sion li
ne a
si nFig. 1
4
-2 l
b.
' T his l
i
ne ha
st wo f
l
atparalle
lsheets

t
opl
ane zpa
ne
(
a) (
6
)
F
la. 1
4
-21
. C
onforma
ltr
ans
forma
tion o
fcoax
ial t
r
ansm
iss
ion l
i
ne (
a
) t
osl
ab l
i
ne (
b
).

o
finfini
te extent ( c
orresponding tot he outer conduc tor) and an eliptica
l
i
nner conductor.
I
ft he r
adius po ft he o
uterc onducto risu nity (see F
ig . 1
4-21a), then a
t
y = 0t he o
u te
r c onductor isat ±T/4 , wh i
le a t x= 0 ,i tisat y = ± GO .
I
t fol
low s that t he p = 1 circle in t he w p lane (ou ter conducto r) is
t
ransformed, when mapped i n the z p lane, i nto the t wo c ons
tan t x
l
i
nes x = ±7/4 . I f the radius of t he inner c onductor i s a, t
hen a t
y = 0t he i
nner c onductor isat x= ± a rctan a,w h
ile at x = 0i ti s a
t
y= ± a r
ctanh a . I t f
o
llows t ha
t t he p = a c i
rcle (
inner conduc tor) i
n
t
he w plane i stransformed, w hen mapped i n the zp lane, in
to a n el
lip
-
t
i
cally shaped f i
gure.
1W
. B. Wholey and W. N
. E
ldred
, AN
ew T
ype o
f S
lot
ted L
ine S
ect
ion
, P
roc
.
I.
R.E.
,88
, 244-248
, March
, 1
950
.
5
52 ELECTRO MAGNETICS [
CHAP
. 1
4

Conforma l transforma tions a re a ppl

i cable t o stat
i c two-dimen siona l
f
i
elds, b ut
, i n genera l
, t hey c anno t be u sed f or time -changing f i
e
lds
(
Laplace's e qua t
ion n o longe r h o
ld s). Howeve r
, con formal transforma -
t
i
ons c an b e e mployed t of i
nd t he f i
e
lds o fw ave st r
aveling o n atwo -con -
d
ucto r tr
an smiss
ion l i
ne p rovided t he w ave i so ft he TE M t ype
, the l ine
h
as ac ons tan t c
r o
sss ect
ion , a nd t here isn egligible conduc tora nd r adia-
t
i
on l o
ss. Unde r these c onditions t he transve rse electric f
i
eld configura -
t
i
on i si d
en t
ical with t he s tatic field distribu tion. H ence a solution o f
L
aplace's e qua t
ion v ia confo rma l t r
ansfo rma tions c an b e used to de s
ign
ahigh-frequency t ransm is sion l i
ne w he
re t he a bove c ondit
ions are m et.
Th
is h as b een d one i n the c ase of t he sl
ab l i
ne b y Who ley and E ldred .
T
he T rans format ion w = ( h/r)(ez —z j r). C ons ider fi
nal
ly t he
f
unction
w =—
h (
e
z —z j
r
) (
14
-183
)

f
r
om w
hich

u = —
h (
e
zcos y — x
) (
14
-184
)
7
a
nd
v= —
h (
e
xsi
n y— y 7
) (
14
-185
)
7

F
or y= 0
, u= (
h/r
)(e
x —x
)
, a
nd v= h
,wh
ile f
o
r y =w
,
u= (
h
/r)(—e
x —x
)
a
nd v = 0. T hus t
he y = 0l ine
, when mapped i nthe w plane
, isfo
lded
b
ack o n i
tse
lf a nd turned around so as to li
e a
t v= h a nd at uv a
lues
e
qual to o
r grea te
r than h/r. T he y = 7 li
ne i
stransformed soas toli
e
a
long the uaxis (v=0 ). I tundergoesalso asca
le change and r
ever
salof
d
irect
ion. T his transformation isilustrated in F
ig. 14-22. T he re
c-
t
angle ABCDEFA i nt he zp
lane istr
ansformed tot he fi
gure ABCDEFA
when mapped i nthe w plane
.

sp
ane t
opl
ane
(
a) (
b
)
Fl
o
. 1
4-22
. T
ran
sforma
tion t
o= (
h/T
)(9 — a + j
r)
.
SE
C. 1
4-11
] BOUNDARY -
VALUE PROBLE MS 5
53

Thi
s t r
ansformat
ion isuse
ful f
o
r mapping t
he f
ie
ld at the edge o
f a
c
apacitorp la
te s
i
tuated a
bove ag
round p
lane
, t
he f
i
eld d
istr
ibution b
eing
a
sp ortrayed inF
ig. 1
4-23
. The dashed l
i
nes a
re e
quipo
tentia
ls, and t
he

C
apaci
tor
p
l
ate

G
round p
l
ane
. 1
Fm 4-23
. F
r
ing
ing f
i
e
ld a
tedge o
fcapac
itor p
la
te.

s
o
lid l
ine
s are f
i
e
ld li
nes
. ( Apply
ing the me
thod ofi mages t
o t
h
is f
i
gure
w
e can obta
in t
he f
ie
ld a
t t
he edge o
f atwo-plate c
apaci
tor.
)
F
or y = 0we have
, on t
aking t
he xder
ivative o
fu ,
d
u h
— = —(9 — 1
) (
14
-186
)
d
x w
I
tfol
lows t
hat t
he r
e
lat
ive e
l
ectr
ic f
i
e
ld i
n
tens
ity E
, n
orma
l t
o t
he t
op
c
apac
ito
rplate i
sexp
res
sed b
y
1 r
E,= d
u/dx — h
(e — 1
) (
14
-187
)

The r
e
lat
ive s
urface c
harge d
ens
ity o
n t
he t
op p
late i
s

a = D
P . =f
oE, = (
14
-188
)
h
(e
z — 1
)
where to = perm itt
ivi ty of the med ium ( air). We n ote from ( 14 -187)
a
nd ( 14
-188 ) t hat the e lec
tric f ie
ld i ntensity a nd the surface c harge
d
ensity are inf
in i
te a t the edge o f t he capaci tor plate (po
in t A i n Fig.
1
4-22b) si
nce x = 0a tt h
is poin t
. The i nf
in i
te c harge densi
ty r esults, o
f
c
ourse, from t he i mplicit assump tion t hat t he p la
te i s i
nf
inite s
ima lly
t
hick. I f at h
ick p lat e i
sused a nd i t
s sur
fac e c o
incides with o ne o f t
he
e
quipoten t
ials inF ig
. 1 4-23 (fo
re xamp le, the h eavy d a
shed c ontour ), t
he
f
i
eld conf
igura tion o utside oft he plate i su ndisturbed a nd itisa ppa rent
t
hat the surface charge d ensity rema ins f i
nite s i
nce the edge isn o longer
p
erfect
ly s harp.
PROBLE MS
14-1
. S
how that t
he r
ela
tions V •D = 0 , E = —VV — jtuA, and v •A = —j
on
sf
EV
may be c
ombined t
o yi
eld the s
cala
r w ave equa
tion vIV + (02/.
eV = 0
. N o
te that
when 0 = 0
, V •A = 0
,as assumed in (
4-169) f
o
r st
atic f
i
e
ld s
.
5
54 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS [
CHAP
. 1
4

1
4-2
. Ac onduct
ing w
ire o
fradius ai
sp laced i
nai
rinano r
igina
lly un
iform f
i
eld E0.
The w
ire i
scoated w
ith a
n in
sulating l
ayer of o
ute
r r
adius band permit
tiv
ity el,a
s

A
i
r
F
io. 1
4
-24
. C
ros
s s
e
ction o
fin
sula
ted w
ire f
o
r P
rob
. 1
4
-2.

s
hown i n Fig. 14-24 . F ind t he p otential V o everywhe re outs
ide t he insu lating layer
a
nd t he p o
tent ial V ,
'eve rywhe re i ns
ide t he i n
sula ting layer
.
1
4-3. T he e l
ectric fi
e
ld i su niform a nd e qua lto E0a bove ani nf
ini te p
lane s heetc on-
ductor and z ero below t he shee t. I f as lo
t o fw id th sisc ut i
nt he c onduc tor f i
nd the
s
urface c harge d ensity on b oth si deso ft he s heet. T he m edium a bove a nd b e
low t he
s
hee ti sair
.
An s
.:p . = ( o
0E 0/2)11 u
/[u 2 — (8
/2 )9 i a bove s heet.
. = (
P e
0E 0/2)11 — u /[u 2 — (8
/2 ) 1J11below s heet.
1
4-4. U sing aS chwa rz -Chr istof elt ransforma tion , map the fi
e
ld i n a(V c onduc ting
c
orne rformed b yt wo f
latc onduct ing s heetsi fap otentia
ld iferen ce i sapplied b etwe en
t
he c orner a nd a nother c onductor a t al arge d istance in the direc tion o f the c orner
b
isector.
1
4-5. Ac onduc ting h emisphe re i sp laced o n af l
at conduc t
ing i nf
in it e sheet, as
s
hown i n Fig
. 1 4-25. B efore t he h em isphe re w as introduced, the e lect
ric f i
e
ld e very-
where above t he shee twa sn orma lt oita nd e qualt o Eo. T he radiuso fthe h emisphe re

H
emisphe
re

S
hee
t
F
lo. 1
4
-25
. H
emisphere f
o
r P
rob
. 1
4
-5.

i
sa. T he ang le 8is measured f r
om t he normal tot he shee
t. T he medium a bove t he
s
heet isair
. A ssume t he potentia
l Vo f the hem isphere and s heet t
o be z e
ro . ( a)
F
ind V e ve rywhere a bove t he sheet and h emisphe re
. ( b) F ind the surface c harge
d
ensity atallp o
intso nt he hemisphere and fl
ats heet. ( c
) P lot agraph oft he surfa ce
c
harge density a long the h emisphere and flat s
hee t to adi
stance o f5 a
.
An s
.: (
a) V= — 11 — ( 0/0)1 Eo c os 8; (b
) p. =3 00E0 c os 8on sphere a nd p .
eoE01 — (as/p 3)]ons heet.
14-5. Au ni
form ly c harged li
near wire issi
tua ted at adistance df r
om t wo fl
atc on -
d
ucting shee ts of inf
inite extent w h
ich intersect to form a s quare co
rne r
. T he w ire
 BOUNDARY
-VALUE PROBLE MS 5
55

r
uns p a
rallel t o the corner . ( a) Find t he p otent ial Ve verywhe re in the c orne r, a nd
d
raw amap o ft he equipo ten tia l contour s
. ( b) Find t he s urface c harge d ens
ity a l
ong
t
he s heets
, a nd p lot agraph o ft his v ariation t o ad istance o f5 df rom t he corne r.
1
4-7. Wha ts pacing D i srequ i
red b e
tween t he pla teso f at r
an sm iss
ion l i
ne consi st
ing
o
ft wo inf
in ite p aral
lel p lates w ith as y mme trically l oca ted cen te rc onducto ro fr adius
r1 i
no rder t ha t the c haracte ris t
ic i mpedance o f t he l ine b e 1 00 o hm s? T he p a ra
llel
p
late s are at t he same p oten tia l
.
1
4-8. At hin c onduc ting s phe rical s hell o f rad ius r1 i scu t i nto t wo h emisphe res
s
epa rated b y av ery s ma l
l a ir g ap. I fo ne h em isphe re i scha rged t o ap o
ten tial V1
a
nd t he othe rh em isphe re to ap otent ial V2,d er
ive t he e xpres sion oft he p oten tial at
a
ny p o
int o uts ide oft he s phere .
1
4-9. As l
o t ofw idth si sc ut i na n infinite f l
at c onduct ing s heet. B efore the s lot
was made , t he e l
ectric f i
eld a bove t he s hee t w as e ve rywhe re p erpend icu lar t o t he
s
he et and ofi ntensity E0,w hile t he fie
ld b elow t he s hee t w asz ero. A tw ha tdis tance
b
elow t he cen te ro fthe s lot (and n orma lt ot he shee t) i st he elec tr
ic p oten tiale qua lt o
o
ne o ne-hund redth o fits v alue a t ad istance aa bove t he shee t a nd r emot e from t he
s
l
o t?
1
4-10. T he e l
ectric fi
eld i ntens ity i nt he u niform f i
eld r egion b etween t he t wo h o r
i-
z
on tal pla
te so f al a
rge p aral
le l-pla te capac itor i s1 0
,000 v olts/me ter. F ind the f i
eld
i
nten s
ity a t ap o
inti nt he f r
ing ing f i
e
ld h alfway b e tween t he pla tesa nd a t ah or
izon tal
d
istance d f rom t he edge s of t he p late s
, w here d i st he p late s pa cing. I ti sassumed
t
ha t the plate s are inf
inite sima lly t hick a nd t ha t t hey a re loca ted i na ir
.
1
4-11. T he r ef
lection c oefficien t f or voltage o n al ine o f cha racteristic i mpedance
z
.i s
Z — Z . (
Z/2 0)— 1 Z. — 1
Z Zo (Z/ Z0) + 1 Z, + 1
,

whe
re Z = l
oad i
mpedance (
ohms
) a
nd Z
. no
rma
lized i
mpedance (
d
imens
ion
les
s)
(=R„ jX
,
,). Itfo
llows t
hat
— 1+
1— p
,

S
how that i
fR„ and X„ a
re ob
tained as f
unct
ions o
fthe r
eal a
nd imag
ina ry p
arts of
p
, amap o
fR .a nd X.inthe p
,plane y
ield
st he Sm
ith i
mpedanc
echart (
see S
ec
. 1 -7).
1
4-12
. Ah al
f-cyl
indr
ica
l me ta
l tube o
f rad
ius a
,as s
hown in F
ig
. 14-26
, isat ze
ro

M
eta
l tu
be
F
io. 1
4
-26
. C
ros
s s
e
ction o
fh a
lf-cy
lindr
ica
l t
ube f
o
r P
rob
. 1
4-
12.

p
otent
ial. If ap
late a
t ac ons
tant p
otent
ial g
rea
ter t
han z
ero i
splaced a
cros
s o
ne
e
nd o
ft he t
ube
,but n
ot i
ncontactwith i
t
,show tha
tthe po
ten
tiali
nside t
he t
ube a
ta
l
a
rge dis
tance zf
r
om the p
late iso
fthe f
orm
, RI,
V.
=Ce --0 s
i
n c
P ( —p)
a
where C = a constant, p= rad
ius of p
o
int in
side o
f tube, J1 = fi
rst
-order Be
sse
l
f
unction (
o
ff i
rs
t kind), a
nd R1
1 =3 .
832 = fi
r
st roo
tof J1[t
hatis
,f i
rs
tv alue o
f ua
fte
r
u = 0for wh
ich J1( u
) =0 ]
. A ssume t
hat t
he t
ube i
sinf
inite
ly long.
-
 APPEND
IX

A-1. Table o fU n
its. I n t he follow ing tab le dimensions o r quanti t
ies
c
ommon ly used i n electromagne tic s are li
sted a lphabe t
ica l
ly u nder t he
h
eading s Fundamen tal, Mechan ica l, Electrical
, a nd Magne t
ic. I n t he
f
i
rst co
lumn t he n ame o f the dimen s
ion o r quan t
ity i sgiven a nd in t he
s
e
cond c olumn t he c ommon s ymbo l f or d e
signa t
ing i t
. I n the t h
ird
c
olumn ( Des
crip t
ion ) the d imens ion i sd escribed in terms o f the funda -
mental dimens ions ( mass
, l ength, t ime, a nd e l
ectric cha rge) or o ther
s
econdary dimen s
ions . T he fourth c olumn ( Mksc unit
) li
s ts t
he rat
iona l-
i
z
ed mksc u n
it f or the dimens ion, a nd the f i
fth co
lumn g ives equivalen t
u
nits. T he last column i ndica tes t he fundamenta l dimens ions by m eans
o
f the symbols M ( mass), L( l
eng th )
, T( t
ime )
, and Q ( electric c
ha rge).
For adiscussion o fd imens ions a nd u n
its se eSecs. 1
-1t o 1-3,inc
lus ive.

5
57
 FUNDA MENTAL UNITS

Name o
fdimen
sion Mksc F
undamental
S
ymbo
l D
esc
rip
tion E
quiva
len
t u
nit
s
o
r q
uant
ity un
it d
imens
ions

C
harge (
e
lect
ric
) Q
,q c
urrent X t
ime c
oulomb 6
.25 X 1
00 electron c
harge
s Q
=a mpere
-second = 3 X 102
c
gs e
su t = 0
.1 cgs e
mu:

L
eng
th L
, 1 me
ter 1
00 c
ent
ime
ter
s L

Maa
s M
, m k
i
log
ram 1
,
000 g
rams M

I
7
'
T
ime 7
'
,t s
econd f
/mi n
ute = 3
,
1 hour
600

1
d
ay
=8
6
,400

MECHANICAL UNITS

v
e
loci
ty _ l
eng
th met
er
A
cce
lera
tion a
t
ime t
ime' s
econd'

A
rea A
, a
,s l
e
ngth
' me
ter
' L2

E
nergy o
r w
ork f
o
rce x l
eng
th j
ou
le n
ewton
-me ter =w a
tt-
second
ML'
=powe
r xt ime =vol
t-coulomb = 10' e
rgs
T2
=107 dyne-
cen
timeters

e
nergy j
oule
E
nergy d
ens
ity 1
0erg
s/cen
time
ter
'
v
olume me
ter
' LT
'

tc
gs e
su = c
ent
imeter-gram-
second e
le
ctrosta
tic u
nit (
s
tat u
nit
).
c
gs emu = c
ent
imeter-gram
-second e
l
ectromagnet
ic un
it (
ab uni
t).
 MECHANICAL UNITS
.—(Con
tinued
)

N
ame o
fdimens
ion Mksc F
undamental
S
ymbo
l D
escr
ipt
ion E
quiva
lent u
nit
s
o
r q
uant
ity un
it d
imens
ions

k
i
log
ram -mete
rs j
ou
le ML
F
orce mas
s Xa
cce
lera
tion n
ewton
s
econd
s meter T2
1
06d
ynes

F
requency c
yc
les/second c
ps (
her
tz

L
eng
th L
, me
ter 1
00 c
ent
ime
ter
s

chiV
Ma
ss M
, m k
i
logram 1
,
000 g
ram
s

GNa
Momen
t (
t
orque
) f
o
rce X l
e
ngth n
ewton- k
i
log
rs
eam
co
-m
nde
ter
s ML'

XI
—j
ou
le
me
ter T
I

Momentum My ma
ss Xv e
locity n
ewton- k
i
log
ram -me ter ML
•f
orce X t ime s
econd s
econd
e
nergy j
ou
le-second
ve
locity m
e ter

1
P
eriod s
econd
f
r
equency

f
o
rce X leng
th joule _ newton-mete
r ML'
P
ower w
att
t
ime s
econd s
e
cond T
s
energy k
i
log
ram -mete
rs
t
ime s
econds
 MECHANICAL UNITS
.—(Con
tinu
ed)

Name o
fdimens
ion I Mksc F
undamental
S
ymbo
l D
escr
ipt
ion E
quiva
lent u
nit
s
o
r q
uant
ity un
it d
imens
ions

T
ime T
, t s
e
cond g
i
bmin u
te = 3
,600
1 h
our T
1
d
ay
= 8
6
,400

l
e
ng th meter L
V
eloc
ity v
time s
econd T
(
velocity o
fli
ght i
n
vacuum = 3 X 10'
meter
s/sec)

V
olume v l
eng
th' met
er' L
a
•
ELECTR
ICAL UNITS

1 mho ampere _ c
oulomb' TQ 2
A
dmit
tance Y
i
mpedance (
s
iemen
s) vo
lt j
ou
le-se
cond ML
'

c
harge c
oulomb c
oulomb ' T
aQ 2
C
apac
itance C f
a
rad
p
otent
ial v
olt j
oule ML'
r ampe
re-second
m
v
olt
= 9X 101 c m (cgse
su)

C
harge Q
,q c
urrent X t
ime c
oulomb 6
.25 X 1
0" ele
c t
ron c
harge
s Q
= ampe
re-second = 3 X 1
0" c
gs
e
su
=0.1 c
gs emu
 ELECTR
ICAL UNITS
.—(Con
tinued
)
N
ame o
fdimens
ion Mksc F
undamental
S
ymbo
l D
escr
ipt
ion E
quiva
len
t u
nit
s
o
r q
uant
ity un
it d
imens
ions
c
harge c
oulomb ampe
re-second 0
C
harge (
vo
lume
) d
ens
ity P -V D
v
olume meter
' mete
r s L
i
1 mho ampere c
oulomb ' T
(22
C
onductance
r
e
sis
tance (
s
iemens
) vo
lt -j
oule
-second ML'

1 mho 1 _ 1 mho TQ 2
C
onduct
ivi
ty a
r
e
sis
tivity mete
r o
hm-mete
r -1
00 c
ent
imete
r ML'

c
harge c
oulomb Q
C
urrent 1
,i ampere - 3X 1
0 9c
gse
au
t
ime s
econd T
=0
.
1 c
gs emu

c
urrent ampere c
oulomb 0
C
urrent d
ens
ity J
a
rea meter' s
econd -me
ter
'
>
,
D
ipo
le moment p (= q
l
) c
harge x l
eng
th c
oulomb - ampe
re-second
-mete
r LQ
meter

,
w eber _ j
oule ML'
Em
f V fE
. •d
l v
olt
s
econd - c
oulomb T2Q

E
nergy d
ens
ity (
e
lect
ric
) w
.
e
nergy j
oule
1
0 e
rgs/cent
ime
ter
s
z
i
I
v
o
lume meter
' LT
'

F
ie
ld i
ntens
ity p
otentia
l _ fo
rce volt newton _ j
oule ML
E
(
Evector
) l
ength charge m
eter c
oulomb c
oulomb-mete
r T2Q
=4 X 1
0-4 c
gs e
su
=106c
gs emu
 C
J1
ELECTR
ICAL UNITS
.—(Con
tinu
ed)
Name o
fdimens
ion Mksc F
undamental
S
ymbo
l De
scr
ipt
ion E
quiva
len
t u
nits
o
r q
uant
ity un
it d
imens
ions
F
lux t
i
f c
harge = fD •d
e c
oulomb I a
mpe
re-
second Q
c
harge c
oulomb amp
ere-second - ampere Q
F
lux d
ens
ity D
a
rea met
ers meter
s met
ers/se
cond L2
(
d
isp
lacement
)
(
D v
ecto
r)

p
otent
ial vo
lt ML'
I
mpedance Z o
hm
cur
rent ampere T
(22

c
harge c
oulomb amp
ere-second Q
L
inear c
harge d
ens
ity p
i
,
l
ength mete
r me
ter L
c
apac
itance f
a
rad c
oulomb T
sQs
P
erm
itt
ivity o
l
ength mete
r v
olt
-me ter ML'
(
d
ielec
tric constant
)
(
f
or vacuum ,
t
o=8 .85 X 1 0 -"
= 10-
0 /367 f
arad/mete
r)

d
ipo
le momen
t c
oulomb ampe
re-second Q
P
ola
riza
tion P L
2
vo
lume mete
r' mete
rs

work j
oule newton-me ter MD
P
otent
ial V v
olt
c
harge c
oulomb c
oulomb Tk
i
-w
at t
-second wa
t t
coulomb a
mpe re
'
w
ebe r 1
_
s
e
cond - 3 00 c
gs es
ti
' =108 cgs emu
 ELECTRICAL UNITS
.—(Con
tinued
)
Name o
fdimension 1 Mksc F
undamental
'S
ymbo
l D
esc
rip
tion E
quiva
len
t u
nit
s
o
r quant
ity un
it d
imens
ions
P
oynting v
ector (
powe
rsur
- 1p
ower w
att j
oule M
S
f
ace d
ens
ity) a
rea me
ters s
econd-mete
rs T
s

power watt
s ML'
R
adia
tion i
ntens
ity U
u
nit s
o
lid ang
let s
t
eradian T3

p
otentia
l vo
lt MI
A'
R
eactance X o
hm
current ampere TQ
l

S
R
ela
tive p
erm
itt
ivi
ty (
r
el- e
, r
a
tio — d
imens
ion
less
t
o

a
t
ive d
ie
lectr
ic c
ons
tant
)

p
otent
ial vo
lt ' j
oule
-se
cond ML'
R
esi
stance R o
hm
cur
rent ampere c
oulomb' TQ 2
=iX 10- " e
gs e
su
=1
0 -sc
gs emu

R
esi
s t
iv i
ty r
e
sis
tance X l
eng
th v
olt
-meter ML
'
A
S o
hm-met
er
(
specif
ic r
e
sis
tance
) =1/conduc
tiv
ity ampe
re TO

c
urrent ampe
re ampere Q
S
heet c
urrent d
ens
ity K X me
ter
l
ength m
eter me
ters TL

1 ampere 7
'Q 1
S
uscep
tance B mho
r
eactance vo
lt MLs

Wave
leng
th X l
e
ngth mete
r L

S
ol
id a
ngle i
sdimens
ion
les
s.
 MAGNETIC UNITS

Name o
fdimen
sion 1 Mksc F
undamental
S
ymbo
l D
esc
rip
tion E
quiva
len
t u
nit
s
o
r q
uant
ity 1 un
it d
imens
ions

D
ipole moment p
ole s
t
rength x l
e
ngth a
mpe re- c
oulomb-meter
! QL 1
m (= Q
.1)
(
magnet
ic) =curren
t Xarea me
te r
' s
e
cond T
= t
orque
magne
tic f
lux d
ens
ity

E
nergy d
ensi
ty e
nergy j
oule M
w
. 1
0erg
s/cen
time
ter
s

12HT3
(
magne
tic
) v
olume m
eter
s LT 2

F
lux (
magne
tic
) C
. ffB •d
e w
eber v
olt
-second ML 2

.
11
=1 0s maxwe
lls (
c
gse
mu) TQ

10
=n ewton-mete
r

TI
DIIHNOI A
ampere

F
lux d
ensi
ty f
o
rce f
orce weber v
olt
-second M
meter
s = 1
0 'g
aus
s (
c
gsemu
)
(
B v
ector) p
ole c
urrent moment m
e te
rs TQ
n
ewton

S
= magne
tic f
l
ux
=
a
rea ampere
-mete
r

ML 2
F
lux l
i
nkage A f
l
ux X t
ur
tle w
ebe
r-turn
TQ

Hf
i
e
ld (
Hve
ctor
) (
magne
t- H mmf ampere n
ewton
— watt Q
i
zng f
o
rce
) l
e
ngth me
ter weber v
olt
-mete
r TL
=4
7 X10 -so
ers
ted (
c
gs e
mu)
=4
00y g
ammas

tT
urns a
re d
imens
ion
les
s.
 MAGNET
IC UNITS
.—(Con
tinued
)

N
ame o
fdimen
sion Mksc F
undamental
S
ymbo
l D
esc
rip
tion E
quiva
len
t u
nit
s
o
r q
uant
ity un
it d
imens
ions

magne
tic fl
ux l
inkage w
eber j
oule ML 2
I
nduc
tance h
enry -o
hm-
second
c
urrent ampe
re ampere
s Q
t
= X 10-1 c
1 gs esu
=109 c
ent
imeter
s (cgs e
mu)

Magne
tizat
ion magne
tic moment ampere ampe
re-me ters
(
magnet
ic p
olar
iza
tion
) volume me
ter mete
rs T
L
ampere -mete
r
me ter
s

tiaddV
ampere- c
oulomb
Mm
f fH •d
l
(
turn) s
econd

Ia
X
i
nductance h
enry weber ML
P
ermeab
ili
ty (
f
or v
acuum i
s
o
l
ength meter ampe
re-me ter Q2
=4 w X 1
0-7 vo
lt-second
=1 .
257 X 10-
4 ampere-me te
r
h
enry/met
er)

magnet
ic f
l
ux _ 1 w
eber ML
s
P
ermeance 6
' h
enry
mmf r
e
luc
tance ampe
re QS

p
ole s
trength ampere
P
ole d
ens
ity
vo
lume meter
s TL
s
c
urrent
a
rea
= V •H = -V •M C
li
 MAGNETIC UNITS
.—(Con
tinu
ed)

Name o
fdimens
ion Mksc F
undamental
S
ymbo
l D
esc
rip
tion E
quiva
len
t u
nits
o
r q
uant
ity un
it d
imens
ions

ampe
re- c
oulomb-mete
r QL
P
ole s
t
reng
th Q
., q
. c
urrent X l
e
ngth
m
ete
r s
e
cond T
= ffp. d
v

IIDala
P
otent
ial
u
w
ork j
oule wa
tt c
oulomb Q
ampe
re
(
magnetic
) p
ole X p
ermeab
ili
ty w
eber v
olt s
econd T

I
(
f
or H) 47

IOV W0
= f H• d
l —
0 g
1 i
lberts (
c
gs e mu
)

IIHN
R
ela
tive p
ermeab
il
ity m
r r
a
tio I D
imens
ion
les
s
M
O

D
mmf 1 ampe
re

S
R
eluc
tance 6
1 Q
'
magnet
ic f
l
ux h
enry w
eber ML 2
1
pe
rmeance

weber h
enry
-amp e
re n
ewton ML
V
ector p
otent
ial A c
urrent X p
ermeab
ili
ty
mete
r mete
r ampe
re TQ
 APPENDIX 5
67

A-2. G raph icalF ie ld-mapp ing T echn iques. S ome furthe

rt echn ique s
'
o
fg raph ica l fi
eld mapp ing may b ei lustrated by cons
idering ane xamp le
.
L
e t t he p roblem b e t o map t he electr
ic f i
eld i
n as quare corne r. I t is
a
ssumed t hatt he sides o fthe c orner
B
i
sect o
r
c
on sist o f t wo f l
a t
, p erfectly c on- S
tep 1
d
uc ting s heet s of i nf
inite e xtent
i
nter secting a t9 0°a nd t ha t ap oten-
t
ia
l d ife rence i s a pp l
ied b e
tween
t
he c orne r a nd a no ther c onduc toruadr
isec
tor ---Q
--

S
tep 2
a
t av ery l arge distance i nthe d i
rec-
t
i
on o ft he c orner bi sector.
Step 1i nt he procedure i st oc on-
s
truc t t he c orne r b i
secto r ( F
ig. F
l
ats
hee
ts
A
-la ). B y s ymme t ry t he f i
eld (
a)
a
bove t he bisectori sam ir ror i mage
B
i
sec
tor
o
ft he f i
eld b e
low s ot hati tsuf ices
t
o map o nly t he f ie
ld b elow t he
F
i
eld l
i
ne
b
isector. Step 3
Step 2i st ocons truc tt he q uad r
i- Q
uad
risec
tor
s
ectora ss hown i nF ig. A -la. T his
i
salso al ine ofs ymme try b utd ifers E
quipoten
tia
l
f
rom t he b isector i nt hat, a l
though S
tep 3
t
he fi
eld i nt he 22
-1°s ectora bove t he A
q
uadr isec tor i s am irror i mage o f (
b
)
t
he f i
e
ld i n the 2 24° s ecto r b e
low ,
B
i
sec
tor
e
quipo ten tials are m irrored a sf i
eld
l
i
nes a nd f i
eld l i
nes a s e quipo ten-
t
i
als. T his p roper ty, h oweve r
, is
v
ery u
sefu
l i
n c
ons
truc
ting t
he . ep 4
S
t
map
.
S
tep 3i sto s
ke tch af i
eld a nd an
e
qu ipotent
ial line i ntersecting a t
r
ight a ng
les at the q uadrisecto r a
s
i
ndicated b y t
he s ol
id linesi n Fig.
A
- lb. T he sta
rting p oin
t s Ba nd D (
C
)
f
or these li
nes shou ld be c hosen so F
in. A-1
. Steps i
n mapp
ing f
i
e
ld i
n a
s
quare c
orne
r.
a
s to make t he fi
gure ABCDA a s
n
ear
ly a c u
rvil
inea r s
quare as p
oss
ible
. T o t
e
stw hetherorn ot ABCDA
i
s acurvil
inear square
, 2itcan b
es ubd
ivided a
sshown byt he d
ashed li
nes
i
nFig. A-lb into f
our ar
ea s
, e
ach ofwhich s
hou
ld be acurvil
inears qua
re.
I
fthe subdivided a
reasa ppeartodepartfr
om curv
ilinearsquares
,t he f
i
eld
ISee S
ecs
. 2-27 a
nd 2
-28
.
2 F
or d
efin
ition o
fcur
vil
inear s
quar
e s
ee S
ec. 2
-27
.
5
68 ELECTRO MAGNET I
CS

and e qu ipo ten tial l i

nes, i nclud ing i fn eces sary t heir s tarting p oin ts Ba nd
D
, s hou ld b e r e
loca ted .
Assum ing w e are s a
tisfied t ha t ABCDA i s at rue c urvilinea r s qua re o r
v
e ry n ea rly o ne, s tep 4i st os ke tch i n mo re f i
eld a nd e qu ipo ten tia lsa si n
F
ig. A -1c. I ti stob en oted t ha tt he e quipo tentials a nd f i
e ld l ine ss hou ld
a
lways i nte rsect n orma l
ly , w ith o ne s et o f inte rsec tions f a
lling o n t he
quadr isec tor . A lso t he e qu ipo ten t
ia ls shou ld b e n orma l t o t he b isec tor
a
nd t he f i
eld l i
nes n orma l t o t he s ide oft he c orne r. A s a n a id i nd e ter-
mining w he ther o rn ott he se r equ iremen ts h ave b een m et, i ti sf requen tly
d
e s
irab le t ot urn t he d raw ing a nd l ook a ti tf rom d ife ren td irec tions . I t
i
sp ar ticu la rly h elpfu lt os igh ta long t he bisec tor o rq uad rise cto r
. I fany o f
t
he a reas d o n ota ppea rt ob ec urvilinea rs quare so ri fa ny o ft he i nters ec-
t
ions a re n ot o rthogona l
, t he map s hould b e revised . I ti so ften b et ter
unde r s uch c i
rcum s tances t o e rase t he e ntire map a nd s tart a f re sh t han
t
o t ry a nd c or rect o nly t ho se a reas w here i naccurac ie s a ppea r t oe xist.
Proceed ing i n t he a bove manne r, i ts hou ld b e p ossible a fte r s eve ral
a
ttemp ts t o a rrive a t a n a ccurate f i
eld map . T he mak ing o f a ccura te
f
i
eld maps i sa n art t ha t requ ire s long p rac tice. O ne w ho h as a cqu ired
s
uch s kill c an p roduce f i
eld maps o fv ery g ood a ccuracy t ha t a re s atis-
f
acto ry f or many e nginee ring a pplica t
ions . P rac tice i n g raph ica l f i
eld
mapp ing i sv aluab le e xpe rience ,i ff orn oo the rr eason ,b ecause i td eve lops
as ense o f h ow f i
elds s hou ld f l
ow o r b e s haped i n p rob lems i nvolv ing
v
a riou sg eome tries. E ven i ft he fi
eld c an b ec alcu la ted a naly tica lly, t he
numbe r o f f i
eld p oin ts t ha t n eed t o b e calcu lated c an b e m in im ized b y
u
tilizing g raph ical mapp ing m ethod st o comp lete t he map .
As d escr ibed a bove , g raph ica l fi
eld mapp ing i st o al arge e xten t af ree-
h
and a rt. I t may b el a
rge ly t ransformed , h oweve r, i nto ap rec ise d ra f t
-
i
ng t e chn ique b y ac irc
l em ethod i ntroduced b y Moo re .' I nt h
is me thod a
c
ircle i su sed t o ensure t ha t a n a rea d epa r tsb utl ittle f r
om at r ue c urv i-
l
inea r s qua re. F or i nstance , c on sider t he t wo f ie
ld l ine s a nd e qui-
poten tial s hown i n F ig. A -2a . Ac ircle isd rawn t hat t ouche s b oth f i
eld
( .
. 1
. F
i
eld l
i
nes

E
quipo
ten
tia
l

E
quipo
ten
tia
l
i

(
a
) (
b
)
FI
G
. A
-2. C
irc
le t
echn
ique
.
1A
. D
. Moore, Mapp
ing T
echn
iques App
lied t
o F
luid
-mapper P
atte
rns
, P
roc
.
AIEE,7
1, 1
952
.
 APPENDIX 5
69

l
ines a nd t he equipo tential a sindica ted. T he c
urv
il
inear squa re i st hen
c
omp le ted b yfairing i na nothere quipo tent
ial t
angent t
o the circle, a si n
F
ig. A -2b. I th as b een s hown b y Moo re t
hat an a
rea w
ith r i
gh t-angle
i
ntersec t
ions w hich i sfi
tted b y ac i
rcle i nth
is way i
svery nearly a ne xact
c
urvilinea r s qua re p rov ided t hat t he
s
ides o f t he a rea d o n ot diverge t oo
B
isec
tor
r
apidly . T hus inF ig.A -3 the di
stance
AA' a l ong t he m id -
line o ft he area tha t
(
a)
f
i
ts t he c ircle i sl ess than a bout p
er QuadriseC
tOf
c
ent l onger t han t he v alue AA" a l
ong
t
he m id-l
ine o f a n e xac t c urvil
inea r
s
qua re p rov ided t he a ngle o fdivergence
(
3isl e
s s than 2 0°
. T he e rrorisl essf or
smal
le r d ive rgence a ng
le s but is mo re
f
or l a
rge r a ngles
, b eing a bout 1 .5 p er
c
ent f or ô= 3 0°
. T o a void exces s
ive
e
rror o n area s having s idesw ith al arge (
h
)

d
ivergence a ngle o r a rea s w hich a re
o
the rw ise h ighly d istorted , fur
the rs ub -
d
ivision i n
to s maller a rea si sadvisab le.
An excep t
ion , h oweve r, i san area w ith
d
iagona l s y m metry s uch a s ABCDA i n
F
ig. A -lc, i nw h
ich c ase ap er
fec t f
iti s (
c)

p
o s
sib le.
App lying t he c ircle te chnique t o t he
r M
u
d
l
i
n
e
•
A
' E
quipo
ten
tia
l
t
angentt
oc i
rc
le

E
quipo
tentia
l fo
r
t
rue cur
vi
linea
r
S
quare

B E
F
ta. A -3
. C
irc
le a
nd c
urv
il
inea
r FIG
. A-4
. C
ircle method o
f mapp
ing
s
quare
. f
i
eld i
nsquare c
orne
r.

s
quare corner d
i
scussed above, s
t
eps 1a nd 2a r
e the same asp reviously.
That i
s
, step 1isto c ons
truct t
he bisector and step 2the quadrisector.
S
tep 3istod raw aci
rcle o
fconvenients i
ze asinF ig
.A -4a
. A lthough t he
c
i
rcle may bedrawn with acompass,the ci
rcle method isg
reatly fac
ilita
ted
b
y the use of a "c
i
rcle gu
ide," c
onsist
ing o f asheetofcellu
loid p unched
w
ith ho
les thatd
iferi ndiameterbys mallin c
remen ts. Several make sare
5
70 ELECTRO MAGNETICS

c
o mme rc ially a vailab le . S ince t he h o
les d ife ri nd iame terb yf i
nite in cre-
men ts, i ti ss ome times n ece s sary t ou se ah ole t ha ti st oo s mall,i nw hich
c
a se t he c ircle i sspaced b y t he s ame amount f r om a l
l s ides o ft he a rea.
S
tep 4i st od raw af i
eld l ine s tarting f rom B a nd a ne quipo ten tialf rom
D
, e a ch t angent t o t he c i
rc le a nd i nte rsec ting n orma lly a t t he q uad r
i-
s
ec to r, as i n F ig. A -4h . S tep 5 i st o d raw t he s malle r c i
rcle s as i n F ig.
A
-4c . S tep 6 i st o f air i n a n e qu ipo ten tial s t arting f rom F a nd a f i
eld
l
ine s tarting f r om E a s i n F ig . A -4d . T he o the r e qu ipo ten tial a nd f i
eld
l
ine a re a lso e xtended a nd t hen c ircles d rawn a t G , H , a nd I . Th is
p
roces si sc on t
inued u nt
il t he map e xtends o ve r t he a rea d e sired.
I
n f i
e
ld -mapp ing w o rk w he re o ne s et ofl ine s, s uch a st he f i
eld l ines, is
g
iven t he c ircle m ethod i sp ar t
icu larly v aluab le. C onside r
, f ore xamp le,
t
he f lu
id -mappe r pa tt ern i n F ig . A -5 a s o bta ined b y Moo re.' T his p at-
t
ern s hows t he f l
ow o rf i
e
ld l ine st ha t may b er e ga rded a se xtend ing f rom a
c
ircu la ri nne r c onduc to r t o ar ec tangu la r o ute r c onduc to r of at r an sm is-
s
ion l i
ne. H ere t he f ield l ine sa re p rov ided b yt he f luid mapper , a nd i tis
n
ece ssary o nly t o d raw i n t he e qu ipoten t
ia ls. T he t e chnique f or h an-
d
l
ing t his map d ife rs f rom t ha t d e scribed a bove i n t ha t each f lux t ube
c
an b et rea ted i ndependen t
ly o fa l
lo ther ss ot ha te qu ipo ten tials n eed n ot
b
ec on t
inuou s. T ake t ube A a sa ne xamp le . C ircle sa re drawn a si ndi-
c
ated ,a nd t he e quipo ten tia ls e xtend o nly t he w id th o ft he t ube . A ssum -
i
ng t hatt he l i
ne i sf i
l
led w ith am ed ium o fp e rm i ttiv ity e ,the c apac itance
o
ft ube A i se /4.18 f arads p er m ete r d ep th o fl ine ( i
nto t he p age). F or
t
ube B i ti se /3.13 f a rad sp e r me te r
, a nd f ort ube C i ti se /4.33 f arad sp er
me ter. Mapp ing a l
lt ube s
, t he t ota lc apac i tance p eru n
i td ep th o fl ine is
e
qua l tot he s um o ft he c apac itance so ft he i nd iv idua l t ubes.' Ow ing t o
s
ymme try av ertical c en te rl ine YY ' may b ed rawn d ivid ing t he d iag ram
i
nh alfa si ndicated a nd o nly t ho se t ubes mapped i ne i
ther t he l e
ft o rt he
r
igh t h alf. T he t ota l c apac i tance i st hen t wice t he v alue o btained f or
e
i
the rh alf. Howeve r
,h ighe ra ccu racy i su sua lly o bta ined b yc omp le ting
t
he map f or t he e ntire d iag ram .
The a bove p rocedure i ss omewha t s imp lified i fw e i mag ine t ha t t he
r
egion b etween t he i nne r a nd o ute r c onduc to r ( F
ig . A -5 ) isc onduc ting .
I
ft he r esistance p eru ni
td epth o f ac ell i s Ro,t hen t he n orma lized r e
s ist-
a
nce R . o f ac el
l i su nity o r
R
o
R
. = — =1 (
d
imen
sion
les
s)
R
o
A. D. Moore , Fields f
rom Fluid Flow Mappe r
s, J. App
lied Phys.
, 2 0
, 7 90-804,
August, 1949; Mapp ing Techniques Applied t
o Flu
id-mapper Patterns, Proc
. A IEE ,
7
1, 1952.
*Or the c haracter
i s
tic impedance o
f t ube A is376
.7 X 4.
18 ohms ( as
sum ing t hat
t
he med ium i sa i
r), and the cha
racter
istic impedance o
f t
he ent
ire transm is
sion line
i
sequalt ot he rec
iproca lofthe s
um oft he re
ciproca
lsofthe c
haracter
istic impedance s
o
fall the individual tubes
.
 APPEN DI X 5
71

1 T
ube B) 1
T
ube A T
ube C
F
lo. A
-5. C
irc
le method app
lied t
ofl
uid
-mapper pattern (
af
ter A. D
. Moore
). Tube A
h
as 4
.18 c
el
ls i
nser
ies, t
ube B 3
.13 c
e
lls i
nser
ies
, and tube C 4
.33 c
el
ls i
nseries
.
5
72 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS

T
hus t
he t
o
tal n
orma
lized r
e
sis
tance /
i
nt o
fthe t
r
ansm
iss
ion l
i
ne i
s

1
Rf
le— (
d
imens
ion
les
s)
(
1/R ) (
1/I L
) (1 / ± •••

where R.. =n ormalized r e

sistance o ftube A (Fig
. A -5
) =4 .
18
R
„b = n ormalized resistance o ftube B = 3.13
R
., =n ormalized resistance of tube C = 4.33
The reader should c heck these v a
lue s by count
ing the cel
ls in F
ig. A-5
.
The tota
l actual res
is tance pe r un
i t depth of t
he tr
ansm iss
ion li
ne (i
f it
were fi
l
led with a conduc t
ing m edium ) isthen Re = RoRi e o
hms/me ter
.
I
f the transm iss
ion l ine isfiled w ith a loss
less medium h aving a per
-
m
it t
ivity eand p ermeab i
lity po,the capacitanceper u
nitdepth ofthe l
i
ne is
g
iven b y

C= e f
a
rads/me
ter

t
he i
ndu
ctan
ce p
er u
nitd
epth o
fthe l
i
ne i
sgi
ven b
y

L = uoRn
i h
enrys/me
ter

a
nd t
he c
hara
cter
ist
ic i
mpedan
ce' o
fthe l
i
ne i
sgiven b
y

o
hms

F
or a
n a
i
r-f
i
lled l
i
ne t
h
is b
ecome
s

Z
=j ±)R
r
e
o
., =3
76.7R
,, ohm
s

Problem A -1
. A ssum ing thatF ig
. A -5 is acrosssection ofa nair-f
il
led
t
ransm iss
ion l i
ne, comp lete the map , a nd determ ine the c ha racter
istic
i
mpedance o f the li
ne . S ome thing o f ac heck o n t he accuracy o f the
d
eterm ination i s a fo rded b y c ompa r
ing t he n ormalized r es
istance
o
btained f orthe le
fth alfw i
th t hato btained f o
rt he right hal
fo ft he l
ine.
Problem A -2. Wha t ist he c apacitance p e
r u nit length and a lso t he
i
nduc tance per un
itl ength ofa na ir-f
i
lled t r
an smission li
ne wi th the cross
s
ect
ion s hown i nFig. A -5
.
Problem A-3. L oca te the 25
, 5 0, and 7 5perc ente quipoten tial li
nes in
F
ig.A -5. H int: B yc oun t
ing t he numbe rofsqua reso fthe same k ind ina
g
iven t ube a5 0per c en tp o
tentia l po
in t, f
or ins
tance , isloca
ted h al
fway ,
'Note that by using conduct ing cl o
th or p aper with a r
es
i s
tance per square equal
t
o Vi4-/
2 eo hms, asi nSec. 1 -5, t
he cha rac
teristic impedance ofthe l
ine i
sn ume r
icaly
e
qual t
o the mea sured resis
tance b etween t he innera nd ou
terc onductors
. N o
te also
t
hatifconduc t
ing p apero fa ny re
sistance R.( ohms p ersquare
)i sused
,t he capacitance
p
er un
it dep th isgiven b y C=e l
:4/R m fa
rads p er meter and the i
nductance per unit
d
epth byL µ
DR.' R.h enrys per me ter
, w here R„
,i sthe measured r
es
istance between
t
he i
nner a nd outer conducto rs (R„
,/ R
„,
).
 A
PPEND
IX 5
73

i
nte
rm s o
fthese s
quare
s, f
rom the i
nner t
o t
he o
ute
r c
onductor
. A f
ter
l
o
cat
ing th
is po
int on asuf
ic
ien
t n umber o
ftube
s, t
he e
quipo
tentia
l li
ne
c
an b
e ske
tched i
n.

A
-3. T
rigonome
tric R
ela
tions
s
in (
x ±y ) =s in xcos y± c os xsi
n y
c
os (
x ±y ) =c os xc osy s in xsi
n y
s
in (
x y) s
in (
x —y ) - = 2s
in xcos y
c
os (
x y
) + cos (x —y) = 2c os xcosy
s
in (
x y) —s in (
x —y ) = 2c os xsiny
c
os (
x y
) — cos (x —y) = —2 s i
n xs i
n y
s
in2x = 2s i
n xc osx
c
os2x =c os' x— s in
' x = 2c os
' x — 1= 1— 2s
i
n 2x
c
os x = 2cos' x — 1= 1— 2s i
n'i x
s
in x = 2si
n irxcosIx
s
in
'x cos
' x= 1
tan x + tan y
t
an (
x y
) —
1— tan xt an y
tan x — tan y
t
an (
x —y ) —
1 t an xt an y
2tan x
t
an 2
x —
1— tan'x
xs _ X X L 5 7

s
in x=
x 2 x 4 x 6
COS X = 1 - ± •

x3 2
x3 1
7x' 6
2x 9
t
an x = x — — •
3 1
5 3
15 2
,
835
7= 3.1416
72 = 9
.8696
1rad = 57.296
°

A
-4. Hyperbol
ic R
ela
tions
e
x—e -x X3 X 6 X 7

s
i
nh x = 2 — x 1
- -
E -
E 1 -
E ••
e
x± e-z x 2 x 4 x 6

c
osh x — 2 — 1 4
- -
E 4
1-E 1-
E ••

s
inh x
t
anh x —
co
sh x
c
osh x 1
c
oth x = .
si
nh x t
anh x
s
i
nh (x ±jy) =si
nh xcos y + jc
osh xs
i
ny
c
osh (
x ±jy) =cosh xc
os y ± js
inh xs
iny
5
74 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS

c
osh (
j
x) =i
( e+
i
x =c
os x
d
e Mo
ivre
's t
heo
rem
s
i
nh (
j
x) = - = js
i
nx
=co
s x ± js
i
nx
x2 x3 ,x
' .
x6
= 1± j
x - 5
! -
c
osh x = c
os j
x
jsi
nh x = s
injx
s
inh 2
x si
n2y
t
anh (
x ±jy
) -
c
osh 2
x c
os2
y ± c
osh 2
x co
s2y
B
i
nh 2x s
in2y
c
oth (
x ±jy
) =
c
osh 2
x -c os2
y ± jc
osh 2
x -cos2y

A
-6. L
oga
rithm
ic R
ela
tions
l
ogo x = logx c
ommon logar
ithm
l
og
. x= i nx n
atura
l l
ogari
thm
l
og iox = 0
.4343 l
og
. x= 0.4343 i
nx
i
n x= l og
. x= 2.3026 l
ogo x
e= 2 .
7183

A
-6. App
roximation F
ormu
las f
o
r Sma
ll Q
uan
tit
ies (
5isas
mal
lquan
tity
c
ompared w
ith u
nity)

(
1 ± 6
)2 - 1± 2
6
(
1 ± a
)
" = 1± no
= 1+ 46
1
- 1- 2
1
N
/1
= 1±
i
n (
1 0
) =

J = f
o
r 1
0
1 < 1
n
12^

w
here J
. i
sBe
sse
l f
unc
tion o
forde
r n
. Thus

a
J
i
(o
) =
A
-7. S
eries
n
(n - 1
)
B
inom
ial
: (
x y
)
" =x
" n
x" -„Y-I
- 2
! z-

+ n
(n - 1
)
(n - 2
) ( )
3
! x"-8 y + •••

T
aylor
's: f
(x y
) =f
(x) d
f
(x) y d
'f
(x) y
2 -
L- d
a
f(x
) y
s
d
x 1-
1 d
x2 2
1 d
xs 3
!
 -

A
PPEND
IX 5
75

A
-8. S
olu
tion o
f Q
uad
rat
ic E
qua
tion
I
f ae +b
x + c= 0
,then
— —b ± Vb 2 — 4
az
x
2a
A-9
. Vec
tor Iden
tit
ies (
fand g a
re s
ca
lar f
unc
tions
;F, G
, a
nd H a
re
v
ector f
unc
tion
s)
F •G = F
Gco
s0 s
ca
lar o
rdo
t p
roduct
w
here 0 = a
rcco
s (
F •G
)/FG
.
F xG = n
FG s
i
n 0 v
ecto
r o
r c
ros
sproduc
t
w
here 0 = a
rcs
in (
F xG
)/nFG
.
V •(V xF) =o
V •Vf = V2f
V xV f =0
V(f +g) =V f+V g
V •(F + G) =V •F + V• G
V x(F + G) = VxF- i
- Vx G
V
(fg
) = gVf-FfVg
V •(fG
) = G •(Vf) +f(V •G)
V x(fG
) =(V D xG ± f (V xG)
V x(V xF) = V(V •F
) — V2F
V •(F xG) = G •(V xF) — F •(
V xG)
F •(G xH) = G •(H xF) = H •(F xG
)
A-10. Grad
ien
t, Divergence , Curl
, a nd Laplac
ian in R ectangular
,
Cy
lindrical
,and S
phericalC oo
rdinates (fi
s as
calarfunc
tion; Fis avecto
r
f
unction)
a
. R ec
tangu
lar Coo
rd ina
tes (un
it v ec
tors a
re i,j,k; the vecto
r F=
i
F„ +j F
„ +k Fx)

f =1.
V af 1j . a
-
-f1
a--
1-1
-1
E.a
5
if

a
F. a
F O
F,
V •F= --
1- —1 ± —
O
x a
y a
z
vxF = i eF
, _aF) ± .( aF
. a
F) + k (-
F.1 — a
a F
)
a
y a
z 3 a
z — a
x ax ay
i i k
a
=
a a
a
-l a
i
l
F. E
y F
.
. ay a
2f a2
f

vi =ax 2+ ay 2+ a
z2
V
-F = iV2Fx + jV2F
„ + kV2F
„
5
76 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS

b
. Cy
lindr
ical Coord
ina
tes (
uni
t v ec
tor
s a re ar,a
0, a
„; t
he vecto
r
F=a ,F
, a
gFe al.)(
r
ela
ted t
ore
ctangula
rc oo
rdina
tes b
y x = rc
os 0
,
y = rs
in 0
, z= z)

O
f
V
f =a
„—O
fr a -
1—a
f a
.—
O
r rae a
s
1a 10F , OF,
V •F = (
rF
,
.) -
r-7
0 -
3

(
7
1
.OF
, — F
0) + • (
OF, O
F,) _L a(r Fe) 1a
F,1
a
z [
r O
r ra
e
a( a
f) a2f ay
v
2f r r
i002 +0
52

c
.S pher
ica
l C oordina
tes (uni
t vectors a
re a
„, a
e, Lb; t
he vec
tor
F = arF
„ a•F •± ad,
F.
) (r
elated t
o rec
tangu
lar c
oord
ina
tes by x=-r
s
i
n 0c os 0
, y = rsin 0si
n 0
, z= rcos0 )

O
f l
Of 1 of
v
f = ar a
8 r ag
- srs
in 0a
d
,
la i a a
F.
V •F = (
r2F
r
)
rs
in 0a
e" 's
in "
a
\ 4
_rs
i
n ea
d,
1 a aN ± I
t
o 1[ .
1 aF
,
V xF = a
, . [ (F
.
,si
n 0
) a (
rF
,$)
]
rt
a
n e a
u r s
in ea
d
, a
r
i
[a e
rr]
(
rF e)—

v 2
f= -
1 a (r a
f )+
2 1 a (
s
in al + 1 2f
0
7
5 \ T'
r) r
2si
n ea
e a
e, r2 s
i
n 2 e0
02

A-11. B essel F unctions. S olutions o f B esse

l's e quation ( 14-25) a re
c
al
led B esselfunc tion s
. O ne solution , known a s aB es
sel function oft he
f
i
rst kind, isd es
igna ted b y J, (u). Ano the r so
lu t
ion , known a s aB essel
f
unction o f the s e cond k ind, o r N eumann f unction, i s des
igna ted b y
N,
(u )
. AB essel f unction oft he t h
ird kind , o
r Hanke l funct
ion , isgiven
b
y al inear c omb ina t
ion o f J ,(u) a nd N ,(u). Hanke l func t
ions a re
d
esignated b y H ( u).
The subscrip t pd enote s t
he o rder o fthe function. T he quan tity u is
t
he argumen t. T he o rder may , in g eneral, be integ ra
l, fractional, o r
c
omp lex. When t his isthe case
, t he subscript pisu sed. Howeve r
, ift he
o
rder oft he func t
ion i sa n i
ntege r, the subscript ni sused.
Besse
l F unctions o f th
e First K ind. When t he o rder isinteg ra
l,' t he
v
alue oft he Be sse
l f unc t
ion oft he fi
r st k
ind i sgiven b y ani nf
inite ser
ie s

Th
is i
sthe c
ase when t
he f
i
eld va
rie
s with 4,an i
ntegra
l n
umbe
r o
f c
ycle
s i
n a
n
a
ngle o
f 2
r
. I fthere i
sno va
riat
ion, t
he order i
sze
ro.
 APPEN DI X 5
77

w
hich c
an b
e e
xpres
sed a
s

(—
1)ns
(u/2
)^42 '
- n
J(u
) =
m!(m n)
!

C
urve sf orB es
se lfunctions o forders n= 0 ,1,2 ,and 3a nd a
lso v= 0 .
5
a
re p resented i n Fig. A -6
. T he Jo(u) c urve i su nity a t u= 0 . F o
r
i
ncreasing u i tf o
llows a p er
iodic v ar
iation s imilar t o that of ac o s
ine
c
urve w i
th a ttenua t
ion. T he highe r
-orde r B essel function c urves are
z
ero at u= 0 . F ori nc
rea sing ut hey fo
llow as imilarp eriod
ic v ar
iation.
A
t large v alues of ut he interval between p oints at w hich a B esse
l-func-
t
i
on c urve i n
tersects the u a x
is [J,(u) =0 ]i sa pprox ima tely 7.
The following table gives the fi
rstfew v a
lue sof uf orw h
ich B esse
lf unc-
t
i
ons o ft he fi
rst kind ofo rder0 ,1 ,2,a nd 3a re z e
ro, amax imum , and a
m
inimum . F o
llow ing the v alue of ufor amax imum o r am inimum t he
c
orrespond ing v a
lue o f J(u ) isgiven inp arenthe ses, itbeing u nderstood
t
hat t he minimum v a
lue s are negative
.

J
o(u
) Ji
(
u)

Z
ero Max M
in Z
ero Max Min

2
.405 0 (
1
.00) 3
.832(0
.403
) 0 1
.84(3
.582
) 5
.33(0
.346
)
5
.520 7
.016
(0.300) 1
0.173(0
.250
) 3
.832 8
.54(0
.273) 1.71(0
.233
)
8
.654 1
3.323(0
.218
) 1
6.471(3
.196
) 7
.016 1
4.86(0.207
) 1
8.02(0.188
)
1.792 1
9.616(0
.180
) 2
2.761(3
.167
) 1
0.173 2
1.16(3
.173) 2
4.31(3
.162)
1
4.931 1
3.323
1
8.071 1
6.471
2
1.212 1
9.616
2
4.353 2
2.761

J2(
u) j
a(u
)

Z
ero Max A
lin Z
ero Max Min

0 3
.054(0
.486
) 6
.706
(0.314
) 0 4
.201(0
.434) 8
.015(0
.291)
5
.135 9
.969(0
.255
) 1
3.170(0
.221) 6
.379 1.346(0
.241) 1
4.586(0
.211)
8
.417 1
6.348(3
.198
) 1
9.513(0
.181) 9
.760 1
7.789(0
.190) 2
0.972(0
.175)
1.620 1
3.017
1
4.796 1
6.224
1
7.960 1
9.410

Fo
rs ma
ll a
rgumen
ts Cu<
< 1
)the B
esse
l func
tions o
fthe f
i
rs
t k
ind a
re
g
iven a
pprox
imate
ly by
u
n
j"(
u
) n
!2n
5
78 ELECTRO MAGNETICS

F
or l
arge a
rgumen ts (
u>> 1a nd a
lso u)
> n
)the B
ess
elf
unc
tion
soft
he
t
he f
i
rst kind a
re g
iven approx
ima te
ly by

12 2
n -
I
-1
J
.(u
) •
•
-
•.\ 1 c
os(
u
T
u 4

A
cco
rding t
oth
is r
e
lat
ion aB
esse
'func
tion o
fla
rge a
rgumentv
ar
iesa
sa
c
os
ine f
unct
ion o
f utha
t i
sdamped o
rattenua
ted a
s 1/N r
u
.

0
.
6
F
lo. A-6
. C
urve
s f
o
r B
esse
l f
unct
ions (
o
f t
he f
i
rs
t k
ind
) o
forder 0
,0.
5, 1
,2,a
nd 3
.

B
esse
lF unct
ion s o
ft h
eS econd K ind. T hese are o f
ten ca
lled Neumann
f
unctions
, and w hen t
his isdone, B e
ssel f
unctions o fthe f
ir
st k
ind can be
r
eferred t
o simply as Bessel f
unc t
ions. AB essel funct
ion ofthe se
cond
k
ind ( Neumann f unct
ion ) ofi n
tegral o
rder n i sgiven (us
ing L'Hopita
l's
r
ule) by'
J(u) c
os Pr — J_ ,(u)
N
n(u) =l im
r
—on s
in PT

C
urvesforN
eumann functions o
forder n = 0and n = 1are p
resented
i
nFig. A
-7. Whereas B
esse
l func
tions o
fthe fi
rst k
ind a
re equa
l tozero
o
ru n
ity a
t u= 0
,t he Neumann funct
ions approach m
inus inf
inity a
s u

This is Weber
's def
in
ition of aB essel f
unct
ion of t
he se
cond k ind. H ence itis
s
ome times ca
lled a Weber funct
ion . H owever
, itiscommon ly ca
lled a Neumann
f
unction a
lthough N eumann's d
efini
tion of aBesse
l f
unction o
ft he s
econd k
ind difers
s
l
ightly fr
om Webe r's. T he n
otation Y.(u)isused b
ysome a u
tho rsforN„(u)
. H ow -
e
ver, th
is no
ta t
ion may bec on
fusing b e
cause ofthe e
xis
tence ofother Y funct
ions.
 APPENDIX 5
79

a
pproaches ze
ro. A tl
arge v
alues o
f uthe N
eumann funct
ion curvesare
s
imi
lar to si
ne curves w
ith at
tenuat
ion. When u isl a
rge, t
he inte
rval
b
etween ze
ro p o
intsof aNeumann funct
ion i
sapprox
ima te
ly 7
1
", t
he same
a
s f
or aB e
ssel func
tion (
of t
he fi
r
st k
ind).
0
.
6
n,
•
0

O
A
NOu
l
0
2

6 7 1
0

—
0
.2

n
=1
—
04 n=
0

—
0
.6

—
08

—
1
.0
F
io. A
-7. N
eumann f
unct
ion c
urve
s o
forde
r 0a
nd 1
.

The f
ol
lowing tab
le gives t
he f
i
rst f
ew v a
lue s of uf o
r w h
ich Neumann
f
unction
s (Bes
selfunctions o
fthe s
econd kind) and o rder 0and 1are z
e
ro,
amax imum, and am inimum. F o
llowing the value o f ufo
r amax imum
o
r am in
imum t he c
orresponding v
alue of N n(
u) i
sg iven inparen
theses
,it
b
eing under
stood that the m
inimum v alues are negative.

Ni(
u)

Z
ero Max M
in Z
ero Max M
in

0
.894 2.20
(0.521
) 0
(00) 2
.20 3.69(0
.417
) 0(co
)
3
.958 8.60
(0.272) 5
.43(0.340
) 5
.43 1
0.13(0
.251
) 6
.94
(0.303
)
7
.086 1
4.90
(0.207) 1.75(0.233
) 8
.60 1
3.29
(0.219
)
1
0.222 1.75
1
3.361 1
4.90

F
or smal
l argumen
ts (u<
< 1
) t
he N
eumann f
unc
tion o
f z
e
ro o
rde
r i
s
g
i
ven approximate
ly by
N o(
u
) ——
2 I
n—2
I
f
u
5
80 ELECTRO MAGNETICS

w
here 7 = 1
.
781
, a
nd f
o
r o
rde
rs n = 1a
nd h
ighe
r b
y

N(u
) 1
)
1 \ "
7 I
LI

F
or la
rge a
rgument
s (u > 1a
nd a
l
so u> n
) t
he N
eumann f
unc
tions
a
re g
iven a
pprox
imately b
y

N
„(u
) j •s
i
n (u 2n + 1
7
r
1Z 4

A
ccording to th
is re
lation a N eumann f unction ofl arge a
rgumen t varies
a
s as i
ne function of ut hat isd amped or attenua ted as 1/N ru
. I t i
s
i
dent
ical i
nf orm to aB essel f
unc t
ion (o
f the fi
rs
tk ind) o
ft he same order
b
ut isin phase quadratu re with itin t
he same w ay that asine function
i
sinp hase quadrature with ac os
ine f
unc t
ion.
S
ince Neumann f unctions b ecome inf
inite w hen u = 0 , they are not
u
sefu
l inrepresenting fi
elds that are f
in
ite at u= 0 .
Basel Func
tions oft h
e T hird K ind (Hankel Func t
ions)
. T r
igonome tric
a
nd exponential f
unctions a re re
lated by

e
+
-
iu =c
os u ± js
i
n u

I
n a
n a
nalogous man
lie
r Besse
l f
unc
tions a
re r
e
lated t
o Hanke
l f
unc
tions
b
y
H„"
)(u) = J(u) jN„
(u)
a
nd
H„"
)(u) =J„(u) — jN„
(u)

where lino)(u) = Hanke l func tion o ft ype 1a nd o rde r n

H 2( u) = Hanke l func tion o f type 2a nd o rde r n
The Hanke l func tion o f type 2 i sthe c omp lex c onjuga te of the Hanke l
f
unction oft ype 1 .
Hankel func tions may b e plo tted o n ac omp lex p lane having J(u ) as
a
bscissa and N(u ) as ordina te. Th is h a
s b een d one f o
r Hanke l func-
t
ions oftype 1o fo rde r
s 0a nd 1i nFig . A-8. T he c urvesa re s
pirals with
t
he valueso f ui ndica ted along t he curve s
. C urves f or Hanke l functions
o
f type 2 w ould a ppea r a
s m ir ror i mage s of Hanke l f unct
ions o f type 1
w
ith respect to t he N(u ) = 0l i
ne [J(u ) a x
is].
For la
rge v a
lues o f ut he B es sel functions of t he f i
rst and second k ind
o
f the same o rde r a re in phase q uad rature so t hat t he Hanke l-function
c
urves intersect t he axe s norma lly ( see Fig. A-8 ).
In contrast t o t he Hanke l-func tion c urves, w h
ich a re spirals in the
c
omp lex plane, ap lot of the e xponen t
ial func tion e i
u =c os u + js in u
i
nt he complex p lane i s ac i
rcle w ith c enter at t he origin. I fw ei magine
athree-dimen siona l graph o fe )
u w ith c o
s up lot ted a long the xa x
is, si
nu
 APPEN DI X 5
81

Nn (
u)

-0
.6
2
.0
2
.
5

0
.
4 1
.
5

1
0

0
.
2
5
2
.
5
1
.
0
1
0 0
.2 0
.2 0
.4 0
.6 84
,
(u
)

2
.0 0
.8

--0
.2

1
.
5
Ht
( i
t

1(
)(
1
1 r
e
)
0
.4

1
.
0
--0
.8

0
.8
--1
.0
n—

n=1 0
.
21
--1
.2
0
.6

FI
G
. A-
8
. Hanke
l f
unc
tion c
urves o
f t
ype Ia
nd o
rder
s 0a
nd I p
lotted i
n t
erms o
f
B
esse
l f
unct
ions o
f t
he f
i
rst a
nd s
econd k
ind
.

N
I
0()

J
o
(u)

(
a) (
b)
FIG
. A-9
. Three-d
i mens
iona
l g
raphs o
f (
a
) t
he e
xponent
ial f
unc
tion e
i
" a
nd (
h
) t
he
!
Janke
! func
tion Ho(
1)(u
).
5
82 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS

a
long t he ya xis, and u along t he za xis, weo btain aright -handed h e
lix i
n
s
pace a s i ndica ted i n Fig
. A -9a . T he he
lix h as uniform d iame ter and
p
itch. T he e xponen tial function e -i
uyie
ld s al e
ft-handed h el
ix. I n a
s
imilar w ay a t hree-dimen siona l graph o f a Hanke l f unc t
ion o f t
ype 1
y
ields at ape red r ight-handed h e
lix ass hown i nF ig
.A -9h f or n= 0 . T he
h
elix diame ter d ecrease s with increa sing u. A Hanke l f unction o f t
ype
2yields at ape red l e
ft-handed h e
lix.
A
-12. R ecur rence R e
lations f o
rB esselF unc t
ions. E qua t
ion se xpre
ss-
i
ng B e
sse 'f unc tion sort he
ir d erivative sint e
rms o fB esself unc t
ion softhe
s
ame o r d ife ren t orde r a
re c a
lled r ecurrence f ormula s
, o r relations
. A
f
ew o ft hese f ormu las are li
sted b elow f or r
eference.'

d
J,(u)
- P J
,(u
) - J
,
.+I (
u
) (
1
)
d
u u
d
J,(u)
d
u - PJ,
(u) ±J
,_ 1(
u
) (
2
)
u
d
J,(u
)
du - 2 [
J
,--
i(u
) -J
.
-
1-1
(u)
] (
3
)

J
,(u
) = -
1[J
,i-
i(u
) ±J
.-1
(u)
] (
4
)

=2
n J
. ,
u ,_ j
. i
(
u)
J
.+1 (
u
) (
5
)
U ''

F
rom (
1
) w
ehave f
o
r v= n = 0
,

d
J o(
u) _
J1(
u
) (
6
)
d
u

Tha
ti s
, t
he slope ofthe Jo(u) c
urve i
sequal t
o -J i(
u
).
A
-13. S pherica
l B essel Funct
ions. B es
sel f
unc
tions o
f orde
r n
a
re some t
ime s cal
led s phe
rical Be
sse
l func
tion
s and are d
es
ignated b
y
l
ower-case l
etters
. T hus'

i
n
(u) = J
.
+4(u
)
a
nd

nn(
u
) =
. j
E
i
2
u
N
,
-
1
*
(
u
)

T
hese f
unc
tions a
re g
iven b
y s
e
rie
s i
nvo
lving a f
i
nite n
umbe
r o
f t
e
rms
.
Al
l of the
se formulas a
lso app
ly to Besse
l funct
ions of t
he second and t
hird k
ind.
S
ee N. W . McLa ch
lan, "Besse
l F unct
ions for Engineer
s," Oxford Univer
sity Pres
s,
New Y ork
, 1934, p.24.
P. M. Mor se
, "Vibrat
ion and Sound," 2d ed
., McGraw -Hil
l B ook Company, Inc
.,
New Yo rk
, 1948, pp. 3
16, 446
.
 '
APPEN DI X 5
83

F
or o
rde
rs n = 0a
nd n = 1t
hese a
re

s
i
n u c
os u
j
o
(u) = - no(
u
) = -
u u
s
i
n u c
os u s
i
n u c
os u
ji(
u
) = n1(
u
) - -
i
t2 U U U2
A-14. L egend re Funct
ions . Solu t
ion s ofL egendre
's equat
ion ( 14
-48)
a
re called L egend refunctions or sur
fac e zona
l h armonic
s. O ne solut
ion,
k
nown a s aL egendre function (or surface zona l h
armonic) of the fi
rs
t
k
ind,i sdesigna ted by Pn(co
s0 )
. A no thers o
lu t
ion, known a
s aL egendre
f
unction ( o
rs urface zona
lh a rmonic) oft he s
econd kind, i
sdesignated by
Qn(co
s 0 )
.
For integ ra
l v a
lues of nt he L
egendre f unctions o
f the f
i
rst kind are
g
iven b y R odrigu e
's f
ormu la
1 ds (
C08 28 — 1
)"
Pn(
c
os 0
) -
2
nn! d
(co
s 0
)
*
a
nd o
fthe s
e
cond k
ind b
y

Qn(
c
os 0
) =-
2P„
(co
s 0
)In 1
1+
-co
c
os 0
s 0 Z -
1P„
,_ 1(
c
os 0
)P.,
(cos 0
)

The l
at
ter functions a
re in
fin
ite when 0 = 0 a
nd s
o that t
hey a
re n
ot
u
sefu
l inrepresenting f
i
elds t
hat a
re f
in
ite i
nthese r
eg
ions
.
1
.
0

0
.
5

P
„ (
cos 0
)

n
=4

—
0.5 n
=3
n
=3

—
1.0 0
°
3
0° 6
0° 9
0° 1
20° 1
50° 1
80 °
0
F
ro. A
-10
. Curves f
or L
egendre f
unct
ions o
f o
rders 0
, 1
,2,3
,and 4
.

Curve
s for Legendre f
unctions, o
r surface z
onal h
armonic
s, ofthe f
i
rst
k
ind and order
s n=0 , 1
,2,3 ,and 4a re pre
sented inF
ig
. A -
10.
L
egendre functions
, or surface z
onal h armon
ics, o
f t
he fi
rs
t kind a
nd
f
i
rst f
ew orders are l
i
sted below inpolynom ial f
orm.
5
84 E
LECTROMAGNET
ICS

P
o(cos 0
) =1
Pi(
cos 0
) =c
os 0
P
o(cos 0
) =1
(3 c
os' 0— 1)
Po(
cos 0
) =1
(5 c
os
' 0— 3c os 0
)
P4(
cos 0
) =1
(35 c
os 4 0— 3
0 co
s' 0-I3
)
Po(
cos 0
) =1
(63 c
os 5 0— 7
0 cos' 0± 1
5 c
os 0
)

So
lu t
ions o f the associa
ted L egendre e quat
ion ( 14-44) a re ca
lled
a
ssociat
ed L eg
endr e f
unctions o
r s o
lid zonal ha
rmon ics of the fi
rst and
s
econd k ind. A s
sociated Legendre functions (
or sol
id zonal harmonics)
o
ft he fi
rst kind are d
esignated byP .'
" (cos 0
)a nd ofthe se
cond k ind by
Q
„'" (co
s 0 )
.
Fori ntegralvalues of nand m the as
sociated Legendre f
unc t
ionso fthe
f
i
rst kind are given by
P
..(co
s 0
) = (
1 —c
os
' 0
)m
/2 d
"P„(co
s 0)
d
(cos 0
)m
a
nd o
fthe s
econd k
ind b
y
d
mQ„(cos 0
)
Q
„m(co
s 0
) = (
1 —c
os' 0
)
'^„
d
(cos 0
)
'"

The l
a
tterfunc
tions a
re i
nf
ini
te a
t 0= 0and wsothatt
hey a
re n
otu
seful
i
n r
epresen
ting f
i
elds t
hat a
re f
i
nite i
n t
hese r
eg
ions
. When m = 0 (no

3
0° 6
0° 9
0° 1
20 ° 1
50 ° 1
80°
0
FI
G
. A-
11. C
urve
sfo
r a
s
soc
iated L
egendre f
unc
tion
s.

v
ariat
ion w
ith 4) the a
ssoc
iated L
egendre f
unctions r
educe t
othe o
rd
inary
L
egendre func
tions, o
r sur
face z
onal harmonics.
Curves f
or af ew as
sociated Legend
re func t
ions of t
he fi
rs
t k
ind a
re
s
hown i nF
ig. A-11.
 APPENDIX 5
85

Anumbero fa
ssoc
iated L
egendre f
unc
tions (
or s
o
lid z
ona
l h
armon
ics
)
o
fthe f
i
rs
t kind a
re l
i
sted b
e
low inp o
lynomial f
o
rm.

Piqcos 0
) =si
n 0
P2'(
cos 0
) = 3s
in 0cos 0
P3'(
cos 0
) = sin 0(5cos
g 0— 1)
P
4t(cos 0
) = sin 0(7cos
' 0— 3 c
os 0
)
P
2 2(
cos 0
) = 3s
in
g 0
P32(
cos 0
) = 1
5 s
ing 0c
os 0
/
342(
cos 0
) = s
in
g 0(7cosg 0— 1
)
P33(
cos 0
) = 1
5 s
in3
P
4 3(
cos 0
) = 1
05 s
in' 0c
os 0
P44(
cos 0
) = 1
05 s
in' 0

A
-15. T able of Die
lectr
ic Ma teria
ls. T he fol
lowing table presents
d
ata on the re
lative permit
tiv
ity, die
lectr
ic strength, p
owe r f
actor
, a nd
r
e
sist
ivity o f an umbe r of c
ommon d i
elec
t r
ic ma ter
ials
. T he p ower
f
ac
tor isg iven in per cen
t at three fr
equenc ies 60 c
ps, 1 Mc p er sec
(
= 1 06 c
ps), and 100 Mc per s
ec ( = 108 c
ps
) .

TABLE OF D
IELECTRIC MATER
IALS

R
ela t
ive P
ower f
actor p
er c
ent
D
ielectr
ic
p
elllitt
ivity Res
istiv-
s
trength,
Ma
ter
ial (
r
ela t
ive i
ty
, ohm -
megavolts/
d
ielectric 80 1 1
00 meters
me
ter
c
ons tant) c
pe Mc/
see Me/sec

A
ir (atmospher ic pressure
) 1
.0006 a
Amber 3 .
.. 0
.2 1
014

Ammon ia (l
iquid) 2
2
Bakel
ite 5 2
5 2 1 1
014

Ce
llulose acetate 7 1
2 7 5 5 1
0a
Ce
llulose nitrate 5 7 5
G
lass (plate) 6 3
0 .
.. 0
.5 1
014

G
lycerine 5
0
Halowax 4 .. 0
.2 0
.2 1
0 1
0"
Mica 6 2
00 0
.5 0
.03 0
.03 1
0"
O
il ( m
ineral ) 2
.2 1
5 0
.01 0
.01 0
.04 1
0"
Paper (imp regnated) 3 5
0
Paraff
in 2
.1 1
0 0
.02 0
.02 0
.02 1
0i5
Po
lyethy lene 2
.2 4
0 0
.03 0
.03 0
.03 WI
Po
lystyrene 2
.7 2
0 0
.02 0
.02 0
.03 1
014

Quarts 5 4
0 0
.09 0
.02 0
.02 1
014

Rubber 3 2
1 1 1 1
04
Ruti
let ( t
itanium d ioxide
, T
iO2
) 8
9-173 .. ... 0
.06
Su
lfur 4 ... 1
0"
Water ( d
istil
led) 8
1 1
04

tS
ee f
ootno
te f
or Tab
le 2
-1
, p
. 4
9.
-
 B
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,I
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T
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tisre
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ct.
5
87
5
88 ELECTRO MAGNETICS

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90 ELECTRO MAGNETICS

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ica l E ng
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I
nc.
, N ew York , 1 933 .
Lovrrr, W . V., "L inea r I ntegral E qua t
ions ," McGraw -H i
l l B ook C ompany , Inc.,
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MACROBERT , T . M ., "Funct ions of aC omp lex V a
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., Macm illan & C o.,
L
td.
, L
ondon
, 1
947
.
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PH
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PH
ILL IPS, H . B .
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PI
ERPONT , J., "Funct ions o f aC omp lex V ariab le," Ginn & C ompany , B os ton , 1914.
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SC
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SO
KOLN IKOFF , I.S. ,a nd E . S . SO KOLN IKOFF , "H igher Ma thema tics for E nginee r
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POLAR
IZAT
ION

BOHNERT , J. I.
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DESCHAMPS , G. A., G eome trical R epresentation oft he Polariza t
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KALES, M . L.
, E l
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SI
NCLA IR
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TRANS MISS
ION L
INES

CONDON , E. U .
, P r
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, R ev
s. Mode rn P hys.
, 1 4, 3
41-389,
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nc.,
N ew Y ork, 1
937.
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1935.
JOHNSON , W. C., "Transm iss
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tworks," McGraw -H i
ll B ook Company ,
I
nc .
, N ew Y ork, 1950.
RIMBARK , E. W., "Electrica
l T ransm iss
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, N ew Y ork, 1949.
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5
92 ELECTRO MAGNETICS

MARCHAND , N., "Ultrahigh Frequency T ransmiss

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, Inc
., New Y ork, 1
947.
SEILL
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,
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., N ew
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.
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ngineer
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," 3
d e
d.
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ll B
ook C
ompany
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nc
.,
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.
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ITS
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he G
iorg
i Sys
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he C
.G.S
. S
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," T
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.
R
oy. Ins
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. (
Sto
ckho lm
), Mono
. No. 6
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947
.

WAVE GU
IDES
Arrwoon , S. S.
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ion o ve
r aC oa
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., 22, 5 04-509, April
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, T ransm ission of Electromagne tic Waves in Hol
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Pro
c. I.R
.E .
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. gen.
e
lec
., 40
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.P . MEAD , and S.A .SCIIELEUNOFF , Hyper-
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,
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,
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o
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.,
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,
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UTHWORTH , G. C., Hyper -frequency Wave Gu ides —General C ons
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, 1936.
SO
UTHWORTH , G. C .
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D
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,
New Y ork, 1943.
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, McGraw -Hil
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,
New Y ork, 1947.
WATSON, W . H., "The P hysical Princ iple
so f Wave Gu ide Transm iss
ion a nd Antenna
S
ystems ," O x
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.
WHITHER, R . H., F
ields in Non-me ta l
lic Gu ides, Proc
. I.R.E.
, 36, 105-1109 , Septem-
b
er, 1948.
 I
NDEX

Whe
re an e
ntire s
ect
ion or c
hapte
r isdevoted t
o as
ubject
, t
he r
e
ference i
susua
lly
o
nly t
o t
he f
ir
st page of t
he s
ect
ion or c
hapter
.

A Barko fsky , E . C .
, 3 83
Barrie r s urface , 174
Abso lute v alue , 4 30 Barrow , W . L., 4 52
A
ir g ap , 2 63 Battery , 1 22
A
ir -iron b ounda ry , 2 58 Beam , R . E., 5 21, 5 23
A
l ford , A ., 3 83 Besse l f unction s, 5 22, 5 76
A
-c b ehav ior o f ma te rials, 3 12 s
phe rical, 5 24, 5 82
A-c g ene rato r, 2 94 t
ab le, 5 82-583
Ampe re-turns , 1 72 t
ab le, 5 77
Ampe re's l aw , 1 68 , 1 71 Besse l
's e qua t
ion , 5 22
Ana logous t r ansm is s
ion l ine, 4 04 Beta tron , 2 96
Ana lyt ic f unc t
ion , 5 43 i
nje ction i n
, 2 99
Anoma lous d ispe r s
ion , 3 56 r
emova l t ime, 3 00
An tenna , d efin ition , 4 84 Beve rage a ntenna , 4 77
equ ivalent c ircu it
, 5 05 B
ib l
iography , 5 87
impedance o f, 5 15 B
icon ica l a ntenna , 5 12
mutua l, 5 16 B
inom ia l series, 5 74
network r epre sen ta tion o f
, 5 15 B
lock , n otched , 136 , 1 40
shape o f
, 5 10 Bold face l etters, mean ing o f
, 4,323
a
s t r
ansm is s
ion l ine, 5 07 Bound c harge s
, 1 09
(
Se e also s pec ific t ype s o fa n
tennas) Bound w ave , 479
Aper ture, 5 04, 5 14 Boundary r e
la tions, a t conduc t
ing sur-
App roxima tion f ormu las, 5 74 f
ace , 4 2
Artifi c
ial d ielect rics, 5 6 a
t c onducto r-conductor b ounda ry
, 131
Attenua t
ion , a bove c utof f r
equency a
tc onduc tor-insu lator b ounda ry, 1
28
4
71 e
lect ric f i
eld, 5 2
, 5 6
below c u tof f requency , 4 69 magne t
ic, 2 26, 2 30
inw ave g uide , 4 69 t
ab les o f, 56, 2 30, 3 25
Attenua tion c ons tan t, 4 22, 4 23 Bounda ry -value p rob lems , 519
inw ave g uide , 4 72 Braun , C . F .
, 2 76
Attenua tion f acto r
, 3 96, 4 23 Braun t ube, 2 76
Attenua tor, wave -gu ide , 4 71 Bri
llou in, L ., 355
Attwood , S .S .
, 2 61 Broad -band a ntenna , 5 10
Axia l r atio ( AR )
, 3 80 Broad -band t ransforme r, 4
41
Bronwe ll
, A . B ., 52 1
, 5 23
Bush ing , c apac itor, 1 05
Bye rlay , W . E., 5 25
Bvector, 1
46
B
all
istic g
alvanome ter
, 3
15
B
ar magne ts
, 2 06
, 208 Capac
itance
, 5
9
B
arkhausen s t
ep s
, 235
, 2
36 C
apac
itiv
ity
, 4
5
95
5
96 ELECTRO MAGNET
ICS

Capac itor, 5 9 Cohn , S . B ., 4 68

e
ne rgy i n, 6 5 Compa rison , c url a nd d ivergence, 1
92
p
a rallel-p lat e, 6 1 e
l ectric a nd magne t
ic f i
elds, 1
73
Capac itor b u
sh ing , 1 05 fi
eld r e
la tion s
, 3 28
Carson , J.R .
, 3 34 Comp lex c on juga te, 3 72
Cate rp i
lla r, 3 58 Comp lex d ie lec tric c ons tant, 322
Cathode - ray t ube , 2 76 Comp lex f unc tion , 3 23, 4 03
Cauchy -R iemann c ond itions, 5 44 Comp lex P oyn ting v ector , 372
Cavi ty i nd ielec tric, 1 02 Componen t w ave s, 448
Cel
l ( batte ry ) o pe ra t
ion , 1 22 Concen tric s hells o fc ha rge, 32
Cel
ls, c onductor , 1 32 Conduc tance , 14
f
i
eld , 8 2 Conduc ting b ox, 3 9
magne tic , 2 49 Conduct ing c ylinde r
, 5 35
tran sm i ssion -line , 1 76, 4 28 Conduc ting med ia, i mpedance , 400
Chand ler, C . W .
, 3 86 Conduc ting s hell
, 3 7
Cha racter is tic i mpedance , 424, 426 Conduct ion c urrent , 3 18
Cha rac teris tic r es
is tance , 4 24 Conduct ion - cur rent d ens ity, 392
Cha rge , concen tric s he l
ls o f
, 3 2 Conduct iv i ty , 12 , 15
elect r
ic , 3 Conductor c ells, 1 32
induced , 3 6 Conduc tor s, 3 6
, 1 08, 3 92
infinite l ines of, 7 5 and d ielectr ics, 3 91
and mas s o f p article s, table, 283 i
nfin ite l inea r, 1 50
point , 3 ,6 8-69 i
n trins ic i mpedance , 4 01
Cha rge c onf igura tion s
, f ie
ld s of
, 67 mov ing , 2 89
Cha rge d en sity, 1 5 Confo rma l t rans fo rma tions, 541
Cha rge d i stribut ions , 1 5
, 1 6 Conica l a ntenna , 5 09
volume , 3 4 Cons tant s o f med ia, tab le, 393
Charged p ar t
icle, i ne lectric fie
ld, 272 Continu i ty r ela tion , c urrent, 126
i
n magne tic f i
eld, 2 74 Coulomb , d efinition o f, 2
Chu, L . J., 4 52, 4 68 Coulomb 's l aw , 3
C
ircle g uide , 5 69 f
or magnet s, 2 08
C
ircle t echn ique , 5 68 C
ros s f i
eld , 3 83
C
ircu i t
, g aple ss, 2 61 C
ros s p roduct , 1 54
s
e rie s
, 3 02-306 , 3 34 Cup, c url e xamp le, 1 89
C
ircu it a pp lica tion o f P oyn ting vector
, Cur
l, 1 80 , 1 92 , 5 75
4
12 e
xamp le s
, 1 85
C
ircu i t a nd f i
e
ld r e
la tions , 4 25, 4
26 C
url mete r, 1 87
t
ab le , 4 26 C
urren t, c onduct ion , 3 18
C
ircu i t a nd f i
e
ld t heory , 331, 3 32 dens ity o f
, 3 92
C
ircu i t prob lems , 1 39 c
ont inu ity r e
la tion , 1 26
with i nductance , 3 03 d
ens ity o f
, 16
with R a nd L , 3 04 d
isp lacemen t
, 3 18
with R , L , a nd C , 3 06 e
ddy , 2 94 , 3 15
with r e sis tance , 3 04 e
lect r
ic , 1 09
C
ircu lar p olar iza tion , 3 80 i
nduced , 2 86
C
ircu la r w ave g uide , 4 68 mapp ing o f, 1 32
Coax ial l ine, 1 67, 1 77 , 4 18, 532 r
eta rded , 4 85
fi
elds i n
, 1 29 s
oleno ida l, 1 25
C
oax ial a nd t wo-w ire l i
nes, 4 29 C
urren t e lement , 1 45, 2 03
Coerc ive f orce, 2 37 Curren t l o op , 1 52
Coerc ivity , 2 39 Current s hee t, 2 13
 I
NDEX 5
97

C
urrent t
ubes, 1
24 Divergence, examp le o
f
, 9
2
C
urvi
linear s
quare
, 82 ofJ, 126
C
utof fr
equency, 462 Divergence theorem , 9
3
C
utoffwavelength
, 447, 4
63 Doma in, 230
C
yclo
tron, 280 Dot product, 13
C
yclotron magne
t, 2
70 Double dipole
, 1 01
Double-stub tune r
, 439
D
E
D
, divergence of, 8
8
Dv ector, 2
7 Easy magne tiza tion , 2 35
D
'Alembe rt
's equat
ion
, 3
46 Eddy c urrent s, 2 94, 3 15
Debye, P., 480 E
ld red , W . N ., 5 51
Dees, 280 E
lect ret, 4 9, 2 22
Del
, 19, 22 p
ermanen t, 2 22
ope
rations i
nvolv
ing, 1
91 E
lec tric a nd magne tic f i
e
ld e qua
tions
,
Demagne t
izat
ion, 244 200
Deperming, 244 E
lec tric c harge , 3
Depth o f p
enetration
, 3
96 E
lec tric circu i t, I ll
D
iamagne tic, 2
07 E
lec tric c urrent , 1 09
Die
lectric, 392 E
lectr ic dipo le , 4 6
c
avity i n
, 102 E
lec tric f i
eld i ntens i ty, 5
po
larization of
, 48 E
lec tric f i
eld s treng th, 5
E
lec tric flux, 2 3
D
ielectr
ic cons
tant , 4
E
lec tric sca lar p oten tia l
, 8
c
omp lex, 3
22
E
lec tric suscep tib il
i ty, 5 1
(
See al
so Perm it
tivi
ty )
E
lec trical u nits, 5 60
D
ielectr
ic hysteres
is, 321
E
lect romagne t, 2 70
D
ielectr
ic materia
ls, 5
85
E
lec tromo tance , 18
D
ielectr
ic sphe
re, 538
E
lect romo tive f orce ( em f), 18
D
ielectr
ic s
trength, 6
4
Em f
-produc ing f ie
ld , 17 , 2 86
t
able, 6
5
E
lect ron b eam v oltage , 2 77
D
ielectr
ics, 1
08
E
lect ron c ha rge , 3 ,2 83
a
rtif
ic
ial, 5
6
Elip t
ical p ola riza tion , 3 79
t
able, 49
, 5
85
E
llip t
ical w ave g u
ide , 4 68
D
ifferent
ial p
ermeab
ili
ty, 3
13
Energy , inc apac itor , 6 5
D
imens ion, 1
i
n induc to r, 1 78, 3 06
D
imens ional a na
lysis
, 2 in magne t
, 2 40
D
ipole
, electric, 46
p
er p ulse, 3 75
magnetic, 210 i
ns tand ing w ave , 3 77
s
hort
, 4 90 i
nw ave, 3 69
D
ipole a
ntenna, 4
90, 5
12 Energy d ens i ty, e lectr ic, 6 6
f
i
e
lds of
, t
able, 4
99 magne tic, 1 79
D
ipole moment, 4
6 Energy p roduct , 2 42
D
-c machine ai
r g
ap, 2
29 Energy v eloc ity , 3 73
D
irect
ivity
, 502
, 5
14 Epstein, P ., 4 78
D
ispers
ive medium
, 356 Equipoten tia l l ine, 1
D
ispla
cement c
urren
t, 3
18 Equipoten tia l s ur face , 1 2
d
ens
ity o
f
, 3
92 Equiva len t a rea , 5 05
D
ivergence
, 88
, 5 75 Equiva lent c ur ren t s hee t, 213
o
f D
, incapacitor
, 9
3 Equiva lent t r ansm i ssion l i
ne, 4
04
5
98 ELECTRO MAGNETICS

Evans
, W. R.
, 386 F
ormu las
, N eumann 's, 3
43
Exponen
tia
l funct
ion
, 580 Neumann 's inductance
, 488
Exponen
tia
l tran
sforma
tions
, 5
46 F
riis transm i
ssion formula
, 518
F
ring ing fi
eld, 553
F
undamen tal dimensions
, 1
Fundamenta l units
, 1,2,5,58
F
ar f
ie
ld, d
ipole
, 499
F
araday, Michael
, 285
F
araday d
isc generator
, 3
29
F
araday
's l
aw, 285
, 287 Gain, 502
F
erromagne
tic mater
ials
, 2
06, 2
07 Galvanome ter, ba
llistic, 315
F
erromagne
tism, 230 Gap force, 264
F
ie
ld, ofc ur
rent s
, 257 i
np e
rmanent magne t
, 2 65
f
r
inging, 553 Gapless circuit
, 26 1
l
amella
r, 3 26 Gauss's law, 27
b
etween s heets
, 526 d
ependence o n inve r
se -
squa re l
aw, 9
9
s
uperposit
ion o f
, 7 Giorgi
, 1
TE M, 333 Goubau , G .
, 479
i
nw ave guide, 452 Gradient, 1 8
, 20, 191, 5 75
Grassot fluxme ter
, 3 17
F
ie
ld cell
, 82, 1
76
Gravitational forces, 45, 1 01
c
apacitor
, 84
magnetic
, 249 Group a nd p hase velocity, 3 57
Group v elocity, 355
F
ie
ld and circui
t theory, 331
Grover, F. W ., 165
F
ie
ld mapp ing, 80
, 249, 567
F
ie
ld map s
, 2 54
, 256, 257
F
ie
ld re
lations, comparison, 328
g
ene
ral, 326
H vector, 1 69
F
ield s
t
rength
, 5
Hal
len, E r
ik, 1 47, 2 09
F
lip c
oi
l, 3
17
Hanke l funct ion, 5 80
F
luid-mapper p
atte
rn, 5
71
Hard magne tization , 2
35
F
lux, e
lectric
, 23
Heaviside, 0 ., 370
magnetic
, 1 48
Hel
ical wave g u
ide , 4
80
t
ube of, 149
Helmho ltz p air, 2 04
F
lux-cutt
ing l aw, 2
91
Henry, J oseph , 2 85
F
lux density, el
ectr
ic, 2
7 Henry ( unit), 1 65
magnetic
, 1 47 Hertz
, H .
, 3 39
r
es
idual, 237 Higher mode , 417
F
lux l
i
nes
, 25 Hondros , D., 4 80
F
lux l
i
nkage
, 164
, 2
87 Hydrau lic a nalogue , 121
F
lux t
ubes
, 26 Hype rbolic r e
lations , 573
F
luxmete
r, 2
33, 3
15 Hysteresis, 2 36
G
ras
sot, 3
17 d
ielectric, 3 21
F
orce, 4
g
ap, 265
g
ravitational, 4
5, 1
01
magnetic, 264 I
deal t
ransformer
, 312
p
er charge, 4 Image p
lane, 512
p
er pole
, 1 46, 2
10 Impedance
, o f antennas (
s
ee A
ntenna
,
b
etween w ires, 1
44 i
mpedance of)
F
ormu
las
, a
pprox
ima
tion
, 5
74 c
haracte
rist
ic, 424
, 426
 I
NDEX 5
99

Impedance , c har t s
, 4 35 Kernel
, 175
o
fc onduct ing med ia, 400 Keret
, D. W., 297
i
nput , tab le, 4 33 Ki
logram, def
inition, 2
i
ntr insic, 3 59 Kimbark, E. W., 168
conduc tor s
, 4 01 K
irchhof's current law
, 1
25
o
fl ines, 4 29 Ki
rchhof's voltage law
, 17
, 3
02
o
f med ia , 3 58 Kock, W. E
., 56
mu tua l
, 3 11
s
erie s, 419
t
ransm i ssion -line -cell, 360 L
ame l
la r fi
e
ld , 3 26
t
ransver se, 4 64 L
aplace's equa tion , 8 0
, 9 7
, 526
I
ncident w ave , 3 62 a
pplication o f
, 9 8
I
ncremen ta l p ermeab i
lity, 314 f
or conduct ing med ia, 137
I
ndex o f ref rac tion , 3 54 L
aplacian, 1 91, 5 75
I
nduced c ha rge s, 3 6 L
aplacian o pera to r
, 9 7
I
nduced c ur ren t
, 2 86 L
awrence , E. 0 ., 2 80
I
nduced em f
, 2 90, 2 92 L
egendre e qua tion , 524, 5 25
I
nduced magne tiza tion, 2 32 L
egendre f unc t
ion , 5 25, 583
I
nduc tance , 1 64 t
able, 584, 5 85
s
elf- a nd mu tua l, 3 08-311 L
ightface letters, mean ing of, 4
o
fs imp le g eome tries, 165 L
ine of charge, f i
eld o f, 72
I
nduc tion , e xamp les o f
, 292 L
ine integral, 10, 1
g
ene ral c ase o f
, 2 91 a
round c losed p ath, s ymbol, 13
magne tic, 1 47 L
inear polarization , 3 79
I
nduc tion r ela tions , 2 92 L
ogarithm ic r e
la tions, 5 74
I
nduc tor , 1 64 L
oop a ntenna , s mall, 4 86
e
ne rgy i n, 1 78 , 3 06 L
oop a nd equ ivalent me sh, 301
I
nfinite l ine , 4 19 L
orentz, 485
I
nfini te l i
nea r c onduc tor, 150
I
nfini te line s o fc harge , 75
I
nfini te-plane t ransm i
ssion line
, 418 McLachlan, N . W .
, 5 82
I
nfini tesima l p ermeab il
ity, 313 Magnetic c
ircu it
, 2 45
I
nitial magne tiza tion c urve, 233 w
ith air gap, 2 63
I
nject ion i nb e ta tron , 2 99 Magnetic d
ipo les, 210
I
nput i mpedance , tab le, 433 Magnetic f
ield e qua t
ions , 1 58
I
nsu la ted w ire , p rob lem , 5 54 Magnetic f
ield i ntensity, 1 69
I
nsu lator s, 1 08 Magnetic f
lux , 148
I
ntrin s
ic i mpedance , c onduc tors
, 40
1 Magnetic f
lux d ens i
ty, 1 46
I
nver se-square l aw , 9 9 Magnetic gap f orce, 264
I
ron b ar
, map , 2 53 Magnetic i
nduct ion , 1 47
I
ron c rysta l, 2 31