6G3

FR
pt7p ll

9-273
DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY TECHNICAL MANUAL

LUBRICATION OF ORDNANCE
MATERIAL

HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY

JANUARY 1962
 *TM 9-273

TECHNICAL MANUAL )HEADQUARTERS,

TECHICA MANUDEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY
No. 9-273 WASHINGTON 25, D.C., 19 Januarry1962

LUBRICATION OF ORDNANCE MATERIEL

Paragraphs Pages
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION -------------------------------------------------------- 1-2 3
2. FUNDAMENTALS OF FRICTION AND LUBRICATION
Section I. Friction -------------------------------- 3-8 5
II. Lubrication theory -------------------------- - 9-13 9
CHAPTER 3. BEARINGS AND LUBRICATION
Section I. Types of bearings -------------------------------------------------------- 14-17 13
II. Lubrication of bearings ___________________-______________________________ 18-19 18
CHAPTER 4. LUBRICANTS
Section I. Manufacture of lubricants and properties ---------------------------------- 20-24 21
II. Care and use of lubricants ------------------------------------------------ 25-30 23
CHAPTER 5. LUBRICATION EQUIPMENT -------------------------------------------- 31-36 29
6. AUTOMOTIVE MATERIEL; ENGINE AND ACCESSORIES
Section I. Engine lubrication -------------------------------------------------------- 37-45 39
II. A ccessories -------------------------------------------------------------- 46-49 49
CHAPTER 7. AUTOMOTIVE MATERIEL; DRIVE MECHANISMS
Section I. Clutches ---------------------------------------------------------------- 50-51 59
II. Transmissions, differentials, and drive shafts ------------------------------ 52-54 61
CHAPTER 8. AUTOMOTIVE MATERIEL; BRAKING, STEERING, AND
SUSPENSIONS
Section I. Braking ---------- __-__------------______________--_--------------------- 55-56 71
II. Steering and suspensions -------------------------------------------------- 57-58 72
CHAPTER 9. ARTILLERY MATERIEL ------------------------------------------------ 59-69 81
10, MISSILES -------------------------------------------------------------- 70-71 93
11. FIRE CONTROL AND DETECTING EQUIPMENT ---------------------- 72-78 95
12. SMALL ARMS MATERIEL ---------------------------------------------- 79-82 103
13. WEATHER CONDITIONS ------------------------------------------------ 83-89 105
14. OTHER USES OF LUBRICANTS --------------------------------------- 90-94 123
APPENDIX. REFERENCES ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 125.
INDEX ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ _ 127

*This manual supersedes TM 9-2835, 11 May 1949; TB 9-2835-1, 18 December 1951, including Changes No.
1, 20 August 1952; and TB 9-2835-13, 17 July 1952.

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1. Purpose
This manual is published to give informa-
tion on lubrication to Ordnance personnel.
Since lubrication is basic to the Department of
the Army Preventive Maintenance program, es-
sential concepts are given to show the necessity
for proper lubrication of Ordnance materiel.
2. Scope
a. Chapters 2 through 4 discuss the ele-
ments of friction, lubrication, bearing surfaces,
and the manufacture and properties of lubri-
cants. Chapter 5 deals with the equipment
used to lubricate, while chapters 6 through 12
discuss the lubrication of typical Ordnance
materiel. Pertinent technical manuals and lu-
brication orders should be consulted for specif-
ic materiel. In chapters 13 through 15, the
effect of weather on lubrication, extended uses
of lubrication materials, and Department of
the Army publications, pertinent to lubrica-
tion, are presented.
b. The appendix contains a list of current
references, including supply manuals, techni-
cal manuals, forms, and other available publi-
cations applicable to lubrication.
c. This manual differs from TM 9-2835, 11
May 1949, as follows:
(1) New ideas on friction and lubrication
theories have been added.
(2) Additions on the materials, construc-
tion, and lubrication of bearings have
been made.
(3) Lubricants, used by Ordnance, have
been tabulated.
(4) The manufacture of lubricants has
been added.
TM 9-273
(5) The properties of lubricants are
discussed.
(6) The reasons for additives to lubri-
cants are shown.
(7) Nonpetroleum lubricants are dis-
closed.
(8) Material on the specialized lubrica-
tion of new equipment such as radar,
missiles, and instruments has been
added.
(9) Lubrication information on small
arms and artillery has been
expanded.
(10) New material, in keeping with the
advances of automotive equipment,
has been added.
(11) New forms of lubrication orders are
shown and discussed.
(12) Additional references are made.
(13) Several subjects, appearing in TM 9-
2835, not relative to lubrication, have
been omitted.
(14) Some references, because of obsoles-
cence, have been eliminated.
(15) Materials, no longer used, are not
discussed.
d,. Any errors or omissions will be for-
warded on DA Form 2028 direct to the Com-
manding Officer, Raritan Arsenal, ATTN:
ORDJR-OPRA, Metuchen, N. J.
Note. Specifications and standards used by the
Department of the Army are listed in the Depart-
ment of Defense Index of Specifications and Standards,
which is comprised of three separate parts: Part I,
Straight Alphabetical Listing; Part II, Numerical
Listing; and Part III, Federal Supply Classification
Listing. Copies of specifications and standards may be
requisitioned in accordance with this Index.
3

CHAPTER 2
FUNDAMENTALS OF FRICTION AND LUBRICATION
Section I. FRICTION
3. General
Lubrication is the act of applying lubricants
and lubrication substances which are capable
of reducing friction between moving mechani-
cal parts. Since modern materials are designed
to utilize lubrication for obtaining proper
functioning, it is a most vital type of preven-
tive maintenance.
4. Nature of Friction
Natural laws say that bodies will remain at
rest or in motion unless acted upon by forces
large enough to change these conditions. Con-
sider a block of steel at rest on a concrete
floor. It will not move until forces greater
than those which hold it at rest influence it.
Natural forces acting on the block are gravity
and friction. Gravity is measured by the
weight or mass of the block acting downward.
Friction is a force acting between the contact-
ing surfaces of the block and the floor. It is
a direct result of the surface conditions of the
block and the floor. If these surfaces are
smooth or rough, hard or soft, wet or dry, the
amount of friction will change.
5. Definition of Friction
a. All surfaces, no matter how smooth they
may appear to the unaided eye, when suffi-
ciently magnified are rough and uneven (fig.
1). Friction is the resistance to relative mot
tion between two bodies in contact. This re-
sistance or drag between the surfaces of bodies
in contact retards or prevents them from mov-
ing in relation to one another. When vehicle
TM 9-273
brakes are applied, the friction between the
surfaces of brake drums, which are attached to
vehicle wheels, and the surfaces of linings on
the brake shoes, which are fastened to the
axle housings, retards movement of the
wheels. When a clutch is engaged, the fric-
tional drag existing between the driving sur-
face and the driven surface prevents these sur-
faces from slipping and makes them move to-
gether as a unit. Friction absorbs power and
generates heat in proportion to the amount of
effort required to overcome it. When a sled
is drawn over a dry pavement, friction occurs
between the runners and the ground. The
drag is apparent. The sled runners will be
warm, indicating that heat has been generated.
UNEVEN SURFACES
RA PD 85937
Figure 1. Magnified view of two surfaces in contact.
b. Coefficients or factors of friction be-
tween surfaces have been determined for
many materials. The larger these coefficients
are, the larger is the force of friction between
surfaces that must be overcome. Some typical
values are shown in table I.
5
 TM 9-273

Table 1. Coefficients of Friction(Siding) figure 2 which shows a man exerting himself

to start a body in motion, but another man
Materials Dry Greasy pushing it easily after it is once in motion. The
force of friction always acts in the opposite di-
Hard steel on hard steel 0.42 0.09
Hard steel on babbit 0.35 0.07 rection to the motion and always reduces the
Mild steel on mild steel 0.57 0.12 effectiveness of the force moving the body.
Mild steel on phosphor bronze 0.34 0.17 Its magnitude is dependent upon the weight
Brass on mild steel 0.53 0.12 of the body and the coefficient of friction for
Glass on glass 0.40 0.09
the two surfaces in contact. Frictional force is
Cast iron on cast iron 0.35 0.07
Bronze on cast iron 0.22 0.07 not influenced by area dimensions. A brick
Laminated plastic on steel 0.35 0.05 building block sliding on its small flat end
will require the same force to move it as if it
were sliding on its large flat side.
6. Types of Friction
b. Sliding Friction. Sliding friction (fig.
a. Friction of Rest and Friction of Motion. 3) results when the surface of one solid body
Before any body at rest can be moved, suffi- is moved on the surface of another solid body.
cient force must be applied to overcome its c. Rolling Friction. Rolling friction (fig.
inertia and the friction between it and the 4) results when a curved body such as a cyl-
surface with which it is in contact. This is inder or sphere rolls upon a flat or curved
static friction or friction of rest. After the surface. In his early existence, man discovered
body is once in motion it can be kept in mo- that if rollers or wheels were used, a consider-
tion by expending sufficient energy to over- able part of the force necessary to move ob-
come the friction between it and the surface jects against sliding friction was eliminated;
with which it is in contact. This is kinetic thus rolling friction was utilized to save labor.
friction or friction of motion. Static friction d. Fluid Friction. Man also discovered in
which must be overcome to put any body in his early existence that the force required to
motion, is greater than knietic friction, which overcome fluid friction (fig. 5) was less than
must be overcome to keep the body in motion the force required to move the same body if
after it is started. This fact is illustrated in either sliding or rolling friction had to be

FRICTION OF REST srtrlc

MORE FORCE IS REQUIRED TO OVERCOME STATIC FRICTION THAN KINETIC FRICTION

RA PD 85938

Figure 2. Frictionof rest and friction of motion.

6

overcome. Fluid friction is the resistance to
motion set up by the (cohesive) action be-
tween particles of a fluid and the (adhesive)
action of those particles to the medium which
is tending to move the fluid. For example, if
a paddle is used to stir a fluid, the cohesive
force between the molecules of the fluid will
tend to hold the molecules together and thus
prevent the motion of the fluid. At the same
time, the adhesive force of the molecules of
the fluid will cause the fluid to adhere or
stick to the paddle and thus create friction be-
tween the paddle and the fluid.
MOTION
__
IS __Z
__ ,_ -
-a( _ _ _
Figure S.
SMALLER FORCE
Figure 4. Rolling friction.
TM 9-273
7. Cohesion and Adhesion
a. Cohesion and Adhesion Defined. Cohe-
sion is the molecular attraction between like
particles throughout a body or the force that
holds any substance or body together. Adhe-
sion is the molecular attraction existing be-
tween surfaces of bodies in contact or the force
which causes unlike materials to stick together.
From the standpoint of lubricants, adhesion
is the property of a lubricant that causes it to
stick or adhere to the parts lubricated, while
GREATEST FORCE
_
FACTOR = 0.6
ORD A765
Sliding friction.
7
TM 9-273
MOTION
_ lb
_ 9:"":--FRICTIO
- _;>==_=W~~~~~~ON
--
Figure5. Flid friction.
cohesion is the property which holds a lubri-
cant together and resists a breakdown of the
lubricant under pressure.
b. Varying Degrees of Cohesion and Adhe-
sion. Cohesion and adhesion are possessed by
different materials in widely varying degree.
In general, solid bodies are highly cohesive
but only slightly adhesive. Fluids, on the
other hand, are quite highly adhesive but only
slightly cohesive. Generally a material hav-
ing one of these properties to a high degree
will possess the other property to a relatively
low degree. The adhesive property of fluids
varies greatly (fig. 6). If mercury, which is
highly cohesive and slightly adhesive, is
poured over a sloping iron plate, it will run
off in drops without adhering to the plate.
Water, which has relatively low cohesive and
adhesive properties, will not spread out over
or adhere to the plate to any great extent and
will run off rapidly. Oil, which has higher
cohesive and adhesive properties than water,
will adhere to the plate, spread out over it to
a considerable extent, and will run off slowly.
8. Relation of Friction, Cohesion, Adhesion,
and Lubrication
a. Friction always consumes power and pro-
duces heat. The amount of power consumed
and heat produced varies with the conditions
under which the friction is produced or oc-
qurs. Sfiding friction consumes the greatest
amotlA'of power and produces the greatest
8
LEAST FORCE
_--
ATE~R
FACTOR = 0.0001
ORD A767
amount of heat. Rolling friction consumes a
lesser amount of power and produces a lesser
amount of heat. Fluid friction consumes the
least amount of power and produces the least
amount of heat.
OIL
MERCURY "f" c WATER
Mercury will not adhere to iron because of its
low adhesive and high cohesive properties. Water
will adhere to metal, but has relatively low
adhesive and cohesive properties, Oil will adhere
to metal more than either mercury or water, because
it possessesrelatively higher adhesive as well
as cohesive properties.
RA PD 85942
Figure 6. Adhesive properties of fluids vary greatly.
b. Any fluid when placed between two sur-
faces tends to keep the two surfaces apart and
to change any sliding friction between them
into fluid friction. This is because all liquids
are noncompressible. The liquids will fill all
of the cavities of the rubbing surfaces (fig. 1)
and will not be reduced in volume by the
forces holding the surfaces together. When
two such surfaces are kept apart by such a
fluid film, they are said to be lubricated.

c. The extent to which lubrication reduces
the friction between two surfaces is governed
by two factors: first, the selection of the fluid
which has the best proportion of cohesive and
adhesive properties for the particular applica-
Section II. LUBRICATION THEORY
9. Langmuir Theory of Lubrication
a. It is agreed generally that the Langmuir
theory offers the best and simplest explanation
concerning the possible behavior of a lubricat-
ing oil film. According to this theory, a film
of oil capable of maintaining a full fluid film
between two surfaces in motion is composed
of many layers of oil molecules (fig. 7).
b. When two surfaces separated by an oil
film are set in motion, the oil film "splits up"
into layers of these molecules. One layer
slides across the surface of another and in so
doing sets the next layer in motion. The
layers closest to the surfaces adhere to them,
while the intermediate layers cohere to each
other (fig. 8).
c. The Langmuir theory also offers an ex-
cellent explanation of the varying degrees of
lubrication that may appear between two sur-
faces in motion. Engineers usually recognize
three degrees of lubrication. The condition il-
lustrated in figure 9, where there is metal con-
tact and practically no lubrication present, usu-
ally is considered to be "insufficient lubrica-
tion." A very thin film of lubricant usually
is considered "partial lubrication" (fig. 9)
(sometimes called "boundary lubrication") al-
though many bearings operate satisfactorily in
this region under certain conditions. "Suffi-
cient lubrication" (fig. 9) or "full fluid film
lubrication" denotes that enough oil is present
to establish and maintain a full fluid film be-
tween the two moving surfaces. These three
degrees of lubrication can be likened to the
layers of molecules present; for example, full
fluid film can be visualized as five or more
layers; partial film as three layers; and the in-
sufficient film as less than three layers (fig.
9).
TM 9-273
tion; and second, the amount of pressure be-
tween the two surfaces. To insure lubrication,
the layer of fluid must be kept intact, and the
greater the pressure the more difficult this
becomes.
Under conditions of full fluid film lubrication,
the Iqyers of globules next to the surfaces adhere
to these surfaces, while the intermediate globules
split up" into layers and slide on each other
RA PD 103986
Figure 7. Theory of an oil film.
MOVING SURFACE
/JM
ZONESOF GREATEST
DISTURBANCE
IN
LUBRICANT
RA PD 85944
Figure 8. Action of an oil film between two
moving surfaces.
10. Oil Film and Wedge Theory
a. We have considered flat surfaces only up
to this point. When we apply the same prin-
ciples to shafts and bearings, we see a differ-
ent type of action taking place.
b. The oil film and wedge theory explains
the action of an oil film between a shaft and
its bearing. According to this theory, oil
molecules adhering to the surface of a rotating
shaft are carried along by the motion of the
shaft. These molecules drag along the adja-
cent layer of molecules by the force of cohe-
sion. At the same time, the weight of the load
TM 9-273

FILM

OF BEARING

NO MOTION

INSUFFICIENTLUBRICATION

STARTINGMOTION

PARTIALLUBRICATION

-THICK OIL WEDGE

ROTATINGMOTION
RA PD 85946

Figure 10. Oil firn and wedge theory.

RA PD 103987 LUBRICANT ENTRANCE

Figure 9. Insufficient, partial, and sufficient

lubrication.

on the shaft forces the shaft down into the oil HIGH PRESSUREAREA HIGH PRESSUREAREA HIGH PRESSUREAREA
film near the bottom of the bearing. This
SHAFT AT REST SHAFTSTARTINGTO ROTATE SHAFT AT FULL SPEED
pressure action narrows the clearance at the RA PD 85947A
lower side of the bearing, causing some of
the layers of molecules to be "squeezed" or
"wedged" into this space. This wedging ac- Figure 11. Speed of rotationdetermines the high-
and low-pressure areas.
tion lifts the shaft from the bearing and thus
establishes the full fluid lubricating film (fig.
1 1. Viscosity
10). The wedging action of the oil film in a
bearing creates high- and low-pressure areas, The degree of cohesion betwen the mole-
the oil supply being introduced at the low- cules of an oil determines its grade or viscos-
pressure area (fig. 11). The positions of the ity. The molecules of the more viscous or heavy
low- and high-pressure areas vary somewhat oils are bound together more firmly than the
with the speed of rotation. molecules of the less viscous, lighter oils. The

10

behavoir of oils of different viscosities in a
simple shaft and bearing can be illustrated by
the following: Too heavy an oil may be visual-
ized as an oil in which the molecules are so
large that they cannot wedge themselves be-
tween the rotating journal and bearing sur-
face. Too light an oil may be visualized as an
oil in which the molecules are either so small
that they cannot individually sustain the loads
imposed on them, or the force of cohesion be-
tween the molecules is not strong enough to hold
them together in great enough masses to col-
lectively support the load. The correct oil is
that oil which is made up of molecules of the
right size and cohesiveness to prevent the
shaft, in its rotary motion, from breaking
through the molecular layers of the oil film
(fig. 12).
*~~~~:
Xff)';>01~ ~~~~~-i
~ ffkS
TOO HEAVY TOO LIGHT
it cov't 9,In Ifhei Ov hIs t-
by glrfin Fr j
.rret or tI h
~it - t s p a T
r t I
-C-ot n-4crdIt d
-,pfrf~er v I~}~tcatpd X .)
Figure 12. Effect of viscosity.
12. Fundamental Factors Influencing
Selection of Proper Grade of Lubricant
There are factors which influence the selec-
tion of the proper grade of lubricant for any
normal bearing operated under normal con-
ditions: rubbing speed (generally in linear
feet per minute); the clearance between bear-
ing surfaces; the load in terms of pressure per
unit of bearing area (generally pounds per
square inch). Obviously there may be in-
numerable variations or combinations of these
conditions; depending upon factors of outside
origin; for instance, high or low temperatures
from outside the bearing, heat generated within
the bearing, presence of moisture or abrasive
dust, presence of contaminating substances, etc.
All these conditions are taken into considera-
tion in selecting the grade of lubricant.
TM 9-273
a. Rubbing Speed. The properties of a
lubricant must be such that it will stick to the
bearing surfaces and support the load at op-
erating speeds. More adhesiveness is required
to make the lubricant adhere to bearing sur-
faces at high rubbing speeds than at low
speeds. At low rubbing speeds less adhesion
is required but, due to the decrease in wedg-
ing action, greater cohesion is necessary to pre-
vent the lubricating film from being squeezed
out from between the bearing surfaces.
b. Clearance Between Bearing Surfaces.
Other conditions being the same, greater clear-
ance between bearing surfaces requires higher
viscosity and cohesiveness in the lubricant to
insure maintenance of the lubricating film.
The greater the clearance the greater must be
the resistance of the lubricant against being
pounded out with the resultant destruction of
* : the lubricating film.
c. Bearing Load. Other conditions being
000 the same, the greater the unit load on a bear-
S ing the higher the viscosity of the lubricant
should be to maintain the lubricating film.
CORRECT The cohesion must be sufficient to prevent a
qht t1, the,
breakdown of the lubricating film. A lubri-
Hf h,
t
t
,,> *q
aI
cant which initially is too viscous (cohesive)
o e
for a given condition of load and speed will
RA PD 85948 absorb more power, convert the power to heat,
and thereby automatically reduce its own vis-
cosity to a lower value. Such reduction is at
the expense of higher operating temperature
and shorter lubricant life. The load in terms
of pressure per square inch of bearing area is
calculated by a rather simple formula. Actual-
ly the projected bearing area can be visualized
as the shadow which the shaft would cast if a
light were held directly above it. The impor-
tance of the calculation of unit pressures may
be illustrated by visualizing a heavy flywheel
mounted on a shaft and the shaft in turn
mounted upon sharp knife-edge bearings at each
end. It is obvious that the force of weight and
motion in such a shaft would cut either the
shaft or the bearings, depending upon which
was the softer.
d. Clearance of Shafts. The amount of
clearance between a. shaft and bearing surface
is primarily governed by the operating speed
of the shaft. Here are three general rules cov-
ering this point-
TM 9-273
(1) High shaft speed demands closer
clearances and close bearing clear-
ances require lower viscosity
lubricants.
(2) Medium shaft speeds allow moderate
clearances and moderate clearances
warrant medium viscosity lubricants.
(3) Low shaft speeds permit large clear-
ances and large clearances call for
higher viscosity lubricants.
13. Summary
a. Friction is a force which counteracts a
driving force. It is present in all mechanisms.
It can be greatly reduced by lubrication.
Lubrication reduces the amount of wear by
providing a fluid barrier between rubbing sur-
faces. Lubrication is the means of changing
"dry friction" to "fluid friction."
b. Lubricants must have the qualities to-
(1) Remain fluid under heat and cold.
(2) Remain stable under loads.
(3) Be noninflammable.
(4) Leave no residues.
(5) Transfer heat.
Modern lubricants will have these qualities.
Intelligent use of these qualities will prevent
wear of equipment and keep equipment com-
bat ready.
 TM 9-273

CHAPTER 3
BEARINGS AND LUBRICATION

Section I. TYPES OF BEARINGS

14. General friction. They may be defined broadly as bear-
a. Machine Bearings. Strictly speaking, the ings which have rolling contact between their
word "bearing" has many applications and, surfaces.
from the standpoint of mechanics, may be ap-
plied to anything that supports a load. How- 15. Friction-type Bearings
ever, this text will be concerned only with a. General. Friction-type bearings (those
those bearings which support or confine the which have sliding contact between their sur-
motion of sliding, rotating, and oscillating faces) may be broadly grouped into three clas-
parts in those mechanisms known as machines. sifications: first, journal bearings, which sup-
Machine bearings generally are referred to or port and confine a rotating or oscillating shaft;
may be classified in two major groups, namely: second, guide bearings, which guide the longi-
friction-type bearings and antifriction-type tudinal motion of a shaft or other part; and
bearings. third, thrust bearings, which restrict the mo-
tion of or support a rotating shaft or other
ANTI-FRICTION
FRICTION part longitudinally.
b. Journal Bearings. Journal bearings, in
c
turn, may be subdivided into different styles
or types, the most common of which are solid
bearings, half bearings, two-part or split bear-
In friction type beorings, orne body slides over the
surface of onother and if unlubricoted, sliding
ings, and multipart bearings.
friction is developed In anti-friction bearings,
the surfaces are separated by balls or rollers, and
(1) Solid bearings. A typical solid style
rolling friction is developed
journal bearing (A, fig. 14) applica-
RA PD 103988
tion is the piston pin bearing, more
commonly called a bushing, in the
Figure 13. Friction-and antifriction-type bearings. small end of an engine connecting
rod. Solid bearings can be used only
b. Friction-type Bearings. Friction-type where it is possible to slip them over
bearings (fig. 13) may be defined broadly as the end of the shaft with which they
those bearings which have sliding contact be- operate. Solid bearings frequently
tween their surfaces. In these bearings, one are pressed into the part to which
body slides or moves on the surface of another they are applied. Solid bearings due
and sliding friction is developed if the rub- to their construction, offer a smooth
bing surfaces are not lubricated. internal surface not to be found in a
c. Antifriction-type Bearings. Antifriction- multipart bearing and this smooth in-
type bearings (fig. 13) are so-called because ner surface minimizes the danger of
their design takes advantage of the fact that interrupting the oil film. Solid bear-
less energy is required to overcome rolling ings also can be made quite rigid,
friction than is required to overcome sliding due to the absence of either bolts or

13
TM 9-273
A e. GUIDEBEARIN._
(4) Multipart bearings Multipart bear-
Air 0s I\
JOURNAL
C SPLIT-TYPE 0. SPLIT-TYPE COMBINATION
6EARING JOURNAL AND THRUST BEARING
0*077
0 high-pressure point of the oil film
E. HALFBEARING r. MULTIPARTBEARING
RA PD 859S4
Figure 14. Various friction-type bearings.
clamps which may either work loose
or permit flexing.
(2) Half bearings. Perhaps the most com-
mon application of the half bearing
(E, fig. 14) in equipment is on the
journal or axle of a railroad car.
These bearings are easy to install and
replace. Where the load is exerted
only in one direction, they obviously
are less costly than a full bearing of
any type.
(3) Split bearings. Split-type journal
bearings (C, fig. 14) are used more
frequently than any other friction-
type bearing. A good example is the
connecting rod crankpin bearing.
The split bearing can be made adjust-
able in order to compensate for wear.
14
If the construction of the machine to
which a split bearing is applied calls
for fairly frequent adjustment during
its service life, shims may be pro-
vided to reduce the clearance of the
bearing. Modern automotive bearings
are precision-built and when they are
worn, they are replaced rather than
adjusted.
ings (F, fig. 14) of the friction type
are used chiefly in heavy industrial
machinery. Their application
largely where the loads are either
great to be carried economically by
a split bearing, or where the direc-
is
too
tion of the load would place its bur-
den upon the parting line of a split
bearing. The parting lines of multi-
part bearings can be so arranged
around the circumference of a journal
as to cause the least possible interfer-
ence with oil film and wedge forma-
tion. This means that the parting
likes will be kept away from the
and wedge.
(5) Guide bearings. Guide bearings (B,
fig. 14), as the name implies, are
used for guiding the longitudinal
motion of a shaft or other part. Per-
haps the best illustrations of a guide
bearing are the valve guides and the
cylinders in the internal combustion
engine. The crosshead of a locomo-
tive or the slides controlling the re-
coil of a gun are other common
forms of guide bearings.
(6) Th.rust bearings. Thrust bearings are
bearings which are used to limit mo-
tion of, or support a shaft or other
rotating part longitudinally. Thrust
bearings sometimes are combined
functionally with journal bearings
(D, fig. 14). That is to say, a jour-
nal bearing often is flanged at one
or both ends, and these flanges bear-
ing against the end of the box absorb
the thrust and prevent end motion of

the journal; an example is the bear-
ing on the crankshaft of an automo-
bile engine. Another example is a
shaft with a collar bearing against
the end of a bearing to prevent end
motion.
16. Materials of Bearings
a. General. The complete subject of bear-
ing materials involves metallurgy and machine
design problems. These subjects are broad
enough to warrant extensive study. This man-
ual will be concerned only with the simple
fundamentals. In general, however, it is well
established that good bearing lubrication prac-
tice must take into consideration the kind of
material used.
b. Babbitt. Babbitt, as originally made, was
composed of fixed proportions of copper, tin,
and antimony. However, many changes in the
original proportions have been made. In fact,
any soft metal lining containing lead, tin, or
antimony is called "Babbitt." The importance
of a babbitt-lined bearing lies in the fact that
a shaft will run with less friction and less
power loss if the bearing is lined with a metal
softer than the shaft itself. Compare the first
two items listed in table I. A soft metal of
this description is sometimes called an anti-
friction metal. In general, the tin in the bab-
bitt formula gives the metal its stability and
ability to resist corrosion and oxidation. The
lead makes it more ductile and smooth. Anti-
mony and copper provide a rigidity which
gives the alloy mechanical strength.
c. Bronze. An older form of a bearing al-
loy is bronze. The term bronze should be ap-
plied only to those alloys of copper in which
tin is the predominating quantity. Bronze
bearings were used to support the moving
parts of crude machinery long before the in-
dustrial era. It was used as a bearing material
because of primary requirements that a bearing
should be softer than the shaft it supports.
Bronze does not have the high antifriction
value of babbitt. Although it is prepared in
many forms of alloys, the best known type is
called phosphor bronze. Phosphor bronze has
very high tensile strength and toughness.
TM 9-273
These properties are required in applications
where the bearing must stand heavy loads and
resist wear. Bronze bushings are use to sup-
port piston pins, water pump shafts, and dis-
tributor shafts.
d. Copper-lead and Cadmium-Silver. Cop-
per-lead and cadmium-silver alloys were de-
veloped as bearing material for automobile
connecting rod bearings. Both of these alloys
are capable of withstanding high load pres-
sures. They are susceptible to oxidation by
the corrosive elements in crankcase oils. For
this reason special oils are specified for use
with these alloys. Some engine bearings, oper-
ating at high speeds, will be subject to 2,000
pounds per square inch load and at 300 ° F.
Thin linings of the above alloys wear very well
under these conditions.
e. Synthetic Bearing Materials. Fiber or syn-
thetic bearings are made by impregnating a
cloth or paper base with a resinous compound
under high temperature and pressure. Bear-
ings made of these fibrous materials are adapt-
able to a wide variety of speed and load con-
ditions. These bearings wear well, require
little lubrication, have high antifriction charac-
teristics and are not generally corroded. Where
it is important to have good electrical insula-
tion, such as electric motors, synthetic bearings
are commonly used.
f. Bearing Finishes. The finish and surface
of a bearing has considerable influence on the
characteristics of the bearing. To have high
antifriction qualities, the bearing surface
should be as smooth as possible. It is always
desirable to have a mirror-finish. The finish
of the bearing has a definite fundamental ef-
fect upon: first, the unlubricated friction fac-
tor of the bearing; and second, the formation
and maintenance of the proper film and
wedge.
g. Oilless Bearings. Oilless or self-lubri-
cating bearings are used in inaccessible places
or where the presence of oil is undesirable. A
number of types have been developed, some
of the more common being bronze with grap-
ite inserts, graphite impregnated with some
bearing metal such as white alloy or bronze,
wood impregnated with oil, wax, paraffin, or
15
 TM 9-273
some such substance, and hard wood rein-
forced with babbitt metal, the wood shell be-
ing impregnated with lubricant. The various
types are manufactured under different trade
names.
17. Antifriction-type Bearings
a. General, Antifriction-type bearings are
those which have rolling contact between their
surfaces. They may be classified as roller
bearings or ball bearings according to shape of
the rolling elements. Both roller and ball
bearings are made in different types, some be-
ing arranged to carry both radial and thrust
loads. In these bearings, the balls or rollers
generally are assembled between two rings or
races, the contacting faces of which are shaped
to fit the balls or rollers. The basic differ-
ence between ball- and roller-type bearings is
that a ball at any given instant carries the load
on two tiny spots diametrically opposite while
a roller carries the load on two narrow lines
(fig. 15). For high-speed, small, light loads,
ball bearings are generally most suitable. For
low-speed, large, heavy loads, roller bearings
are usually the only satisfactory choice. Theo-
retically, the area of the spot or line of contact
is infinitesimal. Practically, the area of con-
tact depends on how much the material, out of
which the bearing parts are made, will distort
under the applied load. Obviously, bearings
must be made of hard materials because if the
distortion under load is appreciable, the re-
sulting friction will defeat the purpose of the
bearings. Bearings, with small highly loaded
contact areas, must be lubricated carefully if
they are to have the antifriction properties
they are designed to provide. If improperly lu-
bricated, the highly polished surfaces of the
balls and rollers soon will crack, check, or pit,
and failure of the complete bearing follows.
b. Roller Bearings. Rollers, which may be
cylindrical, tapered, shaped (as hour glass),
and needle are the general types of roller
bearings. All are used in different applica-
tions of radial loads. The shaped and tapered
rollers may also be used as end thrust bear-
ings. Needle bearings are used for supporting
slow speed shafts.
c. Ball Bearings. This type of antifriction
bearing has universal use. It is used to sup-
port end thrust as well as radial loads. Shaft
speeds of slow motion to very high revolutions
per minute can be accommodated.
d. Materials and Contruction. Antifriction
bearings are made of hardened steel. The
rollers and balls are generally separated from
each other. They roll on hardened steel races.
Because they are manufactured to close toler-
ances, dirt and grit will damage the polished
surfaces of the bearings, causing severe dam-
age. Seals, both mechanical and those formed
by grease, help to keep these elements from
the internal parts of the bearing. Figure 16
shows some typical antifriction bearings.
SPOTCONTACT LINE'CONTACT LINE CONTACT
The load on o boll bearing it any given instant
is carried on a 'spot" of contoct; while that of
a roller beoring is carried on a line" of contact
In both cases the theoretical oreo of contact is
at any given instant .
infinitesinmaol . .e
KAr uIar t
Figure 15. Load carrying areas of ball and
roller bearings.
 TM 9-273

OVERALL
BEARING WIDTH
OUTER RACE
T. i__ X..--
7 Z
OVERALL BEARING
: OUTSIDE DIAMETER
N: ,/.D.CORNER
- FACE
; BORE
INNE SHOULDERS
RAC
.X:'¼ 0 01.).fOD. CORNER
'"BORE CORNER

CE BORE 'INNER RACE

RA IHBALL RACE
OUT SIDER
DIAN ETE BORE
SEPARATOR CORNER OVERALL
BEARING
SEPARATO WIDTH
0FACE OUTER RACE
V !BALL RACE BALL THRUST BEARING

I BALL BEARI NG
OVERALLL
BEARING
WIDTH

OUTER RACE
*- O.D. CORNER
INNER RAC j.- ROLLER
L BORE CORNER

DERS UTSIDE CONE CONE

AMETER I LENGTH BORE
BORE
RA
OUT S !DE
DIAN ETER
\> -- si~
CONE
- SEPARATOR j ROLLER
_AERE
ROLRR CAGE
TAPERED ROLLER BEARING CUP
FACE ..
-j OVERALL BEARING WIDTH
STRAIGHT ROLLER BEARING OUTER RACE _ ;I
RETAINING' .1111.11111111ROLLERS7
LIP,
NOTES:
BASICALLY ALL ANTIFRICTION BEARINGS
CONSIST OF TWO HARDENED STEEL RACES,
THE HARDENED BALLS OR ROLLERS AND
SEPARATOR. A NUMBER OF VARIATIONS
OF THESE TYPES ARE IN USE. SOME TYPES,
SUCH AS THE NEEDLE ROLLER BEARINGS t
MAY BE USED WITHOUT AN INNER RACE,
THE ROLLERS DIRECTLY CONTACTING UPON
THE HARDENED SHAFT. NEEDLE BEARINGS
HAVE NO SEPARATOR.

NEEDLE ROLLER BEARING

RA PD 252749A

Figure 16. Types of antifriction bearings.

17
 TM 9-273
Section II. LUBRICATION OF BEARINGS
18. Friction Bearings
a. General. There are three important
points to consider in the distribution of oil in
friction bearings: first, the point of lubricant
introduction; second, the design and location
of the oil grooves; and third, the proper cham-
fering of the corners or edges of any grooves
in the surface of the bearing lining.
b. Point of Lubricant Introduction. The
point at which the lubricant should be intro-
duced is usually in the low-pressure area.
This point will depend upon the position of
the bearing, the direction of rotation, the
speed of rotation, and other factors. If an at-
tempt is made to introduce the oil into a bear-
ing at the high-pressure point, the pressure of
the oil film wedge may force the oil back out
of the bearing and may result in a failure of
the lubricating film. The correct location of
the point of lubricant introduction must be
considered carefully and circumferentially
placed in a low-pressure area. In the case of
horizontal bearings, the point of introduction
is normally at the top of the bearing circum-
ferentially and in the center of the bearing
longitudinally. Thus, the force of gravity, is
used as an aid in carrying the oil down onto
the rotating journal.
c. Oil grooves. Oil grooves (fig. 17) are
simply reservoirs which trap some of the
oil supplied to the bearings. They keep a por-
tion of the oil supply available for the start-
ing and stopping periods when the main sup-
ply system may not be operating or for a peri-
od when, due to low temperature conditions,
the viscosity of the oil may be so high as to
prevent its immediate flow from the supply
stream. Oil grooves also aid in offsetting the
tendency of the loaded journal to squeeze most
of the oil film out of the clearance space. This
squeezing out of the oil is greater in slow-
speed than in high-speed operation, because
the greater wedging action of the oil film oc-
curring at higher journal speed tends to main-
tain an adequate oil film. The location of oil
grooves in the high-pressure area of a bearing
usually is avoided or held to a minimum.
Oil grooves never should be cut large or deep,
18
or left with sharp or ragged eges. Even when
grooves are placed advantageously and are
of the correct size, grooves with sharp corners
facing the direction of rotation will tend to
scrape the oil off the journal and destroy the
oil film. An oil groove cannot perform its
function of more evenly distributing the oil
film in the bearing, unless the corner of the
groove facing the rotation of the journal is
chamfered properly. If the journal reverses its
direction of rotation, the grooves must be
chamfered on both edges.
1 0 I e RA PD 85964
Figure17. Oil-groove patterns in friction-type
bearings.
19. Antifriction Bearings
a. The continued proper functioning of an
antifriction bearing depends largely upon lu-
brication. Proper- lubrication with the correct
materials will prevent most bearing failures.
b. Correct lubrication provides for-
(1) Protection of polished surfaces from
rust and corrosion.
(2) Reduction of friction.
(3) Removal of heat.
(4) Sealing against dirt, water, dust, etc.
c. Unit contact pressure in excess of
300,000 pounds per square inch are quite com-
mon in antifriction bearings. Under such pres-
sures the fine line of contact in the case of
roller bearings, or the small spot of contact in
the case of ball bearings, tends to make im-
practical the formation and maintenance of an

unbroken oil film. The very limited area of
contact in the antifriction-type bearing punc-
tures the film and the load is directly sup-
ported by the balls and races which are theo-
retically in a state of metal-to-metal rolling
contact. Because a continuous lubricating film
does not exist between the areas of contact of
the balls or rollers and their adjacent races,
the ability of such balls or rollers to carry
heavy loads is believed to be due in a ~arge
measure to the deformation which takes place
in balls, rollers, or races. Heat is generated by
this continual deformation or distortion and,
therefore, the action of the lubricant in this
type of bearing is more of a cooling than of a
lubricating nature.
d. Choice of lubricants for antifriction bear-
ings is between oil or grease. Free flowing
oils are used in bearings where continuous or
easily serviced lubrication can be made. Oils
give better cooling conditions than greases and
are preferred lubrication in high speed bear-
ings. Greases are used where service is infre-
quent and where speeds are low with heavy
loads. Greases also act as better seals against
dirt, water, dust, etc. Whichever type of lu-
bricant is used, the following conditions are
necessary:
(1) Good chemical stability.
(2) Correct viscosity for operating speeds
and temperatures.
(3) High film strength.
(4) Good adhesive qualities.
TM 9-273
(5) Cleanliness (from grit).
It is never recommended to use any lubricant
having a graphite base on antifriction bearings.
Formation of sludge from such material will
clog the bearing and cause early damage. See
TM 9-214 for information on care and mainte-
nance of antifriction bearings.
e. Oil or grease seals are used to prevent
the entrance of dirt, water, etc., the lubricant
from seeping out, and the accumulation of dirt
and dust on the outside surfaces of bearing.
Seals are made in different styles, depending
upon the operating characteristics of the parts
to be protected. The plain felt seal generally
is installed in a counterbore in the end of the
bearing and held in place by a snapring. The
leather seal is pressed into a counterbore in
the end of the bearing. The felt prevents the
passage of oil or dirt by being compressed
slightly, while the leather seal incorporates a
spring which keeps the leather in contact with
the moving part. In both cases the lubricant
provided for the bearing also lubricates the
seals, but new seals must be soaked in engine
oil before installation. When pressure lubri-
cators are to be used on bearings equipped
with seals, relief fittings generally are installed
on the bearings to prevent the seals being
blown out if too much lubricant is injected.
TB 9-255 contains more details on oil and
grease seals.
19

CHAPTER 4
LUBRICANTS
Section I. MANUFACTURE OF LUBRICANTS AND PROPERTIES
20. General
Most of the lubricants used by the Army are
derivatives of crude petroleums. It is impor-
tant that the readers of this manual on lubri-
cation learn about the manufacture of oils and
greases. The properties and the qualities of
the products will be more easily understood.
21. Refining
a. Distillation of Crude. During the distil-
lation of petroleum, many hydrocarbon prod-
ucts are "boiled off." These are recovered
and refined to become fuels, solvents, and
other valuable chemicals. The bottoms or res-
idue of the still provide the source for lu-
bricating oils and greases. These bottoms are
treated in a lubricating oil plant through sev-
eral processes:
(1) Deasphalting.
(2) Dewaxing.
(3) Solvent extraction.
(4) Redistillation.
(5) Filtration.
b. Deasphalting. The undesirable tars,
pitches, mineral solids, and slag present in the
bottoms must be removed. When these bot-
toms are mixed with quantities of liquid sol-
vent, a thinning out (dilution) takes place.
The thinner mixture, having less "body," can-
not hold the undesirable solids in suspension
and they settle to the bottom of the mixing
tank and are removed.
c. Dewaxing. Further additions of propane
are made to the desirable naterial in the mix-
ing tank. This mixture is pumped into a cool-
ing tower where undersirable waxes crystallize
or "freeze out" at 40 ° below zero. The solid
waxes are then filtered from the liquid. It is
TM 9-273
noteworthy that here we see elimination of ele-
ments, which if not removed, would freeze out
in equipment ix} the field and would greatly
contribute to operating difficulties.
d. Solvent Extraction. The deasphalted and
dewaxed liquid now undergoes a selective sol-
vent treatment. The solvent used in this proc-
ess dissolves the unwanted elements but does
not take out the valuable components. At the
end of the process there are two distinct liquid
layers. The top and lighter layer is propane
containing the desirable lubricant elements.
The lower and heavier layer is the selective
solvent containing the undersirable materials.
The top layer is siphoned into a device by
which the propane is removed.
e.. Redistillation. The liquid, now contain-
ing all the lubricant elements, is very heavy
and viscous. Lighter fractions must be derived
from the bulk. This is done by simple distilla-
tion methods. The end result is a dozen or so
separate liquids each having a particular
viscosity.
f. Filtration. Certain undissolved particles
still remain in the liquids. By excellent filter-
ing methods clear, nongritty lubricants are fi-
nally produced and stored.
22. Properties
a. Blending, Viscosities of oils have been
standardized by the Society of Automotive En-
gineering. Specifications and references are
more easily interpreted by means of this stand-
ardization. An SAE number (in multiples of
10, as 10, 20, 30, etc.,) demotes the viscosity
of an oil. The lower the number, the lighter the
oil. The viscosity of an oil is a very important
21
TM 9-273
property. Viscosity will grade an oil concern-
ing its applicability for specific conditions.
Heavy oils cannot be used on bearings having
tight clearances. Light oil cannot be used on
gears subject to high loading pressure. The
measure of the viscosity of an oil is a good in-
dication of one of its properties.
Note. Commerical oil manufactures who supply oil
for the automotive trade have used lOW, 20W, 30W,
etc., as designations. These mean that the oils have
been winterized to allow easier starting of vehicles in
cold weather.
The blending of oils is the process of mixing
oils of various viscosities to make oils of def-
inite viscosities in conformance to SAE stand-
ards. Sometimes at the blending process addi-
tives are put into oils to make additional or
special, desired properties.
b. Additives. Under certain operating con-
ditions,. lubricants have tendencies to lose their
lubricating qualities. Substances are put into
lubricants to offset these changes. Definite
substances are used for each specific condition.
Some of the conditions encountered in lubri-
cation and the additives used to reduce these
effects are mentioned below. Lubricants, used
by the Army, contain certain additives by spec-
ification and no other additives must be used
by operating or maintenance personnel.
(1) Viscosities of lubricants vary with
temperature. Too high a temperature
makes them too thin to be effective.
Too low a temperature makes them
difficult to apply and too "set" to be
effective. Chemicals, which have no
harmful effects on machinery, are
added to maintain a constant viscosity
of the oils over wide temperature
ranges. Alcohols, glycols, and esters
are the groups used. These same
groups are used to extend the tem-
perature range of hydraulic and cool-
ing fluids.
(2) Some conditions of heat and high
speed reduce lubrication to the point
where seizing or binding of metals
takes place. Finely ground soft met-
als such as zinc, lead, copper, and
aluminum are added to retard this
effect. Other antiseize agents are
talc, mica, and graphite.
22
(3) Oxidation of bearings takes place at
high tempertures. Some lubricants
contain inhibitors to prevent this.
These inhibitors are sulfur, chlorine,
and complex compounds of ammonia
in many cases. Prevention of oxida-
tion of the bearings is necessary to
prolong the life of the bearing itself;
also to prevent any oxidized metal
which would form, from oxidizing
the lubricant. Oxidation of the lu-
bricant leads to breakdown and forms
harmful acids. These acids would at-
tack the metals and cause a result
known as galling.
(4) Rust or corrosion products, not only
have bad effects on bearings, but they
plug the valves and controls of hy-
draulic and cooling systems. For this
reason most of the fluids used in hy-
draulic and cooling systems contain
rust inhibitors.
(5) Some engine oils contain solvents
which dissolve "tars and varnishes"
that are formed when fuel is burned
in the engine. This solvent action
prevents valve mechanisms from
sticking and reduces the possibilities
of the "tars and varnishes" from
burning to harmful crystalline
carbon.
(6) Certain oils are supplied containing a
compound which tends to expel and
settle impurities. These impurities
gather at the bottom of the crankcase
where they stay out of circulation.
c. Other Properties.
(1) The specific gravity of an oil has little
significance to the user. It has no re-
lationship to the viscosity. It does
not indicate whether an oil is light or
heavy. Its basic use is to determine
the total weight of a volume of oil.
(2) Oil, when new, will be clear. If an
oil is not clear, it indicates use and
the darkening is due to oxidiation of
the oil or metal, or dirt in suspension.
(3) The manufacturers of lubricating oils
determine and control other proper-
ties that would interfere with the

proper lubrication of equipment.
Soaping or foaming tendencies are
controlled. High acid content is re-
duced. Gums and resins are elimi-
nated. When the lubricants are pack-
aged for use, all harmful factors have
been reduced to the limits of latest
knowledge.
23. Greases
Soaps, in which oils have been suspended,
are known as greases. In effect, the soap acts
as a sponge to keep the oil in supply to a
shaft, a slide, or a rope. Like oils, soaps are
chosen for certain qualities. Some are soft and
water soluble. These make good greases for
close fitting internal mechanisms where water
cannot reach. Some soaps are hard and water-
proof. These are used to make greases for
heavy, external use.
24. Nonpetroleum Products
a. General. Synthetic lubricants represent
about 20 percent of the total amount of lu-
bricants presently consumed. Although there is
little probability of their taking the entire place
of petroleum lubricants, certain areas of U. S.
Army lubrication require their use. Synthetics
are generally more expensive than conventional
lubricants, and, while some characteristics are
highly needed, others are limiting factors in
their use.
Section II. CARE AND USE OF LUBRICANTS
25. Standardization of Materials
The present lubrication program of the
United States Army has been set up for the
preservation of the life of materiel. Several
all-purpose lubricants have been developed to
reduce the number of products necessary. The
approved lubricants are limited to those grades
and types essential to provide proper lubri-
cation under all anticipated operation condi-
tions. Definite names and symbols result in
unformity of products, containers, and mark-
ings, when material is supplied by different
TM 9-273
b. Silicones. This group of synthetics has
the desired property of near uniform viscosity
throughout a wide temperature range. Sili-
cones have generally high flash-points and
very low pour-points. They are used where
there are moderate loads. Their lubricating
qualities breakdown under high loads and
therefore petroleum products are superior un-
der these conditions. Silicones are also used
as antifoam agents in lubricants.
c. Glycols. A great variety of lubricants is
made from different combinations of glycols.
They have the properties of good viscosity
ranges and low pour-points. In addition, when
they are destroyed by heat (500 ° F.), they
decompose to gaseous products. There is little
or no carbon residue formed. These products
are used extensively in hydraulic systems be-
cause of their ability to remain fluid at low
temperatures and their resistance to ignite.
d. Esters. This group has low pour-point
and constant viscosity qualities. The lubricat-
ing quality is limited by their being too thin;
so their use is in instruments, hydraulics, and
precision bearings.
e. Sulfur. This product appears in many
compounds finding special use in space vehi-
cles and missiles. When sulfur is compounded
with various organic lubricants, products are
formed which are resistant to breakdown by
oxidation. Molybdenum disulfide is directed
as a lubricant in several parts of missile
mechanisms.
manufacturers. All branches of the Army are
now using these standardized lubricants.
26. Instructions
Proper application of lubricants and servic-
ing materials is just as important as their
quality and availability. Therefore, published
instructions are revised and supplemented as
advances are made through field experience in
development of better lubrication and servic-
ing methods. It is important that operating
and maintenance personnel obtain and always
use the latest instructions issued.
23
TM 9-273
27. Containers
a. Standard Sizes. Standard sizes for oil
containers are as follows: 5-cc bottle, 2-ounce,
4-ounce, 1-pint, 1-quart, 1-gallon, and 5-gallon
cans; and 55-gallon drums. The standard size
for grease containers are as follows: plastic
container to fit rifle butt, 8-ounce tube; 1-
pound and 5-pound cans; 25-pound pail; and
100-pound and 400-pound drums.
b. Storage. Whenever possible, containers
should be stored where they will not be ex-
posed to the weather. If, however, they are
stored in the open, they should be covered
with tarpaulins and all precautions made to
keep sand, dirt, etc., from entering the con-
tainers. The markings on the cans properly
identify the contents when shipped. If con-
tainers and contents are interchanged, great
care should be given to see that the identities
are not mixed or lost. Oversights in this area
could lead to making equipment inoperable if
the wrong lubricant happened to be used.
28. Cleanliness
Cleanliness of lubricant at the point of use
is dependent upon cleanliness in storage and
handling. When dispensing lubricant, wipe
all dirt, moisture, and dust from around the
openings or fittings. All containers must be
closed tight when not in use. Some oils and
greases will absorb water to such an extent
that their usefulness is reduced. Dirt and dust
will cause severe wear and damage to bearings
and surfaces. Oil lines and valves will plug
and become useless with an accumulation of
dirt. Unclean oil will cause a filter to become
clogged long before its normal replacement
time. Lubricating guns, crankcase plugs, filter
caps, gages, dipsticks, etc., should never be
placed on the ground.
29. Moisture
a. It is important that no water be intro-
duced into a mechanism that uses oil as the
water greatly increases the rate of corrosion.
Such corrosion will interfere with the functions
of the mechanism and reduce its normal serv-
iceable life.
24
b. In spite of the care taken in the prepara-
tion and shipping of oils, water is often found
to be present. Exposure in an open can, even
if the top is covered with a cloth, will result
in the accumulation of moisture from the air.
Condenstion in a container partly filled with
oil, or pouring from one container to another
which has moisture on its inner walls, results
in moisture being carried into the mechanisms.
c. It is advisable that organization command-
ers test oils on hand for water content. If a
clean bottle (1-pint size) is filled with agitated
oil and allowed to settle, any water will col-
lect at the bottom. If oil does show water, the
oil should not be used. It should be turned
back for reclaiming and new oil used.
30. Types and Uses
a. General. There are many types of lu-
bricants available to users of equipment. Some
types have been designed to withstand unusual
temperatures, climate, and field conditions.
Other types have been developed for heavy
loads. Further, there are types for cleaning
and preserving. Practically any lubricant will
lubricate anywhere. Conditions and experience
however, have directed the best possible lubri-
cants for specific applications.
b. Automotive and Artillery Grease (GAA).
Automotive and artillery grease (GAA) has
been added to the supply system for lubrica-
tion of all automotive and artillery materiel
under all conditions of service where ambient
temperatures range from -65 ° F. to + 125° F.
This grease is to be used in all auto-
motive and artillery applications requiring
lubricating grease, including chassis points,
wheel bearings, and universal joints. It is capa-
ble of providing a high degree of rust preven-
tion and should be used as a storage corro-
sion-preventive for all classes of antifriction
bearings, except sealed and shielded bearings,
and those used in fire control instruments for
which aircraft and instruments lubricating
grease (GL) is prescribed for all temperatures.
Automotive and industrial lubricating grease
(WP) (QMC issue) will be used for lubri-
cating water pump bearings; ball and roller

bearing lubricant (BR) (QMC issue) will be
used for rotating, sliding, or roller bearing
surfaces, such as clutch pilot bearings, where
constant or intermittent extremely high tem-
peratures are developed in operation.
c. Replacement of Greases. Automotive and
artillery grease (GAA) replaces the following
greases which were used by the Department of
the Army:
General purpose lubricating grease No.
2 (WB) (QMC issue).
General purpose lubricating grease No. 1
(CG-1) (Automotive and industrial
lubricating grease) (QMC issue).
General purpose lubricating grease No. 0
(CG-O) (QMC issue).
Ordnance Corps lubricating grease No. 0
(OG-O) (QMC issue).
Ordnance Corps lubricating grease No.
00 (OG-OO) (QMC issue).
d. Lubricating with Automotive and Artil-
lery Grease (GAA),. It is extremely important
that all components, particularly antifriction
bearings, be cleaned and washed thoroughly
to remove all traces of previously used lubri-
cants prior to lubricating with automotive and
artillery grease (GAA) for operation in ex-
treme cold and/or heat. Disassembly of all
components is justified in order to assure that
they are properly cleaned before initial appli-
cation of automotive and artillery grease
(GAA). Components may be cleaned by use
of volatile mineral spirits or dry-cleaning sol-
vent or by production cleaning methods in re-
build shops, as required.
Material Symbol
Greases:
Aircraft …----------------- CSG
Aircraft and instrument __
Automotive and artillery __ GAA
Ball and roller bearing ---- BR
TM 9-273
e. Requisitioning Automotive and Artillery
Grease (GAA).
(1) Any existing stocks of the superseded
greases (c above) are to be expended
for use in the Zone of Interior be-
fore the automotive and artillery
grease (GAA) is issued. However,
equipment being processed for ship-
ment to, or operated in, arctic areas
and/or FECOM is to be lubricated
with GAA grease. Automotive and
artillery grease (GAA) is available
through normal quartermaster supply
channels.
(2) Requisitions submitted for automotive
and artillery grease (GAA) for use in
the Zone of Interior will contain a
notation as to the intended applica-
tion so that if the grease is not avail-
able, the Quartermaster General will
supply a proper alternate grease with-
out undue delay.
(3) Typical lubricant materials are listed
in table II. For the complete list
of lubricants, refer to Department of
the Army Supply Manual 10-1-C4-
1, which is the Army designation of
Department of Defense Section C4-1
of the Federal Supply Catalog. In
any conflict between table II and De-
partment of the Army Supply Manual
10-1-C4-1, the latter will govern.
Table II. Typical Lubricants
[ Characteristic Usual Application
Gbod viscosity range __ High speed machinery.
Temperatures -65 ° F. All bearing surfaces. Headscrews, worn
to 200°F. gears ball and roller bearings. Limited
at high unit loads.
Temperatures -65 ° F. Automotive and artillery equipment.
to 125°F.
High temperatures Antifriction bearings. Rotating shafts.
and loads. Sliding surfaces.
25
TM 9-273
Material
Gear --------------------
General ------------------
Rifle ----------- _---------
Silicone ------------------
Special ------------------ GM
Water pump ------------- WP
Oils:
C astor -------------------
Chain-rope ___--________
Clock and watch ----------
Conditioning --------------
C utting ------------------
Engine -- _-_-------------
Engine --------------- -_--
Engine ------------------
General ------------------
General purpose ---------
Instrument ---------------
Insulating ---------.-----
Kerosene ________________
Lard --------..- __--------
Light -_------------------
Light recoil --------------
Lineseed ----------- ------
Variable resistor _________
Preservative -------------
Preservative special ...
Railway ------ _-----------
Special recoil ____________
Steam cylinder -----------
Vacuum -----------------
26
Table II. Typical Lubricants-Continued
Symbol Characteristic Usual Application
GLG High temperature _ On gears or sliding bearings under hot
conditions.
CG Semisolid ------------- Automotive lubrication fittings. Not to be
used on ball bearings.
RH Resists water. Prevents Moving parts of rifles and machine guns.
rust.
High temperature. High temperature antifriction bearings.
Antiseize. Threads of optical instruments.
High temperature _ Ball bearings.
Hard and waterproof _ Packing grease for water seals. Not above
212°F.
Viscous, vegetable Rubber connectors. Storage of natural
oil. rubber. Some shock absorbers.
CW Viscous, tacky _______ On chains, wire ropes, and cables to pro-
tect from weather, water, etc.
OCW Resistant to gumming Clocks, watches, transits, timing devices.
and corrosion.
Gum and varnish To clean crankcases and oil systems.
solvents.
ML Cutting tool coolant.
OE Heavy duty ---------- Crankcases and transmissions.
PE Rust preventative _ Automotive engine storage and shipment.
OES Good viscosity range __ To be used in subzero weather in crank-
cases.
Highly refined ------- All purpose oil for bearings at usual loads
and conditions.
OGP Low evaporation. Rust General application under usual loads and
prevention. conditions.
OAI Synthetic base. Low Aircraft and ground electronic instru-
evaporation. ments.
OT Transformers, capacitors, reactors.
Light, not permanent _ Rust-removing, freeing threads, to dilute
or thin oils.
OL Thread-cutting lubricant.
LO No additives --------- Sighting and fire-control instruments,
office equipment, small machines.
RL Special viscosity Recoil mechanisms.
properties.
Sticky --------------- Rifle stocks. Tool handles.
OP Very thin ------------ Instrument use where prescribed.
PL Has rust inhibitor ---- General preservative and lubricant.
PL Spec Low temperature ----- For prevention of rust at low tempera-
tures. Frequent lubrication.
OC Highly refined ------- Railway locomotive, cars, gun carriages.
RS Great viscosity Recoil mechanisms-some hydraulic
stability. systems.
OSM Pure-no additives ___ Noncondensing steam engines.
Vacuum treated ___- _ Use with vacuum pumps.
 TM 9-273

Table I. Typical Lubricants-Continued

Material Symbol Characteristic Usual Application

Hydraulics:
Castor oil ---------------- Low pour point -_---- Houdaille rotary shock absorbers.
Hydraulic fluid ----------- HB Nonpetroleum -.----- . In systems with natural rubber seals.
Hydraulic fluid ----------- HBA Low temperature -----. For subzero temperature operation.
Hydraulic fluid ----------- OH Petroleum base .------ Hydraulic systems but not brake systems.
Hydraulic fluid ----------- OHA Low temperature .---- Low temperature operation.
Hydraulic fluid Petroleum base Preservative and flushing oil for hydrau-
preservative. containing lic systems.
additives.
Shock absorber fluid ------ SAH Nonmineral oil ------ _ Use only in Houde shock absorbers above
-20° F.
Miscellaneous:
Corrosion preventatives _ CH Nondrying petroleum Long term storage of metal parts.
base.
Corrosion preventatives . CM Applied hot. Long term storage of metal parts.
Corrosion preventatives . CL Film moist. Long term storage of metal parts.
Corrosion preventatives . AXS Can be sprayed as film Long term storage and shipment/of metal
dry to touch. parts.
Molybdenum disulfide ---- -------- Antioxidation ......... Mechanisms of missiles.
Permanent antifreeze ----- -- - Contains rust Used as antifreeze in radiators in sub-
inhibitor. freezing temperatures.
Silicone. ____. Nonpetroleum --------
................ Gaskets, O-rings, certain hydraulic fit-
tings.

CHAPTER 5
LUBRICATION EQUIPMENT
31. General
a. General. Standardization of lubricants
not only reduces the number of items to be
stocked, but also the amount of equipment
necessary to apply them. Lubricating equip-
ment is designed to reduce the possibility of
contamination when transferring the lubricant
from its container to another container or a
mechanism. The equipment itself also must
be cleaned before and after use as a further
means of preventing contanmination of the lu-
bricant. Lubricating equipment and accessories
are furnished in standardized sets.
b. Cleanliness. The great need for extreme
cleanliness in handling lubricants and lubri-
cating equipment cannot be overstressed be-
cause introduction of dirt or other contami-
nants may cause materiel failure at most inop-
portune times, as for example in battle. Lu-
bricant containers will be kept covered when
not in use and in places where they will not
collect dirt, water, or other contamination. Oil
measures and grease guns should not be laid
on the ground. Be sure lubricating fittings
are cleaned properly before using oil-cans, oil
guns, or grease guns. Never put a grease
coupler onto a damaged lubricating fitting or
pull a coupler straight off a fitting. The fol-
lowing points must be remembered:
(1) Dirt may be a cause of malfunction-
ing of equipment.
(2) Dirt from equipment may contami-
nate the lubricant and case malfunc-
tioning of the materiel to which it is
applied.
(3) When not in use, keep equipment in
a clean place.
(4) When in use, equipment should not
be laid on the ground or other places
TM 9-273
where it is likely to become dirty.
(5) Keep lubricants in clean containers
and in places where they will not ac-
cumulate dirt, water, or other
contamination.
32. Oil Pumps
a. Oil Barrel Pump. An oil barrel pump is
used to dispense oil directly from a barrel into
measures or other containers. The lower end
of the pump has two sizes of threads, so the
pump can be screwed into either the end open-
ing or the bunghole of a barrel. The intake
or suction pipe telescopes in order to reach to
the bottom of barrel or drum up to 50-gallon
capacity. The shaft of the operating handle
has a gear on the inner end which engages
teeth cut in the side of the piston rod, giving
sufficient mechanical advantage to permit the
pumping of heavy oils. An adjustable stop
screw acting on the end of the piston rod per-
mits adjustment to pump 1 quart per stroke,
and a spring-operated drip return tube auto-
matically swings under the discharge nozzle
and returns any overflow or drip to the barrel.
Great care must be used to insure that the
pump and, particularly, the intake pipe and at-
taching threads are absolutely clean before the
pump is installed in a barrel; use cleaning
solvent if necessary. The most frequent diffi-
culty is loss of prime. This usually can be
overcome by moving the pump handle rapidly
back and forth through a small arc, keeping
the drip return tube in place under the dis-
charge nozzel. If this does not remedy the trou-
ble and the intake pipe, intake pipe packing
nut, operating shaft packing nut, and tie rods
are tight and do not leak, disassemble the
pump by removing the tie rods. Inspect,
clean, and replace interior parts, as necessary.
29
TM 9-273
b. Recoil Oil Pump. The recoil oil pump
(fig. 18) is used to pump oil into recoil cylin-
ders at a pressure of several hundred pounds
per square inch. The pump consists of a base
or reservoir withia lever-operated, high-pres-
sure, plunger pump built into the top or
cover, and serves to pump oil from the reser-
voir into the recoil mechanism.
/7: :d
RA PD 90008
Figure18. Recoil oil pump.
33. Lubricating Devices
a. Lubricating Fittings and Couplers. Ma-
teriel formerly was equipped with a variety of
fittings for the lubrication of bearing surfaces,
but these required a variety of lubricating
guns, adapters, and equipment. A new fit-
ting and coupler were adopted as standard in
1943. Lubricating guns were modified accord-
ingly, and the new type of fittings were in-
stalled on existing materiel. The new type of
fitting (fig. 19) is a modification of the hy-
draulic or push-type fitting but is more sturdy,
easier to clean, provides a better seal against
dirt, and allows a freer and faster lubricant
flow. The old and new hydraulic-type fittings
and old and new hydraulic-type couplers may
be operated interchangeably. If leakage is en-
countered between a coupler and the lubri-
cating fitting, it may be caused by dirt on the
30
coupler or fitting, a defective fitting, or worn
coupler jaws. Remove dirt with dry-cleaning
solvent, Replace defective fittings. Worn
coupler jaws may be reversed (or replaced if
worn on both ends).
b. Oil Cups and Fittings. Lubricating de-
vices for oil are generally of the screw or drive
type with ball, spring, or hinged covers (fig.
20).
34. Oil Guns
Oil guns vary in type and size depending
upon their uses for either high- or low-pres-
sure operation. They are all of the cylinder
and piston type and may have one cup leather
for pressure operation only, or may have two
cup leathers, back to back, allowing both pres-
sure and suction operation. Low-pressure guns
for introducing considerable quantities of oil
into inaccessible lubrication points, emptying
or filling housings, etc., operate by hand pres-
sure only on the end of the piston or follower
rod and are filled by suction. A bucket pump
gun (fig. 21) used for dispensing variable re-
sistor oils at low pressure consists of a hous-
ing or reservoir with a cover incorporating a
plunger pump operated by the long lever. Oil
guns require little servicing aside from regular
and thorough cleaning and the replacement of
follower cup washers when necessary.
35. Grease Guns
a. General. Grease guns are furnished in
various styles and types depending upon the
use to which they are put. Housings, such as
automotive housings and rear ends, ordinarily
are replenished from a low-pressure, hand-op-
erated, bucket-type gun with a capacity of 25
to 50 pounds of lubricant. The greater part
of the bearings on which lubricating fittings
are installed/are lubricated with high-pressure
guns of either the hand-operated or air-oper-
ated types.
b. Low-Pressure GunA. Figure 22 shows
two low-pressure guns; one a hand lever-op-
erated gun with a capacity of about 1 pound;
the other a floor type with a lever-operated
pump of such size that a standard 25-pound
pail may be set inside the container and the
lubricant pumped directly from it, or 50
 TM 9-273

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 TM 9-273
RAlCtHET -YPE GREASE CUP
DRIVE TYPE OIl CUP
Figure 20.
pounds of lubricant may be poured directly
into the container. Pumps are of the plunger
type with few moving parts and about the
only cause of improper operation is dirt under
the intake valve at the end of the pump tube.
Proper handling of the lubricant should pre-
vent entrance of dirt but, if failure occurs, the
pump must be disassembled and thoroughly
cleaned and inspected. The lubricant in the
container also must be checked and discarded
if found to contain any dirt. The hand gun
may be filled by connecting the filler fitting
to the discharge nozzle of the floor gun, or
may be filled by hand by unscrewing the bar-
rel from the head, inserting it in the lubri-
cant, and pulling back on the follower rod.
In hand-filling, use care to prevent formation
of air pockets in the lubricant as these will in-
terfere with the proper operation of the pump.
c. Push-type Guns. Push-type lubrication
guns (fig. 23) are used in the lubrication of
artillery, fire control instruments, motorcycles,
and automotive vehicles. Although made in
various styles, they operate on the same princi-
ple. In the K-type gun, the plunger is oper-
32
,C1
PLAIN OIL CUP
OiL GUN
ADAPT ER
HINCE LID TYPE
iL iOWV OIL CUP PD 90010
Oil and grease CUp8.
ated by movement of the hand knob, this op-
eration forcing lubricant out of the coupler
under high pressure. In the other gun the
plunger is operated by pushing forward on
the handle while the coupler is on the lubri-
cation fitting, this operation moving the
pump cylinder and pumping grease out through
the coupler. In both types a faster and more
positive prime is assured by a spring-operated
follower. These guns develop pressures up to
5,000 pounds per square inch and cause little
trouble if only clean lubricant is used. In fill-
ing, use care to prevent air pockets as they
cause irregular action. If gun fails to operate
or to develop the correct pressure, remove the
ball check in front of the piston, clean thor-
oughly, and check for defective parts.
d. High-pressure Guns. High-pressures lu-
brication guns (fig. 24) now are furnished in
two types, hand-operated guns and air-oper-
ated guns. Both are of the floor type with the
pump on a removable cover and with the con-
tainer of such size and construction that a
standard 25-pound pail may be set in and the

- '_IC
...
'. ^ .
to j~L
tY Ai, LUO
- II
ilI
'i
i RA PD 90013
( oughly cleaned with dry-cleaning solvent, and
-
____/ - Pa.;t
RA PD 90012
Figure 21. Typical oil guns.
lubricant pumped directly from it, or 50 pounds
of lubricant may be placed directly in the con-
tainer. The hand-operated gun is very similar
to the low-pressure gun previously described
except that the pump plunger is smaller, with
the result that the volume of lubricant pumped
is smaller but the pressure is much higher.
The only variation in the air-operated gun is
that compressed air is used as the source of
power in place of hand power. Aside from
the valves of the air motor which are to be
grease-lubricated by removing the plug near
the bottom of the cover plate, there is little of
the mechanism in either gun that is liable to
cause trouble unless dirt is allowed to get into
the lubricant. Guns should be inspected at
least once a month. If a gun fails to operate
properly, it should be disassembled, thor-
TM 9-273
I
I'~ t
2i
I
i t l"1 I
rob
Figure 22. Low-pressure, hand-operated
lubricating guns.
inspected for defective parts.
P
36. Miscellaneous Equipment
a. General. Aside from the various types of
lubricating equipment previously covered,
there also are available miscellaneous appli-
ances necessary or useful in handling oils and
greases. They include wheel-bearing lubri-
cators, spray oilers, engine cleaners, oilers, oil
measures, hydraulic brake fillers, funnels, oil
spouts, drain pans, lubrication fitting tools,
and tool boxes.
b. Wheel-bearing Lubricators. The lubrica-
tor (fig. 26) is used to renew the lubricant in
antifriction bearings of vehicle wheels or other
such items. The bearing is put into the cone-
shaped opening over the center spindle and
held in place by the thumb nut threaded onto
the outside of the spindle. Grease forced from
a gun through the lubricating fitting on top
of the hollow spindle passes through holes in
the spindle into the inside of the bearing and
into the spaces between the balls or rollers,
carrying the old grease out of the bearing
ahead of it.
33
TM 9-273

justment of a screw on top of the handle. The

adjustments should be such that little of the
fluid is atomized.
e. Oilers. Oilers are furnished in several
T~~ sizes and types (figs. 25 and 26). Pressure to
eject the oil is secured either by a push-but-
tom or by a lever- or trigger-operated pump.
Few failures to operate should be encountered,
but oilers should be cleaned and inspected
regularly.
f.. Oil Measures. Oil measures are supplied
in a variety of styles and types. The most
commonly used measures are of 400-cc, 1-liter,
AA PD 103990 1-quart, 2-quart, 4-quart, and 8-quart
capacities.
Figure 23. Typical push-type lUrieeating guns. g. Hydraulic Brake Fillers. There are two
types of fillers for hydraulic brake systems.
The lever-operated type is sirfiilar to the lever-
operated oiler, except that a flexible tube is
used in place of the spout and is used to re-
plenish the fluid in the master cylinder (fig.
Al
i( 2%
l 25). The lever operates a plunger-type pump
that draws the fluid from the reservoir and
forces it out the nozzle. The parts should be
thoroughly cleaned and inspected at regular
intervals. The pressure-feed filler (fig. 26)
consists of an airtight tank or reservoir,
mounted on casters, and equipped with a hose
and fittings to attach the hose to the filler
opening of the master cylinder. The reservoir
HAND OPERATED
D~ATED
AIR O0~ATED,
~ is partially filled with hydraulic brake fluid,
RA PD 90015 the rest of the spaces being filled with com-
pressed air. When the hose is connected to
the filler opening of the master cylinder and
Figure 24. Pressure lubricating guns. the valve in the hose is opened, the entire
f. 25 . hydraulic part of the brake system is subjected
c. Spray Oiler. The spray oiler
(fiog s25)ay to the pressure of the compressed air in the
a trigger-operated pump type use
Dirt in thaye filler reservoir and the brakes may be bled by
ing oil. Its capacity is 1 quart. Dirt in the
le will
cause one operator without the necessity of pumping
pump valves or in the spray nozzzle will cause
improper operation. Only clean oil should be the brake pedal. Any hydraulic brake fluid
used and the parts should be cle aned and in- withdrawn from the brake system by bleeding
spected at regular intervals. is replaced from the supply in the filler
d. Engine Cleaner. The engine cleaner (fig reservoir.
25) is air operated and may be u sed with var- h. Funnels. Funnels are furnished in a
ious fluids. Compressed air di scharges the considerable variety of shapes, styles, and sizes.
fluid under pressure and the lon g nozzle per- They are made of copper, galvanized iron,
mits small inaccessible places to be reached. and tin plates; with and without strainers; and
The fluid discharged is regulate( d by adjust- with various types of fixed or removable
ment at the nozzle, and the air pr^essure by ad- spouts.

34

i. Can Spout. The spout (fig. 25) is
equipped with a steel cutter and is used to
open and pour oil from 1- and 5-quart cans.
With the can standing on end, the guide
is placed against the side of the can and the
cutter is pushed down into the top of the can
just inside the corner bead. The cutter and
guide hold the spout in place so that the oil
can be poured without leakage or loss.
j,. Drain Pan. The drain pan (fig. 26) is
used to catch the oil drained from engine
crankcases, transmissions, axle housings, and
other such points, and has a capacity of about
4 gallons. It is equipped with end handles for
lifting when filled, and also with a long
handle by means of which it can be withdrawn
from beneath the vehicles after the oil has
drained.
TM 9-273
k. Lubrication Fitting Tool. The lubri-
cation fitting tool (fig. 19) consists of a tap,
die, wrench, and remover combined in one tool
and is used in connection with the removal and
replacement of lubricating fittings. The
wrench has a portion of one side removed so
that angle fittings may be installed or removed
without damage. The tap is used to recut dam-
aged threads before installing fittings, the die
to recut damaged threads on fittings, and the
remover to remove broken fittings on which
the wrench cannot be used.
1. Tool Box. The tool box (fig. 26) of steel
with hinged covers and tray is supplied to
furnish a convenient clean place to keep and
carry hand-lubricating guns and other equip-
ment when not in use.
35
TM 9-273

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 TM 9-273

M TYPE (1l ';r DqA- N'A TEEL TOOL .

RA PD 90017
Figure 26. Typical miscellaneous lubricating equipment.

37

CHAPTER 6
AUTOMOTIVE MATERIEL; ENGINE AND ACCESSORIES
Section I. ENGINE LUBRICATION
37. General
a. Heat. An internal combustion engine is
one which gets its power by the combustion of
fuel in its cylinders. The energy of the fuel is
converted to heat and the heat energy is in turn
converted by the engine into mechanical ener-
gy. Approximately one-third of the energy of
the fuel is obtained. Two-thirds of the energy
of the fuel is lost through heat which has not
been turned into mechanical energy. The dissi-
pation of this large quantity of heat becomes a
matter of basic importance to lubrication.
b. Heat Dispersion. Lubrication is directly
connected with the method used for cooling an
engine. The oil in the crankcase is used to
conduct heat from the hot cylinders and pis-
tons. The oil must be cooled to keep its effec-
tiveness. This is done by restoring to a large
reservoir or by cooling through radiators. A
large amount of heat is transfered from the
cylinder walls by circulating water. In some
engines, considerable volumes of fast-moving
air remove heat from the cylinder walls.
c. Oxidation Problem. The oil being ap-
plied to cylinder walls and piston rings is sub-
ject to high pressures and temperatures. These
conditions tend to deteriorate the oils and de-
stroy their lubricating values. There has been a
continued demand for stable oil as the pressures
and temperatures of engines advanced.
38. Lubricating Systems
a. General. At the present time, most of the
internal combustion engines used in automo-
tive materiel incorporate, or are provided with,
a centralized reservoir or container from which
TM 9-273
oil is distributed to the various scattered lubri-
cation points. Several different methods or
systems are used to transfer the oil from the
reservoir to the lubrication points and, while
these are more or less similar, they employ dif-
ferent mechanical methods to obtain the de-
sired results. The systems known as splash,
dip, gravity, and pressure circulation are treat-
ed in b through e below.
b. Splash Lubricating System. Splash lubri-
cation is the simplest system commonly used for
the distribution of lubricating oil to the various
bearings (fig. 27). The moving parts of the
mechanism (generally the connecting rods) dip
into or strike the oil and splash it into the vari-
ous parts requiring lubrication. Bearings which
the splash will not reach generally are connect-
ed to small pockets or reservoirs by oil lines or
grooves. The splash fills the pockets or reser-
voirs and the oil flows by gravity to the bear-
ings. In systems of this kind, lubrication con-
sists in maintaining the oil in the reservoir at
the indicated level and changing it at required
intervals. In most engines the connecting rods
dip into troughs instead of into the main reser-
voir, the troughs being installed at such a
height that the connecting rods give the cor-
rect amount of splash when the troughs are
filled with oil. The troughs are kept filled to
the overflow point by a pump drawing oil
from the main reservoir, the overflow return-
ing to the reservoir automatically. In this man-
ner, the splash is kept constant during normal
variations of the quantity of oil in the main
reservoir. Most modern engines do not rely on
the splash system alone.
39
TM 9-273
OIL TROUGH
SPLASHFEED
A splash system uses the force of o moving port
to splash into and spray oil onto the ports to be
lubricated A splash circulating system uses a
rotating part to pick up and deliver oil to a
trough which is, in turn, connected to the
part to be lubricated. A dip feed system is one
wherein the gears that ore submerged in the
lubricant carry o supply of lubricant to the
teeth of the adjacent gears.
RA PD 85961
Figure 27. Splash and dip methods of oil
distribution.
c. Dip Lubricating System. In dip lubrica-
tion (fig. 27), some rotating parts, such as a
gear or a wheel, is partially submerged in oil.
The oil adheres to it as it rotates and is carried
directly to the surfaces to be lubricated. Typi-
cal examples are timing gears or chains.
It often is used in combination with other oil
circulating systems.
d. Gravity CirculationLubrication. The grav-
ity circulation system (fig. 28) is similar to
the systems of splash, splash circulation, and
dip, in that it does not use a pump as the
source of oil pressure. As the name implies, ad-
vantage is taken of the natural laws of gravity
to conduct oil from an elevated source of sup-
ply to the various parts to be lubricated. This
usually is accomplished by having a supply
tank located well above the level of the bear-
ings to be lubricated. From this tank, oil is
conducted through various lines, etc, to the
desired points, some type of metering arrange-
ments to give the desired rate of flow being
generally incorporated. Sometimes such a sys-
tem is accompanied by a recovery unit which is
simply a sump or reservoir where the surplus
or used oil is collected after having performed
its lubricating function. From this sump, the
oil can be returned to the elevated reservoir by
means of a pump.
e. Pressure CirculationSystem. In a pres-
sure circulation system, a pump draws the oil
from the supply container or reservoir and cir-
40
DIP FEED
PRESSURE
FEED
FULL PRESSURE
SYSTEM
A gravity system employs the force of gravity to
SPLASHSYSTEM
deliver oil from on elevated container to the
bearing A pressure system employs a constant
flow pump to force oil from a supply container to
the bearings A force feed system employs
variable flow pumps of the plunger type which force
the oil contained in the pump body to the bearing
in measured quantities
RA PD 85962
Figure 28. Types of lubrication systems.
culates it under pressure to the various lubrica-
tion points on the machine. If all moving parts
or bearings are supplied, the system also may
be referred to as a full-pressure lubrication sys-
system. The speeds and loads handled by the
bearings in modern internal combustion en-
gines demand positive delivery of the oil under
considerable pressures to most of the moving
parts, and the pressure circulation lubrication
system is the method in most common use at
the present time. On in-line engines, the oil
reservoir generally is located in the bottom of
the crankcase and all unused oil drains back in-
to it by gravity. This lubricating method is
known as the wet sump system.
39. Oil Pumps
a. General. The gear pump, the vane pump,
and the plunger'pump (fig. 29) are three gen-
eral types of pumps in common use on automo-
tive materiel. The oil pump of an engine

generally is located in the lower part of the
crankcase where it is constantly submerged in
oil and primed ready to start pumping on the
first turn of the engine. When used on a dry
sump engine to transfer oil which collects in the
sump to the oil reservoir, the pumps are re-
quired to maintain only sufficient pressure to
overcome the friction in the pipe conducting
the oil back to the reservoir. When used for
pressure lubrication, pumps are usually of such
capacity that they will maintain an oil pressure
of from 15 to 80 pounds per square inch on the
bearings and circulate the entire crankcase ca-
pacity from 5 to 10 times per minute under nor-
mal operating conditions. Pumps are built with
either a bypass or pressure relief valve as shown
in the gear pump, or one is provided in the oil
line (fig. 29). This construction not only pre-
vents excessive pressures in the lubrication sys-
tem but also allows the pump to be built with
sufficient overcapacity to maintain proper oil
pressure even though the bearings or the pump
may become considerably worn.
b. Gear Pumps. A gear pump (fig. 29) con-
sists of two meshed gears housed in the pump
body, one gear driving the other. As the gears
revolve and a tooth moves out of a space on the
inlet side of the pump, oil enters this space and
is carried around to the outlet side of the pump.
Here a tooth again enters the tooth space dis-
placing the oil and forcing it out of the pump
outlet. The capacity of such a pump is deter-
mined by the size of the gears, the fit of the
gears in the body of the pump, and the speed
of rotation of the gears. If the gears do not
mesh with each other or fit the body of the
pump closely, the oil will leak past the gears
back to the inlet side of the pump and pressure
and capacity will be lost. If a gear pump is
disassembled completely or drained, it may be
necessary to prime the pump before again put-
ting it into operation, particularly if the pump
is located above the level of the oil in the res-
ervor.
c. Vane Pumps. A vane pump (fig. 29)
consists of a cylindrical impeller which is set
"off center" so that it almost touches one side
of the pump housing. The impeller is not ec-
centric, but the vanes which are set into it have
eccentric motion. As the impeller turns, the
TM 9-273
vanes are forced outward by springs which
hold them in contact with the pump body at all
times. Oil, drawn in after one of the vanes
through the entrance, is trapped by the follow-
ing vane. As a vane is rotated to the opposite
side of the pump, the space between the impel-
ler and the pump body becomes smaller. This
pushes the vane into the rotor against spring
pressure and forces the trapped oil out through
the outlet. While one space is emptying, the
other is filling.
d. Plunger Pumps. A plunger pump (fig.
29) is generally a cam-driven, single-cylinder
pump and is operated by the camshaft. The
plunger or piston is held against the cam by a
spring. The plunger is pushed into the cylinder
on its pressure stroke by the rise of the cam,
and is returned to the suction stroke by the
spring which causes the plunger to follow the
drop of the cam. Spring-loaded check valves
are used to control the flow of oil. The plung-
er type pump is used mostly in splash lubrica-
tion systems where it acts as an oil circulator
pumping oil from the oil pan to the oil troughs.
40. Oil Lbever Indicators
The dipstick is the simplest and most com-
mon method of determining the amount of oil
in a crankcase or reservoir. The dipstick con-
sists of a graduated rod which is suspended
into the oil pan or reservoir. In order to ob-
tain a clear reading, the dipstick should be
withdrawn, wipea off, reinserted carefully, and
again withdrawn. A correct reading cannot be
obtained if a dipstick is withdrawn while an en-
gine is running, nor immediately after the
engine is stopped. Sufficient time must
be allowed for the moving oil to drain back
into the reservoir. Some model engines call for
a check while running at idle. Individual lu-
brication orders show correct methods.
41. Pressure Gages
A pressure gage (fig. 30) is used to indicate
whether the lubrication system is in operation.
It is mounted on the instrument panel and cali-
brated in pounds per square inch. Most pres-
sure gages are actuated by the pressure of the
air trapped above the oil in a very small tube
connecting the gage to the lubricating system.
41
TM 9-273

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42
 TM 9-273

The gage consists of a flat metal tube bent into

the shape of three-quarters of a circle. One end
of the tube is fixed to the gage case and is con-
nected by a tube to the lubrication system, while
the other end is sealed and linked to the sector
of a gear meshing with a pinion on the pointer
shaft. As pressure increases in the circular
tube, it straightens slightly and turns the gear
sector. This in turn rotates the pinion, pointer
shaft, and pointer which indicates the pressure
on the dial. Electrically operated warning lights
for indicating oil pressures are used in combat RA PD 395600
vehicles. Thes lights register only abnormal
pressures; too high or too low. Figure 31. Oil, filter.

oil taken into the pump comes from the sur-

PRESSURE
READING i/ 2
face. This prevents the pump from drawing
oil from the bottom of the oil pan where dirt,
2 v= GGEAE R SECTOR water, and sludge are likely to collect.
b. Oil Cleaners (Filters),. The oil cleaner or
filter is placed in the oil line above the pump
(fig. 38). It filters the oil and removes most of
the impurities that have been picked up by the
CONNECTING LINK
oil as it has circulated through the engine.
PINION
GEAR SECTORPIVOT
Some filters, called full-flow filters, are de-
AIR-l
signed to handle the full output of the oil cir-
JTUBE FROM culating pump, and all of the oil passes through
LUBRICATION SYSTEM
~~OIL-.
| ~RA
PD 85968
them before being distributed to the engine
parts. Other types divert only a small quantity
Figure 30. Construction of a pressuregage. of the oil each time it is circulated and, after
filtering it, return it directly to the oil pan. A
42. Temperature Gages typical oil filter is shown in figure 33. The fil-
Occasionally, on heavy-duty engines, oil tem- tering element consists of an arrangement of
perature gages are provided. This type gage is screens and a filtering material capable of re-
operated by the vapor pressure caused by the taining impurities as the oil is forced through.
expansion of a fluid contained in a bulb im- For this reason, most filters are provided with
mersed in the crankcase oil. As the tempera- relief or bypass valves which allow the oil to
ture of the oil increases, the fluid vaporizes flow around the filter when the back-pressure
and the pressure operates a gage calibrated caused by clogging is greater than the tension
for temperature on the instrument panel. of the relief-valve spring. Some filters must be
replaced after they are clogged; in others, the
43. Oil Filtering Devices filter element can be removed and cleaned.
a, Strainers. Most manufacturers of in-line c. Replacement of Cartridges. The frequen-
and V-type engines put at least one oil strainer cy of replacement of the filter cartridge in the
or screen in the lubrication system (figs. 31 and removable element type depends upon a great
32). This is usually a fine-mesh bronze screen many factors, including atmospheric conditions,
located so that all oil entering the pump from the presence of dust and dirt in the air, the me-
the oil pan must flow through it. The strainer chanical condition of the engine the tempera-
will usually be hinged to the oil pump inlet so ture and loads under which the engine is
that it floats on top of the oil. Thus, all operated, and the efficiency of the filtering

43
TM 9-273

medium itself. Barring accident disk-type fil-
ters have a practically indefinite life, but the
handle of hand-operated filters should be
given two or three complete turns periodically
where prescribed by applicable lubrication or-
der and technical manual. Other filters or re-
placeable elements should be replaced periodi-
cally, where prescribed, or oftener if they
become plugged or show signs of grit or sludge
on the filtering elements. Specific instructions
given in the pertinent lubrication order or
technical manual for any item of materiel

ROD

CRK2 A

GOVERNOR

CRANKSHAFT

DRAIN PLUG OIL LEVER

LOWERI
CRANKCASi -

OIL INLET}
SHIELD

OIL INLET SCREEN

V/ P DRAIN PLUG

Figure 32. Lubrication system of engine.

44

should be followed. Prescribed periodic filter
service includes checking the oil filter connect-
ing lines for clogging, draining accumulated
sedment, and replacement of dirty filter car-
tridges. For all practical purposes, the value
of the oil filter is more dependent upon the
cartridge being replaced when required than
upon the specific efficiency of the filtering
element itself. The replacement of the renew-
able-type filter element is extremely important
if the use of filters is to be fully justified,
because if the element is allowed to remain
after its useful life has expired, a false sense
of security is imparted to the operator. How-
ever, the life of a filter unit is difficult to de-
termine in terms of specific miles or hours
because of the innumerable variables which
influence cartridge life. In any event, when
a filter cartridge has accumulated enough con-
taminating materials to reduce its efficiency,
it should be replaced. A fact seldom appreci-
ated is that the more efficient a filter element
is, the more frequently it may require replace-
ment. In other words, a fine filter will remove
more contaminants from a liquid in a given
time than will a coarse filter.
EiL s ~ ~
B iS S : F RwGASKET
r
E l i l
MOUN~~~~~~~~~~~~~ETIN
BRACKETS * *~~~~~~
DRAIN PLUG
OIL OUTLET
Figure 33. Oil filter with removable filtering
element.
44. Oil Cooling
a. Engine Oil Cooler. The oil cooler is used
to prevent the oil temperature from rising too
high in hot weather. The cooler (fig. 34)
makes use of the liquid in the cooling system.
TM 9-273
It provides a more positive means of control-
ling oil temperature than does cooling by radia-
tion of heat from the oil-pan walls. The
cooling unit is made up of a core and a housing.
The core through which the oil circulates is of
cellular or bellows construction, and is built to
expose as much of the oil as possible to the
coolant which circulates through the housing.
The cooler is attached to the engine so that the
oil will flow through the cooler after passing
through the pump. The oil leaves, cooled by
the liquid in the cooling system, and enters the
oil passages to the engine parts.
CVE
F~~~~~OIL INLET
[ILTERING ELEMENT WATER
ORCAPTRDGE
RA PD 314028
Figure 34. Oil temperature cooler.
b. Radiator-type Oil Cooler. The types of
oil cooler used with some combat vehicles con-
RA PD 85969A sist of a radiator through which air is circulate
by movement of the vehicle or by the cooling
fan. Oil from the engine is passed through
this radiator and back to the engine and to the
oil supply. This radiator acts only to cool the
oil and does not function as a regulator. Some
coolers can moderate-both engine and transmis-
sion oils if they have separate cores for each.
Figure 35 shows the flow of oil through a
typical cooling system.
45
TM 9-273

0
U-

c.. Crankcase Ventilators. Gasoline vapor
and steam are harmful if they are allowed to
remain in the crankcase oil. Steam will con-
dense and mix with the' oil to form a sludge.
Gasoline vapor will condense and dilute the oil.
There are two methods of removing these va-
pors from the crankcase. The first, or nonpos-
itive, method consists of a breather tube which
depends on the flow of air past its open end to
remove the vapors. The second, or positive,
method utilizes engine intake manifold pres-
sure to circulate air through the crankcase.
(1) Breather tube. One end of the
breather tube opens into the crank-
case above the oil level; the other end
extends down under the vehicle where
there is sufficient airstream to create
a low pressure at the open end of the
tube (fig. 36). The pressure differ-
ential between the crankcase and the
open end of the tube is sufficient to
force any vapors out of the crankcase.
Some breather tubes are placed so
that air from the cooling fans will
flow through the tube and create a
pressure differential.
(2) Positive method. In the positive meth-
od, air is drawn through the engine
by intake manifold vacuum; that is,
the intake manifold vacuum draws air
through the crankcase so that vapors
are swept out of the crankcase. The
air may follow either of two paths. In
one, air is drawn directly into the
crankcase through a filter or crank-
case breather (fig. 37) similar to a
carburetor air cleaner. After circula-
ting through the crankcase and pick-
ing up vapors, the air is forced
upward and out of the engine through
an opening into the valve cover. It is
then drawn through a tube connected
to the intake manifold. This tube has a
restriction to regulate the amount of
vapor being drawn into the manifold,
and thus minimizes the effect of the
vapor on the fuel-air ratio of the mix-
ture being delivered to the manifold
by the carburetor. In the second path,
air enters through a filter in the
TM 9-273
crankcase breather which is mounted
on top of the valve cover. This
breather also serves as a filler point
for adding oil to the engine In op-
eration, air is taken through the shut-
off valve (which is open when the
ventilating system is operating),
through the filter, and into the valve
compartment. From there it passes
down into the crankcase and is with
drawn from the crankcase through a
tube connected between the crankcase
and the intake manifold. This sec-
ond arrangement is in general use in
waterproofed vehicles. In connection
with crankcase ventilation, an engine
should be operated at a coolant tem-
perature in excess of 140 ° F. so that
the vapors in the crankcase will stay
in a gaseous state, and those that are
already condensed will be vaporized
and rise above the oil, where they can
be removed.
45. Crankcase Lubrication
a. Drain Intervals. Crankcase drain inter-
vals for engines are prescribed by pertinent lu-
brication orders for each item of equipment. It
will be noted that drain intervals prescribed are
for normal operating conditions and may be
reduced by one-third to one-half when operat-
ing under unusual conditions which will cause
excessive sludge or undesirable elements in the
engine oil. Unusual conditions are excessively
high or low operating temperature, prolonged
periods of high speed, continued operation in
sand or dust, immersion in water, or exposure
to moisture which may contaminate or quickly
destroy the lubricating and protective qualities
of the lubricant.
b. Changing Crankcase Oil. Drain crank-
case oil when engine and oil are at operating
temperature. If the engine oil and the filter
element indicate the presence of an unusual
amount of engine sludge, water, or rust, the
crankcase is to be flushed with an engine-con-
ditioning oil.
(1) Remove filter cover, discard element,
and install cover.
47
TM 9-273

(2) Fill crankcase to low mark with an en-
gine-conditioning oil. Run engine for
30 minutes at a fast idle with engine
temperature held to 185 ° F.
(3) Just prior to stopping engine, return
to normal idle for 1 minute. Repeat
operation three times.
(4) Stop engine and drain oil.
(5) Remove oil filter cover and wipe in-
terior of filter housing clean, then
install new filter element. Be sure
gasket is in serviceable condition.
(6) Fill crankcase with the prescribed oil.
Refer to applicable technical manual
or lubrication order for crankcase ca-
pacity.

OPENING AIR

BREATHER
TUBE

Figure 37. Position crankcase ventilation.

VAPOR CRANKCASE

RA PD 183848

Figure 36. Crankcase breather tube.

48

Section II. ACCESSORIES
46. Air Cleaners and Breathers
Air cleaners generally use oil and therefore
are serviced at the same time and by the same
personnel who do the lubrication work. Air, if
not filtered, will carry dirt and dust into the
cylinders with resulting abrasive action to cylin-
der walls, pistons, and other parts. Air clean-
ers are generally the oil-bath type (fig. 38).
In these devices, a reservoir of oil is provided
and the incoming air is brought into contact
with the surface of the oil. As the incoming air
strikes the surface of the oil, the heavier parti-
cles of dust are deposited in the bath. The air
reverses its direction and picks up minute parti-
cles of oil which it deposits, together with
remaining lighter particles of dust, on a filter
through which it passes before entering the en-
gine. Some engines are equipped with dry-type
air cleaners. These filters may be cleaned by
gently tapping the cartridge and blowing off
with compressed air.
47. Coolants, Pumps, and Fans
a. Need for Cooling. All internal combus-
tion engines are equipped with some type of
cooling system because of the high tempera-
tures they generate during operation. High
temperature is necessary since it results in the
high gas pressures which act on the head of the
piston. Without high temperature, power can-
not be produced efficiently. However, it is not
possible to use all of the heat of combustion
without producing harmful results. There is no
accurate method of measuring the temperature
in the combustion chamber during the burning
of fuel, but it has been determined to be about
twice the temperature at which iron melts.
Therefore, if nothing is done to cool the engine
during operation, valves will burn and warp,
lubricating oil will break down, pistons and
bearings will overheat, and pistons will seize
in the cylinders.
(1) Heat created by combustion must be
dissipated by the cooling system.
Other important, but often over-
looked, mediums of cooling an inter-
nal combustion engine are the fuel
and the lubricant. Cooling is not
TM 9-273
their primary purpose, but they
nevertheless dissipate and appreciable
amount of heat. Additional heat is
lost through the exhaust. There must
be careful control over the amount of
heat dissipated because thermal effi-
ciency is proportional to the operat-
ing temperature of the engine. For
liquid-cooled engines, the ideal op-
erating temperature is just below the
boiling point of the coolant used if
this temperature is not so high that it
breaks down the lubricant.
(2) Cooling systems usually are classified
as liquid or air. Diesel and gasoline
engine cooling systems are similar me-
chanically; however, the diesel gen-
erates less heat and it is not necessary
that the cooling capacity of its cooling
system be as large as that of a gasoline
engine. Diesel engines usually have
the same size radiators as gasoline en-
gines, but the speed and size of the
fans are reduced.
b. Coolants. Water is the most widely used
coolant for liquid-cooled engines. It should be
clear and soft. Water is usually available, it
costs practically nothing, and its boiling point
falls within the range of efficient operating
temperatures. The main objection to the use of
water is that it has a high freezing point and
cannot be used alone at temperatures below
32 ° F. Ethylene glycol is used in some liquid-
cooled aircraft engines where the cooling sys-
tem is sealed. Its advantages are that it does
not evaporate in use, has a higher boiling point
than water, does not require renewal unless lost
through leakage. TB ORD 651 covers the use
of approved antifreeze compounds for military
vehicles.
c. Additives.
(1) When a vehicle is operated where the
atmospheric temperatures fall below
32 ° F., an antifreeze solution must be
added if water is used as the cooling
liquid. The solution in common use
is ethylene glycol, prepared for use
and called arctic compound. Ethylene
glycol (antifreeze compound) has a
49
TM 9-273
TO CARBURETOR
A-COVER GASKET D-FiLTER ELEMENT
B-COVER E-CLAMP
C-WING NUT F-CLAMP SEAL
Figuwre 38. Air cleaner.
high boiling point, does not evaporate
in use, is noncorrosive, has no odor,
and gives complete protection when
used in the proper amount. The max-
imum protection from freezing is ob-
tained from a solution of 40-percent
water and 60-percent ethylene glycol
antifreeze compound. This mixture
gives protection at temperatures as
low as -65 ° F. A higher concentra-
tion of ethylene glycol antifreeze com-
pound will only raise the freezing
point of the solution. If 100-percent
ethylene glycol antifreeze compound
is used, the freezing point is about
10 ° F. Other antifreeze solutions,
however, do not show this increase of
50
G-THROAT GASKET
H-OIL RESERVOIR P D L
J-ELEMENT GASKET RA PD 20
freezing point with increasing concen-
tration. For instance, methyl alchol
freezes at -144 ° F., while ethyl alco-
hol freezes at-174° F.
(2) The cooling system must be free of
rust and scale in order to maintain its
efficiency. The use of inhibitors or
rust preventatives will reduce or pre-
vent corrosion and the formation of
scale. Inhibitors are not cleaners and
do not remove rust or scale already
formed; they are merely added to the
cooling liquid to arrest further rust or
corrosion. Most commercial anti-
freeze solutions contain an inhibitor.
If water alone is used as the coolant,
an inhibitor should be added.

d. Flow of the Coolant. A simple liquid
cooling system consists of a radiator, coolant
pump, piping, fan, thermostat, and a system of
jackets and passages in the-cylinder head and
cylinder block through which the coolant circu-
lates. Some engines are equipped with a water
distribution tube inside the cooling passages
that directs additional coolant to the points
where temperatures are highest. Cooling of
the engine parts is accomplished by keeping the
coolant circulating and in contact with the met-
al surfaces to be cooled. The pump draws the
coolant from the bottom of the radiator, forces
it through the jackets and passages, and ejects
it into the upper tank on top of the radiator
(fig. 39). The coolant passes through a set of
tubes to the bottom of the radiator and again
is circulated through the engine by the action
of the pump. A fan draws air over the outside
of the tubes in the radiator and cools the liquid
as it flows downward. It should be noted that
the liquid is pumped through the radiator from
the top down. The reason for this direction of
flow is that thermosiphon action aids the pump
to circulate the coolant. This simply means
that as the coolant is heated in the jackets of
the engine, it expands, becomes lighter, and
flows upward to the top of the radiator. As
cooling then takes place in the radiator tubes,
the coolant contracts, becomes heavier, and
sinks to the bottom. This desirable thermosi-
phon action cannot take place if the level of the
coolant is permitted to become low.
e. Engine Water Jacket.
(1) The water passages in the cylinder
block and cylinder head form the en-
gine water jacket (fig. 39). In the cyl-
inder block, the water jacket com-
pletely surrounds all cylinders along
their full length. Within the jacket,
narrow water passages are provided
between cylinders for coolant circula-
tion. In addition, water passages are
provided around the valve seats and
other hot parts of the cylinder block.
(2) In the cylinder head, the water jacket
covers the combustion chambers at the
top of the cylinders and contains
water passages around the valve seats
when they are located in the head.
TM 9-273
The coolant flows from the cylinder
block up into the cylinder head
through passages called water trans-
fer ports. A tight seal at the ports be-
tween the cylinder head and block is
very important. The watertight seal
at the ports, as well as the gastight
seal at the combustion-chamber open-
ings, is obtained with one large gasket
called the cylinder-head gasket. It
has two functions to perform: it must
seal the extreme pressures of combus-
tion within the cylinders and, at the
same time, maintain a tight seal in the
coolant joints at the water transfer
ports.
f. Radiator. Radiators for automotive vehi-
cles using liquid-cooled systems consist of two
tanks (fig. 39) with a core between them to
form the radiating element. The upper tank
contains an outside pipe called the radiatorin-
let and usually has a coolant baffle inside and
above or at the inlet opening. The radiator fil-
ler neck is generally attached to the upper part
of the upper tank and has an outlet to the over-
flow pipe. The lower tank also has a pipe
opening (radiator outlet).
(1) The upper tank collects incoming
coolant and distributes it across the
top of the radiator core. The baffle in
the tank assists in distributing the
coolant to the water tubes and also
prevents coolant from being thrown
out of the radiator. The overflow
pipe provides an opening from the
radiator for escape of coolant or
steam that otherwise might cause ex-
cessive pressure, which would rupture
the thin metal walls of the radiator.
The lower tank collects coolant flow-
ing from the core and discharges it
through the radiator outlet.
(2) Some liquid-cooling systems have tu-
bular radiator cores which consists of
a large number of vertical water tubes
and many horizontal air fins around
the tubes. Water passages in the
tubes are narrow, and the tubes are
made of thin metal. The core divides
the coolant into very thin columns or
51
TM 9-273

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52

ribbons, thus exposing a large ra-
diating surface to the volume of liquid
to be cooled.
g. Water Pump. All modern cooling sys-
tems have water pumps to circulate the coolant.
The pump (fig. 40), usually located on the
front or side of the engine block, receives cool-
ant from the lower tank and forces it through
the water jacket into the upper tank. The pump
is a centrifugal type and has an impeller with
blades, which force the coolant outward as the
impeller rotates. The pump and fan usually are
driven from a common V-belt which is driven
by a pulley at the front end of the crankshaft.
Advantages of the centrifugal pump are that it
is inexpensive, circulates great quantities of
liquid for its size, and is not clogged easily by
small particles of dirt. Another advantage is
that it permits limited circulation by thermosi-
phon action even if the engine is not running.
Some water pumps are not lubricated, while
others take GAA grease quarterly or every 750
miles.
AH
Figure 40. Water pump.
TM 9-273
h. Fan and Shroud. The fan circulates a
large volume of air through the radiator core.
In addition to removing heat from the radiator,
this flow of air also provides some direct air
cooling of the engine. Military vehicles are
often equipped with a funnel-like structure
(shroud) around and behind the fan. The
shroud directs the flow of air for most effective
cooling.
i. Thermostat. The water pump starts the
coolant circulating through the system as soon
as the engine is started, no matter how low the
temperature, so a thermostat must be installed
to insure quick warmup and to prevent over-
cooling in cold weather. A thermostat regulates
engine temperature by automatically control-
ling the amount of coolant flowing from the
engine block to the radiator core.
(1) The thermostat is merely a heat-op-
erated unit which controls a valve
between the water jacket and the ra-
diator. A typical thermostat (fig. 41)
consists of a flexible-metal bellows
attached to a valve. The sealed bel-
lows, which is expandable, is filled
with a highly volatile liquid such as
ether. When the liquid is cold, the
bellows chamber is contracted and the
valve is closed (fig. 42). When heat-
ed, the liquid is vaporized and ex-
pands the chamber. As the chamber
expands, the valve opens (fig. 43).
When the engine is cold, the thermo-
stat is closed and the coolant is recir-
culated through the water jacket
without entering the radiator. As the
engine warms up, the valve slowly
opens and some of the coolant begins
to flow through the radiator, where
it is cooled. Other types include a
sealed copper bellows containing only
air; another is bimetallic and for its
operation depends upon the differ-
ence in coefficients of expansion of
the two metals.
(2) The thermostat is located between the
water jacket and the radiator, usually
in the housing of the cylinder-head-
water-outlet elbow (fig. 39). It
should be constructed so that, if it
53
 TM 9-273
fails to function properly, it will fail
in the open position, allowing free
circulation of water through the en-
gine.
(3) Some military vehicles are equipped
with air inlet screens or shutters.
They have no direct connection with
the cooling system and are primarily
for protection. However, they may be
used to supplement or replace the ac-
tion of a thermostat, and are operated
either by hand or automatically by a
thermostatic device. The shutters re-
strict the flow of cool air through the
radiator when the coolant is below a
predetermined temperature. When
the coolant reaches the proper tem-
perature, the shutters start to open.
j. Pressure Radiator Cap. Some cooling sys-
tems are sealed and use a pressure radiator cap
(figs. 44 and 45) to close off the overflow-pipe
opening. If the overflow pipe were open, the
surging movement of the coolant as the vehicle
=Cw
ffff~~ff~THERMOSTAT
:: G:S00000C:ASK
Figure 41. Thermostat.
54
moved would allow some of the coolant to over-
flow into the pipe and be lost. The pressure
cap serves to prevent overflow loss of coolant
during normal operation. It also allows a cer-
tain amount of pressure to develop within the
system, which raises the boiling point of the
coolant and permits the engine to operate at
higher temperatures without coolant overflow
from boiling. The cap contains two spring-
loaded valves, normally closed, which seal the
system. The larger is the pressure valve and
the smaller is the vacuum valve. The pressure
valve acts as a safety valve to relieve extra pres-
sure within the system; the vacuum valve opens
only when the pressure within the cooling sys-
tem drops below the outside air pressure as the
engine cools off. Higher outside pressure then
forces the vacuum valve to open, allowing air to
enter the system by way of the overflow pipe.
RDIATOR f:RLLER
CAP
ENGINE COLDVALVE CLOSED:BY
THERMOSTAT ALLOWSWATER :TO CiRCULATE
:THROUGH THE ENGINE BUT NOT THElA i
RA PD 183842
Figure 42. Thermostat closed.

wI __
ENGINE WAR-VLV OPENEDBY
THERMOSTAT ALOWS; WAER TO CIRCULAE
THROUGH TE ENGINE AND THE RADIATOR
RA PO 183843
Figure 48. Thermostat open.
k. Overflow Tank, When the cooling sys-
tem is equipped with an overflow tank, the
pressure cap is placed on the tank instead of on
the radiator, and a plain cap is used on the
radiator. Overflow, or surge, tanks are special
equipment for operation in hot or dry country.
The coolant expands as it is heated and con-
tracts as it cools; consequently, the level of the
coolant in the radiator is constantly changing as
the engine operating temperature changes.
This condition is further aggravated when the
temperature becomes high enough to change the
water to steam. The expansion is much greater
and the pressure is also increased. The over-
flow tank makes it possible to keep the radiator
full at all times. Overflow from the radiator,
caused by the expansion or surging of steam
vapor within the cooling system, passes through
TM 9-273
a tube to the overflow tank. The pressure cap
on the overflow tank controls the pressure with-
in the system in the same manner as described
in j above. The plain cap on the radiator ef-
fectively seals the radiator opening so that the
only vent to the atmosphere is through the cap
on the overflow tank. When the coolant cools
off, it contracts and the pressure in the upper
part of the radiator drops below atmospheric.
The pressure in the overflow tank, which is
maintained above atmospheric by the pressure
cap, forces the liquid to return to the radiator
to be recirculated through the engine.
48. Starters, Generators, Distributors,
and Magnetos
a. General. Starters, generators, distribu-
tors, and magnetos must be lubricated accord-
ing to pertinent lubrication orders. Care must
be taken not to overlubricate them as they are
electrical devices. Excess oil or grease is liable
to find its way into windings, onto contact
points, brushes, etc., which would cause insula-
tion deterioration, short circuits, excessive arc:,
ing or sparking at brushes, etc.
b. Starters. Starters operate only intermit-
tently and then only for short periods. They
are generally equipped with oilless bearings.
Some, however, are equipped with snap-top oil
cups for one or both armature bearings and
some for heavy duty are equipped with ball
bearings. When equipped with oil cups, start-
ers occasionally should receive a few drops of
oil where directed in lubrication orders or tech-
nical manuals. Ball bearings used on starters
ordinarily are packed with grease and require
no lubrication between rebuilds.
c. Generators. There are two common types
of bearing arrangements in generators (fig.
46)-ball bearings at both ends of the arma-
ture, and a ball bearing at the drive end and a
plain bronze bushed bearing at commutator
end. This bushing is lubricated by means of
an oil cup on the commutator end of the gen-
erator. Generators should be inspected to de-
termine whether lubrication service is required.
Where the oil cup is present on the commutator
end of the generator, it should be filled with 6
55
TM 9-273
OVERFLOW /
PIPE
Figure 44. Preessure radiatorcap.
to 8 drops of oil where prescribed by the lubri-
cation order. Oil of the same grade used in the
engine generally is used for lubrication regard-
less of the type of bearings. Do not overlubri-
cate oil cups in generators.
d. Distributors. Distributors (fig. 47) com-
monly use plain bronze bearings lubricated by
a single grease cup. A turn clockwise will force
grease into the shaft bearing. The cap should
be checked and kept filled with GAA grease.
The felt in the top of the cam beneath the rotor
should be lubricated with oil. Care must be
taken not to overlubricate the felt as this will
cause carbon deposits and short circuiting of
the distributor points. The breaker cam must
be wiped lightly with grease where directed in
pertinent lubrication orders or technical man-
uals.
56
RA PD 183844
e, Magnetos. Ball bearings are used on
shafts of most magnetos and generally are oil-
lubricated through snap cover oilers. Some
magnetos also incorporate an oil-saturated wick
which maintains lubrication on the breaker
cam. As with other electrical devices, care must
be taken that overlubrication does not occur, as
this may cause short circuit and other troubles.
The lubrication instructions given in pertinent
lubrication orders and technical manuals
should be followed carefully.
49. Miscellaneous
Other parts of an engine require lubrication
to keep them in working order. Some of these
areas are-
 TM 9-273

Figure 45. Overflow tank and pressure cap.

a. Governors. Most governors are of the
centrifugal type and incorporate plain friction-
type or ball bearings. These bearings general-
ly are oil lubricated, the oil being automatically
furnished from the engine crankcase.
b. Linkages. A number of controls link-
ages, levers, rods, flexible wires, etc., are al-
ways found on any engine. These have various
connections and guides where friction can
occur. Such parts must be lubricated with oil
or grease following instructions in the pertinent
lubrication orders or technical manuals.

57
TM 9-273

Figure 46. Cross section of typicaJ generator.

FigurX ~7. T t yia disftiuoPD 103998A

Figure 47. Typical distributor.

58

CHAPTER 7
AUTOMOTIVE MATERIEL; DRIVE MECHANISMS
Section I. CLUTCHES
50. General
Automotive clutches depend upon friction
for their operation, whether it is solid friction
as in a plate clutch, or fluid friction as in fluid
couplings. A clutch provides a means of con-
necting and disconnecting the engine from the
drive system.
51. Types of Clutches
a,. Dry Clutches. The clutch assembly (fig.
48) is made of two faces, one which is at-
tached to the engine and one which is applied
to the drive system. These faces may be ma-
chined cast-iron or they may be covered with
some suitable frictionable material. In either
case no lubrication is required between the
faces. Lubrication is needed in the pilot bear-
ing, yoke, and release bearing so that the
driven face will move freely into and out of
contact with the driving face when the clutch
pedal is released or depressed.
b. Fluid Clutches. The principle of this
type of drive is illustrated by the action of two
electric fans facing each other, one with the
power on and one with the power off. As the
speed of the power-driven fan increases, the
flow of air transmits power to the motionless
fan and it begins to rotate. The free-running
fan gains speed until it is rotating almost as
TM 9-273
rapidly as the power-driven fan. The same ac-
tion takes place in the fluid clutch except that
oil instead of air transmits the power. The
only parts of a fluid clutch (fig. 49) requir-
ing lubrication are the bearings upon which
the driving and driven shafts rotate. These
bearings are oiled by the clutch oil.
c. Torque Converters. The torque conver-
ter (fig. 50) acts as both a clutch and a trans-
mission. It uses fluid as a medium for trans-
mitting motion and power. The converter con-
sists of four major parts; a centrifugal pump
driven by the engine, a coaxial three-stage ro-
tor attached to the output shaft of the engine,
a hydraulic housing, and reactor blades at-
tached to the inside of the housing. Oil is forced
against the blades of the rotor (fig. 50) caus-
ing it to rotate in the same direction as the
pump. Reversing blades on the rotor change
the direction of the oil after it has delivered
its energy. The oil re-enters the pump with its
motion corrected. The torque converter re-
quires oil of very high stability because violent
churning action at high temperatures takes
place. Generally, a cooling radiator is required
to keep the oil within safe operating tempera-
tures. Pertinent lubrication orders must be
followed when servicing a torque converter.
The bearings are self-lubricated by the fluid
being used.
59
TM 9-273

CLUTCH HOUSING~t~
ENGINE FLYWHEEL WITH RING GEAR~
CLUTCH PRESSURE
CLUTCH DISK FACING RIVET
CLUTCH PRESSURE PLATE BAFFLE
CLUTCH DISK
ENGINE FLYWHEEL ATTACHING BOLT
TRANSMISSION MAIN DRIVE PINION
LUTCH COVER
CLUTCH HOUSjNG HOLE PLUG
-PLATE.-
CLUTCH PRESSURE PLATE SPRING
CLUTCH RELEASE BEARING
PUL -BACK SPRING SCREW
LUTCH RELEASE BEARING
PULL-BACK SPRING
CLUTCH ELEASE BEARING
CLUTCH RELEASE BEARING SLEEVE

ENGINE CRANKSH BSI

N DRIt P
TTRANSMISSIO P
NION TRANSMISSION MAIN DRIVE
INION BEARINGRETAINER
ENGINE CRANKSHAFT
-CLUTCH RELEASE FORK
CLUTCH RELEASE LEVER SPRING
ELESE
CLUCH EVER

CLUTCH ELE I = CLUTCH RELEASE LEVER EYE BOLT NUT

-:CLUTCH RELEASE LEVER STRUT
CLUT F ING -
C: d F CLUTCH HOUSING PAN

RA PD 53237

Figure 48. Single plate dry clutch.

IMPELLER OR
DRIVING TORUS WASHER SCREW
FLYWHEEL GASKET

I I
I

RA PD 183931

Figure49. Fluid clutch disassembled.

60
 TM 9-273

FRQNT
ROTOR iRQTOWWAR BEARiNG

REACTOR ; E
FIRST STAGED

Figure 50. Torque converter showing rotors, housing, and reactors.

Section II. TRANSMISSIONS, DIFFERENTIALS, AND DRIVE SHAFTS

52. Transmissions
The more common devices used in transmis-
sions and which require lubrication are rotat-
ing and sliding friction-type bearings, ball
bearings, roller bearings, tapered roller bear-
ings, thrust bearings, splines, synchronizing
clutches, gear teeth, shifting yokes, oil pumps,
etc. Lubrication of all the bearing surfaces in
a transmission generally is accomplished by
making the lower part of the transmission
housing a reservoir into which certain of the
gears dip, the remainder of the bearing sur-
faces being lubricated by the dip or splash sys-
tems or a combination of these. Some trans-
missions, particularly those for tanks or other
heavy unit, combine the dip and pressure cir-
culation systems, lubricating oil being de-
livered to certain bearing surfaces by the dip
system and to others by an oil pump built into
the transmission. Most transmissions which in-
corporate a pressure circulation system for oil
also make use of an auxiliary radiator to cool
the oil between trips through the transmis-
sions. Figures 51 and 52 show various trans-
missions. Figure 51 is a cross section of a se-
lective gear transmission and shows the various
parts and surfaces to be lubricated. Parts to
be lubricated include plain friction-type bear-
ings both rotating and sliding, splined shafts,
gear faces, ball bearings, straight roller bear-
ings, tapered roller bearings, etc. Figure 52
shows a synchromesh tank transmission incor-
porating five speeds forward and reverse, and
an oil pump (not shown) furnishing pressure
circulation of oil to the gears on the upper or
driving shaft which is above the level of the
oil in the bottom of the housing. Although
not shown in the illustration of this transmis-
sion, all the change gears mounted on the
driving and driven shafts run on tapered bear-
ings. Oil from the pump enters the hollow
driving shaft, flows out through the roller
bearings, runs over the gear teeth, and falls
back into the bottom of the housing. Some
units provide for cooling the oil before it goes
61
 TM 9-273
to the bearings. With the lubrication system
of the transmission in operation, enough oil
finds its way onto the friction surfaces of the
transmission to keep them properly lubricated.
Transmissions for vehicles equipped with aux-
iliary units such as winches, cranes, etc., re-
quiring power drive generally are so con-
structed as to allow power takeoff. Surfaces to
be lubricated in the power takeoff are of the
same types as in the transmission and are lu-
bricated by the dip system from oil in the trans-
mission housing. Since the construction of
transmission is so varied, the lubrication in-
structions in pertinent lubrication orders and
technical manuals should be followed care-
fully. Special attention should be given to
checking the oil levels, proper draining and
flushing, and cleaning of magnetic drain
plugs. Many types of tracked vehicles use
a cross-drive transmission system in which a
torque converter, a lock up clutch, and a plane-
tary geared transmission are combined to
transmit power to track-driving sprockets.
Figure 51. Cross section of typical five-speed transmission.
62
Lubrication of these systems is done periodi-
cally (semiannually or each 1,000 miles) by
draining, cleaning, and refilling with oil
(OE). Daily checks of the oil level is
required.
53. Universal Joints
a. Universal Joints for Drive Shafts. Basi-
cally the universal joint in most common use
(fig. 53) consists of two U-shaped yokes fas-
tened to the ends of the shafts or parts that
are to be connected. A cross-shaped piece, lo-
cated within these yokes, has four trunnions
fitted into bearings on the yokes. At the pres-
ent time, these bearings are generally of the
needle type. A lubricating fitting and relief
valve generally are incorporated. One of the
yokes often includes a slip joint which takes
care of slight variations in length necessary be-
cause of movement of the axles or wheels.
The lubricant for this slip joint is the same as
for the universal joint. On some slip joints, it
SLIDE BEARINGS
toROLLER BEARINGS
TAPER-ROLLER BEARINGS
-- BALL BEARINGS
- NEEDLE BEARI NGS
THRUST BEARINGS
GEAR TEETH
-- PLAIN FRICTION TYPE BEARINGS
*TE OIL LEVEL
RA PO 109104

Figure 52. Synchromesh tank transmission
incorporatingpressure circulationsystem.
Figure 53. Typical universal joint with slip joint.
is necessary to remove a plug and install a lu-
brication fitting to lubricate the joint. The lu-
bricating fitting must be removed and the orig-
inal plug installed after lubrication. A change
of fittings might be sufficient to throw the
shaft out of balance and cause serious
vibration.
b. Universal Joints For Propeller Shafts.
Propeller shaft universal joints on some
wheeled vehicles may still carry manufacturer's
instruction plates which specify the lubricant to
be used for the lubrication of universal joints.
This instruction may be in contradiction to the
lubricant prescribed by the applicable lubrica-
tion order and therefore must be ignored. In-
structions on applicable lubrication orders will
be followed regardless of contrary instructions
TM 9-273
of manufacturer's plates. At time or rebuild
or removal from vehicle, the manufacturer's in-
struction plate should be defaced.
c. Universal Joints For Front Wheels. The
use of front wheels for driving as well as
steering purposes made necessary a universal
joint in which the angular velocity of the
driven shaft was not affected by the angle of
drive. Several joints of the constant velocity
type have been developed (fig. 54). Front
wheel universals are usually inclosed by parts
of the axle and although the surfaces to be
lubricated vary, they are usually lubricated
with GAA grease. Instructions in pertinent
lubrication orders or technical manuals must
be followed. It is important that universal
joints and splines be lubricated adequately.
Not only is the full power of the engine
carried through these small joints, but when
the vehicle is going down hill using the en-
gine as a brake the stress is reversed. The
housings are not to be filled above the inspec-
tion plug hole. Grease expands as the tem-
perature increases if too much lubricant has
been added, the pressure may rupture the
grease seals due to the heat of operation.
Lubricate in accordance with instructions in
pertinent lubrication order and technical
manual.
54. Driving Gears, Differentials, and
Associated Mechanisms
a. General. Most of the lubrication of these
mechanisms concerns gears of various types
and the shafts or bearings on which they ro-
tate. In practically all cases, the housings serve
as reservoirs for the oil and lubrication is by
the dip system. The lubricating oil must be
changed at regular intervals as specified in
pertinent lubrication orders and technical man-
uals. This should be done directly after the
vehicle has been operated for a considerable
period, at which time the oil is comparatively
warm and fluid. Compressed air should not
be used to hurry the draining of a reservoir,
for this may result in oil seals being blown
with possible leakage of oil onto the brakes or
other parts. A reservoir must not be filled
above the oil level specified. Particular care
is necessary in cold weather as the thick lu-
bricant may pile up at the end of the filling
63
TM 9-273
PILOT PIN SEAT
Figure 54. Constant velocity universal shaft sectional view.
nozzle and give an incorrect indication of the
amount of lubricant introduced.
b. Driving Gears. Driving gears may be
divided into the following classification:
straight bevel gears, spiral gears, hypoid
gears, and worm gears. There are other types
of driving gears but in general the above are
the main types. Hypoid gears present a partic-
ular problem due to the fact that rolling ac-
tion and considerable sliding action are com-
bined. It is necessary, therefore, that a spe-
cial lubricant be used with hypoid gears. In
general, driving gears as well as their antifric-
tion bearings are lubricated by the dip system.
Operating temperatures normally are low and
a lubricant of comparatively heavy body gener-
ally is used.
c. Differentials. A differential (fig. 55) is
the mechanism by which the torque on the two
driving axles is equalized. The bearing sur-
faces of a differential requiring lubrication are
the antifriction bearings on which the differ-
ential cage rotates, the teeth of the differential
pinions and side gears, and the bearings of the
differential pinions in the cage. All of those
bearing surfaces are lubricated by the dip sys-
tem from oil held in the bottom of the hous-
ing. The bearings between the differential
64
j1: 0\. BIPLANE OF DRIVING ENGAGEMENT
RA PD '83957
pinions and the cage operate intermittently
and then only at low speeds. They are gener-
ally friction-type bearings for both the radial
and thrust loads, and sometimes incorporate a
thrust washer of bronze or some other such
bearing material (fig. 56). The drive gears
and the antifriction bearings of the cage, how-
ever, require careful lubrication. The oil in
the housing must be kept at the correct level
and pertinent lubrication orders and technical
manuals must be followed in regard to check-
ing, draining, and replenishing.
d. Driving Axles. The inner ends of nearly
all driving axles used on automotive materiel
are splined to the differential side gears, and
such lubrication, as is necessary, is furnished
by the oil in the axle housing. The outer ends
of the driving axles are splined or keyed and,
except for those of the semifloating type, carry
none of the weight of the vehicle and have no
bearings. An axle of the semifloating type
carries the weight of the vehicle on its outer
end and has an antifriction bearing installed
between the driving axle and the outer end of
the axle housing. This bearing carries a com-
bined radial and thrust load, and secures the
axle in place longitudinally in the housing.
Such an antifriction bearing generally is lu-
bricated either through a lubricating fitting or
 TM 9-273

because friction resulting from the braking ac-

tion in steering results in considerable heat.
IF
ji PINION SHAFT AND PNION

Cooling is done by dipping the contacting sur-

faces of the ferrous metal drum and the fric-
TAPFRROLLERBEARINGS
tion lining of the brake bands into the lubri-
DIFFERENTIAL
SIDE GEAR I
cant in the bottom of the housing. The oil
DIFFERENTIAL C-CO5
GEAR THRUSTWASHER \
DIFFERENTIAL fl JC) lubricates the friction surfaces and cools the
AXLESHAFT
4HRUST WASHI drum and bands. It is general practice to use
N
DlFFERENIIAL It 1-.?
I_ r '1 an oil pump to circulate the oil from the bot-
tom of the housing through a radiator or
cooler to dissipate the excess heat. In some
vehicles the transmission is often included in
AXLE SHAFi the same oil circulation system.
f. Final Drives. On tanks or other slow
?W;P-tLLER AND OL
N moving vehicles, another speed reduction often
~/ s AXLE Hou~.IN~'
'~i~:~$ is incorporated as a final drive between the
TAPFR-ROt'£R BEARINGS
driving axle coming from the differential and
RA PO i09V¢! the final drive shaft. The parts to be lubri-
cated in such a drive (fig. 58) generally con-
Figure 55. Drive gears and differential. sist of antifriction bearings carrying both
thrust and radial load and a set of gears. Lu-
by removing and repacking with grease where brication is by the dip or splash systems from
directed in pertinent lubrication order and oil held in the bottom of the housing.
technical manual. g. Transfer Case. A transfer case consists of
e. Controlled Differentials. Controlled dif- a housing inclosing a series of gears by means
ferentials (fig. 57) are used in full track lay- of which power is transferred from the main
ing vehicles and, not only automatically equal- drive line to any auxiliary units that may re-
ize the torque applied to the two tracks, al- quire power for their operation. Transfer cases
lowing them to travel at different speeds to provide for the operation of front wheel
compensate for slippage, irregular ground, drives, pulleys, hydraulic pumps, winches,
etc., but provide a means for steering. Steer- cranes, dual rear axles, and other mechanisms.
ing is accomplished by two brakes by means of Figure 59 shows a typical transfer case incor-
which resistance may be applied to either side, porating high- and low-speed driving ranges,
resulting in the slowing of the track on that drive to front axle, and drive to the rear axle.
side. Although the gears are of a different In general, transfer mechanisms are similar to
type and greater in number, the lubrication transmissions in principle, surfaces to be lu-
problems of the more common forms of con- bricated, and lubrication problems, and nearly
trolled differentials are practically the same. always are lubricated by the dip system from
Steering brakes must be lubricated and cooled oil held in the bottom of the housing.

65
TM 9-273

, SIDE GEAR

THRUST WASHER
PINION GEAR
.. THRUST WASHER

RA PD 316833

Figure 56. Differentialwith half of cage removed to show construction.

66
 TM 9-273

TAPERR R MRO-LLNE
;EAt1NG

'\ f
BALL BEARINGS F RICTION BRAKE

LI - I - - ', -- I co

,L....~~ i I

- - 4 _
-ROtLER
iSTRAI,HIT B[EAR iNt
,
;~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

II
A¸ ~,,'"
NEEDLE BEARINGS
GEAR' TEETH
RA PD 109107

Figure 57. Partialsection of a controlled differentialand final drive with steering

brake.

67
TM 9-273

FLANGE

X W: M tT000 :T art: t~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

SPROCKT SHAft
PD 183966
RA

Figure 58. Final drive cross-sectionalview.

68
 TM 9-273

(REAR)

A-SLIDE BEARING
8- BALL BEARING
C GEAR TEETH
D -v- JOURNAL BEARING
E-ROL LER BEARING

RA PD 109105

Figure 59. Cross section of a typical transfer case.

69

CHAPTER 8
AUTOMOTIVE MATERIEL; BRAKING, STEERING, AND SUSPENSIONS
Section I. BRAKING
55. General
Friction does not always act to our disad-
vantage. In our discussion on clutches it was
shown that friction can be used to transmit
power. Braking action, too, is the advantage-
ous use of friction to retard or stop a motion.
In defining friction we said that it is the re-
sistance to relative motion between two sur-
faces in contact. In automotive braking we
bring a stationary surface into contact with a
moving surface. This supplies the necessary
factor-relative motion-to create the resistive
force-friction. The moving surface will sur-
render its motion to friction. While the basic
duty of automotive equipment is movement, it
is equally important to stop the motion; some-
times very quickly. The braking action of ve-
hicles must be equal to the action of the en-
gines and driving mechanisms. In cases of
emergency it must be far greater. It is possible
to accelerate a 100-horsepower vehicle in 36
seconds to 80 miles per hour. By full applica-
tion of braking, the same vehicle can be
stopped in 4.5 seconds. Thus, we can see that
the braking power is 8 times the engine power.
a,. Braking Mechanisms. All braking sys-
tems have basic parts: they are rotating or mov-
ing parts, stationary parts, and means to bring
them together. One means of contacting the
moving parts and the stationary parts is done
by hydraulics. This manual is concerned with
lubricants and hydraulic liquids so only this
system will be discussed.
b. Brakedums, Shoes, and Plates.
(1) Brakedrums. The rotating part of a
brake system is made of cast iron or
TM 9-273
steel. It is circular and is tightly se-
cured to a rotating member such as a
shaft or a wheel.
(2) Brakeshoes. The stationary member
consists of a metal form on which
ceramic or asbestos material is fas-
tened. The lining or facing has the
ability to absorb and dissipate heat
without bonding or seizing to the
drum.
(3) Plates. Brakes designed with plates
are used when larger surfaces are re-
quired. The facings on the plates are
the same materials as those used on
the shoes.
(4) Linkages. The cables and anchor bear-
ings require a periodic lubrication
with general purpose oil.
56. Hydraulic Systems
a, General. The pressure applied to the
brake pedal is transmitted by a liquid to the
wheel cylinders. This is possible because a
liquid cannot be compressed and a confined
liquid transmits a force equally in all
directions.
b. Operations. The brake pedal, when
pushed down, moves the piston in the master
cylinder, forcing the liquid from the cylinder
through tubes to the wheel cylinder. The
fluid pushes against pistons in the wheel cyl-
inders forcing them to activate a linkage
which brings the shoes in contact with the
drums.
c. Fluid. The liquid used for hydraulic
braking is called brake fluid. It is generally
71
 TM 9-273
a mixture of an alcohol and a vegetable oil.
The combination will not evaporate or freeze
at temperatures encountered in year-round op-
eration of vehicles.
d. Bleeding. Air will enter the hydraulic
brake system if the fluid level is too low in
Section II. STEERING AND SUSPENSIONS
57. Steering and Wheel Bearing
Mechanisms
a. General, This paragraph will discuss the
lubrication of the various wheel bearings,
steering gears, linkages, tracks, track rollers,
driving sprockets, idlers, bogie wheels,
springs, spring shackles, shock absorbers, in-
dividually sprung front wheels, etc., on which
many vehicles are suspended and transported.
Detailed instructions for any particular vehicle
are given in pertinent lubrication orders and
technical manuals; instructions contained there-
in must be followed.
b. Front Wheel Bearings. Front wheel
bearings (fig. 60) of the automotive vehicles
of today are of the antifriction type carrying
both radial and thrust loads. It is necessary
that the wheel bearings be packed with a
grease that will give proper lubrication over
considerable mileage, and the grease must be
of such a type that it will cling to the bearings,
stay in, and not creep out onto the brakes.
Most wheel bearing lubricants are a short
fiber sodium soap product having a high melt-
ing point, a minimum tendency to separate or
creep, yet sufficient tackiness to cling to the
balls or rollers under the centrifugal force de-
veloped in the bearings at high speeds.
(1) Lubrication procedure. In lubricating
front wheel bearings, the wheel is
removed, all old grease is washed
out of the bearings with dry-cleaning
solvent, and the bearings dried. In
drying bearings, with compressed air,
it is possible to damage the bearings
and also cause rusting if the air con-
tains moisture. See TM 9-214 for
methods of drying with compressed
air. In packing bearings, the lubri-
cant must be introduced carefully
72
the master cylinder or if fluid leaks anywhere.
Since air seriously effects braking efficiency,
the hydraulic system should be bled whenever
brakes are adjusted. The fluid in the master
cylinder should be maintained at full level.
between the balls or rollers by hand
or with a packer and must not be just
smeared on the outside. Great care
must be exercised to see that dirt,
grit, lint, or other contaminants are
not introduced into the bearings. If
bearings are not to be installed im-
mediately, they should be wrapped
in clean oilproof paper to protect
them from dirt. Before installing re-
packed bearings, grease retainers
should be checked to see that they
are in proper condition and replaced
if necessary. The old-time method
packing the hub cap with grease and
using it as a grease cup is not to be
used under any circumstances, as this
procedure may rupture the grease
seal and result in grease-soaked brake
linings. Coat the spindle and inside
of the hub with a thin layer of grease
(not over 1/16 inch) to prevent
rusting.
(2) Adjustment of bearings after lubrica-
tion. A necessary part of the task of
lubricating front wheel bearings is
their proper adjustment after repack-
ing. The adjusting nut should be
drawn up until the wheel binds
slightly and then backed off so that
the wheel will turn freely. The
amount the nut should be backed off
depends upon the pitch of the thread,
the type of bearing, etc., but explicit
directions will be found in the per-
tinent technical manual. Some bear-
ings give better service if correctly
preloaded. Adjustment is quite criti-
cal and, while it is necessary to draw
the adjusting nut up tight enough to
seat the cones, cups, etc., firmly, care

WHEEL -
NUT
DRIVI NG _
FLANGEi,,
HUB
lEA 6
t1. 0; INNERBEARING
CONE AND CUP
BRAKEDRUM
RA PD 310089
Figure 60. Section of typical front wheel bearings
must be taken not to tighten it suffi-
ciently to injure the balls or rollers.
c. Rear Wheel Bearings. Rear wheel bear-
ings (fig. 61) of automotive materiel are also
of the antifriction type (fig. 63) and gener-
ally are grease-lubricated. The method of in-
troducing the lubricant varies according to the
type of axle construction, the most common
method is removing the wheels and packing
the bearings manually. When lubrication fit-
tings are used, the lubrication order for the
particular vehicle must be carefully followed,
since the application of grease in too great
quantities or too frequently may result in the
rupture of oil seals forcing grease on the
brakes. In some cases the wheel bearings are
lubricated automatically from the rear axle, the
maintenance of the lubricant at the proper
level in the rear axle housing being about the
only service necessary. If a drain or vent is in-
corporated, and the bearings packed with
grease manually, the instructions given for
front wheel bearings in b above apply.
d.. Steering Systems. A steering system
(fig. 62) comprises all mechanisms between
the steering wheel and the connections at the
ends of the steering arms on the front wheels,
and includes friction and antifriction bearings,
gears, cams, worms, ball and socket joints,
TM 9-273
INNER BEARING
CONE AND CUP
INNER OIL SEAL
OUTER
OIL SEAL
BEARING /
ADJUSTING NUT
RAPD 3100376
Figure 61. Sectional view rear wheel bearing.
levers, links, etc. The most important is the
mechanism at the lower end of the steering
column which changes the rotary motion of
the steering wheel into the push and pull mo-
tion necessary at the steering wheels. There
are four types of these mechanisms in common
use at present; namely, ball bearing, cam and
lever, worm and roller, and worm and sector,
each of which will be treated in following
paragraphs. During the periods when a ve-
hicle is moving, all parts of the steering sys-
tem are subject to violent whipping action due
to the roughness of the terrain being trav-
eled, and this introduces shock loads and high
bearing pressures that are liable to pound the
lubricant out from between the bearing sur-
faces leaving the rubbing surfaces bare. For
this reason, it is necessary that regular and
careful attention be given to lubrication and
that the specified lubricants be used. The
lubricant used must have good adhesive qual-
ity and sufficient fluidity to flow back onto
surfaces from which it has been pounded. A
steering gear generally is filled through a hole
in the upper part of the housing and the lu-
bricant used generally is universal gear lubri-
cant. Care must be used not to force the lu-
bricant up through the steering column when
filled through a lubricating fitting.
(1) Ball bearing type. In a steering gear
of the ball bearing type (fig. 63),
73
TM 9-273
the principle of the nut and screw is
employed although the parts are
known commercially as a ball or
worm nut and a worm. This con-
struction gives the action of a screw
but substitutes rolling for sliding
friction. This type of steering gear
requires lubrication of friction radial
and thrust bearings on the shaft, the
rack and gear, the balls transmitting
motion from the worm to the nut,
and the antifriction bearings of the
worm. Lubrication of all bearings is
accomplished by filling the housing
with lubricant which should be
checked, drained, and replaced as di-
rected in pertinent lubrication orders
and technical manuals.
(2) Cam and lever type, A steering gear
of the cam and lever type (fig. 63)
employs a special cam or worm of
variable ratio which engages a
tapered stud or studs on a lever
mounted on the end of the Pitman or
steering arm shaft. This type of
steering gear requires the lubrica-
tion of friction-type bearings carrying
radial and thrust loads, antifriction
bearings on the worm and studs, and
the rolling or sliding bearing of the
stud or studs against the worm. All
of the bearing surfaces are lubricated
by oil contained in the housing. This
oil must be replenished, drained, and
replaced as directed in pertinent lu-
brication orders and technical
manuals.
(3) Worn and roller type. A steering
gear of the worm and roller type
(fig. 63) utilizes a worm or screw
meshing with the edge of a disk-
shaped roller carried on a lever on the
steering arm shaft. Some heavy-duty
steering gears use two rollers in-
stead of one to give more bearing
area and strength. The surfaces to
be lubricated are about the same as
in other steering gears; namely, fric-
tion-type bearings of the steering
arm shaft and of the roller on its
shaft, sliding and rolling between
74
the roller and the worm, and the
antifriction bearings on the worm
shaft. All lubrication is provided by
oil held in the housing. This oil
should be replenished, drained, and
replaced as directed in pertinent lu-
brication orders and technical
manuals.
(4) Worm and sector type. Figure 63
shows two types of steering gears us-
ing a worm and sector. In one type
the sector is in the same plane as the
wormshaft and the teeth are cut on
the edge of the sector, while in the
other type the sector is offset and the
teeth are cut on its face. In the first
type the worm varies in diameter,
while in the second type the worm
is of constant diameter throughout
its length. The surfaces to be lubri-
cated are gear and worm teeth, plain
friction bearings, and antifriction
bearings. Methods of lubrication are
the same as for other types of steering
gears.
(5) Hydraulic steering gears. On the
very large wheeled vehicles, a hy-
draulic aid to steering sometimes is
incorporated. It consists essentially of
an oil reservoir, hydraulic pump
driven by the engine, control valve,
and double acting hydraulic cylinder.
The piston rod of the hydraulic cyl-
inder is connected to an extended
arm of the lever of a cam and lever
type steering gear. With the oil
pump bperating and the steering
wheel stationary, the hydraulic pres-
sure on the two ends of the piston is
balanced, and no force is exerted on
the steering lever in either direction.
While the steering wheel is being
turned, the control valve operates to
create different pressures on the two
ends of the piston, and force is ex-
erted on the steering lever to help
turn the wheels in the desired direc-
tion. As soon as rotation of the steer-
ing wheel stops, the pressure differ-
ential ceases to exist and force no

longer is exerted on the steering
lever. Surfaces to be lubricated in
the hydraulic system include antifric-
tion bearings, plain bearings with ro-
tary and longitudinal motion, oil
seals, etc., but these are lubricated
automatically by the oil used in the
system. The oil supply in the hy-
draulic system reservoir must be re-
plenished, drained, and replaced as
directed in pertinent lubrication or-
ders or technical manuals.
FILLER PLUG
TM 9-273
e. Tracks, Track Rollers, Driving Sprockets,
Idlers, and Bogie Wheels. Tracks are used on
vehicles that are expected to negotiate rough,
sandy, wet, or muddy terrain. Many of the
bearing surfaces, such as those between the
tracks and the sprockets, idlers, road wheels,
guides, or other contracting parts, are not lu-
bricated because the lubricant would cause
dirt and grit to stick, work into the lubricated
surfaces, and cause more wear. Other bearings
on spring seats, road wheel supports, and
rubbing plates, receive no lubrication for the
same reason. Road wheels, track support
rollers, and idler wheels or sprockets are
mounted on antifriction bearings equipped
with grease seals, and must be lubricated fre-
quently and carefully on account of the severe
service to which they are subjected. They are
equipped with relief fittings to protect the
grease seals if too much grease is forced into
the bearings. Such bearings generally are lu-
bricated frequently with GAA grease but per-
tinent lubrication orders and technical manuals
should be consulted for specific cases.

58. Suspensions
a. Springs. A majority of the springs used
for supporting antomotive vehicles are of the
leaf type in which a number of flat spring
LUBRICATION FIT TINGS steel strips of varying lengths are assembled
RA PD 85990 together into one unit. To support the load
Figure 62. Schematic layout of a steering system. and cushion against road shock, a spring must
depend upon one or both of two mechanical
principles-friction between the leaves of the
•XtVRr~
CAM AND

Vtl
'~*S~B
i
spring and bending of the spring steel itself.
Leaf springs which depend on both bending
and friction are not to be lubricated as oil or

'L
grease will destroy the desired friction be-
tween the leaves and make the riding action
. too soft. Modern passenger cars generally use
BALL bEARING TYPE
helical springs instead of leaf springs (fig.
? ~,~o, ~,, 64). The spring itself needs no lubrication as
it depends entirely on the bending of the steel
to cushion the load. The plain friction-type
En I Ahbearings in the control arms are lubricated
Fira~ with grease through lubrication fittings. Heli-
WORM AND SoCo, ,T- cal springs used on rear axles operate between
WORM AND ROLLER TYPE
RA PD5991 the rear axle and the vehicle frame and need
Figure 6S. Steering gears of various tunes.
nor'~ no lubrication.

75
TM 9--273
/ FICKh AL .OL2L>L:I
'Uf it+Lt ,0
RA PD 39466
Figure 64. Front wheed suspension using a helical
spring.
b. Spring Shackles. One end of the leaf-
type spring ordinarily is held to the vehicle
frame by a short shackle. As the bearings in
shackles receive severe service and have to op-
erate in the presence of considerable dirt, dust,
and grit, lubrication is difficult. The original
bolt-type shackle, or a slight modification us-
ing pins held in the links by clamp bolts, is
the most common style used on United
States Army materiel. The life of the lubricat-
ing film in any shackle depends more upon the
conditions under which the vehicle is operated
than on design. Dirt, wet weather, hot
weather, fording operations, and frequent
washing all tend to destroy the film faster than
would otherwise be the case and make more
frequent lubrication necessary. Pertinent lu-
brication orders and technical manuals should
be consulted for specific instructions. Some
shackles use rubber instead of bearings to ab-
sorb the motion. Do not use petroleum oil on
these units as it will deteriorate the rubber.
If squeaks develop, they can be eliminated
with water or hydraulic brake fluid.
(1) Bolt or pin-type shackles. A shackle
of the bolt or pin type (fig. 65)
carries two hardened steel bolts or
pins which turn in bronze bushings
pressed into the frame bracket and
the eye of the spring. The bolts or
pins are drilled and have a lubricat-
ing fitting in one end through which
grease is fed to the center of the
bearing.
76
(2) Threaded- and U-type shackles. In
shackles of the threaded type, either
straight or U-shaped (fig. 65), the
bushings are held firmly in the spring
eye and the frame bracket. The bush-
ings are threaded on the inside and
the bolts on the outside, the motion
taking place between these two
threaded surfaces. The bolts are
drilled and have lubricating fittings
through which grease is fed to the
center of the bearings. Straight bolts
are held together by two side plates
held in place by draw keys on the
bolts or by a center bolt passing
through the two side plates. On
shackles of the U-type, the bushing
is threaded outside and inside and
screws onto the bolt and into the
bracket or spring eye in the same
operation.
c. Shock Absorbers. Three types of hydrau-
lic shock absorbers are in general use-the
double-acting piston type, the single-acting
piston type, and the direct-acting or telescopic
type. The operation of all hydraulic shock ab-
sorbers makes use of the fact that consider-
able energy is required to force a fluid
through a small orifice. Relative motion be-
tween the frame of the vehicle and the axle is
transmitted to the shock absorber and causes
relative motion between a piston and its cylin-
der or a vane and its housing, the displaced
fluid being forced through a small orifice into
another section of the absorber. The resist-
ance set up in the absorber as the fluid is
forced through the orifice is transmitted back
through the absorber and restricts or damps
the motion between the vehicle frame and the
axle. Lubrication of the internal parts is by
the operating fluid of the shock absorbers and
external linkage generally are rubber-bushed
and require no lubrication. Only the fluids
specified in lubrication orders or technical
manuals will be used. Different shock-ab-
sorber fluids should not be mixed. The fill-
ing of many shock absorbers requires removal,
this being due to the inaccessibility of the
filler holes or, in case of telescopic absorbers,

1: I
ER
BOLT TYPE STRAIGHT THREADED TYPE
CENTER BOLT TYPE
NOTE -U)9NCAMHt FIT
-) IIMG SHOWtl B '4
Figure 65. Spring shackles of various types.
to construction. The maintaining of fluid lev-
els in hydraulic shock absorbers is generally
not required of user personnel. Rather, faulty
equipment, as determined by excessive operat-
ing temperatures, is replaced by authorized
maintenance personnel.
(1) Piston-type shock absorbers. Figure
66 shows a section of a double-acting
shock absorber of the piston type.
The bearings to be lubricated are be-
tween the cylinder and piston; the
piston and the cam; and the camshaft
and the housing; and the relief
valves, springs, and caps. They all
involve either sliding or rotary mo-
tion of plain friction surfaces and
are lubricated by the operating fluid.
The single-acting type is practically
the same except that the resistance to
motion is in one direction only and
the fluid forced through the orifice
flows into the reservoir around the
cam. Connections between the oper-
ating arm and the axle are either
rubber-bushed and require no lubri-
cation or have lubrication fittings.
TM 9-273
Y-SHACKLE
SINGLE PIECE LINK SHACKLE
WS
RA PD 104008
(2) Direct-acting shock absorbers (fig.
67). Shock absorbers of the direct-
action or telescopic type utilize the
same principle (a piston forcing fluid
through a small orifice) as is used in
the piston type. However, instead of
the cylinder and piston being incor-
porated in a housing fastened rigidly
to the vehicle frame, one part is at-
tached to the vehicle frame and the
other part to the axle, and the motion
between the frame and the axle is
transmitted directly to the parts of
the absorber. The parts to be lubri-
cated are the cylinder, piston, piston
rod, and valves; this is accomplished
by the operating fluid. The attaching
points usually are rubber-bushed and
need no lubrication. Currently used
direct-acting shock absorbers cannot
be refilled and are replaced when they
become inoperative.
d. Individually Sprung Front Wheels. In-
dividually sprung or suspended front wheels
(fig. 64) are used on some 4 by 2 vehicles and
77
TM 9-273
IRAND
ILM'
¥N
Figure66. Double-acting piston-typ
absorber.
on M151 1/4-ton 4 by 4 trucks. Theey were de-
signed primarily to improve ridinig comfort
and permit one wheel to rise and fall in go-
ing over obstructions without the a ction being
transferred directly through a so lid axle to
the other front wheel. The control Earms or A-
frames are pivoted to vehicle fram e or shock
absorbers and to the steering knuckkle support,
and these plain friction-type bearing ,s are lubri-
cated with grease through lubricat ion fittings
as directed in applicable lubricat ion orders.
The upper control arm is actually the shock
Figure 67.
78
absorber arm and the shaft on the inner end
PL is part of the shock absorber. The helical
spring requires no lubrication.
ii :, e. Turntable Fifth Wheel. A turntable or
fifth wheel (fig. 68) is used on a tractor truck
PSR5ION to support the front end of the trailer and
CYUN|9ER, to couple the trailer to the truck. Parts to be
ii00~ lubricated included the top of the turntable,
MOUDcoupler pin, locking jaw and guides, parts of
M: ME the kingpin locking device, the supporting
shafts, pickup ramps, and fifth wheel base.'
The bearings are subjected to only slight
movement and are all of the plain friction
e shock type. Engine oil generally is used on the king-
pin locking device and general purpose grease
on the other bearings, but pertinent lubrication
orders or technical manuals must be consulted
for specific instructions. If the turntable,
coupler jaws, ramps, or base accumulate grit
or sand, they should be cleaned and lubricated
thoroughly.
f. Torsion Bars. On heavy tracked vehicles
suspension is obtained by the use of a linkage
system involving torsion bars. Lubrication of
these is usually prescribed by the lubrication
orders to be done at disassembly and
assembly.
RA PD 183989
Direct-acting shock absorber.
 TM 9-273
'
COUPL£R JAWS AN D7UPFPR A,
LSURFACE OF TABLE: /

LUBRICATION FITTINCS ON
FRICTION-TY'PE SA'G
B[

;:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~L
:l_ i: -r ,i;: . z'~ t. FIT/li/ ':>

RA PD 1O911t

Figure 68. Fifth wheel partially disassembled.

79

CHAPTER 9
ARTILLERY MATERIEL
59/ Basic Lubricated Surfaces
Artillery uses the same two basic types of
bearings, friction and antifriction, that are
used in other materiel. Such friction bearings
in artillery as trunnions, hinge pins, shackles,
pintles, shaft bearings, etc., are essentially
journal bearings. Trunnions are located on
the sides of a weapon; they support its weight
and allow it to be elevated or depressed.
Pintles, of either the pin type or ball and
socket type, serve as a center or pivot about
which a cannon is traversed and are essentially
a form of journal bearing, in some cases sup-
porting the entire weight of small caliber
weapons. The slide bearings which permit a
weapon to recoil on its cradle, the circular base
ring and racer by means of which large cannon
are supported and traversed, axle traverse, the
pistons and rods in recoil and recuperator
mechanisms, etc., are all essentially guide bear-
ings. Antifriction bearings are used in various
places on artillery such as the trunnions breech
block carrier, and base ring of large artillery;
the wheels of mobile carriages; and various
places in power-driven elevation and traversing
mechanisms. Lubrication may be either by
grease or oil as indicated by pertinent lubrica-
tion orders. On fixed artillery the rollers, base
ring, and racer are often quite difficult to lu-
bricate, but it is extremely important that
proper lubrication be maintained at this point
because on it may depend the accuracy with
which the gun is traversed. All of the com-
mon types of gears may be found in the con-
trol mechanisms for artillery. Gears inclosed
in oiltight cases are protected from dirt and of-
fer no particularly difficult lubrication diffi-
culties, while exposed gears require frequent
cleaning and lubrication. In some cases lubri-
TM 9-273
cation, or a change of lubricant as required by
temperature changes, requires partial disassem-
bly of the materiel. Lubrication of specific
items of artillery will be performed in accord-
ance with applicable lubrication orders and
technical manuals.
60. Tube or Barrel
The bore is cleaned thoroughly and coated
with oil which serves to prevent rust or corro-
sion and is not intended to reduce friction. In
cases where the sliding surface for guiding the
tube during recoil and counterrecoil is ma-
chined directly on the outside of the tube, the
bearing between the tube and the cradle or
cradle liners in most instances is lubricated
with grease. This type of construction utilizes
a longitudinal key or flat spot to prevent the
tube rotating in the cradle when the gun is
fired. The sliding surface that is exposed
when the gun is in battery must be protected
against rust, and the protecting lubricant col-
lects dirt and dust. This surface must be
cleaned carefully and lubricated before firing
as any dirt or dust on the surface when the
gun is fired may be drawn into the bearing
surfaces of the cradle. Using organizations of
weapons are directed in the care of the tube,
either by technical manuals assigned or by as-
sociated lubrication orders. Basically these or-
ders require that upon immediately after firing,
and upon two consecutive days thereafter, the
bore is thoroughly cleaned with CR. On the
third day clean with CR, wipe dry, and lightly
coat with oil (PL). Weekly thereafter, when
not firing, clean with CR, dry and coat with
oil (PL).
81
TM 9-273
61. Recoil Slide Rails
Recoil slide rails serve to guide the motion
of the tube during recoil and counterrecoil.
Two rails (fig. 69) are customarily used and
are attached either at the sides of or below the
tube parallel to the bore. The rails move in
slide bearings in the cradle, and are lubricated
with grease. These are lubricated with GAA
grease twice daily during firing. In cases
where parts of the bearing surfaces of either
the rails or the guide bearings are exposed,
they must be kept thoroughly cleaned and lu-
bricated because any dirt or corrosion on these
exposed surfaces when the piece is operated
may be drawn into the bearings and cause seri-
ous trouble.
62. Breech Mechanism
(fig. 69)
The motion between the contacting surfaces
of the breech and firing mechanisms is at slow
speed. Moreover the parts are somewhat ex-
posed to the atmosphere and powder smoke
with the result that corrosion is as much a
problem as lubrication. A light film of oil
works best for lubricating purposes and regu-
lar cleaning with cleaner (CR) followed by
lubrication is required to prevent rust or cor-
rosion. On very large breechblocks the hinge
may be equipped with antifriction bearings
which generally are grease-lubricated either by
packing or through lubrication fittings. A
very large breechblock may be closed by com-
pressed air cylinders. In such cases the air cyl-
inder and the friction surfaces of the connect-
ing pins are oil-lubricated. Lubrication orders
call for breech cleaning and protective lubrica-
tion similar to that for tubes.
63. Cradle, Sleigh, Recoil, and
Counterrecoil Mechanisms
The cradle, together with the sleigh when
one is used, permits the cannon to move
82
lengthwise with respect to the carriage during
recoil and counter-recoil. Where a sleigh is
used (fig. 70), the whole assembly slides in
the cradle while the recoil pistons and rods re-
main stationary with the cradle. Where no
sleigh is used, the cannon assembly, together
with the recoil pistons and rods, slide directly
in the cradle, the recoil and counterrecoil cyl-
inders being fastened rigidly to the cradle.
The surfaces to be lubricated include the slide
bearings between the cradle and the cannon as-
sembly or sleigh, and the slide bearings be-
tween the various surfaces of the cylinders and
the surfaces of the pistons and piston rods of
the recoil and counterrecoil cylinders. Where
springs are used in the counterrecoil or
recuperator cylinders (fig. 70) there is also
rubbing contact between the springs and the
cylinders as the springs expand or are com-
pressed. There are also various other parts
such as valves, rings, seals, etc., which have
friction surfaces, all of which are lubricated by
the recoil oil used in the cylinders. Using
personnel are required to check the recoil cyl-
inders for leakage around the piston rods,
plugs, and covers and to replenish the hy-
draulic level in the reservoirs when necessary.
The greatest care must be taken not to use
any oil in a recoil mechanism except the grade
and kind prescribed. The specific recoil oil to
be used with a given weapon is specified in
the applicable lubrication order and technical
manual provided for the material. Recoil oil
should not be transferred from one container
to another unless it is properly marked with
the exact name of the oil as listed in SB 38-
5-3. Great care must be taken to maintain cor-
rect labels on all containers. Recoil oils should
not be subjected to excessive heat. Containers
of recoil oil should never be left open. Dirt
and moisture in recoil oils can cause serious
damage or malfunctioning of mechanisms.
 TM 9-273

AAZ A<

- I
- -
0

Co
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0

.tt

0a

to

lZ"

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Cek

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U,

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83
TM 9-273

PI

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t4:
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ie

84

64. Elevating and Traversing Mechanisms
a. Elevation Mechanisms. An elevating mech-
anism (fig. 71) consists of devices for elevat-
ing and depressing a weapon to an angle and
holding the weapon at the angle during fir-
ing. The devices may be one of the following,
or a combination of these:
(1) Gear train operated by a handwheel.
(2) Hydraulic mechanism controlled by a
handwheel.
(3) Remote-control power-driven mech-
anism.
The motions of most bearing surfaces are at
comparatively low bearing speeds and of com-
paratively short duration. The result is that
most of the bearings are of the friction type
and are lubricated with oil. Antifriction bear-
ings and gear teeth are lubricated with grease
(GAA). Where grease is used, only enough
should be applied to furnish a proper lubricat-
ing surface film on the working parts and to
protect the metal from corrosion. Excess grease
FILLER AND) OILLEVEL PLUGS-4
Figure 71.
TM 9-273
(particularly in cold weather) may restrict
the movement of the weapon. Trunnion bear-
ings, upon which the motion rotates may be
either journal or roller bearing types. Perti-
nent weapon manuals and lubrication orders
will direct the proper lubrication of these bear-
ings. Some lubrication points of an elevating
mechanism are shown in figure 71, a phantom
view of the gearing used for elevating a typi-
cal weapon, either by power applied to the
power drive gear, or by a handcrank.
b. Traversing Mechanisms. A traversing
mechanism is a device for turning a weapon in
a horizontal plane (right or left). The mov-
ing parts may consist of the upper part of the
carriage, or the entire carriage, except the
axle. In the case of self-propelled artillery, a
turret may be moved to traverse the piece.
Traverse mechanisms are typed by two broad
classes-pintle (worm and gear) and ring
gear. In the pintle type (fig. 72) the weapon
is rotated about a vertical pivot fixed under
part of the top carriage. The bottom carriage
qITFR:CTION
AR INGS
Elevating mechanism.
85
TM 9-273
Figure 72. Lower pintle parts.
contains 'the base on which the top carriage ro-
tates. The mechanism consists of a handwheel
and shaft which operates a worm and rack or a
pinion and rack. The ring gear type consists
mainly of large bearings operating between
two bearing surfaces, the base ring and the
racer. On tank-type vehicular-mounted weap-
ons, the turret contains the traverse mecha-
nism. It is extremely important that the bear-
ings and gears are cleaned and lubricated
according to technical manuals. The same basic
principles for lubricating elevating mechanisms
apply to traverse mechanisms.
65. Equilibrators
a., Spring-type Equilibrators. In a spring-
type equilibrator, there are few surfaces to be
lubricated except the hinge pins, rods, etc., used
to connect the spring to the cradle and carri-
age, and these generally are oil-lubricated.
Some springs are inclosed in telescoping tubu-
lar housings which ordinarily require oil lubri-
cation of the sliding bearing between the two
tubes. Some spring equilibrators use cable
86
chains and chain wheels to secure certain de-
sired mechanical motions and advantages. The
chains generally are lubricated with oil, and
the antifriction bearings of the chain wheels
are lubricated with grease through lubrication
fittings. The leverage adjusting screws also
are oil-lubricated.
b. Pneumatic Equilibrators. In a pneumatic
equilibrator the surfaces to be lubricated in-
clude the sliding surfaces of the piston, piston
rod, and cylinder as well as the journal-type
bearings of the pins used to attach the equili-
brator to the cradle and carriage. To prevent
leakage of gas between the moving points,
seals are incorporated. These seals generally
are grease-lubricated, this grease providing the
necessary lubrication for the piston and cylin-
der. In order to prevent gas leakage this
grease must resist hardening, solidification, or
separation over considerable periods of time
and at such temperatures and pressures as may
be encountered. Unless the grease has these
properties, the proper gas pressure cannot be
maintained. Lubrication will be done only by

specially trained personnel after the equili-
brator has been removed from the piece. The
attaching pins and leverage adjusting mecha-
nism may be oil- or grease-lubricated. The type
of surfaces to be lubricated closely resembles
that of the hydropneumatic equilibrator (fig.
73).
c. Hydropneumatic Equilibrators. In a hy-
dropneumatic equilibrator (fig. 73), cylinders,
pistons, and interior mechanisms are lubricated
by the operating fluid, while the leverage ad-
justing mechanisms and the pins or other de-
vices used to connect the equilibrator to the
cradle and carriage either are grease- or oil-lu-
bricated. The internal lubrication will be done
only by authorized depot personnel.
66. Carriage
a. General. The bearing surfaces to be lu-
bricated are incorporated in the wheels or
TM 9-273
axles on which the materiel is transported, the
elevating and traversing mechanisms al-
ready mentioned, or in the various mechanisms
by which the materiel is converted from firing
to traveling positions, and vice versa.
b. Lubrication of Wheel Bearings. At the
present time, practically all artillery that is
moved on roads or cross country on its own
wheels is equipped with pneumatic tires and
antifriction wheel bearings. Such bearings
usually are removed, cleaned, and repacked
periodically as indicated on lubrication orders.
Service is the same as prescribed for automo-
tive wheel bearings.
c. Miscellaneous Items. Many of these items
require practically no lubrication from the
standpoint of preventing friction as the amount
of motion and the frequency of movement in-
volved may be extremely limited. In such

: '_

HAND PUMP.'.

L VALVE A

A-EQUILIBRATOR ARM
B-EQUILIBRATOR BALANCING LEVER
C-VERTICAL EQUILIBRATOR CYLINDER ASSEMBLY
D-VERTICAL ADJUSTING CYLINDER ASSEMBLY,
I-HORIZONTAL SLOPE ADJUSTMENT CONTROL ASSEMBLY
F-EQUILIBRATOR PRESSUREGAGE
G-HORIZONTAL EQUILIBRATOR CYLINDER ASSEMBLY
H-EQUILIBRATOR GAS BOTTLE
J-CYLINDER JUNCTION SUPPORT
K-HORIZONTAL ADJUSTING CYLINDER ASSEMBLY RA PD 1J4718
L-ACCUMULATOR ASSEMBLY

Figure 73. Equilibratorof the hydropneumatic type.

87
TM 9-273
cases the corrosion preventive qualities of the
lubricant become more important than its lu-
bricating properties. Specific instructions for
lubricating such miscellaneous items as screws,
jacks, pins, brakes, draw bars, pintle hooks,
levers, etc., may be found in the pertinent lu-
brication orders and technical manuals.
67. Hydraulic Speed Gears
On artillery using mechanical power for
traversing, elevating, or loading, a hydraulic
speed gear generally is used between the
source and the point of application of the
power. The speed gear serves to transmit the
rotary power at variable speeds in either direc-
tion and without abrupt graduations. The
bearing surfaces to be lubricated include jour-
nal bearings, roller thrust bearings, roller
bearings with radial load, ball and socket bear-
ings, universal joints, pistons, cylinders, stuff-
ing boxes, screw and nut, etc. Lubrication for
all of these parts is provided by the hydraulic
oil which acts as the operating fluid. The oil
is a special low pourpoint oil with particularly
high resistance to thickening at low tempera-
tures and oxidation or sludging in service, but
inasmuch as the expansion tank is open to the
atmosphere and liable to collect moisture, the
system should be serviced carefully in accord-
ance with instructions in the applicable lubri-
cation order and technical manual.
68. Rammers, Fuze Setters, and Other
Operating Mechanisms
The great increase in the rapidity of opera-
tion of fire control apparatus in many cases
has made automatic power-driven loading,
aiming, and firing of artillery necessary. This
has introduced various electric motors, shafts,
gears, levers, pins, control apparatus, etc., and
resulted in numerous additional bearings to be
lubricated. As a general rule, radial or thrust
bearings on shafts operating at considerable
speeds are of the antifriction type and may be
either oil- or grease-lubricated. Where practi-
cable, gear trains and other mechanisms are in-
closed in cases or housings and run in an oil
bath. Backlash and clearances are generally
very small and it is important that the lubri-
88
cant specified be maintained at the correct
level, and that the housing be drained and re-
filled with new oil and disassembled and
cleaned at specified intervals. Pins, shaft,
thrust bearings, slide bearings, exposed gears,
or other points having slow or intermittent
motion generally are oil-lubricated, and ex-
posed friction surfaces must be cleaned fre-
quently to keep them free from dirt or dust.
69. Cold Weather Lubrication
a. Characteristicsof Lubricants.
(1) Oils prescribed for use on artillery
materiel at high temperatures are de-
signed to maintain adequate body at
these temperatures, but in some in-
stances they become too stiff at low
temperatures to permit satisfactory
operation. As stiffness increases,
more power is required to move sur-
faces of bearings and gears in con-
tact with oil. When solidification oc-
curs, the moving parts cut a channel
through the oil, leaving the rubbing
surfaces dry and unlubricated. Be-
fore friction can develop enough heat
to liquefy the oil and establish an oil
film, bearing and gear tooth surfaces
may score and fail. The effects are
similar when rubbing surfaces are fed
by an oil pump. The stiffened oil
flows too slowly, or not at all, to the
pump inlet, and the oil already in the
feed lines cannot be forced to the
bearings. Therefore, heavy oils must
be replaced completely below 0 ° F.
with lighter oils which will remain
fluid at the lowest expected operat-
ing temperatures.
(2) Grease is a combination of soap and
oil, the grade being determined by
the percentage of soap and the vis-
cosity of the oil used. The soap acts
as a sponge to hold the oil in place,
thus preventing leakages which might
occur if oil alone were used. As the
temperature decreases, both the oil
and soap stiffen and retard movement
of parts; therefore, in subzero

weather, greases which cause mini-
mum drag must be used, as the pres-
ence of only a small quantity of a
heavy grade of grease may freeze
bearings and prevent manipulation
of the materiel at subzero tempera-
tures. All grease prescribed for
warm-weather lubrication must be
removed from bearings and gear cases
and replaced with suitable low-tem-
perature lubricants when subzero
temperatures are expected. If neces-
sary, the materiel will be disassembled
to accomplish this. Once grease has
solidified, it cannot be removed from
bearings or gear cases without disas-
sembling the unit and washing the
parts with dry-cleaning solvent. Tech-
nical manuals and lubrication orders
contain lubrication instructions for
operation below 0 ° F.
b. Plans for Winterization.
(1) Preparation of artillery for low-tem-
perature operation requires disas-
sembly, repair, cleaning, adjustment,
and lubrication, which operations
must be completed before the advent
of cold weather.
(2) When preparing artillery materiel for
operation in subzero temperatures, it
is imperative that parts be alined
properly and that adequate clearances
exist in bearings and mechanisms em-
ploying packings around rotating or
reciprocating shafts or rods. Improp-
er alinement may result in binding
which will make the mechanism stiff
of inoperative regardless of the lu-
bricant used. Scored or roughened
bearings and other rubbing surfaces,
such as cams and recoil slides, also
interfere with easy action and should
be smoothed when preparing artillery
and fire-control materiel for low-
temperature operation.
(3) Cleanliness is imperative. Rust, dirt,
gummy oil, and grease in bearing
clearances interfere with proper dis-
tribution of lubricant, thus causing
stiff action, if not complete stoppage,
in subzero weather. In preparing
TM 9-273
materiel for subzero operation, as-
semblies and mechanisms must be dis-
assembled sufficiently to permit com-
plete removal of heavy oil, grease,
and foreign matter. Cleaning is done
most efficiently by washing the parts
which have been exposed to powder
fouling with rifle-bore cleaner sol-
vent cleaning compound (CR) and
dry-cleaning solvent small other parts,
using brushes and scrapers where
necessary. Care must be taken not to
overlook the cleaning of small items
which may appear insignificant. Field
experience has proved that careless
repair and excessive lubrication of
bearings and other similar parts may
cause malfunctioning or failure of
equipment in subzelro weather.
c. General Subzero Lubricating Instructions.
To insure adequate lubrication and satisfactory
performance of artillery materiel in cold
weather, the following instructions must be
followed when subzero temperatures are
expected:
(1.) Bearings.
(a) Ball and roller ~bearings (grease-
lubricated). It is impossible to re-
place warm-weather grease in ball
or roller bearings by forcing in the
grease prescribed for low tempera-
tures. These bearings must be
removed from the materiel, washed
thoroughly in dry-cleaning solvent,
dried, and then coated sparingly
with the prescribed lubricant. The
balls or rollers, races, and cages
must be coated lightly, and the
bearing housings filled only
enough for the lower balls to dip
into the lubricant.
(b) Ball and roller bearings (oil-lubri-
cated). Oil-lubricated ball and
roller bearings preferably will be
removed and cleaned. If this is im-
practicable, a thorough flushing
with dry-cleaning solvent, followed
by application of the prescribed
oil, generally will give satisfactory
results. Parts and gear cases must
89
TM 9-273
be thoroughly dry before oil is ap-
plied, as oil will not adhere to a
surface wet with solvent. Oil
sumps and reservoirs will be
drained and filled with prescribed
oil. The wicks of wick-fed bear-
ings will be removed, washed in
dry-cleaning solvent, dried, and
saturated with the specified low-
temperature oil before assembling.
(c) Plain journal bearings and bush-
ings. It is preferable to disassem-
ble these bearings, remove all
heavy oil and grease, smooth off
burs, and test for adequate clear-
ances between the shaft and bear-
ing. If disassembly is imprac-
ticable, heavy lubricant usually can
be forced from the bearings by
thorough flushing with subzero
lubricant. Reservoirs and wick
feeds must be cleaned completely
and refilled to prescribed level
with the proper oil.
(2) Gears.
(a) Gears inclosed in oiltight gear case
will be checked to insure the pre-
scribed lubricant for the expected
temperature during operation is
used. If the case does not contain
the prescribed lubricant, drain and
refill to proper level with the prop-
er lubricant. Do not fill the gear
case above the specified level be-
cause the surplus oil will result in
unnecessary drag on movement of
the gears. If no drain or level
plug is provided, the gear case will
be disassembled, the gears and
bearings cleaned with dry-cleaning
solvent, dried, slushed with oil,
and assembled in the case. The
prescribed lubricant then will be
poured into the case until the low-
est gears are dipping. If gears are
inclosed in a case which is not oil-
tight, the cover will be removed
and the gears thoroughly cleaned,
smoothed, and coated with oil be-
fore replacing the cover.
90
(b) When gears have been lubricated
with grease above 0 ° F., it practi-
cally is impossible to wash heavy
grease out of a gear case by flush-
ing. Grease-filled cases, therefore,
'will be disassembled, the gears,
case, and bearings washed clean
with dry-cleaning solvent, and all
parts coated with the lubricant pre-
scribed for extreme cold weather
operation by the applicable lubri-
cation order. Use only enough lu-
bricant for satisfactory lubrication
when refilling the case.
d. Breech and FiringMechanisms.
(1) Satisfactory operation depends on ex-
treme cleanliness and sparing ap-
plication of oil. Clean all parts, except
gas check pads, daily with cleaning
solvent and dry. Gas check pads
will be wiped with a dry cloth and
coated sparingly with oil. Do not
use dry-cleaning solvent or bore
cleaning solution on gas check pad.
Apply oil by wiping the rubbing sur-
faces of the firing pin and attendant
parts with a clean cloth which has
been wet with oil and wrung out.
(2) After firing, breech and firing mech-
anisms on weapons using fixed and
semifixed ammunition will be disas-
sembled, cleaned with specified clean-
ing solvents, dried, and oiled spar-
ingly. Mechanisms on weapons using
separate-loading ammunition will be
disassembled, and all parts, except
the gas check pad and electrical fir-
ing mechanisms, cleaned with bore
cleaning solution, dried, and oiled
sparingly. The gas check pad will be
wiped with a dry cloth and coated
sparingly with oil.
e. Recoil Mechanism.
(1) Refer to pertinent technical manual
and lubrication order for prescribed
recoil oils and fluids to be used in
cold weather operation. Operation of
the recoil mechanism will be affected
because of a thickening of the recoil

oil or fluid. Hydropneumatic mecha-
nisms also will be affected by the re-
duction of gas pressure at low tem-
peratures.
(2) Care of recoil mechanisms will be
nearly the same during cold weather
as it is under normal conditions. Us-
ing units must maintain careful check
on recoil mechanisms. At times the
recoil mechanism may not function
normally and the cycle or recoil may
take longer than usual. This is
caused by the oil becoming thick and
not flowing as readily as in normal
temperatures. As further firing is
conducted, the action gradually
warms the recoil oil and thins it so
that normal cycle time is obtained.
Do not condemn the recoil mecha-
nism until there is definite proof of
malfunction.
(3) The recoil mechanism may stick un-
less it has been exercised frequently,
and sticking may result in severe
damage to the weapon when it is
fired. Intervals of exercise will de-
pend upon the existing temperature-
the lower the temperature, the more
frequent the exercise. Refer to per-
tinent technical manuals for methods
of exercising.
f. Recoil Slides. Friction between recoil
slides and guides absorbs an appreciable
amount of the energy of recoil. Thickened or
congealed lubricant increases this friction,
shortens recoil, and retards counterrecoil. To
insure proper recoil and counterrecoil action,
thoroughly clean the slides of summer lubri-
cant; smooth all surfaces; and relubricate them
sparingly with the prescribed lubricant for cold
weather operation. When temperatures rise and
remain constantly above 0° F., resume lubrica-
tion with products specified in applicable lu-
brication order or technical manual. Removal
of subzero lubricants is not necessary. Instead,
start applying the lubricant prescribed for
temperatures above 0° F.
TM 9-273
g. Equilibrators. Lubricate equilibrators
with lubricant prescribed in applicable techni-
cal manuals and lubrication orders. The pis-
ton rod will be lubricated sparingly and care
will be taken to prevent the formation of ice
which would freeze it in position. With pneu-
matic-type equilibrators it may be necessary to
adjust nitrogen pressure to provide sufficient
equalizing action. On those equilibrators
equipped with a low-temperature control, ad-
justment will be made in accordance with the
temperature scale provided. When tempera-
tures rise above 0° F., adjust gas pressure and
low-temperature control to the prescribed
value.
h. Elevating and Traversing Arcs and Hand-
wheel Shafts. Snow frequently will collect on
these parts and cake under pressure of the
gears. Since this will interfere with elevating
and traversing, the snow must be removed by
vigorous brushing with a stiff bristle or wire
brush before manipulation of the piece is at-
tempted. After snow is removed, the parts
should be lubricated immediately to prevent
rusting.
i.. Cradle, Sleigh, Carriage, and Mount.
Completely disassemble the cradle, sleigh, car-
riage, and mount mechanisms when it is neces-
sary. Thoroughly clean all parts, making sure
that all rust, dirt, and old lubricant are re-
moved before applying prescribed lubricant.
Relubricate sparingly with cold weather lubri-
cant as prescribed in applicable lubrication or-
ders and technical manuals.
j. Brakes. Mechanical brakes will be lubri-
cated carefully. Proper lubrication should be
applied to all connections and joints. Wheel
chocks should be used in preference to setting
the brakes when gun is parked. In lubricat-
ing the brake, keep lubricant away from inside
of drum or shoe. Brake shoes will be kept as
dry as possible. Make a thorough check of
brake shoes whenever checking the wheel
bearings.
91

CHAPTER 10
MISSILES
70. General
Missiles form a class of weapons in growing
use by the Army. These devices contain mech-
anisms which require special lubrication and
lubricants. The missiles, having operating
parts such as rudders, elevons, auxiliary power
supplies, bearings, etc., cover a wide range of
points of lubrication. Further, the lubrication
must not only insure operating parts at normal
ground conditions, but the rapid change in
conditions brought about by launching and in-
flight operations, must be considered. Lubri-
cation of the auxiliary equipment (launchers,
loaders, transporters) used with the missiles,
is similar to that encountered in automotive
and artillery equipment. It is imperative that
the technicians refer to pertinent technical
manuals and lubrication orders for specific
missile equipment before performing mainte-
nance. Each missile system has particular re-
quirements. No attempt has been made to
compile these requirements into a general dis-
cussion because of inevitable conflict with au-
thorized procedures.
71. Component Parts
a. General. Silicone-type grease is the gen-
eral lubricant for many parts of missiles. It is
selected because (1) of its uniformity of vis-
cosity during wide temperature range, (2) it
is flame-resistant, (3) it does not cause dete-
rioration to rubber, (4) it does not oxidize
readily. Sometimes it is mixed with molybde-
num disulfide to lubricate and further protect
metal parts from oxidation. Silicone-type
greases must be used with extreme caution.
They must be used only in the specific areas
TM 9-273
outlined by pertinent lubrication orders. In-
discriminate use of silicone greases can cause
trouble. For example, silicone compounds im-
pregnate themselves into porous metals such as
aluminum and megnesium and become extreme-
ly difficult to remove by cleaning solvents.
Consequently, paint and primer coats will
not adhere properly to metals whose sur-
faces are impregnated with silicones. Silicone
compounds also disperse themselves as films
on items being cleaned, thus contaminating
cleaning equipment, solvents, and other parts.
b. Packings. When O-rings or seals are in-
stalled in flange joints, they are lightly lubri-
cated, normally with the fluid being trans-
mitted. Flat gaskets are also treated in the
same manner. It is very important that only a
very light coating is applied. In pneumatic
systems, pneumatic grease (GPS) is used.
c. Threads& Threaded joints, in general, are
lubricated with a mixture of molybdenum di-
sulfide and silicone grease to prevent galling
and seizing.
d. Internal Mechanisms. Since these mech-
anisms are lubricated at assembly, there is
little need for further lubrication by user or
maintenance personnel. However, should
parts be removed for repair or replacement,
necessary lubrication and hydraulic servicing
according to pertinent technical manuals and
lubrication orders should be done.
e. External Mechanisms,. Stabilizers, fins,
etc., will have been lubricated prior to troop
issue. If inspection shows lack of lubrication,
however, the hinges, bearings, and exposed
metal parts must be lubricated with silicone-
type lubricants.
93

CHAPTER 11
FIRE CONTROL AND DETECTING EQUIPMENT
72. General
Fire control equipment used by Ordnance
requires a great degree of correctness and
completeness. Ordnance fire control materiel
is a complex of mechanical and electronic units.
Some of the radar detection equipment oper-
ates automatically, continuously, and often un-
attended in remote areas. The lubrication of
this equipment must always be correct and
complete. Over lubrication is undesirable in
some of the delicate electronic gear. Excess or
improper lubricants may "creep" onto optical
lenses and obscure vision. Excess lubrication
may cause binding of delicate mechanisms.
73. Optical Instruments
a. General. In the optical instruments used
in connection with fire control materiel, there
are practically no friction surfaces except those
required for the focusing movements of eye-
pieces. These friction surfaces usually take the
form of some type of screw thread, and mo-
tion is so limited that lubrication is seldom re-
quired. It is necessary, however, to seal such
points to prevent corrosion or the entrance of
dust, grit, or moisture; small quantities of air-
craft and instrument grease are used. This
grease is prepared especially for fire control
systems, sighting equipment, etc. Do not over-
lubricate as excess lubricant may creep onto
lenses and obscure vision. Other screw threads,
such as those on lens adapters also are sealed
with grease in a similar manner. For this rea-
son, the lubrication of optical instruments will
be performed only by authorized personnel af-
ter disassembling and cleaning. On some of
the older instruments which are lubricated
with heavier greases at the time of their manu-
TM 9-273
facture, it has been found that the prescribed
grease may be too light for use on eyepiece
movements when temperatures are normally
above +32 ° F. This condition would be indi-
cated by the bleeding of the lubricant into the
interior of the optical instrument or by failure
Qf the eyepiece movements to remain stationary
during usage after focusing. -In such cases, a
heavier grease may have to be used on such
eyepiece movements. When temperatures con-
sistently below 0° F. are encountered, such
optical instruments as have been lubricated
with a heavier grease, will be lubricated with
the aircraft and instrument grease. Some op-
tical instruments have adjustable mounts
which may incorporate journal bearings, screw
and nut mechanisms, ball and socket joints,
etc., which are either oil- or grease- lubricated
as directed in the applicable technical manual.
On account of the length of time between lu-
brication operations, with the resulting chance
for deterioration of the lubricant, these lubri-
cation points are inclosed when possible. Flex-
ible leather or rubber boots or covers are used
to keep dust away from ball and socket
mechanisms.
b. Condensation and Lubrication. If instru-
ments are brought indoors after having been
outside at low temperatures, the moisture from
the warm air will condense on the cold metal,
and if the instruments are operated in this
condition, the grease and moisture will come
into contact. Such a condition will necessitate
removing all the grease and lubricating the in-
strument. For this reason, anticondensation
containers should be used when it is necessary
to bring instruments or other such equipment
from a low temperature to room temperature,
and instruments when finally sealed should be
95
TM 9-273
in a room kept at outdoor temperature. Anti-
condensation containers may be specially made
boxes, G. I. water cans, barracks bags, or any
other fairly airtight container with heat-con-
ducting walls. These are kept outside so that
they will remain at prevailing temperatures un-
til it is desired to bring an instrument in-
doors. The instrument is put into the con-
tainer, the top closed, and the whole brought
inside and allowed to come to room tempera-
ture. As the air in the container warms and
expands, the breathing will be outward and
condensation will form on the outside of the
container rather than on the instrument.
74. Worm 'and Worm Wheel Measuring
Movements
Many of the measuring movements incor-
porated in fire control materiel are accom-
plished through worm and worm wheel mech-
anisms. These mechanisms, while varying
widely in physical adaptation, are all practi-
cally alike as far as basic principle and friction
surfaces are concerned. In nearly all cases the
bearing surfaces including the contact between
the worm and worm wheel are lubricated
sparingly with aircraft and instrument grease
in accordance with instructions in the appli-
cable lubrication order and technical manual.
A felt seal is used to prevent entrance of dust
at the point where the wormshaft comes out
of its housing. This felt must be kept oiled or
it may harden, and the friction at this point
may cause the felt fibers to bunch up render-
ing the mechanism inoperative. In some cases
it may be necessary to partially disassemble
the mechanisms to get oil onto the felts. Only
authorized maintenance personnel will disas-
semble to clean and lubricate the internal mech-
anisms of telescope mounts and range quad-
rants. Bearings, sliding surfaces (grooves in
shell guide), hinge joints, and other movable
parts should be clean and lubricated' with a
light coat of grease. The pawls should be
coated with a light oil. Internal parts such as
ball bearings, gears, and the working parts of
the setting crank assembly should be lightly
greased.
96
75. Computers
a. General. Computers, which continuously
calculate firing data for use against moving
targets, are very complicated assemblies con-
taining large numbers of both mechanical and
electrical parts of various types and descrip-
tions. As a result there are a correspondingly
large number and variety of friction points to
be lubricated, including plain friction bear-
ings, antifriction bearings, thrust bearings,
slide bearings, pins, levers, cams, springs, vari-
able speed drives, worms and worm gears, all
types of spur and bevel gears, spiral drives,
torque amplifiers, motors, etc. A great major-
ity of these parts are comparatively small, bear-
ing fits are close, back lash has to be elimi-
nated to a great extent, and the parts still have
to operate over a wide range of temperature
and over long periods of time between re-
builds. The construction of various items of
materiel varies so greatly that it will be nec-
essary to refer to the pertinent technical man-
ual for lubrication instructions for any specific
item. Whenever a unit is taken in for mainte-
nance, and it is necessary to remove the cover
plates, the unit should be inspected for nec-
essary lubrication. All bearings and points of
sliding friction that are accessible should be
checked. Ball bearings are greased at the time
of assembly and ordinarily require no attention
until the time of general rebuild, but if the
grease does show any signs of hardening or
other deterioration, the bearing should be re-
moved by authorized maintenance personnel,
cleaned with solvent, dried, and immediately
lubricated with aircraft and instrument grease.
Units showing sluggish operation at tempera-
tures below 32° F. should be lubricated spar-
ingly. Units which have been in storage for a
considerable length of time must be com-
pletely disassembled, cleaned, and lubricated.
All lubricating operations should be done in
dustfree rooms.
b. Variable resistors. surfaces to be lubri-
cated in variable resistors include not only the
sliding contact between the brushes and the
wires of the resistance cards or coils, but the
gear teeth and bearings of the driving mech-
anisms as well. Thes parts generally are

installed in an oiltight housing and sub-
merged in oil, which serves as both a lubricant
and an insulating medium.
c. Variable Speed Drives. Variable speed
drives are made in a number of forms. The
conical roller type (fig. 74) incorporates vari-
ous types of friction surfaces to be lubricated
including antifriction bearings, ball and socket,
journal bearings, guide bearings, gears, etc.
The mechanism is inclosed in a housing, how-
ever, and a supply of oil lubricates all of the
surfaces by the dip method. Another and more
common type of variable speed device uses a
flat circular plate and a cylinder or roller con-
nected by two balls. It is known as the disk
and cylinder type. The balls are held in a cage
and a line through their centers and the axis
of the cylinder is perpendicular to the surface
of the disk. The balls may be moved radially
across the disk, thus changing either the direc-
tion of rotation of the cylinder or its speed for
a given movement of the disk. Both oil and
grease are used for lubricating drives of this
type depending upon the speed of the disk,
temperatures, etc. Refer to the pertinent tech-
nical manual and lubrication order for specific
insturctions.
Figure 74. Variable speed drive of the conical roller type.
TM 9-273
76. Fuze Setters
Fuze setters are used to adjust or set the
movable rings of a fuze before the projectile is
inserted into the gun. They may be hand-op-
erated or completely automatic devices built
onto the breech end of the cannon and con-
trolled by a director. As far as lubrication is
concerned, the smaller setters consist essential-
ly of two concentric rings held in a housing in
which they can be turned or adjusted by means
of knob-operated worms meshing with teeth
cut in the outside edges of the rings. Lubri-
cation generally is accomplished by inserting
oil into the hollow body of the housing
through oil screw holes. Larger setters are
fixed in the desired position and projectiles
are put into them for setting the fuze. This
necessitates a socket to hold and rotate the
projectiles and the mechanisms to rotate it. The
mechanism customarily includes a gear drive
giving the necessary mechanical advantage, and
the parts turn on friction- or antifriction-type
bearings, depending on size. The bearings are
lubricated as directed in the pertinent techni-
cal manual. Other setters include a fuze indi-
cator which operates as part of the data trans-
mission system to keep the gun crew
RA PD 109120
97
TM 9-273
constantly informed as to the correct fuze set-
ting, and some setters on anticraft guns are
controlled entirely by the data transmission
system.
77. Generating Units
a. Engines. The greater part of the lubrica-
tion of generator units applies to the engines
which constitute the source of power. These
engines generally are quite similar to the power
plants of automotive vehicles, and the lubrica-
tion instructions given in chapters 6 and 13
therefore are applicable.
b. Generators. Generator bearings may be
either of the plain journal or antifriction type
and may be either grease- or oil-lubricated as
directed in pertinent lubrication orders or tech-
nical manuals.
c. Cold Weather Conditions. If a generat-
ing unit is winterized properly and is in good
mechanical condition, it will operate down to
the lowest sub-zero temperature encountered.
(1) Refer to paragraph 89b for instruc-
tions on engine lubrication in extreme
cold weather.
(2) All linkages should be lubricated
very lightly with oil or grease so that
they will operate easily at low
temperatures.
(3) Assemblies on starters must be kept
clean and free of ice and snow. They
will not be lubricated.
(4) The governor linkage should be lu-
bricated lightly and the joints kept
free of ice and snow, or the gover-
nors may not function, causing the
engine to "run away" when it is first
operated.
(5) Choke and throttle control wires and
knobs may become hard to operate at
low temperatures. The wires will be
removed from their casings and
smoothed down with aluminum-oxide
abrasive cloth or crocus cloth. The
wires and inside of the casings then
should be cleaned with dry-cleaning
solvent and lightly lubricated before
assembly.
(6) Tachometer drive cables will be re-
moved from their sheaths and the ca-
ble and the inside of the sheath
98
cleaned with dry-cleaning solvent.
The cables will be lubricated lightly
with oil or grease.
(7) When operating generating units at
low temperatures, they must be run
for at least 30 minutes. A shorter op-
erating period will cause conclensa-
tion of moisture in the crankcase.
Some of this moisture will combine
with carbon and dirt to form sludge
in the crankcase. This sludge may
clog oil lines, the oil filter, or oil
holes so that lubrication will be in-
sufficient and bearings may fail. Dur-
ing the period of warmup, the radia-
tor should be covered to give rapid
warmup.
78. Radar Equipment
a. General. Motors, servomechanisms, gear
trains, instruments, support cables, turntables,
and hydraulic systems are some of the elements
in radar equipment that require careful lubri-
cation. Wide coverage of lubrication is pre-
sented in technical manuals for this type of
materiel. While general areas of importance
are discussed here, the specific technical man-
uals and lubrication orders must be followed
for correct servicing of these equipments. Fig-
ure 75 shows various parts of this equipment
requiring lubrication.
b, Motors. The bearings of most motors in
radar service are permanently lubricated and
sealed. They should be checked, however,
when periodic lubrication of other pieces of
equipment takes place. Motors or bearings
running hot, evidence of odors or smoke, and
leaking seals require immediate maintenance.
When motors are repaired for electrical fail-
ures, bearings should be cleaned, examined,
and replaced if necessary. Proper lubrication
of the bearings takes place at this time. Some
motors require periodic oiling. Small amounts
of light lubricating oil on the shaft bearings
at monthly intervals is a general requirement.
Specified maintenance instructions are pre-
scribed in lubrication orders.
c. Servomechanisms. These devices are
manufactured to tolerances of tenths of thou-
sandths because ideal accuracy is required in
 TM 9-273

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OR
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11-1-
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RA PD 467417

Figure 75. Lubrication points acquisition antenna.

99
TM 9-273
their function. Backlash and clearances of the
gears are very low. Bearing fits are close. Lu-
brication of such mechanisms is precise and
specialized. Light instrument oil, sparingly ap-
plied, is enough lubrication. Too much oil
will cause binding of moving parts. Excessive
oil might penetrate electrical insulation or
components and create serious malfunctioning.
Some servomechanisms have components made
of metals which form oxides. This bond be-
tween moving parts interferes with accurate
motion. In severe cases the oxide will "feeeze"
parts together making them inoperable. To
prevent oxidation, special lubricating materials
are prescribed. Whenever servomechanisms are
involved in lubrication, the specific technical
manuals and lubrication orders must be ac-
curately followed.
d. Gear Trains. Rotating antennae are heavy
pieces of equipment. Their broad surfaces, ex-
posed to wind and snow add to the load that
must be supported by operating gears and
bearings. Lubrication of these parts is gener-
ally made on a quarterly basis. Liberal use
of aircraft and instrument grease is prescribed.
This grease is not effected by high or low
temperatures and is quite resistant to water.
e. Instruments. This class of equipment,
like servomechanisms, requires correct lubrica-
tion. Special lubricants (G-611) aircraft and
instrument type, lightly applied on fine gears,
small bearings, and switches are necessary.
These lubricants contain antioxidizing com-
pounds. Lubrication, as well as general main-
tenance of this specialized equipment, is usu-
ally done by instrument experts.
f. Cable and Chains. The maintenance of
support members in radar groups depends
upon lubrication. Their guy wires are lightly
swabbed with general OA1 type oil. The prop-
erties of the lubricant are such that it will
seep through to all the strands. Because it has
low evaporating qualities, it will remain as a
protective seal against weather for long peri-
ods of time. Working ropes and chains re-
quire heavier lubricants such as CW II. This
viscous, tacky petroleum based lubricant will
cling to the surfaces needing protection. Im-
mersions in water and bad weather conditions
will not destroy or remove the compound. To
make its application easy, the oil can be
100
heated and swabbed on liberally with a paint
brush.
g. Turntables. Bearing plates and the heavy
rollers that move on them take grease of the
GL type. Pressure-type fittings are pointed
out in the technical manuals where these lubri-
cation areas apply. A dust seal is created by
the grease to protect the inner mechanisms.
h. Hydraulic Equipment. Certain elements
requiring smooth motion use hydraulics.
Maintenance of hydraulic systems in radar
equipment is the same as in other equipments.
Leaking seals or irregular consumption of the
hydraulic liquids require immediate mainte-
nance. A fluid of the OHC type containing a
petroleum base with special additives is used.
These fluids have different color dyes added so
they may be used where they are required.
Th filler caps on the hydraulic reservoirs are
painted an identifying color as specified in TB
ORD 586 to indicate the specific fluid to be
used. The fluids have a color corresponding
to the filler cap.
i. Types of Items. Lubrication instructions
and references in this manual prescribing lu-
bricants to be used on fire control materiel and
method of application apply to the following
types of such materiel:
(1) Boards (correction, deflection, plot-
ting, etc.).
(2) Compasses.
(3) Computing sights.
(4) Directors and computers (mechanical
and electrical except fire control sys-
tems T33C, M33C, T33D, and M33D
and fire control system T38).
(5) Fuze setters (all types, except com-
bination fuze setter-rammer M20).
(6) Motor drives.
(7) Mounts (all types, including adapters
and holders).
(8) Optical instruments (all types).
(9) Quadrants (all types, including
clinometers).
(10) Remote and local control system (all
components except oil gears M3,
M6, and M6A1).
(11) Sighting systems.
(12) Sights (all types).
(13) Training instruments (for example,

stereoscopic trainer M7, machine gun
trainer M9).
(14) Tripods.
j. Aircraft and Instruments Lubricants.
(1) All fire control items listed in i
above will be lubricated with aircraft
and instruments lubricating grease.
Refer to Department of the Army
Supply Manual 10-1-C4-1 (Federal
Supply Catalog, Department of De-
fense Section, C4-1, all items in
FSC group 91, fuels, lubricants, oils,
and waxes). The lubricant will be
applied sparingly to provide smooth
and reasonably free movement, parti-
cularly during periods of extreme
cold. Lubricate when necessary and
at time of repair or rebuild.
(2) Lubrication of fire control materiel
will be performed only by ordnance
personnel, with the following excep-
tions which may be lubricated by the
using organizations.
(a) External parts not readily lubri-
cated with grease, such as hand-
wheel knobs or cranks, hinges,
stay brackets, cover fastening de-
vices, felt washers, and drawer
rollers. Lubricate as required with
aircraft instrument lubricating oil.
(b) Exposed bearing surfaces such as
segments, worms, and lead screws.
Lubricate with a thin film of air-
craft and instruments lubricating
grease. This grease provides for
both lubrication and protection
against corrosion.
k. Lubrication Fittings no Longer Required.
Remove all external oil and grease lubricating
fittings which have not previously been re-
moved from the items listed in i above. Do
this at the time of major repair or rebuild.
TM 9-273
Note. Do not remove fittings used for filling or
draining of insulating, recoil, hydraulic, or variable
resistor oils.
1. Procedure for Removal of Lubrication
Fittingsand Plugging of Holes.
(1) Unscrew threaded-type fittings and
remove drive-type fittings.
(2) Plug the holes from which fittings
have been removed in the following
manner:
(a) Threaded-type fittings. Select the
proper size pipe plug which, if
possible, is of the same material as
the material being plugged. Ap-
ply white lead pigment to the
threads of the plug only. Do not
apply pigment to the tapped hole.
Screw in the plug, cut off flush,
and stake in place. When a pipe
plug is not available, drill and tap
the hole to the next larger size
(fine thread series) and fabricate a
threaded plug. Apply pigment as
prescribed above, screw in the
plug, cut off flush, and stake in
place.
Caution: Drilling, tapping, and
plugging must be performed when
the instrument is disassembled. Re-
sultant chips and other foreign
matter can then be removed. Do
not permit the plug to project into
the instrument. It may interfere
and cause damage after assembly.
(b) Drive-type fittings. Tap hole to
accommodate either pipe or straight
plug, and proceed as prescribed for
plugging threaded-type fittings ((a)
above).
(c) Oil holes. Plug in the same manner
as prescribed for drive-type fittings
((b) above).
m. General Maintenance. For general main-
tenance procedures for fire control materiel,
refer to TM 9-254.
101

CHAPTER 12
SMALL ARMS MATERIEL
79. General
The problem of the lubrication of small
arms is rather peculiar because cleaning, pre-
serving, and lubricating are so closely related.
Most of the friction surfaces fall into two gen-
eral classes: (1) slide bearings, reversing in-
termittent motion; (2) journal bearings, slow,
less than 360 degree motion. The result is
that lubrication problems are not severe as long
as the friction surfaces are free from dust, dirt,
water, etc. Although oil is used in the bores
and chambers of small arms weapons, it is for
preservative purposes only when the weapon is
not in use. It is always removed before the
weapon is fired because it will cause hazard-
ous chamber pressure. Experience has proved
that more small arms become unserviceable
through lack of proper maintenance than for
any other reason. Lubrication and preservation
are very important parts of complete mainte-
nance. Refer to pertinent lubrication orders
and technical manuals for details.
80. Rifles
The rifle must be cleaned after firing be-
cause substances from the primer cause a de-
posit of ash, carbon, and corrosive salts. The
bore should be swabbed with bore cleaner or
soapy water followed by drying and light oil-
ing. The gas cylinder and chamber should be
oiled lightly using a preservative-type lubri-
cant. Oil the face of the bolt and piston of
the operating rod after cleaning. After remov-
TM 9-273
ing sand, dirt, etc., from all other parts with a
stiff brush, they should be oiled lightly. Lin-
seed oil should be rubbed into the wooden
parts. Rifle grease should be applied to the
lip of the receiver and locking recesses. The
camming lugs of the bolt and the camming sur-
face in the hump of the operating rod should
be greased. Daily examination for rust and
the removal, if any, is important to the mainte-
nance of the rifle. The rifle should always be
protected with a light coat of preservative oil.
FM 23-5 covers maintenance details for caliber
.30 rifles M1.
81. Machineguns
Care of machineguns in the lubrication and
preservative areas is similar to that of rifles.
Temperature rise due to firing may cause more
persistent residues than those encountered
with rifles. A bore brush is used before swab-
bing with bore cleaner patches. The gas cylin-
der on some models does not require daily
maintenance because of a built-in cleaning ac-
tion. In hot and dusty areas, lubrication
should be minimized in order that dust and
grit will not adhere to parts.
82. Revolvers, Pistols
The revolver should be cleaned after use
with bore cleaner or warm soapy water and
dried. Moving parts then should be lightly
oiled. The stationary metal parts should al-
ways be protected with a rubbed-in oil film.
103

CHAPTER 13
WEATHER CONDITIONS
83. General
a. Military vehicles may be used in almost
any area on the face of the globe. They are
designed and manufactured for certain average
conditions, and special maintenance operations
are used to cover extreme conditions. Aside
from vehicle casualties in combat and normal
wear, maintenance problems arise chiefly from
the type of service (driver control, engine
speeds, and engine loads) and the operating
conditions (climate, atmospheric contamination
and terrain).
b. Preventive-maintenance procedures are
prescribed in order to secure continuous effi-
cient engine operation and to prolong periods
between rebuilds. In some areas, conditions
such as relatively high or low temperatures,
high humidity, dusty air, steep grades, etc.,
cause engine malfunctions and harmful crank-
case contamination. The maintenance of prop-
er engine adjustments; the regular cleaning
and servicing of air cleaners, ventilation sys-
tems, cooling systems, oil filters, etc.; and the
following of prescribed engine oil draining
procedures are important elements in depend-
able engine service.
c. Lubrication is a most important factor in
engine operation. Operating factors that cause
lubricant deterioration and contamination may
be divided into five general classifications-
high engine temperatures, low engine temper-
atures, contamination by dust from the atmos-
phere, contamination by water from cooling
system leaks or from condensation, and con-
tamination by products of improper fuel com-
bustion (soots and unburned fuel). These
factors may develop either from the severity
of type of service (driver control, speed, and
TM 9-273
loads) or the inadequacy of preventive mainte-
nance measures taken. Adequate preventive-
maintenance measures will compensate for the
harmful effects of adverse operating conditions
(weather and terrain).
d. Recorded world atmospheric temperatures
vary from a low of -90 ° F. to a high of
+ 136 ° F. within the limits of continental
United States, temperatures of -66 ° to + 135 °
F. are on record. There is also sufficiently
wide variation in rainfall, relative humidity,
terrain, and dust conditions to enable a fairly
direct comparison with almost any area on the
globe, with the exception of the extremely
cold arctic regions. Experience obtained from
military vehicle operation in the various areas
throughout continental United States can be
related to almost any set of operating condi-
tions that may be encountered in any area
throughout the world. The influence of cli-
mate upon engine operation may be considered
under the following temperature ranges:
(1) Temperatures below 0° F. Severe
cold, requiring special equipment for
engine starting and operation.
(2) Temperatures between 0 ° and +32 °
F. Winterization kits not prescribed;
however, certain precautionary and
engine warming steps essential.
(3) Temperatures between +32 ° and
+50 ° F. Moderate cold, requiring
precautionary and engine warming
steps for vehicles in intermittent
service.
(4) Temperatures between + 50 ° and
+85 ° F. Ideal operating tempertures.
(5) Temperatures above +85 ° F. High
temperature problems.
105
TM 9-273
84. Engine Operation at High
Atmospheric Temperatures
a. Cooling System Maintenance. As two
thirds or more of the available energy in a fuel
consumed in an internal combustion engine is
unused and must be dissipated as heat, crank-
case oil temperatures are dependent upon the
proper frunction of the engine and the engine
cooling system. Hence, wherever temperatures
are high or loads are heavy, oil temperatures
may become excessive if the engine functions
poorly or improperly. For this reason, it is es-
pecially important that emphasis be placed on
the maintenance of clean deposit-free water
jackets and radiator cores, as well as on the
efficient operation of the fan, water pump,
thermostat, oil cooler, and manifold heat
control.
b. Engine Adjustments. Improper adjust-
ment of ignition or valve timing or improper
carburetor fuel mixtures will cause excessive
local temperatures in the upper cylinder area of
the engine. Results of excessive temperatures
in these areas frequently are piston ring stick-
ing, varnish deposits on piston skirts and valve
stem, piston scuffing, burned valves, breakdown
of the lubricating oil to form deposits of carbon
on the under side of the piston head, and gen-
eral engine sludging.
c. Engine Loads and Speeds. Excessive
speeds or engine lugging (operation in too
high a gear) rapidly will increase oil and en-
gine temperatures. As higher engine speeds
also place increased loads on bearings and other
working surfaces, greater demands are placed
upon the lubricant for adequate lubrication.
The higher temperatures obtained will re-
sult in reduced load carrying ability of the
lubricant. Hence, excessive speed or engine
lugging are particularly dangerous when atmos-
pheric temperatures are high or loads are
heavy, and should be avoided.
d. Lubricant Deterioration. The most imme-
diate result of heat is the temporary thinning of
the oil. Continued exposure to high tempera-
tures, however, will result in the evaporation
of the more volatile fractions of the oil, leaving
the oil more viscous in body. Also, in the pres-
106
ence of air and particularly where the oil is in
contact with metals, oxidation of the oil occurs.
This also results in thickening of the lubricant
and in the formation of sludges, lacquers, var-
nishes, and other objectionable oil oxidation
products. Oils have been refined from stable
base stocks and processed to retard oxidation
and also to prevent the deposition of decompo-
sition products, fuel soots, and sludge in the
oil passages, ring grooves, and engine parts.
However, all petroleum oils will break down if
the temperatures are extreme. Consequently it
is important that engine adjustment and tem-
perature control equipment be maintained prop-
erly and that proper oil drain procedures at
specified intervals be followed. As the film of
the lubricant becomes thinner, any abrasive ma-
terial that may have entered the engine from
the atmosphere, or from the engine itself, will
be more damaging due to the lack of sufficient-
ly protective layers of oil.
85. Accelerated Wear From Dust
a. Dust. Wear from dust will depend upon
the character of the dust particles as well as the
quantity of dust in the air. Military vehicle op-
eration includes a great deal of travel over open
fields in dusty areas which makes the problem
of control of wear from abrasives a very impor-
tant one. Abrasives from dusty air enter the
engine through several channels-the air in-
take system, engine breathers, and through con-
tamination of the lubricant during storage or in
the process of adding oil to the crankcase from
contaminated filling receptacles.
b. Effect of Th-inned Lubricant. Wear from
abrasive particles is accelerated whenever the
lubricant film becomes thin, either through the
thinning effect of high engine temperatures or
through fuel dilution.
c. Air Cleaner Maintenance. If air cleaner
elements become dirty or the oil level in the
element becomes low, dust particles will be
sucked directly into the combustion chamber.
Large accumulations of dirt in the air cleaner
elements will lower filtering efficiency and also
will reduce the air supply for combustion with
a resulting loss of engine power. Leaky joints

in connections or deterioration of the flexible
air hose connections between the air cleaner and
the carburetor will provide a direct channel for
abrasives into the combustion chamber. Dirt
accumulation on the piston head will accelerate
carbon deposits and reduce heat transfer. Prod-
ucts of abrasions, metal particles, and pulver-
ized dirt will be washed down into the crank-
case to further circulate and result in abrasion
of bearings and journals and the clogging of
oil passages. Dust entering the crankcase
through the air induction or breather system
causes initial damage by abrasion of the cylin-
der walls, pistons, and piston rings. That which
is absorbed by the crankcase oil is circulated
to the other bearing surfaces.
d. Dirty Oil-Handling Receptacle. Loose or
unserviced breather caps, loose or missing oil
filler pipe caps or bayonet-gage sticks, or the
use of dirty filling receptacles are responsible
for a high percentage of engine damage in
dusty or sandy areas. Sand or dirt entering the
crankcase through these channels will be com-
posed of both large and small particles. The
large particles will be removed by the oil pump
strainers and probably do no appreciable dam-
age. The fine particles, however, circulate
through the lubrication system and are a serious
threat to bearings and other working surfaces.
While the large sand particles found in the
crankcase oil pan do not themselves directly in-
dicate engine abrasion, they are evidence that
fine particles probably have been circulating
and causing serious wear. Do not expect the
oil filters to offer complete protection from
abrasives for the engine, as most filters operate
on a bypass system and only part of the oil
passes through the filter on each circulation,
the balance going directly through the engine
lubricating system to bearings, cylinder walls,
etc.
86. Cold Weather Problems
a. General. When engine crankcase tem-
peratures are low (below 140 ° F.), engine effi-
ciency is very poor and wear and engine deteri-
oration occurs at a faster rate. Atmospheric
temperatures below 0° F. make these problems
acute and require special provisions in the form
TM 9-273
of winterization kits for the starting and opera-
tion of vehicles. Where operation of a vehicle
is intermittent (frequent starts and stops), en-
gine temperatures will not be high enough
when atmospheric temperatures are below
-+ 55 ° F. unless steps are taken to provide ade-
quate engine temperatures.
b. Wear Accelerated By Cold Sluggish Lu-
brication. A distinctive characteristic of all
petroleum lubricating oils is that they become
thick (heavier in viscosity) as their tempera-
ture is reduced, and this means that oil will be
pumped more slowly through oil passages and
will penetrate less readily through small
clearances. Sufficiently low temperatures are
experienced in many parts of the world to cause
oil to congeal. A cold sluggish lubricant places
a heavy drag on the movement of engine work-
ing parts and this places a heavy load on the
battery, the efficiency of which is very poor at
low temperatures. The sluggish flow of the
lubricant to bearings and cylinder regions
means that lubrication must come from what-
ever lubricant has remained clinging to these
parts Vntil further supply is furnished by the
oil pumped through the lubricating system.
Consequently lubricant films are apt to be in-
adequate and actual metal-to-metal scuffing
may occur during the starting of a cold engine.
c. Water Emulsion Sludges. For every gal-
lon of gasoline burned in an engine, more than
a gallon of water is formed which, at normal
operating temperatures, will pass off through
the exhaust and the engine ventilation system
in the form of vapor. However, when cylinder
walls are cold, this water vapor will condense
and run down past the pistons and rings to
contaminate the crankcase lubricant and to
form a back sludge. Crankcase oil pans may be-
come loaded and oil screens plugged (fig. 76).
Valves (fig. 77), valve chambers, and timing
gear cases may become coated to the extent that
the lubricant cannot reach the working parts.
Water will absorb acid gases formed by com-
bustion and cause corrosion and rust.
d. Engine Oil Filters. Filters are connected
in the oil system with a bypass, this construc-
tion continuously passing to the filter only a
small percentage of the oil being pumped. Oil
TM 9-273
Figure 76. Sludge accumulation on (A) oil filter, (B) oil pump strainer, (C)
valve mechanism, and (D) valve cover plate.
Figure 77. Gum deposits on valve stems.
filters become more loaded or clogged from cold
weather type sludges than from abrasives. For
this reason, filters do not become loaded as
quickly during warm dusty operations as they
do in cold humid areas when cold weather type
sludges are more apt to occur. As the resistance
to oil flow through the filter elements is in-
creased by the oil becoming thicker at low
temperatures, very little filtration occurs when
engine oil temperatures are low. Consequently
the oil filter cannot be expected to help in
keeping the oil clean unless engine operating
temperatures permit appreciable oil passage
through the filter elements.
108
RA PD 95424A
e. Combustion Problems. Combustion of
fuel in an internal combustion engine is similar
to the burning of kerosene in a lamp or stove.
If the mixture of fuel and air is too rich (too
large a portion of fuel for air), some of the fuel
will be burned only partially to form soot such
as may be formed on a lamp chimney or on the
bottom of a pan. If the fuel is not vaporized
properly, some of it will not burn at all but
will drip off the burner. Unburned fuel is the
source of fuel dilution of oil in the crankcase
of an engine. Where engine temperatures are
inadequate, it is difficult to get proper atomiza-
tion of the fuel and, consequently, choking
the carburetor for a richer mixture is neces-
sary. This results in abnormal amounts of soot
being formed which increases carbon deposits
on piston heads and permits blowby of soot into
the ring area and down into the crankcase lu-
bricant. Fuel stricking the cold cylinder walls
condenses and washes down past the rings,
carrying the cylinder wall lubricant with it,
contaminating and thinning the crankcase lu-
bricant.

f. Prevention of Sludge. In order to reduce
cold weather sludge and resulting engine wear
in automotive engines, it is absolutely essential
that the cooling system temperature be raised
to a minimum of +140 ° F. as soon as possible
after starting and, so far as practicable, be
maintained at + 160 ° to + 180 ° F. at all times
while the engine is operating. The action pre-
scribed below is applicable for all atmospheric
operating temperatures below + 32 ° F. and also
for more moderate temperatures, if difficulty is
experienced in raising cooling systems to + 140 °
F. and maintaining such temperatures at
+ 160 ° F. while the engine is operating.
(1) Inspect and test the cooling system
thermostats to insure that the valves
open and close at specified tempera-
tures. These can be checked by re-
moving and immersing elements in
water heated to the specified temper-
atures.
(2) Cover hood louvers with heavy card-
board or other suitable material. This
is done best from the inside of the
hood.
(3) Cover radiator cores wholly or par-
tially in accordance with atmospheric
temperatures. The amount of the ra-
diator core which must be covered in
order to obtain the temperatures re-
ferred to in f above will vary with
different vehicles and will have to be
determined by trial. For temperatures
of +32 ° to 0° F., the lower half of
the core may need to be covered un-
less operation at high speed or under
severe load is expected. For opera-
tions between +32 ° and +50° F.
where operation is intermittent (fre-
quent stops and starts, excessive
idling, or infrequency of use), cover-
ing of the lower quarter of the core
may be necessary. Radiator core cov-
ering applied for intermittent opera-
tion protection should be removed
whenever high speed or heavy load
operation is anticipated.
(4) Check and tighten cylinder head studs
with torque indicating wrench as pre-
TM 9-273
scribed in applicable technical manu-
als to prevent liquid leaking past the
gaskets.
(5) Many engines cannot be warmed up
by idling. Therefore, the parctice of
running engines for prolonged peri-
ods at idling speeds to warm them
will be covered by operating person-
nel technical manuals. Start engines
with clutch disengaged and maintain
engine speed at fast idle until the en-
gine is firing evenly on all cylinders
and running smoothly. As soon as
engine will accept a load without fal-
tering and oil pressure has reached
normal operating range, the vehicle
will be operated using low gear ratios
and low speeds. At no time (except
in emergency conditions) will the en-
gine be operated at high speeds or
under heavy load until the dash ther-
mometer indicates the engine has
reached the normal operating tem-
perature.
(6) The practice of running engines to
charge batteries or to provide current
to operate radios, turrets, guns, etc.
is authorized. Pertinent technical
manuals point out these cases.
(7) Each crankcase oil change will be
scheduled so as to be performed im-
mediately after engine operation and
while the oil is still hot. Care will be
taken to drain the oil completely.
(8) Oil filter cases will be drained at re-
duced intervals when equipped with
drain cocks (or plugs) to remove sedi-
ment. It may be necessary to drain
filters daily under unusually severe
conditions.
(9) When it is known that an engine is
badly sludged, the crankcase pan will
be dropped and sludge removed from
pan, valve mechanism, and exposed
parts. At the same time, clean oil
pump screen thoroughly.
(10) When an engine has been operated
for an extended period under condi-
tions where cold engine sludge accu-
mulations are being experienced and
109
 TM 9-273

a change to high speeds or heavy
loads is anticipated, it is advisable to
flush with an engine conditioning oil
to reduce sludge accumulation before
the vehicle is placed in severe service
where warm engine temperatures are
expected. The procedures outlined in
paragraph 45b will be used in flush-
ing:
Note. Such flushing will not prevent further
sludge accumulation but will reduce the
hazard of screen clogging and lubrication
failure from sludge that may be dislodged and
put in circulation by warm oil.
g. Progressive Development of Engine
Depreciation. Figure 78 shows how engine de-
preciation develops progressively when preven-
tive maintenance operations are not performed
or are ineffective for any reason.
87. Wet Conditions
In prolonged wet weather, particularly when
traveling over soggy terrain and whenever
fording takes place, water will seep into lubri-
cated parts. This will cause sludge, corrosion,
and accelerated wear. It is imperative that com-
plete lubrication is made as soon as practicable.
This involves draining and drying gear hous-
ings, crankcases, and bearings where water may
have collected. Complete lubrication of the
parts, in accordance with lubrication orders,
must then be done. Unpainted metal surfaces
should be wiped dry and preservative type lu-
bricants applied.
88. Effect of Variation in Climate
Upon Engine Conditions
a,, General. In order to compare the influ-
ence of weather and, operating conditions on
vehicle engines, several hundred thousand tests
were conducted on military vehicles in training
areas throughout the continental United States.
The results of these tests have been broken
down and related to prevailing conditions of
climate, and figures 79 to 83 inclusive show
average results of operation under varying cli-

FROGRESSIVE
DEVELOPMENT
OF ENGINEDEPRECIATION
WHENPREVENTIVE
MAINTENANCEIS INEFFECTIVE
PREVENTIVEMAINTENANCE CONDITIONDEVELOPED RESULTING RESULTINGENGINE
SERVICEITEM (TM 37-310) IF PM. IS INEFFECTIVE OIL CONDITION CONDITION
AIR CLEANERS SAND ARASIVES INDUCITION

MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS
OPERATING CONDITIONS
ACCENTUATED BY DUSTYW
BREATHERCAPS
B VENTILATOR / ABRASIVE-LADENLUBRICANT EXCESSIVEABRASION OF
WORKING PARTS
OIL FILTERS OXIDATION PRODLCTS,SOOT. SLUDGE-LADENLUBRICANT
DIRT, WATER ACCUMULATED CIRCULATED.OIL FLOW RETARDED

BREATHERCAPS CLOGGEDBREATHERS SLUOCEDENCINE CLOGGED

MAINTENANCE PRODLEMS VENTILATOR AND VENTILATORS OALRINC
LINES NS.
PS
SREENS. C GE
PASSAGS,
ACCENTUATED BY DAMP OIL FILTERS CLOGGEDFILTERS ANDL
CLIMATE
RNGS, PORTS.ETC.

/
OI
0L LINES//

- CVLIoDFR
CYLINDER HEAD-WATER
HEAD AT LEAKS INTO CRANKCASE WATE EMULSION SLUDGES/
R
&GASKET
SUB-NORMAL ENGINE WATERFROM CONDENSATION BEARING OIL FILM FAILURE
TEMPERATURES
MITNNEPOLM STICKING &CARBON COATED
MAINTENANCEIPROBLEMSDT H IN N E D LUBRICANTS, FUEL VALVE STEMS & VALVES.
AENTUATED
BY LOW CARBURETOR ABNORMAL FUEL INJECTION _ - RESINS.TARS, GUMS, WASHED EXCESSIVECYLINDER &RING WEAR
ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURES CYLINDER LUBRIA
(BELOW 50' F( ENGINE IDLE6 VACUUM G ABNORMAL FUEL SOOTS SLUDGEDENGINE; CLOGGED
_ SLUDGECOMPOTNLNE LS, SCREENS. PASSAGES,
DISTRIBUTOR IN CIRCULAT OIL OIL RINGS PORTS ETC.
SPARK PLUGS-
COIL AND WIRING

VALVE MECHANISM LOCAL HOT SPOTS

IGNITION TIMING
MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS RADTHICKENED LUBRICANT, STUCK RINGS: PISTON
ACCENTUATED
ACCENTUATED BY
BYHIGH
H0HIGH WATER PUMP FAN HIGH CN
CRANKCASE
SCIK ARBON. RESINS.TARS, SCUFFING:CLOGGEDOIL
lABDYE 80
(ABOVE8O' F)
~
ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURES
°
F)~ ~ ~ ~~
SHROUD ._ TEMPERATURES LACQUER. VARNISHES LINES, SCREENS,
ACCELERATED ETC.:
WEAR
MANIFOLDS6 EAT / THE COLD DRAINING OF CRANKCASEOIL IS PROHIBITED
CONTROL
_ ACCELERATEDWEAR
BECAUSEWHEN DRAINED COLD. THE OIL ONLY IS DRAINED OFF, RA
LEAVING THE SETTLEDSLUDGEIN THE BOTTOM OF THE OIL PAN. PD 400A

Figure 78. Progressive development of engine depreciation when preventive

maintenance is ineffective.

110

matic conditions with respect to water contami-
nation, engine sludging, filter loading,
combustion difficulties, and accelerated wear.
The purpose of these charts is to enable main-
tenance personnel to anticipate problems in
maintenance and operation in order to mini-
mize harmful effects from unfavorable operat-
ing conditions.
b. Water Accumulation in Crankcase (fig.
79). The accumulation of water in appreciable
quantities (in excess of 1 percent of the crank-
case contents) depends chiefly upon the tem-
perature in the crankcase. Temperatures in the
crankcase in excess of + 1600 F. will prevent
condensation of water. From figure 79 it will
be noted that only a very moderate percentage
of vehicles experience water contamination of
the lubricant at air temperatures above +50°
F. However, below this temperature the percent
of engines experiencing water contamination of
the crankcase oil approximately doubles for
each 20 degrees decrease in temperature.
100
In.
W 80 .1
0.U
. , 60or
'- W.
>-4
<a 400 __
.4:jCZ
20PE I d. Ineffective Filtration. It will be noted
0 N U
0 4
1 1 20 24
PERCENT OF VEHICLES
RA PD 104002
Figure 79. Prevalence of water emulsion in
crankcase oil.
c. Engine Sludge. From figure 80 it will be
noted that both temperature and relative hu-
midity are important factors in engine sludg-
ing. By far the greatest percentage of sludged
engines experienced in military operation are
of the cold weather sludge type. Prescribed
military crankcase lubricants are exceptionally
stable to high temperature oxidation and de-
composition. The dispersing properties of these
TM 9-273
lubricants prevent the deposition at normal
temperatures of sludge-forming constituents.
However, if crankcase temperatures become
cool, water, fuel dilution, and other products
of combustion tend to promote precipitation of
contamination to form engine sludges. In damp
humid climates the vapor-laden air tends to
accelerate the deposition of such sludges. It
will be noted that the percent of engines ex-
periencing sludge accumulations is about twice
as great in humid areas as in dry areas of
corresponding temperature conditions.
HUMID CLIMATE r DRY CLIMATE
100
Of
80
60
, CZ
;ZS
40
n
20 .
PERCENT OF VEHICLES
RA PD 104003
Figure 80. Prevalence of sludge in crankcase oil.
from figure 81 that the increase in rate of filter
loading or the decrease in filtering effective-
28 ness closely parallels the formation of sludge
(fig. 80). A primary function of the oil filter
is to remove from the crankcase oil sludge-
forming constituents. Therefore, it is natural
that the rate of filter loading would correspond
very closely to the rate of occurrence of sludge-
forming material. It also will be noted that
relative humidity, as well as temperatures, is an
important element in the rate of filter loading.
e. Combustion Difficulties, Poor vaporiza-
tion of the fuel attends vehicle operation at
temperatures below +50° F. Consequently,
difficulties in obtaining efficient combustion of
the fuel below this temperature increase rapid-
ly as the temperature is lowered. Concurrent
contamination of the lubricating oil by fuel
111
 TM 9-273
HUMID CLIMATE
operation at temperatures below this
M 1 .00 point.
cL i.- 80
4 (2) Figures 84 and 85 show the effect of
dusty conditions. Abrasives from
.L 60
dusty air enter engines through the
air intake system, engine breathers,
20 and from contaminated oils or oil con-
0 tainers. If air cleaner elements be-
come dirty or the oil level in the
element becomes low, dust particles
III will be sucked directly into the cylin-
ders. Large accumulations of dirt in
the air cleaner elements will lower
RA PD 104004 filtering efficiency and will also re-
duce the air supply for combustion,
Figure 81. Prevalence of ineffective filtration.
resulting in a lowered fuel efficiency.
Products of abrasion, metal particles,
and pulverized dirt will be washed
down the cylinder walls into the
o. crankcase to result in abrasion of
bearings and journals and clogging
of oil passages. Dust and dirt that
VC enters the crankcase directly through
loose or missing breather caps, conta-
<
0:
minated oils, or misuse of containers,
dipsticks, etc., will pass through the
> oil circulating system, causing accele-
rated wear to parts. While the large
28 particles will be filtered out, and seen
on strainers and filters, the smaller
104005 particles are passed through to do
damage to all surfaces on which oil is
Figure 82. Prevalenceof poor combustion. used.
soot and unburned fuel (fuel dilution) increas-
es at corresponding rates (fig. 82).
Ln
f. Accelerated Wear. Two prime causes for
abnormal wear of military vehicle engines are
cold weather starting and dusty operating con- a-
ditions.
(1) Figure 83 shows the relative rate of LUJ
00
increase in abnormal wear chiefly due <W
to cold starting of engines in relation >W
.2

to the prevailing air temperature. In

this connection it can be pointed out
that even +80 ° F. is cold for an en-
;4 28
gine. The rate of accelerated wear
during the starting period increases
RA PD 104006
very rapidly below 32 ° F. and it is of
extreme importance that proper Figure 83. Prevalence of abnormal wear due to
warmup procedures be followed for low atmospheric temperatures.
112
 TM 9-273

g. Results of Tests. Charts showing average
results of tests from vehicles of training organ-
izations within continental United States are
shown in figures 84 and 85. The locations of
installations from which tests were taken are
indicated on the outline map (fig. 86) on which
zones of average temperatures are shown. A
world outline map (fig. 87) showing corres-
ponding temperature zones is provided in order
to assist in relating experiences of vehicle op-
eration in United States to that to be anticipat-
ed for similar climate in foreign theaters.
Table III gives climatic data for representative
points throughout the world.

INFLUENCEOF VARIATIONS IN CLIMATE UPONAUTOMOTIVEENGINECONDITION,

AVERAGESBASEDUPON THE EXPERIENCEOF MILITARY VEHICLEOPERATIONIN TRAINING AREAS
IN CONTINENTAL UNITEDSTATES

~SUMMER
SUMMER AVERAGES
AVERAG~ES
[]
3BARS INDICATEAVERAGE
PERCENTOF VEHICLES
WINTER AVERAGES 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

I INEFFECTIVE FILTRATION

WASHINGTON-OREGON COASTALREGION WATER EMULSION

VEHICLES TESTED WERE LOCATED IN SLUDGEDENGINES

WESTERN WASHINGTON AND OREGON, POOR COMBUSTION
CLIMATE: HUMID. WINTERS COOL.
SUMMERS MODERATELY WARM TEMPERATURE
HILLY TERRAIN. DUST CONDITIONS WEAR FROM COLD STARTS
MODERATE DUE TO FREQUENT RAINFALL. WEAR FROM DUSTY AIR

2 INEFFECTIVE FILTRATION
WATER EMULSION
CALIFORNIA-ARIZONA DESERT
REGION WATER EMULSION
VEHICLES TESTED WERE LOCATED IN SLUDGED ENGINES
SOUTHEASTERN CALIFORNIA AND ARIZONA POOR COMBUSTION
CLIMATE VERY DRY. WINTERS
MODERATELY WARM SUMMERS VERY HOT. WEAR ROM COLD STARTS
TERRAIN FLAT. DUST CONDITIONS
VERY SEVERE E \' WEAR FROM DUSTY AIR

~3 INEFFECTIVE FILTRATION

WATER EMULSION

ROCKYMOUNTAIN AREA SLUDGED ENGINES

VEIICLES TESTEDWERE LOCATED IN POOR COMBUSTION

COLORADO CLIMATE: DRY, WINTERS
COLD. SUMMERS WARM TERRAIN WEAR FROM COLD STARTS
VARIED. DUST CONDITIONS MODERATE. WEAR FROM DUSTY AIR
WEAR FROM DUSTY
AIR
4 INEFFECTIVE FILTRATION

Jill_ ~WATER EMULSION

SOUTHWESTERN
AREA SLUDGED ENGINES
VEHICLES TESTED WERE LOCATED IN
TEXAS AND OKLAHOMA CLIMATE POOR COMBUSTION
HUMID. WINTERS COOL TO MODERATE.
SUMMERS WARM TERRAIN VARIED WEAR FROM COLD STARTS
DUST CONDITIONS SEVEREIN MANY
LOCALITIES i WEAR FROM DUSTY AIR

RA PD 95432

Figure 84. Influence of variation in climate upon atomotive engine condition.

113
 TM 9-273
INFLUENCEOF VARIATIONS IN CLIMATE UPONAUTOMOTIVE ENGINECONDITION.
AVERAGESBASEDUPONTHE EXPERIENCE OF MILITARY VEHICLEOPERATIONIN TRAINING AREAS
IN CONTINENTAL UNITEDSTATES

SUMMER AVERAGES BARS INDICATE AVERAGE

PERCENTOF VEHICLES
WINTER AVERAGES m 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

5 INLEFECTIVE FILTRATION

WATER EMULSION
MID CENTRALREGION
Jllm.J~SLUDGED ENGINES
VEHICLES TESTED WERE LOCATED IN
ARKANSAS. KANSAS. KENTUCKY. MISSOURI POOR COMBUSTION
AND SOUTHERN INDIANA. CLIMATE
HUMID. WINTERS COOL. SUMMERS WARM. WEAR FROM COLD STARTS
DUST CONDITIONS SEVEREIN MANY
LOCALITIES. WEAR FROM DUSTY AIR

6 INEFFECTIVE FILTRATION
- _
_ ' ~~WATER
EMULSION
NORTH CENTRALREGION _
SLUDGED ENGINES
VEHICLES TESTED WERE LOCATED IN
MINNESOTA. WISCONSIN. NORTHERN POOR COMBUSTION
ILLINOIS AND NORTHERN INDIANA
CLIMATE: HUMID, WINTERS COLD. WEAR FROM COLD STARTS
SUMMERS WARM DUST CONDITIONS
MODERATE IN MOST LOCALITIES, WEAR FROM DUSTY AIR

7 d INEFFECTIVE FILTRATION.
SOUTHEASTERN
REGION WATER EMULSION
VEHICLES TESTED WERE LOCATED IN SLUDGED ENGINES
LOUISIANA. MISSISSIPPI. ALABAMA.
GEORGIA. AND NORTH AND SOUTH POOR COMBUSTION
CAROLINA. CLIMATE HUMID. WINTERS
COOL TO MODERATE. SUMMERS WARM. WEAR FROM COLD STARTS
DUST CONDITIONS EXTREMELY SEVERE
IN MANY AREAS, WEAR FROM DUSTY AIR
"_ _i_

~8~~ 1 ______ INEFFECTIVE FILTRATION

WATER EMULSION

MID ATLANTIC REGION SLUDGED ENGINES

VEHICLES TESTED WERE LOCATED IN POOR COMBUSTION

VIRGINIA. MARYLAND. PENNSYLVANIA.
AND NEW JERSEY CLIMATE HUMID, WEAR FROM COLD STARTS
WINTERS COOL. SUMMERS WARM DUST
CONDITIONS MODERATE IN MOST AREAS WEAR FROM DUSTY AIR

RA PD 95432A

Figure 85. Influence of variationsin climate upon automotive engine condition.

114
 TM 9-273

NORMAL MIDWINTER TEMPERATURE BELOW 0°F. 0x

NORMALMIDWINTER TEMPERATURE 0'F. TO 30 F.r
NORMALMIDSUMMER TEMPERATURE 50 F TO 85 F.
NORMALMIDWINTER TEMPERATURE 32 F. TO 50 F.
NORMAL MIDSUMMER TEMPERATURE 50'F. TO 85 F.I
NORMALMIDWINTER TEMPERATURE 50 F. TO 85 F.
NORMAL MIDSUMMER TEMPERATURE 50 F. TO 85'F. ILJl
NORMALMIDWINTER TEMPERATURE 50 F TO 85' F.
NORMAL MIDSUMMER TEMPERATURE OVER 85EF.
penal RA PD 104007A

Figure 86. Map of the United States showing test points and temperatureszones.
Figures in circles indicate areas discussed in figures 84 and 85.

115
TM 9-273

ID
CO
0

00

Co

00)

00

o)

00

116
 TM 9-273

Table III. Climatic Data for Representative Points Throughout the World

Normal temperatures
(degrees F.) Extremes (degrees F.) Annual
rainfall
(inches)
January July Max Min

North America:
Alaska:
Fairbanks ------------------------- -11.6 60.0 99 -66 11.87
Nome ----------------------------- 3.4 49.8 84 -47 17.82
Sitka …---.------.------------------ 32.4 54.9 87 -5 87.13
Canada:
Fort Good Hope ___________________ -22.9 59.6 95 -79 10.45
Halifax ___--______________________ 23.0 64.8 99 -21 55.52
Vancouver ------------------------. 35.6 63.3 92 2 58.65
Winnipeg -------------------------- -3.4 66.6 103 -46 20.37
Central America:
Guatemala ------------ _------------ 63.0 69.2 90 41 51.84
Greenland:
Invigtut ---- _---------------------- 18.5 49.8 86 -21 44.85
Upernivik ------------------------- -7.6 41.0 69 -44 9.00
Iceland Vestmanno --------------------- 34.5 52.5 71 -6 52.91
Mexico:
Chihuahua . . .....................- 55.2 76.2 103 11 15.39
Mexico City ----------------------- 54.2 62.7 92 24 29.38
Vera Cruz ------------------------ 70.6 79.8 96 49 63.74
United States:
Death Valley, Calif ---------------_ 51.6 102.0 134 15 1.49
Denver, Colo --------------------- . 32.0 72.6 105 -29 13.99
Key West, Fla --------------------- 69.9 83.2 100 41 38.36
New Orleans, La ---------.--------. 53.5 80.1 102 7 59.72
New York City, N. Y ______________. 32.1 74.4 102 -14 48.63
Minneapolis, Minn _________________ 13.1 73.2 108 -34 27.31
Portland, Maine ------------------- 23.4 67.8 103 -21 42.05
San Franciso, Calif -.-------------- 49.8 58.9 101 27 20.23
Seattle, Wash --------------------_ 39.5 63.1 98 3 31.80
West Indies:
Havana, Cuba --------------------_ 69.8 79.2 95 50 48.08
South America:
Argentina:
Buenos Aires ---------------------- 74.4 51.2 103 28 37.86
Deseado --------------------------- 61.4 39.0 102 1 7.17
Bolivia, La Paz ------------------------ 53.2 45.3 75 27 22.18
Brazil:
Belem ---------------------------- 79.4 80.2 95 64 93.19
Rio de Janeiro --------------------- 78.4 68.4 102 52 43.25
Chile, Santiago --------.. . .............
69.3 48.1 99 24 14.09
Paraguay, Asuncion ----------.--------. 82.0 65.6 109 33 54.61
Peru, Lima --------------.------------. 73.4 61.2 90 40 1.90
Uruguay, Montivedio -----------------_ 72.4 50.0 109 25 37.99
Venezuela, Caracas -------------------- 65.8 68.9 91 45 32.15
Europe:
Austria, Vienna _______________________ 31.9 65.8 97 -4 25.37
British Isles:
Glasgow --------------------------- 48.6 58.0 85 7 37.18
London ___________________________ 38.5 63.5 100 4 24.47

117
TM 9-273

Table III. Climatic Data for Representative Points Throughout the World-Continued

Normal temperatures
(degrees F.) Extremes (degrees F.) Annual
rainfall
I (inches )
January July Max Min
C_ ·
7
-

Europe-Continued
Bulgaria, Sofia ------------------------- 28.4 69.1 102 -24 24.30
Czechoslovakia, Prague ----------------- 30.0 66.6 95 -14 19.25
Denmark, Copenhagen _________________ 30.5 61.8 90 -13 20.75
Finland, Helsingfors ----------- ----- - 21.4 63.8 88 -23 27.75
France:
Marseilles ------------------------- 44.2 72.0 100 12 22.59
Paris --- _------------------------ 37.8 65.6 101 -14 22.62
Germany:
Berlin ----...------ ___------------- 30.2 64.4 99 -15 22.88
Hamburg ------------------------- '311.7 62.6 92 -6 28.58
Greece, Athens… _____________..---- 47.6 81.3 109 20 15.48
Hungary, Budapest --------------------- 31.6 70.4 102 -2 25.20
Italy:
Rome _---------------------------- 45.0 76.1 104 21 35.50
Turin -__-------------------------- 33.2 72.8 96 4 35.49
Nether]ands, Amsterdam --------------- 37.5 63.0 91 4 27.95
Norway:
Bergen --------------------------- 34.2 57.9 89 5 81.02'
Trondheim - ----------------------- 27.3 57.2 95 -15 31.09
Poland, W arsaw ----------------------- 25.7 65.4 98 -28 22.2].
Portugal, Lisbon ----------------------- 50.9 71.2 103 30 28.87
Romania, Bucharest -------------------- 26.6 73.0 105 -23 23.17
Spain, Madrid ------------------------ 40.4 73.8 112 10 16.48
Sweden, Stockholm --------------------- 26.6 62.6 92 -22 18.64
Switzerland, Zurich --------------------- 31.5 64.8 98 -11 45.17
Turkey, Istanbul ----------------------- 42.4 74.5 100 17 28.8(;
Russia:
Archangel _--______________________ 58.1 59.5 94 -49 17.21
Baku -----_----------------------- 38.1 77.4 99 8.96
Leningrad ------------------------ 18.3 63.5 97 -39 20.44
Moscow --------------- _- _-------- 12.6 64.4 100 -43 23.49
Yugoslavia, Belgrade ------------------- 33.0 72.2 107 -9 24.3'7
Asia:
Arabia, Aden ---------- __--------------- 76.2 88.1 109 61 1.93
China:
Chungking ------------------------- 48.4 84.0 111 27 413.36
H ongkong -- ----------------------- 60.2 82.5 97 32 84.27
Shanghai ---------------------.---- 39.8 82.2 103 10 44.95
East Indies, Batavia ------..- _____---_-- 78.7 79.4 96 66 72.13
India:
Bombay -------------.------------- 75.5 81.4 100 56 71.88
Calcutta -------------------------- 66.6 83.6 111 44 61.8:1
Delhi _---------------------------- 59.0 88.0 118 32 27.52
Rangoon ------------ _------------- 76.8 80.6 107 55 98.66
Irag, Bagdad ------------------------- 48.6 94.4 123 19 7.08
Japan:
Nagasaki ------------------------- 42.8 78.8 98 22 78.55
Tokyo ---------- _------------------ 37.9 76.0 98 15 57.81
Malay State, Singapore ---------------- 79.8 81.4 97 66 95.06
118
 TM 9-273
Table III. Climatic Data for Representative Points Throughout the World-Continued

Normal temperatures
(degrees F.) Extremes (degrees F.) Annual
rainfall
(inches)
January July Max Min

Asia-Continued
Manchukuo:
Hailar ----------------------- -18.7 69.2 104 -57 11.99
M ukden --------------------------- 8.8 77.2 103 -27 25.97
Philippine Isles, Manila …---------------- 77.2 81.2 101 58 79.61
Russia:
Bulum ---------------------------- -40.0 52.7 85 -75 8.75
Guriev _______________________ -- 12.2 78.2 1'05 -34 6.35
Krasnovodsk ________________ ------ 37.4 84.0 108 1 4.49
Vladivostok _______________________ 7.3 64.6 96 -22 22.44
Siam, Bangkok ----------------------- 79.2 83.8 106 52 52.36
Tibet, Gyantse ------------------------- 24.4 58.0 85 -20
Turkey, Smyrna ----------------------- 47.0 81.3 111 12 25.65
Africa:
Algeria, Algiers …______________________ 55.5 77.2 112 28 27.43
British Somaliland, Berberia ------------- 76.8 98.0 117 52 2.38
Egypt, Cairo --------------------------- 55.0 82.8 113 31 1.27
Ethiopia, Adis Ababa ------------------ 59.9 62.0 93 32 49.57
French West Africa:
Dakar ------------------------- 70.4 82.3 104 55 19.60
Timbuctu - ------------------------- 71.2 90.9 122 41 7.68
Libya, Bengazi ------------------------ 56.8 78.0 109 38 10.56
M orocco, Rabat ------------------------- 52.1 71.0 115 34 20.78
Northern Rhodesia:
Livingston ------------------------ 75.7 64.6 103 37 !33.78
Tunisia, Tunis ------------------------- 50.6 79.6 122 28 15.80
Union of South Africa:
Cape Tow n ------------------------ 69.5 54.6 104 3.1 25.01
Australia:
Adelaide ------------------------------- 73.7 51.8 116 32 21.22
Brisbane ------------------------------- 77.2 58.5 109 36 45.07
Darwin ------------------------------- 83.4 77.8 104 56 61.37
Melbourne ____________________________ 67.4 48.7 1.11 27 25.58
Perth --------------------------------- 73.8 55.2 108 34 34.32
New Zealand:
Wellington ----------------------------- 62.5 47.7 88 29 48.11

89. Cold Weather Lubrication performance or even total failure is to

be avoided.
a. General.
(2) Winterization kits have been develop-
(1) It is a natural tendency for lubricants ed for many vehicles to combat the
to thicken in cold weather, and in ex- added problems of extreme cold
treme cold weather (0 ° to -65 ° F.) weather operation. The kits are de-
they will solidify. (Oil does not signed primarily to overcome the three
freeze hard like ice but solidifies in main difficulties in starting an engine
somewhat the manner of cold butter (thickened engine oil, failure of stor-
or lard.) Obviously, lubricants in age battery to give necessary electrical
this state cannot perform their work. energy, and failh e of fuel to furnish
Extreme care in inspection and serv- a combustible mi ture to the intake
icing by both operating and mainte- manifold) and to maintain engine
nance personnel is required if poor temperatures while operating.
119
TM 9-273
(3) Refer to applicable lubrication orders
and technical manuals for prescribed
lubricants and pertinent instructions
for extreme cold weather operation.
TM 9-207 contains specific informa-
tion on the operation and maintenance
of ordnance materiel in extreme cold
weather.
b. Engine Lubrication Oils.
(1) General. Refer to paragraph 86 for
cold weather problems concerning lu-
brication of internal combustion en-
gines.
(2) Starting an engine. Before a start is
attempted, the engine oil must be
checked for quantity and fluidity.
Cold weather, by increasing the vis-
cosity (thickening) of an oil, will in-
crease the fluid friction of the oil in
the cylinder walls and bearings to the
extent that it is not possible to crank
the engine with the ordinary storage
battery. The oil must be sufficiently
fluid so that it can be picked up im-
mediately and pumped by the engine
oil pump. Several methods are em-
ployed to accomplish this objective
("pumpability") as indicated below.
Caution: Heat applied to the engine
coolant will allow for an engine start,
but ordinarily it will not make the oil
in the lines and pan sufficiently fluid
for pumpability. Pumpability must be
assured before a start is attempted.
(a) A heat exchanger is supplied for
some vehicles, through which the
engine coolant circulates, keeping
the engine warm when it is not in
operation. Some other vehicles are
equipped with a standby heater
having a hot-air duct directed at the
oil pan or an engine compartment
heater.
(b) Heat blast may be applied to the
engine oil pan from an external
source, such as the air heater of the
auxiliary starting aid (slave) kit.
(c) As a last resort, the oil (while fluid
after vehicle operation) may be re-
120
moved from the system and subse-
quently warmed over a fire.
Caution: Do not get oil too hot.
Heat to not more than 180 ° F. Heat
only to a point where the bare hand
can be inserted without burning-
approximately 140 ° F.
(d) After it has been determined that
the engine oil is fluid and the nec-
essary precautions taken to insure
that the fuel and engine electrical
systems are in a condition necessary
for engine starting, an attempted
start can be made. As soon as en-
gine starts, observe the oil pressure
gage. If oil pressure is not indicat-
ed immediately after starting, shut
down engine and determine the
cause.
(3) During operation. Vehicles must be
operated with engine temperatures
ranging from 140 ° to 180 ° F. Low
engine operating temperatures result
in undue wear and failure of engine
parts because of the collection of
sludge in the oil (par. 86). Consult
the applicable operator's (10 series)
technical manual for normal oil pres-
sures and observe the oil pressure
gage frequently during operation.
Shut engine down immediately if in-
dicator needle drops exceptionally
low, and determine cause. It may be
a low quantity of oil, oil thickening
due to extreme cold, or failure of oil
pump or lines.
c. Power Train Lubricants. Extreme cold
weather will stiffen and solidify the lubricants
in the gear cases and the various bearings
throughout the power train. Extreme caution
must be observed when placing a vehicle in
motion after a shutdown period, as undue wear
or failure will result if lubrication in any or all
of the power train components has congealed.
Before friction can develop enough heat to
liquefy the lubricant and establish the film,
bearing and gear teeth surfaces may score and
fail. The following instructions are general.
Consult pertinent technical manuals for parti-
cular vehicle operation.

(1) When starting engine, place trans-
mission gear shift lever in neutral
and depress clutch. After engine is
running smoothly, release clutch cau-
tiously and maintain engine at idle
for at least 2 minutes or longer to
warm up lubricant in transmission.
If the vehicle is equipped with a trans-
fer case with a selector lever, the
transfer case lubricant may be
warmed in the same manner by plac-
ing selector lever in neutral and trans-
mission in low gear.
(2) The driver must be extremely careful
when placing vehicle in motion; place
transmission in low gear and transfer
TM 9-273
case in low range, if so equipped.
Drive vehicle 100 yards, being careful
not to stall the engine. This will heat
the lubricants to the point where nor-
mal operation can be expected.
(3) When preparing a vehicle for a shut-
down period, place transmission and
transfer case selector levers in the
neutral position. This will place those
units in readiness for the next start by
preventing them from freezing in an
engaged position.
d. Other Lubrication Points. For all other
lubrication points, use lubricants prescribed in
pertinent applicable lubrication orders and
technical manuals for subzero operation.
121

CHAPTER 14
OTHER USES OF LUBRICANTS
90. General
Lubricants, besides their basic purpose to
lubricate, have other characteristics which
maintenance programs use. Their ability to
conduct heat, to repell water, and to adhere
is valuable. Lubricants are generally available
and wide application of these qualities is not
difficult.
91. Electrical Uses
Certain electrical components use oils as
heat transfer agents (transformers and re-
sistors) while others use oils as dielectrics
(capacitors). When oil is used in transformers
and resistors it conducts heat away from the
regions where it is generated. The oil is circu-
lated by a gravity system or a pump system
through cooling fins before it is returned to
absorb more heat. Figure 88 shows the servic-
ing of an oil-cooled resistor. The electrical
components use an OT-type oil and they must
be drained and refilled at intervals.
92. Preservation
Lubricants, by nature, have water-repellent
characteristics and good adhesiveness (stick to
surfaces). Use is made of these properties to
protect metal surfaces from weather and water.
While not as permanent as paints, lubricants
TM 9-273
are easily applied (by brush or cloth) and
easily removed (by soap and water or mineral
spirits paint thinner). Some lubricants contain
additional antioxidation compounds. These lu-
bricants are specified in many technical manual
to be used when storing or transporting materi-
el. Animal oil (neat's-foot and tallow) are
used to preserve leather, while vegetable oils
(linseed) preserve wooden articles.
93. Machine Shop Use
Machines, such as lathes, millers, shapers,
and screw machines, use lubricants to preserve
the cutting edges of tool bits. Oils, made from
lard, both pure and sulfonated carry away heat
from the working edges. Generous volumes of
oil are applied either manually or by a force
feed system. Oils are also in general use for
quenching metals during heat treating and
tempering processes.
94. Antiseize Compounds
Some screw threads, particularly those in
light alloys (magnesium and aluminum) have
a tendency to bind when tightened. To prevent
this, lubricants in the silicone and fluorolube
classes are used to lightly coat the threads be-
fore assembly.
123
TM 9-273

A-DRAINING OIL-FILLED
VARIABLE RESISTOR

B-FILLING OIL-FILLED
VARIABLE RESISTOR
RA PD 419775

Figure 88. Drainingand filling a resistor.

 TM 9-273

APPENDIX
REFERENCES

1. Publication Indexes
The following indexes should be consulted frequently for the latest changes or revisions of
references given in this appendix and for new publications relating to material covered in
this manual.
Index of Army Motion Pictures, Film Strips, Slides, and DA Pam 108-1
Phono-Recordings.
Military Publications:
Index of Administrative Publications ---------------------- DA Pam 310-1
Index of Blank Forms -------------------------------- DA Pam 310-2
Index of Graphic Training Aids and Devices ------------------ DA Pam 310-5
Index of Supply Manuals; Ordnance Corps ----------------- DA Pam 310-29
Index of Technical Manuals, Technical Bulletins, Supply Bulletins, DA Pam 310-4
Lubrications Orders, and Modification Work Orders.
Index of Training Publications -------------------- DA Pam 310-3

2. Forms
The following form pertains to this materiel:
DA Form 2028, Recommended Changes to DA Technical Manuals Parts Lists or Supply Man-
ual 7, 8, or 9 (cut sheet).

3. Other Publications
The following explanatory publications contain information pertinentto this materiel and as-
sociated equipment:
a. General.
Federal Supply Catalog, Department of Defense Section (Petroleum, C4-1
Petroleum-Base Products, and Related Materiel) (Department of
the Army Supply Manual 10-1-C4-1).
Machinegun, 7.62-mm, M60 ---------------------------------- FM 23-67
Military Symbols ---------------------------------------------- FM 21-30/AFM 55-3
Military Terms, Abbreviations, and Symbols:
Authorized Abbreviations and Brevity Codes - ___-- ________--_AR 320-50
Dictionary of United States Army Terms - _-- ____---_-----AR 320-5
Military Training ----------------------------------------- FM 21-5
Safety: Accident Reporting and Records ------------------------ AR 385-40
Techniques of Military Instruction -------------------------- FM 21-6
U. S. Rifle, Caliber .30, M1 .-.......................... FM 23-5
b. Maintenance and Repair.
Description and Application of Oil Seals, Packings and Packing Mate- TB 9-255
rials and Gaskets and Gasket Materials.
General; Fluids for Hydraulic Equipment -_______---____ _ --- -- TM 1-42B2-1-3

125
TM 9-273

General Maintenance Procedures for Fire Control Materiel -____ -- TM 9-254

General Supply; Winterization Equipment for Automotive Materiel --- SB 9-16
General Use of Aircraft and Electronic Lubricants -______-__-_-__--TM 1-42B-1-7
Grease, Automotive and Artillery, MIL-G-10924 (ORD), Amendments SB 725-9150-1
1, 2, and 3, and MIL-G-10924A.
Inspection, Care and Maintenance of Antifriction Bearings ------- TM 9-214
Inspection and Disposition of lubricants, Specification MIL-L-7808 ---- TM 1-42B2-1-507
Lubricant Fittings ---------- ---- ----- ---- ----- ---- ----- --- TB 34-9-70
Lubricants, Corrosion Prevention and Antiseize Compounds -___-__-_TM 1-42B-1-6
Lubricants for Use with Automobiles and Commercial Type TB ORD 2300-10/3
Administration Vehicles.
Lubrication of Aircraft Parts Requiring Molybdenum Disulphide TM 1-42B3-1-2
Lubricant.
Maintenance Instructions and Procedures for Administrative Vehicles. TM 38-660-2
Materials Used For Cleaning, Preserving, Abrading, and Cementing TM 9-247
Ordnance Materiel, and Related Materials Including Chemicals.
Operation and Maintenance Ordnance Materiel in Extreme Cold TM 9-207
Weather, 0° to-65° F.
Ordnance Lubrication: Discontinuance of Red Paint Markings Around TB 9-265
Lubrication Points.
Petroleum Base Hydraulic Fluids: Characteristics and Uses in Arma- TB ORD 586
ment and Fire Control Mechanisms.
Quality Control of Fuels and Lubricants ------
___.....
_ ___. TM 1-42B-1-1
Preventive Maintenance, Supply, Inspection, and Training Procedures TM 9-2810
Tactical Motor Vehicle.
Use of Antifreeze Solutions in Engine Cooling Systems in Operating TB ORD 651
Vehicles.

126
 TM 9-273

INDEX

Paragraphs Page
Accelerated wear:
Cold weather ------------------------------.-------------------------------- 88f 112
D u st --- -- --- -- --- -- -- -- -- --- -- -- --- -- -- -- --- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --- - 85 1 06
A ccessories, engine ------------------------------------------------------------- 46-49 49
Additives, engine cooling -------------------------.---
___________________ - - - - - - 47c 49
Adjustments at high atmospheric temperature, engine ------------.-------------- .84b 106
Adhesion and cohesion __________--____________________________________________ _ 7, 8 7, 8
Air breathers, engine ----------------------------.----------------------------- _ 46 49
Air cleaners, engine:
Description ------------------------------.--------------------------------. 46 49
M aintenance -------------------------------------------------------------- 85c 106
Antifriction-type bearings. (See specific item.)
A ntiseize com pounds ------------------------------------------------------------ 94 123
Artillery basic lubricated surfaces ----------------------------------------------- 59 81
Artillery hydraulic speed gears ---------------------------
_______ ______________ - 67 88
Atmospheric temperatures --------------------------.-- S-------------------------
83d 105
Axles, driving ------------------------------------------------------------------ 54d 64
Bearings:
Antifriction type:
Description ----------------------------------------------------------- 14c, 17a,b,c 13,16
Lubrication ------------------------------------------------------------ 19 18
Materials and construction ---------------------------------------------- 17d 16
Friction type:
Description ------------------------------------------------------------ 14b, 15 13
Lubricatio n ----------------------------------------------------------- 18 18
M ateria ls -- -- -- -- -- -- --- - -- -- -- -- --- -- - -- - --- - -- - - -- - -- -- -- - -- -- -- - - -- -- -- - 16 15
Selection of proper lubricants ----------------------------------------------- 12 11
Subzero lubricating instructions --------------------------------------------- 69c(1) 89
T y p es - -- - --- -- --- -- - -- -- -- -- - -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --- -- -- 14- 17 13
Bogie wheels ____________________________________________________ ___------ ---- 57e 75
Brakes:
Cold-weather lubrication -------------------------------------------------- _ 69j 91
Description ------------------------------------------------------ ------- 55 71
Hydraulic system ___________----_______ -__----------------- 56 71
Braking ------------------- __-- __----___---------___--------------__--------- 55, 56 71
Breech mechanism:
Cold-weather lubrication -------------------------------------------------- 69d
. 90
Description -----------------------------.--------------------------------. 62 82
Cable and chains, radar --------------------------.----------------------------- 78f 100
Can spout, use of -----------------------------.-------------------------------. 36i 35
Care and use of lubricants -----------------------.---------------------------- 25-30
. 23
Carriage:
Cold-w eather lubrication ---------------------------------------------------- 69i 91
Description and lubrication -----------------------.-------------------
_____ 66 87
Changing crankcase oil -------------------------------------------------------- 45b
. 47
Characteristics of lubricants ---------------------------------------------------- 69a 88
Cleaner, engine ------------------------------.------------------- 36d 34

127
 TM 9-273

Paragraphs Page
Cleanliness:
Lubricants ---------------------------------------------------------------- 28 24
Lubrication equipment ------------------------------------ __-- ____------__- 31b 29
Climatic data for representative points throughout the
world (table III) ------------------------------------------------------------- 88 110
Clutches --------------------------------- _-_-______-------------------------- 50, 51 59
Coefficients of friction (sliding) (table I) -------------------------------------- 5 5
Cohesion -------------------------- __-- _______________--------------__--------- 7,8 7, 8
Cold weather:
Generating unit, winterization -------------------------- .--______-------__ 77c 98
Lubrication -_________________________-___-- _____----------------_--------- 69, 89 88
Problems ------------------------ _-__-- _________--------------_---------- 86 107
Combustion difficulties ------------ __-- __-------------------------------------- 86, 88e 108, 111
Component parts, missiles --------------------------- _----------______--------- 71 93
Computers, fire control ----------------------------------------- - __-- ------ -_ 75 96
Condensation and lubrication, optical instruments ----------------- __-- __-------- 73b 95
Controlled differentials ------------------ __-- __________----------______--------- 54e 65
Coolants, engine -47------------------------------------------------------ 4 49
Cooling system maintenance at high atmospheric temperature -------------------- 84a 106
Counterrecoil mechanism ----------------------- __-- __-------_--------------_- 63 82
Cradle:
Cold-weather lubrication --------------------------------------------------- 69i 91
Lubricating -_________________________________________---------- 63 82
Crankcase:
Drain intervals ----------------------------------------------------------- 45a 47
Lubrication --------------------------------------------------------------- 45 47
Ven tilators ---------------------------------------------------------------- 44c 47
D ifferentials ------------------------------------------------------------------ 54c 64
Dip lubricating system -------------------------------------------------------- 38c 40
Dirty oil-handling receptacle .. . ................................................
85d 107
Distrib uto rs ------------------------------------------------------------------- 48d 56
Drain interval, crankcase ------------------------------------------------------ 45a 47
Drain pan ------------------------------------------------------------ __-- 36j 35
Drive shafts, universal joints --------------------------------------------------- 53a 62
Drives, final -__________________________________________--------- 54f 65
Driving axles -_____ ------------------------------ 54d 64
Driving gears ---------------------------------------------------------------- 54b 64
Driving spockets -------------------------------------------------------------- 57e 75
Dry clutches _____--___________________________________________________________ 51a 59
Dust, wear ___________________--______________________________________________ 85a 106
Effect of thinned lubricant ----------------------------------------------------- 85b 106
Effect of variation in climate upon engine conditions ------------------.----- _- 88 110
Electrical uses of lubricants -------------------- __-- __--------------__--------- 91 123
Elevating arc, cold-weather lubrication ------------------------------------------ 69h 91
Elevating mechanism ------------------------------ _----------------------_-- 64a 85
Engine:
Adjustments at high atmospheric temperature -------------------------------- 846 106
Cleaner ------------------------------- - 36d 34
Cold-weather lubrication oils ----------------------------------------------- 88b 111
Coolants ------------------------------- - 47b 49
Cooling system maintenance at high atmospheric temperatures ---------------- 84a 106
Loads and speeds at high atmospheric temperatures -------------------------- 84c 106
Lubrication ------------------------------------------------------- - __-- 37-45 39
Oil filters, cold weather sludge ---------------------------------------------- 86d 111
Operation at high atmospheric temperature _--------_--------- __------ --- 84 106
Sludge ------------------------------------- _------------- ---
-------- _-- 88 110
Water jacket ---------------------------------------------------------- - 47e 51
(see also specific items).

128
 TM 9-273

Paragraphs Page

Equilibrators:
Cold-w eather lubrication ---------------------------------------------------- 69g 91
Description --------------------------------------------------------------- 65 86
Equipment, lubrication -------------------------------------------------------- 31-36 29
Esters, nonpetroleum product -------------------------------------------------- 24d 23
External mechanism, missile component parts ------------------------------------ 71e 93
Fans, engine ------------------------------- _----------------------__--------- 47 49
Final drives ------------------------------------------------------------------ 54f 65
Fire control equipment --------------------------------------------------------- 72 95
Firing mechanism, cold-weather lubrication -------------------------------------- 62d 90
F itting tool -- ---- -------------------------------- ---------------------------- 36k 35
Fittings and couplers, lubricating ----------------------.---------------- 33a 30
Flow of cpolant -------------------------------------------------------------- 47d 51
Fluid clutches -----------------------------.-------------------------- 51b
i------- 59
Fluid friction --------------------------------------------------------.------ - 6d 6
Friction and lubrication, fundamentals ____________-____________________________ _ 3-13 5
Friction-type bearings:
Description ---------------------------------------------------------------- 14b, 15 13
Lubrication -----------------------------.--------------------------------- 1,8 18
Front wheels:
Bearing ------------------------------------------------------------------ 57b 72
Universal joints ----------------------------------------------------------- 53e 63
Fundamental factors influencing selection of proper grade of lubricant ------------ 12 11
Fundamentals of friction and lubrication ---------------------------------------- 3-13 5
Funnels --------------------------------- _---------------------______- __ ---
_ 36h 34
Fuze setters:
Descrip tion ----------- --- ------ ---------- ------ --------------------------- 68 88
Fire control _____ _76 - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - 97
Gages. (See specific items.)
Gear train , radar ------------------------------------------------------------ 78d 100
Gear pumps, engine ------------------------------------------------------------ 39b 41
Gears:
Driving --------------------------------------------------------- - __-- 54b 64
Subzero lubricating instructions ----------------------------------- _-- __---- 69c(2) 90
Generating units, fire control -------------------------------------------------- 77 98
Generators -------------------------------------------------------------------- 48c 55
Glycols, nonpetroleum product --------------------------
_________ ______________ 24c 23
Governors -------------------------------------------------------- - ----
-_---- 49a 57
Grades of lubricants. (See Lubricants, grades.)
Gravity circulation lubrication, engine ------------------------------------------ 38d 40
Grease guns --------------------------------.------------------- 35 30
Greases _----______________---------_---____-------__----___- 23 23
Guide bearings, friction type ---------------------------------------------------- 15b(5) 14
Half bearings, friction type ------ -------------------------------------------- - 15b(2) 14
Handwheel shaft, cold-weather lubrication --------------------------------------- 69h 91
Heat dispersion, engine --------------------------------------------------------- 37 39
High atmospheric temperature. (See specific items.)
High-pressure guns ----------------------------------------------------------- 35d 32
Hydraulic brakes fillers ------------------------------------------------------- 36g 34
Hydraulic equipment, radar -------------------------------------------------- 78h 100
Hydraulic speed gears, artillery ------------------------------------------------- 67 88
Hydraulic systems …_-
- - - - - - - - -----------------------------. ...---------- 56 71
Hydropneumatic etuilibrators -------------------------------------------------- 65c 87
Idlers….........................................................................…57e 75
Individually sprung front wheels ----------------------------------------------- _ 58d 77
Ineffective filtration ---------------------------------------------------------- S8d 111
Instrum ents, radar ------------------------------------------------------------ 78e 100
Internal mechanisms, missile component parts ------------------------------------ 71d 93

129
TM 9-273

Paragraphs Page
Journal bearings, friction-type -------------------------------------------------- 15b 13
Langmuir theory of lubrication ---------------------- _----------__------------ 9 9
Linkages -_________--______________________________________________________-____- 49b 57
Low-pressure guns ------------------------------------------------------------ 35b 30
Lubricants:
Care and use ------------------------------------------------------ 25-30 23
Characteristic ------------------------------------------------------------- 69a, 90 88, 123
Cleanliness .--------------------------------------------------------------- 28 24
Containers ---------------------------------------------------------------- 27 24
Deterioration at high atmospheric temperature ------------------------------ 84d 106
Grades (proper):
For clearance between bearing surfaces ---------------------------------- 12b 11
For clearance of shafts ------------------------------------------------ 12d 11
Fundamental factors influencing selection -------------------------------- 12 11
Manufacture -------------------------------------------------------------- 20-24 21
M oistu re ------ ------- ----- ---- -- --------- --- -- --------------------- ------- 29 24
R efining -- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - 21 21
Typical (table II) -- - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - - 30 24
Lubricating devices ---------------------------------- _--__________------------ 33 30
Lubricating system s, engine ---------------------------------------------------- 38 39
Lubrication:
Basic surfaces (artillery) ------------------------ . . ........
59 ............... 81
Cold weather -------------------------------------------------------------- 69 88
Engine ------------------------------------------------------------------- 37-45 39
Engine operation, cold weather conditions -------------------------..... 83c 105
Equipment ---------------------------------------------------------------- 31-36 29
Fundamentals ------------------------------------------------------------- 3-13 5
Oils, cold-weather _____________________------------------ 88b 111
Relation ---------------------------------------------------- 8 8
Summary ----------------------------------------------------------------- 13 12
Theory. (see also specific items).- ------------------------------------------ 9-13 9
Machine bearings ------------------------------------------------------------ 14a 13
Machine shop use of lubricant -------------------------------------------------- 93 123
Machineguns ------------------------------------------------------------------ 81 103
M agnetos --------------------------------------------------------------------- 48e 56
Manual type lubrication orders -______________________________________________ - 96c
Manufacture of lubricants and properties _- .. ...................................
20-24 21
Materials and construction, antifriction-type bearings ---------------------------- 17d 16
Materials of bearings ---------------------------------------------------------- 16 15
Mechanisms. (See specific items.)
Miscellaneous equipment ------------------------------------------------------ 36 33
M issiles - --- ---------- -------- ------ -------- -------------------- ------------ - 7 0 , 71 93
M oisture in lubricants ---------------------------------------------------------- 9 24
M otors, rad ar ------------------------------------------------------------------ 78b 98
Mount, cold-weather lubrication ------------------------------------------------- 69i 91
Multipart bearings, friction-type ------------------------------------------------ 15b (4) 14
Nature of friction -_________________-- 4 5
Need for cooling, engine ----------------------------------------------------- 47a 49
Nonpetroleum products _____________________________________ ------------------ 24 23
Oil barrel pumps --------------------------------------------------------------- 32a 29
Oil cleaners (filters) ----- ----- ------.- __--- - - - - - - - - - - -------- 43b 43
Oil cooler -________ 44a 45
Oil cups and fittings ---------------------------------------------------------- 33b 30
Oil film and wedge theory, lubrication ------------------------------------------ 10 9
Oil filtering devices ---------------- __-- __---------__-------------------------- 43 43
Oil filters, cold-weather sludges ______________________________________---____ 86d 107
 TM 9-273
Paragraphs Page
Oil guns ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 34 30
Oil level indicators, engine ---------------------------------------------------- 40 44
Oil measures …. . ...........---------------------------------------------------
36f 34
Oil pumps .. . ...........------------------------------------------------------
32 29
Oil strainers …. . ........------------------------------------------------------
43a 43
Oilers . . . . . ..---------------------------------------------------------
...----- 36e 34
Oilless bearings --------------- ….....---------------------------------------- - 16g 15
Optical instruments ____-----------------------------------_
...... ------------ 73 95
Overflow tank ..---------------.----------------------------------------
- 47k 55
Oxidation problems, engine ...----.. . . ...............-------------------------
- 37c 39
Packing, missile component parts ...---------.--------------------------------- 71b 93
Pistols… ...... __-- __ __-------
-- _____ _ 82 . ....................
103
Plans for winterization .--------------. . _--- . .......................-----------
69b 89
Plunger pumps, engine -----
______---_-________________________________________ 39d 41
Pneumatic equilibrators .. .................-------------------------------------
65b 86
Power train lubricants, cold weather -------------------------------------------- 89c 120
Preservation, lubricants ------------------------------------------------------- 92 123
Pressure circulation system, engine ---------------------------------------------- 38e 40
Pressure radiator cap ___________________________--_____________________________ 47j 54
Pressure gages ------------- ______________________________ 41 41
Prevention of sludge, cold weather --------------------------------------------- 86f 109
Preventive-maintenance procedures, weather conditions ----------------------
_- -_-_ 83b 105
Progressive development of engine depreciation __________________________ …------ 86g 110
Propeller shafts, universal joints ___-_______________________________
------------ 53b 63
Proper application of lubricants and servicing materials -_________________________ 26 23
Proper grade of lubricant, fundamental factors influencing selection -------------- 12 11
Properties, lubricants ---------------------------------------------------------- 21 21
Pumps:
Engine --------------------------------------------------------------------- 47 49
G ear --------------------------------------------------------------------- 39b 41
Oil -.. .
_______- ...........................................................
32 29
P lunger ------------------------------------------------------------------ 39d 14
Water -------------------------------------------------------------------- 47g 53
Vane --------------------------------------------------------------------- 39 c 41
Purpose of the manual -1------------------------------------------------------ I 3
Push-type guns --------------------------------------------------------------- 35c 32
Radar equipment ------------------------------------------------------------- 78 98
Radiator --------------------------------------------------------------------- 47f 51
Rammers -------------------------------------------------------------------- 68 88
Rear w heel bearing ------------------------------------------------------------- 57c 73
Recoil mechanism:
Cold-weather lubrication ---------------------------------------------------- 69e 90
Description and lubrication ------------------------------------------------- 63 82
Recoil oil pum p ---------------------------------------------------------------- 32b 30
Recoil slide rails --------------------------------------------------------------- 61 82
Recoil slides, cold-weather lubrication ------------------------------------------- 69f 91
Refining lubricants ----------------------------------------------------------- 21 21
Rifles…------------------------------------------------------------------------- 80 103
Replacement of cartridges (filter) ---------------------------------------------- 43c 43
Rest and motion, friction ------------------------------------------------------- 6a 6
Results of tests --------------------------------------------------------------- 88g 113
Revolvers -.------ ----- ----- ------ ----- ----- ----- ------ ----- ----- ----- 82 103
Roller bearings, antifriction-type ------------------------------------------------ 17b 16
Rolling friction --------------------------------------------------------------- 6c 6
Rubbing speed (bearing surfaces), selection of proper lubricant -------------------- 12a 11
Scope of manual --------------------------------------------------------------- 2 3
Servomechanism, radar -------------------------------------------------------- 78G 98

131
 TM 9-273
Paragraphs Page

Shock absorbers _________________________________-------------- _58c 76

Shroud…....................................................................... 47 49
Silicones, nonpetroleum product ------------------------------------------------- 24b
. 23
Sleigh, cold-weather lubrication ----- ---- ---- ----- ---- ---- _69i----- ---- ---- 91
Sleigh mechanism ----------------------------.-------------------------------. 63 82
Sliding friction .. .... . . 6 6
6b
...................................................
Sludge, engine ------ ----- ------ ----- ----- ------ ----- ------ ----- ----- 88c 111
Small arms - .----------------------------------------------------------------- - 79 103
Solid bearings, friction-type ---------------------------------------------------- 15b(1) 13
Splash lubricating system, engine ----------------------------------------------- 38b 39
Split bearings, friction-type ............................................-.-.----- 15b(3) 14
Spray oiler --------------------------------------------..-------..........---- 36c 34
Spring shackles ---------------------------------
_____________ ________________ 58b 76
Spring-type equilibrators ----------------------------------------------------- 65a
. 86
Springs _________---_--________________------____________ .... 58a . ....
75
S tarters - ----- ---- ---- ----- ---- ---- ----- ---- ---- _48
----- ---- ---- --- b 55
Standard size containers ------------------------------------------------------- 27a 24
Standardization of materials --------------------------------------------------- 25 23
Steering mechanism ---------------------------------------------------------- 57
. 72
Steering system -------------------------------------------------------------- . 57d 72
Storage of lubricant containers ------------------------------------------------ 27b 24
S train ers, oil ----------------------------------------------------------------- 43a 43
Subzero lubricating instructions, general ------------------.--------------------- 69c 89
Sulfur, nonpetroleum product -------------------------------------------------- 24e 23
Suspensions _____--_________,___________________________--_______________-_-__ 58 75

Tables:
'Climatic data for representative points throughout
the world (table III) ---------------------------------------------------- 88 117
Coefficients of friction (sliding) (table I) ---------------------------------- 5 6
Typical lubricants (table II) ----------------------------------------------- 30 25
Tank, overflow --------------------------------------------------------------- 47k 55
Temperature gage ------------------------------------------------------------- 42 43
Thermostat ------------------ ----- ------- ---------------------------- ----- ---- 47i 53
Threads, missile component parts ----------------------------------------------- 71c 93
Thrust bearings, journal bearings, friction-type ---------------------------------- 15b(6) 14
Tool box ----------------------------------------------------------- _ . ........
361 35
T orque converters ----------------------------------------- 51ci------------------- 59
T orsion bars . ----------------------------------------------------------------- 58f 78
Track rollers ... ..............................................................
57e 75
Tracks -------- __________________________________________________________-- 57e 75
Tran sfer case ----------------------------------------------------------------- 54g 65
Transmissions -.---------------------- ________________________-------- 52 61
Traversing arc, cold-weather lubrication ------------------------------------------ 69h 91
Traversing mechanism --------------------------------------------------------- 64b i85
T ube or barrel -- ------------------------------------------------------------- 60 81
Turntable fifth wheel -________________________________________________________ 58e 78
Turntables, radar -- _______________________________________-------------------- 78g 100
Types and uses of lubricants .------------------------------------------------- . 30 24
Types of bearings ------------------------------------------------------------ 14-17 13
Typical lubricants (table II) ----------------- ----------------- ---------------- 30 24
Universal join t ---------------------------------------------------------------- 53 62
Vane pumps, engine .--------------------------------------------------------- . 39c 41
Variable resistors, fire control ------------------------------------------------- 75b 96
Variable speed drives, fire control -...................................----- 75c 97
Vehicles, weather conditions .. . .................................................
83a 105
V iscosity, lubrication ----------------------------------------------------------- 11 10

132
 TM -9-273

Paragraphs Page
Water accumulation in crankcase ---------------------------. . ...............
88b 111
Water emulsion sludges -------------------------------------------------------- 86c 107
Water jacket -_----___________._............................__________________ 47e 51
Water pump -___________
.................................................... _ 47g 53
Wear accelerated by cold sluggish lubrication ------------------------------------ 86b 107
W et conditions ----------------------------------------------------------------- 87 110
Wheel bearing lubricators ------------------------------------------------------ 86b 33
Wheel bearing mechanism ------------------------------------------------------ 57 .72
Winterization, plans ----------------------------------------------------------- 69b 89
Worm and worm wheel measuring movements, fire control .--------------------- 74 96

133
TM 9-273

BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF THE ARMY:

G. H. DECKER,
General, United States Army,
Official; Chief of Staff.
J. C. LAMBERT,
Major General, United States Army,
The Adjutant General.

Distribution:
Active Armt:

DCSLOG (1) Instls (2) except

CNGB (1) Ft Hood (4)
Tech Stf, DA (2) except Ord Comd (2) except
CofOrd (5) OWC (5)
CofT (1) Ord Tk-Autmv Comd (5)
Ord Bd (2) USA Ord Sch (2)
USCONARC (3) USAARMS (50)
ARADCOM (2) GENDEP (2)
ARADCOM Rgn (2) Ord Sec, GENDEP (2)
OS MIaj Comd (2) Ord Dep (2)
OS Base Comd (1) Ord PG (3)
LOGCOMD (3) ORD Arsenals (2) except
Armies (2) Watertown Arsenal (5)
MDW (1) Watervliet Arsenal (5)
Corps (1) Raritan Arsenal (10)
Div (1) Frankford Arsenal (5)
Ord Gp (2) Springfield Armory (5)
Ord Bn (2) Ord Dist (2)
Ord Co (2) MAAG (1)

NG: State AG (3); units--same as active Army except allowance is one copy to each unit.
USAR: Same as Active Army except allowance is one copy to each unit.
For explanations of abbreviations used, see AR 320-50.