Introduction to Cognitive Psychology

At the beginning of the 21st century, cognitive psychology is a broad field concerned with memory, perception, attention,
pattern recognition, consciousness, neuroscience, representation of knowledge, cognitive development, language, thinking,
and, human and artificial intelligence. But contemplation about the source of knowledge, how people think, solve problems,
and perceive their world is as ancient as human history and has occupied a venerated position in the musings of
philosophers, theologians, mystics, and scientists for as long as we can tell.

These notions started to be tested empirically during the latter part of the nineteenth century and throughout the twentieth
century and became known in the history of science as cognitive psychology.

WHY STUDY THE HISTORY OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY?

•If we know where we came from, we may better understand where we are heading.

•We can learn from past mistakes.

Cognitive psychology became of great importance in the mid-1950s. Several factors were important in this:

1. Dissatisfaction with the behaviorist approach in its simple emphasis on external behavior rather than internal processes.

2. The development of better experimental methods.3.Comparison between human and computer processing information.

The emphasis of psychology shifted away from the study of conditioned behavior and psychoanalytical notions about the
study of the mind, towards the understanding of human information processing, using strict and rigorous laboratory
investigation.

Psychology should be seen as a science:

Cognitive psychologists follow the example of the behaviorists in preferring objective, controlled, scientific methods for
investigating behavior.

They use the results of their investigations as the basis for making inferences about mental processes.

Humans are information processors

Information processing in humans resembles that in computers, and is based on based on transforming information, storing
information and retrieving information from memory.

Information processing models of cognitive processes such as memory and attention assume that mental processes follow a
clear sequence.

For example:

- Input processes are concerned with the analysis of the stimuli.

- Storage processes cover everything that happens to stimuli internally in the brain and can include coding and
manipulation of the stimuli.
- Output processes are responsible for preparing an appropriate response to a stimulus.

PHILOSOPHICAL ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY

PHILOSOPHY – seeks to understand the general nature of many aspects of the world, in part through introspection, the
examination of inner ideas and experiences (intro means “inward” and spect means “look”).

•PHYSIOLOGY – seeks a scientific study of life- sustaining functions in living matter, primarily through empirical (observation
based) methods.

RATIONALIST – believes that the route to knowledge is through thinking and logical analysis. A rationalist who is interested
in cognitive processes would appeal to reason as a source of knowledge or justification. Plato and Descartes are rationalists.
•EMPIRICIST – believes that we acquire knowledge via empirical evidence (obtaining evidence through experience and
observation. Aristotle and Locke are empiricists.

Two Greek philosophers, Plato (ca. 428–348 B.C.) and his student Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), have profoundly affected modern
thinking in psychology and many other fields.

- Plato and Aristotle disagreed regarding how to investigate ideas.

- Plato was a rationalist. A rationalist believes that the route to knowledge is through thinking and logical analysis.
That is, a rationalist does not need any experiments to develop new knowledge

Rationalist who is interested in cognitive processes would appeal to reason as a source of knowledge or justification.

Rationalism is important in theory development.

Rationalist theories without any connection to observations gained through empiricist methods may not be valid; but
mountains of observational data without an organizing theoretical framework may not be meaningful

The contrasting ideas of rationalism and empiricism became prominent with the French rationalist René Descartes (1596–
1650) and the British empiricist John Locke (1632–1704).

- Locke believed that humans are born without knowledge and therefore must seek knowledge through empirical
observation.
- Locke’s term for this view was tabula rasa (meaning “blank slate” in Latin).
- The idea is that life and experience “write” knowledge on us

Descartes was the first to write of the concept of emotions and his famous quotation "I think therefore I am" elucidated his
focus on the importance of cognition on the human experience. In psychology Descartes is most known for his concept of
dualism.

Descartes' theory of dualism suggests that there are two realms to existence. The first is the physical realm which is the
environment and the things around us. This is the "realm of matter and energy". This realm can be researched and is
scientific because it operates in a prescribed "mechanical" way. The other realm is mental and is "transcendent" to the
physical environment and cannot be measured.

In the 18th century, German philosopher, Immanuel Kant synthesized the views of Descartes and Locke, arguing that both
rationalism and empiricism have their place. Both must work together in the quest for truth.

Early Dialectics in the Psychology of Cognition

Understanding the Structure of the Mind: Structuralism

- An early dialectic in the history of psychology is that between structuralism and functionalism.
- Structuralism was the first major school of thought in psychology.
- Structuralism seeks to understand the structure (configuration of elements) of the mind and its perceptions by
analyzing those perceptions into their constituent components (affection, attention, memory, sensation, etc.).
- Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) was a German psychologist whose ideas contributed to the development of
structuralism. Wundt is often viewed as the founder of structuralism in psychology.
- Wundt used a variety of methods in his research. One of these methods wasintrospection.
- Introspection is a deliberate looking inward at pieces of information passing through consciousness. The aim of
introspection is to look at the elementary components of an object or process.
- The introduction of introspection as an experimental method was an important change in the field because the main
emphasis in the study of the mind shifted from a rationalist approach to the empiricist approach of trying to observe
behavior in order to draw conclusions about the subject of study.
- The method of introspection has some challenges associated with it.
- People may not always be able to say exactly what goes through their mind or may not be able to put it into
adequate words.
 - What they say may not be accurate. Third, the fact that people are asked to pay attention to their thoughts or to
speak out loud while they are working on a task may itself alter the processes that are going on.
- Wundt had many followers. One was an American student, Edward Titchener (1867–1927).
- Titchener (1910) is sometimes viewed as the first full-fledged structuralist. In any case, he certainly helped bring
structuralism to the United States.
- His experiments relied solely on the use of introspection, exploring psychology from the vantage point of the
experiencing individual.
- Other early psychologists criticized both the method (introspection) and the focus (elementary structures of
sensation) of structuralism. These critiques gave rise to a new movement—functionalism

Understanding the Processes of the Mind: Functionalism

- An alternative that developed to counter structuralism, functionalism suggested that psychologists should focus on
the processes of thought rather than on its contents.
- Functionalism seeks to understand what people do and why they do it.
- This principal question about processes was in contrast to that of the structuralists, who had asked what the
elementary contents (structures) of the human mind are.
- Functionalists held that the key to understanding the human mind and behavior was to study the processes of how
and why the mind works as it does, rather than to study the structural contents and elements of the mind.
- Because functionalists believed in using whichever methods best answered a given researcher’s questions, it seems
natural for functionalism to have led to pragmatism.
- Pragmatists believe that knowledge is validated by its usefulness: What can you do with it? Pragmatists are
concerned not only with knowing what people do; they also want to know what we can do with our knowledge of
what people do.

A leader in guiding functionalism toward pragmatism was William James (1842–1910).His chief functional contribution to
the field of psychology was a single book: his landmark Principles of Psychology (1890/1970).

Cognitive psychologists frequently point to the writings of James in discussions of core topics in the field, such as attention,
consciousness, and perception.

John Dewey (1859–1952) was another early pragmatist who profoundly influenced contemporary thinking in cognitive
psychology. Dewey is remembered primarily for his pragmatic approach to thinking and schooling.

Although functionalists were interested in how people learn, they did not really specify a mechanism by which learning takes
place. This task was taken up by another group, Associationists.

An Integrative Synthesis: Associationism

- Associationism, like functionalism, was more of an influential way of thinking than a rigid school of psychology.
- Associationism examines how elements of the mind, like events or ideas, can become associated with one another
in the mind to result in a form of learning.
- Contiguity (associating things that tend to occur together at about the same time);
- Similarity (associating things with similar features or properties); or
- Contrast (associating things that show polarities, such as hot/cold, light/dark, day/ night).

In the late 1800s, associationist Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) was the first experimenter to apply associationist
principles systematically.

Ebbinghaus studied his own mental processes. He made up lists of nonsense syllables that consisted of a consonant and a
vowel followed by another consonant (e.g., zax).

He then took careful note of how long it took him to memorize those lists. He counted his errors and recorded his response
times.
Through his self-observations, Ebbinghaus studied how people learn and remember material through rehearsal, the
conscious repetition of material to be learned.

Among other things, he found that frequent repetition can fix mental associations more firmly in memory. Thus, repetition
aids in learning.

Another influential associationist, Edward Lee Thorndike (1874–1949), held that the role of “satisfaction” is the key to
forming associations.

Thorndike termed this principle the law of effect (1905): A stimulus will tend to produce a certain response over time if an
organism is rewarded for that response.

Thorndike believed that an organism learns to respond in a given way (the effect) in a given situation if it is rewarded
repeatedly for doing so (the satisfaction, which serves as a stimulus to future actions).

Thus, a child given treats for solving arithmetic problems learns to solve arithmetic problems accurately because the child
forms associations between valid solutions and treats. These ideas were the predecessors of the development of
behaviorism

It’s only What You Can See That Counts: From Associationism to Behaviorism

- Behaviorism focuses only on the relation between observable behavior and environmental events or stimuli.
- The idea was to make physical whatever others might have called “mental”.
- Some of these researchers, like Thorndike and other associationists, studied responses that were voluntary
(although perhaps lacking any conscious thought, as in Thorndike’s work).
- Other researchers studied responses that were involuntarily triggered in response to what appear to be unrelated
external events.

In Russia, Nobel Prize–winning physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) studied involuntary learning behavior of this sort.

- He began with the observation that dogs salivated in response to the sight of the lab technician who fed them. This
response occurred before the dogs even saw whether the technician had food.
- To Pavlov, this response indicated a form of learning (classically conditioned learning), over which the dogs had no
conscious control.
- In the dogs’ minds, some type of involuntary learning linked the technician to the food (Pavlov, 1955).
- Pavlov’s landmark work paved the way for the development of behaviorism. His ideas were made known in the
United States especially through the work of John B. Watson

Classical conditioning involves more than just an association based on temporal contiguity (e.g., the food and the
conditioned stimulus occurring at about the same time)

Effective conditioning requires contingency (e.g., the presentation of food being contingent on the presentation of the
conditioned stimulus)

Contingencies in the form of reward and punishment are still used today, for example, in the treatment of substance abuse.

Behaviorism may be considered an extreme version of associationism.

It focuses entirely on the association between the environment and an observable behavior.

Proponents of Behaviorism

The “father” of radical behaviorism is John Watson (1878–1958).He believed that psychologists should concentrate only on
the study of observable behavior

Behaviorism differed from previous movements in psychology by shifting the emphasis of experimental research from
human to animal participants.
Historically, much behaviorist work has been conducted (and still is) with laboratory animals, such as rats or pigeons,
because these animals allow for much greater behavioral control of relationships between the environment and the
behavior emitted in reaction to it (although behaviorists also have conducted experiments with humans).

One problem with using nonhuman animals, however, is determining whether the research can be generalized to humans
(i.e., applied more generally to humans instead of just to the kinds of nonhuman animals that were studied).

B.F. Skinner (1904–1990), a radical behaviorist, believed that virtually all forms of human behavior, not just learning, could
be explained by behavior emitted in reaction to the environment.

He believed instead that operant conditioning—involving the strengthening or weakening of behavior, contingent on the
presence or absence of reinforcement (rewards) or punishments—could explain all forms of human behavior.

Skinner applied his experimental analysis of behavior to many psychological phenomena, such as learning, language
acquisition, and problem solving.

Largely because of Skinner’s towering presence, behaviorism dominated the discipline of psychology for several decades.

Criticisms of Behaviorism

Behaviorism was challenged on many fronts like language acquisition, production, and comprehension.

Behaviorism did not account as well for complex mental activities such as language learning and problem solving.

Some psychologists wanted to know what went on inside the head. It often proved easier to use the techniques of
behaviorism in studying nonhuman animals than in studying human ones.

Cognitive Psychology Research Methods

The methods used by cognitive psychologists have been developed to experimentally tease apart mental operations. At the
onset, it should be noted that cognitive psychologists rely most heavily on the experimental method, in which independent
variables are manipulated and dependent variables are measured to provide insights into the cognitive architecture.

In order to statistically evaluate the results from such experiments, cognitive researchers rely on standard hypothesis
testing, along with inferential statistics (e.g. analyses of variance) to provide estimates of the likelihood of a particular
pattern of results occurring if they were occurring only by chance.

The methodological tools that cognitive psychologists use depend in large part upon the area of study.

1. Perceptual Methods
- During the initial stage of stimulus processing, an individual encodes/perceives the stimulus. Encoding can be viewed
as the process of translating the sensory energy of a stimulus into a meaningful pattern
2. Memory Methods
- One of the first studies of human cognition was the work of Ebbinghaus (1885/1913) who demonstrated that one
could experimentally investigate distinct aspects of memory. One of the methods that Ebbinghaus developed was
the savings-in-learning technique in which he studied lists of nonsense syllables (e.g. puv) to a criterion of perfect
recitation. Memory was defined as the reduction in the number of trials necessary to relearn a list relative to the
number of trials necessary to first learn a list. Since the work of Ebbinghaus, there has been considerable
development in the methods used to study memory.
3. Cross-Population Studies
- Although cognitive psychologists rely most heavily on college students as their target sample, there is an increasing
interest in studying cognitive operations across quite distinct populations. For example, there are studies of
cognition from early childhood to older adulthood that attempt to trace developmental changes in specific
operations such as memory, attention, and language processing. In addition, there are studies of special populations
that may have a breakdown in a particular cognitive operation.
 4. Case Studies
- After a trauma to the brain, there are sometimes breakdowns in apparently isolated components of cognitive
performance. Thus, one may provide insights into the cognitive architecture by studying these individuals and the
degree to which such cognitive processes are isolated
5. Measures of Brain Activity
- With the increasing technical sophistication from the neurosciences, there has been an influx of studies that
measure the correlates of mental activity in the brain (Posner & Raichle, 1994).
- Evoked potential method. In this method, the researcher measures the electrical activity of systems of neurons (i.e.
brain waves) as the individual is engaged in some cognitive task.
- Positron emission tomography (PET). The individual receives an injection of a radioactive isotope that emits signals
that are measured by a scanner.
- Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).This procedure is less invasive because it does not involve a
radioactive injection.
6 Computational Modeling
- Activation patterns across the simple processing units are computationally tracked across time to make specific
predictions regarding the effects of stimulus and task manipulations.

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

•The study of how people perceive, learn, remember and think about information.

•A cognitive psychologist might study how people perceive various shapes, why they remember some facts but forget
others, or how they learn language.

•Why do objects look farther away on foggy days than they really are?

•Why do many people remember a particular experience (e.g. a very happy moment or an embarrassment during
childhood), yet they forget the names of people whom they have known for many years

AILABILITY HEURISTIC

•HEURISTICS are mental shortcuts we use to process information.

•When we think about an issue and certain examples immediately come to mind, we are using “availability heuristic”
(Tversky & Kahneman)

The fundamental questions in cognitive psychology remain the same, but the ways of addressing these issues have changed.
•The approaches and ways scientists use to study issues in cognitive psychology change overtime. These changes often are
the result of a dialectic.

•DIALECTIC is a developmental process whereby ideas evolve overtime through a back-and-forth exchange of ideas; in a
way, it is like a discussion spread out over an extended period of time
THE DIALECTICAL PROCESS:

1. A THESIS IS PROPOSED. A thesis is a statement of belief.

Ex. Some people believe that human nature influences many aspects of human behavior (e.g. intelligence or
personality; Sternberg, 1999). After a while, however, certain individuals notice apparent flaws in the thesis.
2. ANTITHESIS EMERGES. Eventually, or perhaps even quite soon, an antithesis emerges. An antithesis is a statement
that counters a thesis.
• Ex. An alternative view is that our environment almost entirely determines many aspects of human behavior
3. A SYNTHESIS INTEGRATES THE VIEWPOINTS. Sooner or later, the debate between the thesis and antithesis leads to
a synthesis, which integrates the most credible features of each of two (or more) views.
Ex. In the debate over nature versus nurture, the interaction between our innate (inborn) nature and environmental
nurture may govern human nature

CHAPTER 2: COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE

Cognitive Neuroscience

• the field of study linking the brain and other aspects of the nervous system to cognitive processing and, ultimately, to
behavior.

• The brain is the organ in our bodies that most directly controls our thoughts, emotions, and motivations.

• It is at the intersection of psychology and neuroscience, but also overlaps with physiological psychology, cognitive
psychology and neuropsychology. It combines the theories of cognitive psychology and computational modelling with
experimental data about the brain.

• The earliest historical roots of neuroscience can be traced to the ancient Egyptians, who practiced trephination — drilling a
hole into the skull in order to treat brain and/or mental disorders — and possessed some knowledge about the symptoms of
brain damage (Mohamed, 2008).

• Much later, the invention of the microscope and the use of staining procedures led to the discovery of individual neurons
(cells of the nervous system) by Santiago Ramón y Cajal in the late 1890s, setting the stage for the modern study of the
nervous system (Guillery, 2004). The emergence of neuroscience as a distinct field began in the 20th century, pioneered by
David Rioch, Francis O. Schmitt, and Stephen Kuffler (Cowan et al., 2000).

Anatomy of the Nervous System

• Our nervous system is made up of billions of neurons, all firing action potentials and communicating with each other
through synapses.

• These networks of neurons ultimately give rise to larger structures that perform specialized functions. By studying the
anatomy of the nervous system, we can begin to understand how the nervous system divides up its many tasks.

• The most important anatomical division of the nervous system is between the central nervous system and the peripheral
nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the brain and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system
consists of the nerves all throughout the body that communicate with the central nervous system.

The central nervous system and peripheral nervous system act together to

interpret sense data and to initiate movement (Sukel, 2019). Sensory information is sent from the peripheral nerves to the
spinal cord, and then relayed to the brain; motor information travels from the brain down to the spinal cord and then
ultimately to the muscles via the peripheral nerves.

Cognition in the Brain: The Anatomy and Mechanisms of the Brain

• The nervous system is the basis for our ability to perceive, adapt to, and interact with the world around us.
• Through this system we receive, process, and then respond to information from the environment

• The nervous system, the brain and the cerebral cortex, which controls many of our thought processes.

How the human brain works

The human brain is an intricate organ. At approximately 3 pounds, it contains about 100 billion neurons and 100 trillion
connections.

Our brain is the command center for all that you think, feel, and do.

A major goal of present research on the brain is to study localization of function.

Localization of function refers to the specific areas of the brain that control specific skills or behaviors.

THE BRAIN

 3 primary divisions:
- Forebrain
► cortex (folded stuff)
► limbic system, etc (stuff around brain stem)
- Midbrain (top of brain stem)
- Hindbrain (bottom of brainstem + cerebellum)

The Forebrain (prosencephalon)

• The forebrain is the region of the brain located toward the top and front of the brain. It is the largest and most obvious
part of a mammal’s brain.

• It comprises the cerebral cortex, the basal ganglia, the limbic system, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus.

• It is home to sensory processing, endocrine structures, and higher reasoning.

The Cerebral Cortex

• the outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres, which account for two- thirds of the brain’s total mass. It forms a 1- to 3-
millimeter layer that wraps the surface of the brain somewhat like the bark of a tree wraps around the trunk.

• It plays a vital role in our thinking and other mental processes. The cortex is also divided into two hemispheres, the right
and left, which is separated by a large sulcus called the medial longitudinal fissure.
• The two hemispheres are connected via bundles of nerve fibers called the corpus callosum, to allow both hemispheres of
the cerebral cortex to communicate with each other and for further connections to be made.

• Each cerebral hemisphere can be subdivided into four lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes), each
associated with different functions. Each pair has one lobe on the left side of the brain and another on the right.

Frontal lobe

voluntary movement, reasoning, impulse control, language and speech (Salazar, 2017). This is also where Broca’s area is
Located.

Temporal lobe

processing auditory stimuli (Smith, 2007). This is also where Wernicke’s area is located. also communicates with the
hippocampus in the production of long-term memory.

Parietal lobe

processing the sense of touch, limb position, and spatial awareness (Adair & Meador, 2003). processing auditory stimuli
(Smith, 2007).

Occipital lobe

the visual processing center of the brain (Bailey, 2019). This is also where Brodmann Area 17 is located.

• Projection areas are the areas in the lobes in which sensory processing occurs.

• These areas are referred to as projection areas because the nerves contain sensory information going to (projecting to) the
thalamus.

• It is from here that the sensory information is communicated to the appropriate area in the relevant lobe.

• The projection areas communicate motor information downward through the spinal cord to the appropriate muscles via
the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

• The corpus callosum is a dense aggregate of neural fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres.

• It allows transmission of information back and forth. Once information has reached one hemisphere, the corpus callosum
transfers it to the other hemisphere. If the corpus callosum is cut, the two cerebral hemispheres —cannot communicate
with each other.

• If the two cerebral hemispheres have been separated by partial or complete destruction of the corpus callosum, this will
result to a split-brain.

In the 1950s and 1960s, Roger Sperry performed experiments on cats, monkeys, and humans to study functional differences
between the two hemispheres of the brain in the United States. To do so he studied the corpus callosum, which is a large
bundle of neurons that connects the two hemispheres of the brain. Sperry severed the corpus callosum in cats and monkeys
to study the function of each side of the brain. He found that if hemispheres were not connected, they functioned
independently of one another, which he called a split-brain. The split-brain enabled animals to memorize double the
information. Later, Sperry tested the same idea in humans with their corpus callosum severed as treatment for epilepsy, a
seizure disorder. He found that the hemispheres in human brains had different functions. The left hemisphere interpreted
language but not the right. Sperry shared the Nobel prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1981for his split-brain research.

• Split-brain patients are people who have undergone operations severing the corpus callosum. Split-brain research reveals
fascinating possibilities regarding the ways we think.

• Many in the field have argued that language is localized in the left hemisphere. Spatial visualization ability appears to be
largely localized in the right hemisphere.
• The left hemisphere is important not only in language but also in movement. Another role of the left hemisphere is to
examine past experiences to find patterns.

• The right hemisphere is largely “mute”. It has little grammatical or phonetic understanding but it does have very good
semantic knowledge. It also is involved in practical language use.

• The right hemisphere also plays a primary role in self recognition in particular, the right hemisphere seems to be
responsible for the identification of one’s own face.

Cerebral Cortex and Localization of Function

• In studies of split-brain patients, the patient is presented with a composite photograph that shows a face that is made up
of the left and right side of the faces of two different persons

• They are typically unaware that they saw conflicting information in the two halves of the picture.

• When asked to give an answer about what they saw in words, they report that they saw the image in the right half of the
picture

• When they are asked to use the fingers of the left hand (which contralaterally sends and receives information to and from
the right hemisphere) to point to what they saw, participants choose the image from the left half of the picture.

The Basal Ganglia (singular; ganglion)

• The “basal ganglia” refers to a group of subcortical nuclei within the brain responsible primarily for motor control, as well
as other roles such as motor learning, executive functions, emotional behaviours, and play an important role in reward and
reinforcement, addictive behaviours and habit formation.

• Dysfunction of the basal ganglia can result in motor deficits which include tremors, involuntary movements, changes in
posture and muscle tone, and slowness of movement.

The Limbic System

• It is important to emotions, motivation, memory, learning, and psychological drives.

• A critical component of the limbic system is the amygdala, which is an almond shaped set of neurons responsible for the
processing of fear.

• Another important part of the limbic system is the hippocampus, which is responsible for long-term memory formation.

• The thalamus is considered to be the neural railway station of the brain. Sensory input from the body travels to the
thalamus, where it is then relayed to the rest of the brain as a specific sensation. Thenthalamus is also involved with
consciousness, alertness, and sleep (Mandal, 2019).

• The hypothalamus is located at the base of the brain near the pituitary gland, and it is involved with pleasure, food, body
temperature, and sex (Seladi-Schulman, 2018).

• Our limbic system allows us to suppress instinctive responses.

• Our limbic systems help us to adapt our behaviors flexibly innresponse to our changing environment

The Midbrain (Mesencephalon)

• The midbrain, which lies on top of the brainstem. The midbrain is involved in auditory and visual processing (Peters,
2017).

• The midbrain also helps to control eye movement and coordination.

• There are three parts to the midbrain: the colliculi, the tegmentum, and the cerebral peduncles.

• The colliculi processes visual and auditory signals before they are relayed to the occipital and temporal lobes.
• The tegmentum is involved in movement coordination and alertness.

• Lastly, the cerebral peduncles plays an important part in the central nervous system

The Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon)

• The hindbrain mostly coordinate autonomic functions that are essential to survival.

• It contains the medulla oblongata, pons, and cerebellum (collectively known as the brainstem).

• The medulla oblongata, also simply known as the medulla, is the lowest part of the brainstem and the primary connection
to the nervous system. It is primarily involved in breathing, heart rate, digestion, swallowing, heart rhythms, and sneezing
(Peters, 2016).

• The medulla controls the automatic processes of the automatic nervous system, such as breathing, blood pressure, and
heart rate.

• The pons, which is Latin for “bridge”, is a group of nerves that is involved in arousal, sleep, motor control, and muscle tone
(Patel & Sugano, 2018).

• The cerebellum (Latin for “little brain”) receives messages from muscles, tendons, joints, and structures in our ear to
control balance, coordination, movement, and facilitate motor learning. The cerebellum is also thought to be an important
area for processing procedural memory.

• The brainstem may not provide us with the higher intelligence we normally associate with being human, but it does carry
all of the information to and from those areas we do associate with higher intelligence. It ensures the vital functions
necessary to support those areas continue uninterrupted

Neuronal Structure and Function

• Individual neural cells, called neurons, transmit electrical signals from one location to another in the nervous system

• The neurons tend to be arranged in the form of networks, which provide information and feedback to each other within
various kinds of information processing.

• Neurons vary in their structure, but almost all neurons have four basic parts, as illustrated in. These include a soma (cell
body), dendrites, an axon, and terminal buttons.

• Humans possess approximately 100 billion neurons.

• To understand how the entire nervous system processes information, we need to examine the structure and function of
the cells that constitute the nervous system.

• Individual neural cells, called neurons, transmit electrical signals from one location to another in the nervous system.

• Neural cells, called neurons, transmit electrical signals from:

• The soma, which contains the nucleus of the cell (the center portion that performs metabolic and reproductive functions
for the cell), is responsible for the life of the neuron and connects the dendrites to the axon.

• The many dendrites are branchlike structures that receive information from other neurons, and the soma integrates the
information.

• Learning is associated with the formation of new neuronal connections.

• The single axon is a long, thin tube that extends (and sometimes splits) from the soma and responds to the information,
when appropriate, by transmitting an electrochemical signal, which travels to the terminus (end), where the signal can be
transmitted to other neurons.

• Axons are of two basic, roughly equally occurring kinds, distinguished by the presence or absence of myelin.
• Myelin is a white, fatty substance that surrounds some of the axons of the nervous system, which accounts for some of the
whiteness of the white matter of the brain.

• Some axons are myelinated (in that they are surrounded by a myelin sheath).

• This sheath, which insulates and protects longer axons from electrical interference by other neurons in the area, also
speeds up the conduction of information.

• Nodes of Ranvier are small gaps in the myelin coating along the axon,

• The degeneration of myelin sheaths along axons in certain nerves is associated with multiple sclerosis, an autoimmune
disease.

• The terminal buttons are small knobs found at the ends of the branches of an axon that do not directly touch the
dendrites of the next neuron.

• The synapse serves as a juncture between the terminal buttons of one or more neurons and the dendrites (or sometimes
the soma) of one or more other neurons.

• Synapses are important in cognition.

•Decreased cognitive functioning, as in Alzheimer’s disease, is associated with reduced efficiency of synaptic transmission of
nerve impulses.

• Signal transmission between neurons occurs when the terminal buttons release one or more neurotransmitters at the
synapse.

• These neurotransmitters are chemical messengers for transmission of information across the synaptic gap to the receiving
dendrites of the next neuron.

• At present, it appears that three types of chemical substances are involved in neurotransmission:

• Monoamine neurotransmitters are synthesized by the nervous system through enzymatic actions on one of the amino
acids (constituents of proteins, such as choline, tyrosine, and tryptophan) in our diet (e.g., acetylcholine, dopamine, and
serotonin);

• Amino-acid neurotransmitters are obtained directly from the amino acids in our diet without further synthesis (e.g.,
gamma-aminobutyric acid, or GABA);

• Neuropeptides are peptide chains (molecules made from the parts of two or more amino acids).

Viewing the Structures and Functions of the Brain

• Scientists can use many methods for studying the human brain.

• Each technique provides important information about the structure and function of the human brain.

Postmortem Studies

• Postmortem studies and the dissection of brains have been done for centuries.

Studying Live Nonhuman Animals

• To study the changing activity of the living brain, scientists must use in vivo research.

Studying Live Humans

Brain Disorders

• A number of brain disorders can impair cognitive functioning.

• Brain disorders can give us valuable insight into the functioning of the brain.
• Your brain is your body’s control center. It’s part of the nervousn system, which also includes the spinal cord and a large
network of nerves and neurons. When your brain is damaged, it can affect many different things, including your memory,
your sensation, and even your personality.

• Brain disorders include any conditions or disabilities that affect your brain. This includes conditions that are caused by:
illness, genetics, and traumatic injury

Types of Brain Disorders

1. Brain injuries - brain injuries are often caused by blunt trauma. Trauma can damage your brain tissue, neurons, and
nerves. This damage affects your brain’s ability to communicate with the rest of your body. Examples of brain injuries
include:

• hematomas

• blood clots

• contusions, or bruising of brain tissue

• cerebral edema or swelling inside the skull

• Concussions

• strokes

Examples of the symptoms of a brain injury include:

- Vomiting
- Nausea
- speech difficulty
- bleeding from the ear
- numbness
- Headaches
- Paralysis
- memory loss problems with
- concentration

Later, you may develop:

- high blood pressure

- A low heart rate
- pupil dilation
- irregular breathing

Depending on the type of injury you have, treatment may include: medication, rehabilitation, and brain surgery

• Many people with severe brain injuries need surgery to remove or repair damaged tissue or to relieve pressure. People
with minor brain injuries may not need any treatment beyond pain medication.

• Most people with brain injuries need rehabilitation. This can include:

- physical therapy
- speech and language therapy
- psychiatric services

2. Brain tumors - sometimes, tumors form in the brain and can be very dangerous. These are called primary brain tumors. In
other cases, cancer somewhere else in your body spreads to your brain. These are called secondary or metastatic brain
tumors.
Brain tumors can be either malignant (cancerous) or benign (noncancerous). Doctors classify brain tumors as grades 1, 2, 3,
or 4. Higher numbers indicate more aggressive tumors. The cause of brain tumors is largely unknown. They can occur in
people of any age. Symptoms of brain tumors depend on the size and location of the tumor.

The most common symptoms of brain tumors are:

- Headaches
- Seizures
- numbness or tingling in your arms or legs
- nausea
- Vomiting
- changes in personality
- difficulty with movement or balance changes in your hearing, speech or vision

The main types of treatment for brain tumors are:

- surgery
- chemotherapy
- radiation therapy

The type of treatment you’ll receive depends on many different factors, such as the size of the tumor, your age, and your
overall health.

3. Neurodegenerative diseases - Neurodegenerative diseases cause your brain and nerves to deteriorate over time. They
can change your personality and cause confusion. They can also destroy your brain’s tissue and nerves. Some brain diseases,
such as Alzheimer’s disease, may develop as you age. They can slowly impair your memory and thought processes. Other
diseases, such as Tay-Sachs disease, are genetic and begin at an early age. Other common neurodegenerative diseases
include:

- Huntington’s disease
- amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), or Lou Gehrig’s disease
- Parkinson’s disease and
- all forms of dementia

Some of the more common symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases include:

- memory loss
- forgetfulness
- Apathy
- Anxiety
- Agitation
- a loss of inhibition
- mood changes

• Neurodegenerative diseases cause permanent damage, so symptoms tend to get worse as the disease progresses. New
symptoms are also likely to develop over time.

• There’s no cure for neurodegenerative diseases, but treatment can help. The goal of treatment for these conditions it to
try to reduce yoursymptoms and help you maintain quality of life.

• Treatment often involves the use of medications to better manage your symptoms.

4. Mental health disorders – or mental health conditions, are a large and diverse group of issues that affect your behavior
patterns. Some of the most frequently diagnosed mental health disorders are:
 - depression

- anxiety

- bipolar disorder

- post-traumatic stress disorder and schizophrenia

The symptoms of mental health conditions vary based on the condition. Different people can experience the same disorder
very differently. You should talk with your doctor if you notice a change in your behavior, thought patterns, or moods

• The two major types of treatment for mental health conditions are medication and psychotherapy. Different methods
work better for different conditions. Many people find that a combination of the two is the most effective.

• If you think you might have a mental health disorder, it’s important to talk and work with a doctor to create a treatment
plan that works for you. There are many resources available — do not try to self-medicate.

What are the risk factors for brain disorders?

• Brain disorders can affect anyone. Risk factors are different for different types of brain disorders.

• Traumatic brain injury is most common in children under 4 years old, young adults between ages 15 and 25 years, and
older adults ages 65 years and older, according to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) and the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

• Brain tumors can affect people at any age. Your personal risk depends on your genetics and your exposure to
environmental risk factors like radiation.

• Older age and family history are the most significant risk factors for neurodegenerative diseases.

• Mental health disorders are very common. The National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) reports that about 1 in 5
American adults has experienced a mental health condition. Your risk may be higher if you:

• have a family history of mental health conditions

• have or have had traumatic or stressful life experiences

• have a history of misusing alcohol or drugs

• have or have had a traumatic brain injury\

Status of mental health system for children in the Philippines

• According to the National Statistics Office (NSO), mental health illnesses rank as the third most common form of
morbidity among Filipinos. In the assessment conducted on the Philippine mental health system, a prevalence of 16% of
mental disorders among children was reported. With this alarming number of cases, it is surprising to see how the
Philippines is currently responding to this problem.

• To date, there are only five government hospitals with psychiatric facilities for children, 84 general hospitals with
psychiatric units, and 46 outpatient facilities from which there are only 11 that are designated for children and adolescents.
Additionally, there are only 60 child psychiatrists practicing in the Philippines, with the majority of them practicing in urban
areas such as the National Capital Region. Hence, children with mental health problems who are in rural areas have less
access to such services.

How are brain disorders diagnosed?

• A primary care physician or a neurological specialist can diagnose a brain disorder. They will likely perform a neurological
exam to check your vision, hearing, and balance

• They may also get images of your brain to help them make a diagnosis. The most common diagnostic imaging tools are CT,
MRI and PET scans.
• Your doctor might also need to study fluid from your brain and spinal cord. This helps them find bleeding in the brain,
infection, and other abnormalities.

• Mental health disorders are usually diagnosed based on an evaluation of your symptoms and history.

What’s the long-term outlook?

• The outlook for people with brain disorders depends on the type and severity of the brain disorder. Some conditions are
easily treated with medication and therapy. For example, millions of people with mental health disorders live full, quality
lives.

• Other disorders, like neurodegenerative diseases and some traumatic brain injuries, have no cure. People with these
conditions may often face permanent changes in their behavior, mental abilities, or coordination. In these cases, treatment
centers around helping you manage the illness and retain as much independence as possible.

Diagnostic Tests for Neurological Disorders

• Evaluating and diagnosing damage to the nervous system is complicated and complex. Many of the same symptoms
happen in different combinations among the different disorders. Many disorders also don't have definitive causes, markers,
or tests. That can make a diagnosis even harder.

• To diagnosis a nervous system disorder, a healthcare provider starts with a complete medical history and physical exam.
He or she may also use one or more of these tests:

1. CT scan. This imaging test uses a combination of X-rays and computer technology to make horizontal images of the body.
A CT scan shows detailed images of any part of the body, including the bones, muscles, fat, and organs. CT scans are more
detailed than general X- rays.

2. Electroencephalogram (EEG). This test records the brain's continuous electrical activity through electrodes attached to
the scalp.

3. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) . This test uses a combination of large magnets, radio waves, and a computer to make
detailed images of organs and structures within the body.

4. Electrodiagnostic tests, such as electromyography (EMG) and nerve conduction velocity (NCV). These tests evaluate and
diagnose disorders of the muscles and motor neurons. Electrodes are inserted into the muscle or placed on the skin
overlying a muscle or muscle group. Electrical activity and muscle response are recorded.

5. Positron emission tomography (PET). This test measures the metabolic activity of cells.

6. Arteriogram (angiogram). This X-ray of the arteries and veins detects blockage or narrowing of the vessels.

7. Spinal tap (lumbar puncture). During this test, a special needle is placed into the lower back, into the spinal canal. This is
the area around the spinal cord. The pressure in the spinal canal and brain can then be measured. A small amount of
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) can be removed and sent for testing to find out if there is an infection or other problems. CSF is the
fluid that bathes the brain and spinal cord.

8. Evoked potentials. This test records the brain's electrical response to visual, auditory, and sensory stimuli.

9. Myelogram. This test uses dye injected into the spinal canal to make the structure clearly visible on X-rays.

10. Neurosonography. This test uses ultra high-frequency sound waves. It allows the healthcare provider to analyze blood
flow in cases of possible stroke.

11. Ultrasound (sonography). This imaging test uses high- frequency sound waves and a computer to make images of blood
vessels, tissues, and organs. Ultrasounds are used to view internal organs as they function. They also assess blood flow
through various vessels.
CHAPTER 3: VISUAL PERCEPTION

Perception is the set of processes by which we recognize, organize, and make sense of the sensations we receive from
environmental stimuli.

Perception encompasses many psychological phenomena.

From Sensation to Representation

We do not perceive the world exactly as our eyes see it.

Instead, our brain actively tries to make sense of the many stimuli that enter our eyes and fall on our retina.

Just seeing what is being projected onto your retina; the process is much more complex.

The brain processes the visual stimuli, giving the stimuli meaning and interpreting them.

ECOLOGICAL PERCEPTION

For James j. Gibson, the world contained "invariant" information that was directly accessible to the perceptual systems of
humans and animals which are attuned to pick up this information through "direct perception."

Some Basic Concepts of Perception

James Gibson (1966, 1979) provided a useful framework for studying perception.

He introduced the concepts of distal (external) object, informational medium, proximal stimulation, and perceptual object.

The distal (far) object is the object in the external world (e.g., a falling tree).

The event of the tree falling creates a pattern on an informational medium.

The informational medium could be sound waves, as in the sound of the falling tree.

The informational medium might also be reflected light, chemical molecules, or tactile information coming from the
environment. proximal (near) stimulation (i.e., the cells in your retina absorb the light waves).

perceptual object (i.e., what you see) is created in you that reflects the properties of the external world.

• Psychologist Wolfgang Metzger introduced the concept of the ganzfeld effect in 1930.

• The word “Ganzfeld” is German and means “complete field.”

• It is a phenomenon of perception caused by exposure to an unstructured, uniform stimulation field.

• The ganzfeld effect happens when your brain is starved of visual stimulation and fills in the blanks on its own. This changes
your perception and causes unusual visual and auditory patterns. It can even lead to hallucinations.

Approaches to Perception: How Do We Make Sense of What We See?

• There are different views on how we perceive the world.

• These views can be summarized as bottom-up theories and top- down theories.

• Bottom-up theories describe approaches where perception starts with the stimuli whose appearance you take in through
your eye. (Data-driven)
• Top-down theories describe as a perception that is driven by high-level cognitive processes, existing knowledge, and the
prior expectations that influence perception. (Conceptual Data)

Bottom-Up Theories

The four main bottom-up theories of form and pattern perception are:

1. direct perception

2. template theories

3. feature theories

4. recognition-by-components theory

Direct Perception

According to Gibson’s theory of direct perception, the information in our sensory receptors, including the sensory context, is
all we need to perceive anything.

As the environment supplies us with all the information we need for perception, this view is sometimes also called ecological
perception.

Gibson believed that, in the real world, sufficient contextual information usually exists to make perceptual judgments.

According to Gibson, we use texture gradients as cues for depth and distance.

Those cues aid us to perceive directly the relative proximity or distance of objects and of parts of objects.

Template Theories

Template theories suggest that we have stored in our minds myriad sets of templates.

Templates are highly detailed models for patterns we potentially might recognize.

Feature-Matching Theories

It attempt to match features of a pattern to features stored in memory, rather than to match a whole pattern to a template
or a prototype.

In Oliver Selfridge’s Pandemonium Model, there are four kinds of demons: image demons, feature demons, cognitive
demons, and decision demons.

According to Oliver Selfridge’s feature-matching model, we recognize patterns by matching observed features to features
already stored in memory. We recognize the patterns for which we have found the greatest number of matches.

The “image demons” receive a retinal image and pass it on to “feature demons.”

These matches are yelled out at demons at the next level of the hierarchy, the “cognitive (thinking) demons.”

A “decision demon” listens to the pandemonium of the cognitive demons.

It decides on what has been seen, based on which cognitive demon is shouting the most frequently.

Recognition-by-Components Theory

The recognition by-components theory explains our ability to perceive 3-D objects with the help of simple geometric shapes.
Seeing with the Help of Geons
Geons include objects such as bricks, cylinders, wedges, cones, and their curved axis counterparts.

According to Biederman’s recognition-by- components (RBC) theory, we quickly recognize objects by observing the edges
of them and then decomposing the objects into geons.

Top-Down Theories

• In constructive perception, the perceiver builds (constructs) a cognitive understanding (perception) of a stimulus.

• The concepts of the perceiver and his or her cognitive processes influence what he or she sees.

• The perceiver uses sensory information as the foundation for the structure but also uses other sources of information to
build the perception.

• This viewpoint also is known as intelligent perception because it states that higher-order thinking plays an important role
in perception. It also emphasizes the role of learning in perception.

• An interesting feature of the theory of constructive perception is that it links human intelligence even to fairly basic
processes of perception.

• According to constructivists, during perception we quickly form and test various hypotheses regarding percepts. The
percepts are based on three things:

- what we sense (the sensory data),

- what we know (knowledge stored in memory), and
- what we can infer (using high-level cognitive processes).

• In perception, we consider prior expectations.

Configural-superiority effect

objects presented in certainb configurations are easier to recognize than the objects presented in isolation, even if the
objects in the configurations are more complex than those in isolation.

Object-superiority effect

Target line that forms a part of a drawing of a 3-D object is identified more accurately than a target that forms a part of a
disconnected 2-D pattern.

The word-superiority effect

Indicates that when people are presented with strings of letters, it is easier for them to identify a single letter if the string
makes sense and forms a word instead of being just a nonsense sequel of letters.

How Do Bottom-Up Theories and Top-Down Theories Go Together?

Instead of viewing these theoretical approaches asnincompatible, we may gain deeper insight into perception by considering
the approaches to be complementary.

Perception of Objects and Forms

Viewer-Centered vs. Object-Centered Perception

Viewer-centered representation is that the individual stores the way the object looks to him or her.

The shape of the object changes, depending on the angle from which we look at it.

A number of views of the object are stored, and when we try to recognize an object, we have to rotate that object in our
mind until it fits one of the stored images.
Object-centered representation is that the individual stores a representation of the object, independent of its appearance to
the viewer.

The shape of the object will stay stable across different orientations

A third orientation in representation is landmark-centered.

• Representation, information is characterized by its relation to a well-known or prominent item

The Perception of Groups—Gestalt Laws

• The Gestalt approach to form perception that was developed in Germany in the early 20th century is useful particularly for
understanding how we perceive groups of objects or even parts of objects to form integral wholes.

• It was founded by Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), Wolfgang Köhler (1887– 1968), and Max Wertheimer (1880–1943) and was
based on the notion that the whole differs from the sum of its individual parts.

• The overarching law is the law of Prägnanz.

The overarching law is the law of Prägnanz.

The tendency to perceive any given visual array in a way that most simply organizes the different elements into a stable and
coherent form.

The Gestalt principles of form perception include perception of figure-ground.

- Proximity
- Similarity
- Continuity
- Closure
- Symmetry.

Each principle demonstrates the fundamental law of law of Prägnanz, which suggests that through perception, we unify
disparate visual stimuli into a coherent and stable whole.

Closure (Reification): We prefer complete shapes, so we automatically fill in gaps between elements to perceive a complete
image. That’s how we can see the whole first.

Common Region: We group elements that are in the same closed region. You include related objects in the same closed area
to show they stand apart from other groups.

Figure/Ground (Multi-stability): We dislike uncertainty, so we look for solid, stable items. Unless an image is ambiguous—
like Rubin’s Vase, above—we see its foreground first.

Proximity (Emergence): We group closer-together elements, separating them from those farther apart.

Recognizing Patterns and Faces

Two Different Pattern Recognition Systems

Humans have two systems for recognizing patterns.

- Feature analysis system specializes in recognition of parts of objects and in assembling those parts into distinctive
wholes.

- Configurational system specializes in recognizing larger configurations.

• Face recognition occurs, at least in part, in the fusiform gyrus of the temporal lobe.

• This brain area responds intensely when we look at faces but not when we look at other objects.

Prosopagnosia
• The inability to recognize faces—would imply damage of some kind to the configurational system.

• Somebody with prosopagnosia can see the face of another person and even recognize if that person is sad, happy, or
angry.

• The ability to recognize faces is especially influenced by lesions of the right fusiform gyrus, either unilateral or bilateral.\

The Environment Helps You See

The environment provides cues that aid in the analysis of the retinal image and facilitate the construction of a perception
that is as close as possible to what is out there in the world.

Perceptual Constancies

It occurs when our perception of an object remains the same even when our proximal sensation of the distal object changes.

The physical characteristics of the external distal object are probably not changing.

Main constancies: size and shape constancies.

Size constancy is the perception that an object maintains the same size despite changes in the size of the proximal stimulus.

The size of an image on the retina depends directly on the distance of that object from the eye.

Studies indicate that the right posterior parietal cortex (involved in the manipulation of mental images) and the right
temporo-occipital cortex are activated when people are asked to judge the length of the lines in the Müller-Lyer illusion

Depth Perception

• The ability to see the world in 3 dimensions and detect distance

• Depth is the distance from a surface, usually using your own body as a

reference surface when speaking in terms of depth perception.

Depth Cues

• Monocular depth cues can be represented in just two dimensions and observed with just one eye.

• Binocular depth cues is based on the receipt of sensory information in three dimensions from both eyes.

- Binocular depth cues use the relative positioning of your eyes.

Monocular Depth Cues

• Linear Perspective

- Parallel lines converge in distance

• Aerial Perspective

- Images seem blurry, the farther away

• Motion Parallax

- Objects get smaller at decreasing speed in distance

Binocular Depth Cues

• Binocular Convergence

- Eyes turn inward as object moves towards you, brain uses this information to judge distance

• Binocular Disparity
 - Each eye views a slightly different angle of an object; Brain uses this to create a 3-d image

Deficits in Perception

• Agnosia

- Inability to recognize and identify objects or persons despite having knowledge of the characteristics of the objects
or persons
- Shows the specialization of our perceptual systems

• Prosopagnosia

- Inability to recognize faces, including one's own

- Cannot recognize person from face
- Knows a face is a face
- Can recognize individuals from voice
- Can recognize objects
- Can discriminate whether two faces are same or different

• Simultagnosic

- Normal visual fields, yet act blind

- Perceives only one stimulus at a time—single word or object

• Spatial Agnosia

- Cannot navigate in even familiar environment

- Gets lost

• Auditory Agnosia

- Cannot recognize certain sounds

- Can not tell if two melodies are the same or different

• Color Agnosia

- Can see two colors are different, but cannot name the colors

• Optic ataxia

- Cannot use vision to guide movement

- Unable to reach for items