WHAT IS MEMORY?

Memory is the brain's function of storing, encoding, and retrieving

information. This information is memories of our learning or our
experiences

INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL

This approach is based on the functioning of the computer as a

model to understand human learning. The human mind, like the
computer, acquires information, performs operations on it to change
its form and content, stores and locates it, and generates a
response.

a) Decoding; How information enters memory.

b) Storage; How information is maintained in memory
c) Retrieval; How we retrieve information from memory.

SENSORY REGISTERS - SENSORY MEMORY

Sensory memory is what is activated through the visual and auditory

sense. The sensory registers are the entry point for raw information
from the senses in which the information enters and remains for a
short time. At the same time, it can pick up odors and other types of
sensory data.
Thats doesnt go into short term memory in the future, is lost.

Visual and auditory - The capacity of the sensory registers is

limited, and the information disappears from them very quickly.
Auditory information fades more slowly than visual information.
The auditory equivalent is , the echo, usually lasts for several
seconds.
THREE BOX MODEL

Argues that information processing begins in sensory memory, moves

to short-term memory and eventually moves to long-term memory
SHORT TERM MEMORY

Short-term memory is the one that retains the information that we

are thinking about or that we are aware of at any given moment.
Briefly stores and processes selected information from sensory
registers.
Short-term memory has two tasks: the first is to briefly store new
information, the second to work on it. Short-term memory is also
sometimes called working memory to emphasize the active or
working component of this memory system.

-Short-term memory capacity

Short-term memory cannot handle a lot of information at a given

time. According to research, short-term memory can retain as much
information as can be repeated or reviewed in 1.5 to 2 seconds.
Although the limits of short-term memory depend on the material
involved. For example, when reading the following line of letters, we
may have difficulty repeating them:

Codification in STMC

a) Through encoding/segmentation-à Mental version of stimulus

or information from the environment
b) Visual code
c) Auditory code
d) Semantic code

STMC storage capacity

If you are asked to remember a series of 10 digits, you will

remember between 5 and 9 numbers. This is because the amount of
information that STM can retain is 7 elements with a variation of 2,
due to excess or deficiency.
SERIAL-POSITION EFFECT

People tend to remember the first and last item on a list better
when they ask us to read it or listen to it to say it later.

Primacy effect-à the tendency to remember better the first

elements of a list.This phenomenon occurs because the initial items
are better stored in our long-term memory(LTM)
Recency effect-à the greater probability of remembering the last
elements. This happens because when we are asked to recall that
list, the last few items still remain in our working memory and are
therefore more available and can be accessed more quickly.

LONG-TERM MEMORY
The brain‘s data base stores long-term memories.
Limited space and can store memories for a lifetime.

Long-term memory is divided into:

àDeclarative memory
àProcedural memory

DECLARATIVE MEMORY
Inside declarative memory we find;

a)Episodic: It can be an event (wedding, your graduation)

b)Semantic; facts, events in the world ( the war against
russia and ukraine)
PROCEDURAL MEMORY
We find;

a)Skills;play the guitar, draw

b)classical conditioning;
-your dog has learned that it's time to eat when you blow the
whistle.
-Emotional responses; phobias..

EXPLICIT VS IMPLICIT MEMORY

Explicit memory is memory that you have to remember consciously.

for example; the answers for an exam.

Implicit memory is memory that you remember unconsciously.

For example: driving, riding a bicycle.

PAST EXPERIENCES SHAPE MEMORY

Schema is a mental framework about certain things, activities

events...
This can help us to remember better, but we cant remember every
detail of our experiences.

HOW CAN EXPERIENCE HELP US REMEMBER BETTER?

Experience helps us develop skills, which in the future will give us
advantages to remember better.
An example; A person who has experience playing chess is more
likely to move the pieces better than his opponent who in this case
has no experience. Experience is a wild card for memory
development.
RESTORE MEMORY

-HOW WILL WE REMEMBER?

a) Retrivial cues; A stimulus that wake a memory or a response

from memory
For example-à you and your spouse had your first dance to a
song called 'Take My Breath Away,' you are more likely to
recall the details of your first dance when you hear that same
song.

b) Distinctiveness; It is the ability we have to differentiate

elements, objects, animals... for example an owl from an eagle,
a dog from a cat...
c) Emotional upset; Memories associated with strong emotions are
remembered generally beter. For example; The first time they
broke your heart.

FLASHBULB MEMORIES

A vivid, enduring memory associated with a personally significant and

emotional event, often including such details as where the individual
was or what he or she was doing at the time of the event

INFLUENCE OF ENVIRONMENT AND EMOTIONAL STATE

a) Context dependent memory; We remember better in the same

situation.
Example; an individual has lost an item (e.g. lost car keys) in an
unknown location. Typically, people try to systematically
"retrace their steps" to determine all of the possible places
where the item might be located.
 b) State dependent memory; Remember better in the same
situation
c) Mood congruent recall: If you are happy you are more likely to
remember positive things, if you are sad you will remember
negative things.

MEMORY PROBLEMS

WHY WE FORGET?

a) Enconding failure; We can't remember something if we never

stored it in our memory in the first place. This would be like
trying to find a book on your e-reader that you never actually
purchased and downloaded. Causes; anxiety for example.

b) Decay; The information in STM disappears if we dont use it.

c) Interference; Information interferes with each other in

storage or recovered. Occurs in both STM/LTM. Its common in
individual recovery information.
For example-à After changing your mobile phone number, you
have a difficult time remembering the new number, so you keep
accidentally giving people your old number.
The inferference can be two types
àRETROACTIVE INTERFERENCE: When the new information
spoils the recovery of older ones similar informations
àPROACTIVE INTERFERENCE; When old information spoils
that we can remember new similar information.

d) Prospective memory; It is very typical to plan things for the

future in yourr memory, for example, after class I will go buy
milk. Is attached to attention
 e) Amnesia: Memory loss due to; brain damage, diseases,
dementia, alzheimer(the most common type of dementia).
Retrograde amnesia; cant remember events from before the
memory loss started
Anterograde amnesia; cant remember events since the
onset(inicio) of amnesia.

OTHER LIMITATIONS OF MEMORY

Memory as re-creation
Memory does not work like video recording, we just recreate in
our minds to the best of our ability.

Distorted memory and schemas;

Sir Bartlet said; we often fill in the blanks based on our ideas
about events(based on schemas)

Misinformation effect
Later recall is mixed with experiences that occur between the
event and when it is recalled

Source confusion
When people associate something familiar with the wrong event

TERMS AND EXPRESSIONS

Concept; Classification due to common characteristics

For example; Anger, sadness, anxiety= Emotions
Prototype; Is a particularly good representative of a concept. The
simplest way to form a concept
For example; Sports; Football VS Greek wrestling
Statement of terms, position between them.
For example; Chihuahuas are smart dogs
DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING

Deductive; Goes from the general to the particular.

For example; News that the sales begin (general) I deduce that
there will be many people in the store (particular)

Inductive: Goes from the particular to the general

For example: There is a long line outside the store (particular) I
deduce that there are sales (general)

OBSTACLES TO COMMON SENSE

a) Distraction from irrelevant information

Example: There are 19 black socks and 13 blue socks in the
drawer. How many socks you need to draw (blind) to get at least
one consanguineous pair.
b) Belief bias; Deviating from the rules of reasoning due to
personal opinions
c) Framing; when our decisions are influenced by the way
information is presented. Equivalent information can be more
or less attractive depending on what features are highlighted.
d) Mental set; You pull on a door handle to open it. The door
doesn't open. You pull on it a few more times before you try to
push, failing to notice the “push” sign on the door.

PROBLEM SOLUTIONS AND DECISION MAKER

COGNITIVE SCHEMAS
Reputations are connected in complex systems of knowledge,
connections, beliefs and expectations that exist
our models of the outside world
• Regarding e.g. gender, cultures, occupations, animals and activities.
• Schemes also include scripts of how certain activities or
events take place, e.g. Going to the movies, taking a shower, etc.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES

è EXAMPLE

Linda is 31 years old, single, speaks her mind, very intelligent. Is with
MA degree in philosophy. Is concerned about equality, has
participated in
oppose the use of nuclear weapons.
– Linda is:
A. Feminist?
B. Employee in a bank?
C. A feminist and a bank employee?

We often use the representativeness guiding principle:

How well something resembler our prototype of the concept.
And can lead to mistakes.
For exampleà Lottery players may think that a number that hasn't
been drawn in a long time is more likely than a number that has been
drawn recently. Actually, in both cases it is about extractions with
reinsertion. With each draw, any outcome will always have the same
chance of occurring.

Availability heuristic; Its just exaggerating the unlikely, for example

many people are afraid of flying after September 11
CONFIRMATION BIAS(SESGO DE CONFIRMACION)

We are ready to look for evidence that confirms our opinion.

our
– Better try to refute the theory.

OVERCONFIDENCE
- We are often too sure that our opinions and decisions are correct
– E.g. Meteorologists, investors, our predictions about the future,
etc.

MENTAL IMAGERY
For example when you read a book.