طرائق مهمة جدا

A LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ALM Audio-Lingual Method
CC Communicative Competence
CLT Communicative Language Teaching
CLTM Community Language Teaching Method
DM Direct Method
FL Foreign Language
GTM Grammar Translation Method
LC Linguistic Competence
NL Native Language
SW Silent Way
TL Target Language
TPR Total Physical Response
1 Inst. Afrah Adil Mahmood

GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD (GTM)
Grammar Translation Method (GTM) was the first teaching method in teaching
Foreign Languages (FL). It was also called the Classical Method.
THE MAIN PRINCIPLES

1-The main purpose of learning a FL is to be able to read literature written in it.
Literary language is superior to spoken language.
2-The goal is to make students be able to translate from one language into another.
3-The goal of this method is not to communicate in the Target Language (TL).
4-The primary skills to be developed are reading and writing. Little attention is given
to speaking and listening, and non to pronunciation.
5-The teacher is the authority in the classroom.
6-It is possible to find Native Language (NL) equivalents for all TL words.
7-Similarities between the two languages facilitate learning.
8- Students should learn the form of the TL.
9-The grammar rules are taught deductively.
10-Language learning provides good mental exercise.
11-Students should be conscious of the grammatical rules of the TL.
12-Verb conjugations and other grammatical paradigms should be kept by heart.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1-What are the goals of teachers who use the GTM?
The fundamental purpose of learning a FL is to be able to read literature written in

the TL. So the students need to learn the grammar rules and vocabulary of the TL.
2-What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the students?
The teacher is the authority in the classroom. The students can learn what the
teacher knows.
2 Inst. Afrah Adil Mahmood

Inst. Afrah Adil Mahmood
3-What are some characteristics of the teaching /learning process?
* Students learn to translate the reading passages into the TL about some aspects
of the culture of the TL community.
*Students study grammar deductively (they are given the grammatical rules with
examples and they are asked to memorize them and then apply the rules to other
examples).
*they learn grammatical paradigms.
*They memorize words in the NL with their meanings in the TL.
4-What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of

student-student interaction?
Most interaction is from the teacher to the students.
5-How are the feelings of the students dealt with?
No feelings are dealt with in this method.
6-How is the language viewed? How is culture viewed?
Literary language is superior to spoken language. Culture consists of literature and

fine arts.
7-What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?
*Vocabulary and grammar are emphasized.
*The most important skills are reading and writing. Little attention is given to
speaking and listening and non to pronunciation.
8-What is the role of the students' NL?
The meaning is made clear by using the NL and so the NL is mostly used in the
classroom.
9-How is evaluation accomplished?
Written tests about translating from one language into another are used.
Questions about the TL culture or to apply grammar rules are also used.
3
10-How does the teacher respond to student errors?
The teacher supplies the students with the correct answers if they do not know the
right answer.
THE TECHNIQUES OF GTM

There are nine important techniques used in this method:-
1-Translation of a literary passage
Students are asked to translate a reading passage from the TL into the NL. The
reading passage includes vocabulary items and some grammatical points which
ought to be studied in subsequent lessons. The translation may be written or oral or
both. The passage may be excerpted from the literature of the TL.
2-Reading comprehension questions
Students have to answer the questions of a reading passage. These questions are
sequenced in three groups: the answers to the questions in the first group are from
the reading passage. Students have to induce the answers to the questions in the
second group from their understanding of the passage. The answers to the
questions of the third group should be related to students' own experience.
3-Antonyms/ Synonyms
Students are given one set of words and asked to find synonyms or antonyms in
the reading passage.
4-Cognates
Students are taught to recognize cognates by learning the spelling or the sound
patterns that correspond between languages.
5-Deductive application of rule
Grammar rules are presented with examples and the students are asked to apply
the rules to different examples.
6-Fill-in-the-blanks
Students are given a series of sentences with missing words and they are asked to
fill the blanks with appropriate vocabulary items or words of a grammatical type.
4
7-Memorization
Students are asked to memorize a list of words in the TL with its meanings in the
NL. They are also asked to memorize grammatical rules and grammatical paradigms.
8-Use words in sentences
Students are asked to put a certain vocabulary item in a complete sentence in

order to make the meaning clear.
9-Composition
The teacher gives the students a topic to write about in the TL. This topic is based
on some aspects of the reading passage.
5
THE DIRECT METHOD (DM)
The goal of the instructions in this method is learning how to communicate in the
TL. So it appears as a reaction against the GTM since this method failed to make
students communicate in the TL.
It is called Direct Method because meaning is to be conveyed directly in the TL

through the use of visual aids and demonstrations.
THE MAIN PRINCIPLES

1-Reading in the TL should be taught from the beginning and developed through
practice with speaking. Language is primarily speech. Culture consists of more than
fine art (students study geographical and cultural attitudes).
2-objects ( realia and pictures) are used to make the meaning clear.
3- The NL should not be used in the classroom.
4-The teacher should demonstrate, not translate or explain. Students should learn
to make a direct association between the TL and meaning.
5-Students should learn to think in the TL.
6-The purpose of language learning is communication.
7-Pronunciation should be worked on from the beginning of the language

instructions.
8-Self correction facilitates language learning.
9-Lessons should contain some conversational activity to encourage students to use

language in real context.
10-Grammar should be taught inductively.
11-Writing is an important skill and taught from the beginning of the language
instruction.
12-The syllabus is based on situations or topics.
13-Learning another language involves how the speakers of that language live.
6
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1-What are the goals of teachers who use the DM?
Teachers aim that students should use the TL for communication through making
them learn to think in the TL.
The teacher directs the class activities. The student role is less passive than in
GTM. The teacher and the students are partners in the teaching/learning process.
3-What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?
*The teacher demonstrates the meaning of a new word or phrase through the use
of realia, pictures and pantomime (without using the NL) to make students
associate meaning with the TL directly.
*The syllabus is based on topics or situations (for example the language people use
in a bank or in shopping). So students use TL for communication as if they were in
real contexts.
*Grammar is taught inductively (i.e. students figure out rules or generalization from
the examples).
*Students practise vocabulary through using a new word in a complete sentence.

teacher-teacher interaction?
The teacher initiates the interaction with the students. The students may begin the
interaction with the teacher, but with teacher direction. Students may converse
with each other as well.
There are no principles of the method relate to this area.
6-How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?
Language is primarily spoken, not written. Culture consists of the history,

geography and information about the lives of people who speak the TL.
7
Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar. Oral communication is basic though

work on the four skills (reading, writing, speaking and listening) occurs.
The NL should not be used in the classroom.
Students are asked to use the language orally or in writing. The students may be
interviewed orally by the teacher or the teacher may ask the students to write a
paragraph about what they have studied.
10-How does the teacher respond to student errors?
The teacher uses different techniques to get students to self-correct whenever

possible.
TECHNIQUES OF THE DM
1-Reading aloud
The students take turns reading a passage, dialogue or play. The teacher uses
gestures, pictures, realia or examples to make the meaning clear.
2-Question and answer exercise
The teacher asks the students questions and students answer in the TL orally
practising new words or grammatical structure. Students are also given a chance to
ask questions as well.
3-Getting students to self-correct
The teacher uses different technique to get students to self-correct. He may give
two answers to make students choose the correct one. He may also repeat what
the student has just said with a questioning voice to signal that there is something
wrong or he may repeat what the student has said stopping before the error.
8
4-Conversation practice
The teacher asks the students a number of questions in the TL which they have to
understand them so as to answer correctly. The questions contain a certain
grammatical structure.
5-Fill in the blank exercise
Students have to fill the bank with certain grammatical rules that they have
induced earlier from the examples.
6-Dictation
The teacher reads the passage three times. Firstly he reads at normal speed and
the students listen. Secondly the teacher reads slowly and pauses to allow students
to write down. Finally the teacher reads again at normal speed and students check.
7-Map drawing
The teacher gives the students a map with geographical featured unnamed.
Students have to follow the teacher's instructions so as to have a completely
labelled map.
8-Paragraph writing
The teacher may ask students to write a paragraph based on the reading passage
they have studied earlier or using their own memory.
9
THE AUDIO_LINGUAL METHOD (ALM)
This method, like the DM, is an oral-based approach. It has a strong theoretical
base in linguistics and psychology.
THE MAIN PRINCIPLES

1-Language forms occur within a context.
2-The NL and the TL have separate linguistic systems.
3-The teacher is the model of the TL.
4-Language learning is a process of habit formation. Habit formation is the process

by which new behaviour becomes automatic as a result of repetition.
5-It is important to prevent students from making errors because they lead to the
formation of bad habits. Students' errors should be corrected by the teacher at
once.
6-The purpose of language learning is to learn how to use the TL to communicate.
7-Students should learn to fill the slots with a particular and suitable part of speech.
8-Positive reinforcement like saying 'very good' by the teacher helps the students
develop correct habits.
9-Students should learn how to respond to both verbal and non verbal stimuli.
10-Each language has a finite number of patterns.
11- Students should over learn, i.e. learn to answer automatically without stopping
to think.
12-The teacher should be like an orchestra leader- conducting, guiding and leading
students' behaviour.
13-The major objectives of language teaching for the students is to acquire the
structural patterns.
14- The process of learning a FL should be the same as the acquisition of the NL.
15-The main challenge of FL teaching is getting students to overcome habits of their

NL.
11
16-Speech is more basic to language than the written form.
17-Language cannot be separated from culture. Culture is literature, art and the
everyday behaviour of people who speak the TL.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1-What are the goals of teachers who use the ALM?
Teachers want their students to be able to communicate in the TL through over

learning ( to use the TL automatically without stopping to think and this can be
done by forming new habits in the TL and overcoming the old one of the NL).
The teacher is like an orchestra leader directing students' language behaviour.

He is also responsible for providing students with a good model of imitation.
Students are imitators of the teacher. They follow the teacher directions and
respond accurately and rapidly.
*New vocabulary and structure patterns are presented through dialogue.
* Dialogue is learned through imitation and repetition.
*Grammar is taught inductively.
*Cultural information is contextualized in the dialogues.
*Reading and written work are based upon the oral work they practise earlier.

Mostly, the teacher initiates the interaction with the students. There is also
student-student interaction in chain drills and in the dialogue with teacher
direction.
There are no principles of the method relates to this area.
11
6-How is the language viewed? How is the culture viewed?
Every language has its own unique system that is comprised of different levels:
phonological, morphological and syntactic. Each level has its own distinctive
patterns.
Everyday speech is emphasized in this method and the level of complexity is

graded. So the beginners are presented with simple patterns.
Culture consists of behaviour and the lifestyle of people who speak the TL.
Students are mastering the sound system and the grammatical patterns, while
vocabulary is kept to a minimum.
The natural order of the skills is listening, speaking, reading and writing. The
oral/aural skills receive most of the attention.
The TL is used in the classroom instead of the NL because it is thought that the
habits of the NL may interfere with students' attempt to master the TL.
The test used in this method is of discrete point type. That is each question would
only focus only on one point of the language at a time. Students may be also asked
to distinguish between words in a minimal pair, or to supply an appropriate verb
form in a sentence.
10-How does the teacher respond to students' errors?
Students' errors are to be corrected at once and not allowed in the classroom
because they may lead to the formation of bad habits.
THE TECHNIQUES OF ALM

1-Dialoque memorization
Students learn the dialogue through mimicry. There are many ways of practising
the dialogue. The teacher may take one role and a student takes the other. Then
the roles are reversed, or half of the class takes one role and the other half takes
12
the other. When the students memorize the dialogue they perform it before the
class. The dialogue contains the language patterns and some grammar points.
2-Backward build-up (expansion) drill
This technique is suitable when the long lines of the dialogue make problem to
the students. Students usually repeat the last phrase of the line and go back to the
beginning of the line. Then they expand what they are repeating till they are able to
repeat the whole line.
3-Repitition drill
This technique is used to teach the lines of the dialogue. Students are asked to
repeat after the teacher quickly and accurately.
4-Chain drill
The teacher begins the chain by asking one student a question and the student
answers. Then the student asks the other one beside him and the chain continues.
5-Single slot substitution drill
The teacher says a line (usually from the dialogue) and the he says a word or
phrase called a cue. Students repeat the line the teacher said substituting the cue in
its proper place.
6-Multiple –slot substitution drill
It is similar to single-slot substitution drill, but here the teacher gives cue phrases
one at a time that fit into different slots in the dialogue.
7-Transformation drill
The teacher gives students an affirmative sentence and asks them to transform it
into negative. Other examples are to change a sentence from direct to indirect
speech, from passive to active sentence or to transform a statement into a
question.
8-Question- and- answer drill
In this drill students practise answering the teacher's questions or the teacher
may cue the students to ask questions as well.
13
9-Use of minimal pairs
The teacher may give students a pair of words that are different in one sound only
like ship/ sheep. They perceive the difference between the two words and then
they pronounce them.
10-Complete the dialogue
Certain words are omitted from the dialogue. Students have to fill the blanks with
missing words.
11-Grammar game
The games are designed to make students practise a grammar point within a
context
14
THE SILENT WAY ( SW )
"Tell me and I forget, Teach me and I remember,
Involve me and I learn "Benjamin Franklin
The SW is a method of teaching language created by Gattegno. It is based on the

principle that teachers should remain as silent as possible and students should be
encouraged to speak as much as possible. Sound system is basic in this method.
One of the hallmarks of the SW is the use of the following:
1- Rods .They are used for introducing some language structures like simple
commands and also for representing objects like clock and floor plans
2-Sound-colour charts .Certain colours are associated with certain sounds. They are
used to teach pronunciation which is basic in this method.
3-Coloured word charts. They are used to work on sentences.
4- Coloured-Fidel chart. They are used to teach spelling.
THE MAIN PRINCIPLES

1-The teacher should start with something that students know and build from that
to the unknown.
2-Language learners are intelligent and bring with them the experience of already
learning a language.
3-Learning is not learned by repeating after the model. Students should develop
their own 'inner criteria' for correctness.
4-Students' actions tell the teacher whether students have learned or not.
5-Students should learn to rely on each other and on themselves.
6-The teacher works with the students while the students work on the language.
7- The teacher makes use of what students already know.
8-Learning involves transferring what one knows to new contexts.
9-Reading is worked on from the beginning.
15
10-Silence is a tool which fosters autonomy or the exercise of initiative. It also
removes the teacher from the centre of attention and so he can listen to and work
with the students.
11-Meaning is made clear by focusing students' perceptions, not by translation.
12-The teacher's silence encourages students' cooperation.
13-The teacher should avoid praise or criticism as the students will be less reliant.
14-Errors are important and necessary to learning.
15-Self-correct helps students to retain information.
16-Students need to listen to themselves.
17-At the beginning, the teacher needs to look for progress, not perfection.
Learning takes place in time.
18-Teacher silence helps the teacher observes students' behavior.
19-Student attention is a key to learning.
20-Students should engage in a great meaningful practice without repetition.
21-The elements of the language are introduced logically.
22-Students gain autonomy in the language by exploring it and by making choices.
23-Language is for self-expression.
24-The teacher can gain valuable information from student feedback, for example
he can learn what to work on next.
25-Some learning takes place naturally as we sleep. Students will naturally wor on
the day's lesson then.
26-The syllabus consists of linguistic structure.
27-The structures of the syllabus are not arranged in a linear fashion.
28-The skills of speaking, reading and writing reinforce one another.
16
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1-What are the goals of the teacher?
The general aim is to help students gain basic fluency in the TL and good
pronunciation. Teachers also want their students to:
a-Use the language for expressing their thoughts and feelings through developing
independence from the teacher.
b-Rely on themselves and the teacher gives them only what they need to promote
their learning
Regarding the teacher
The teacher is like a technician or engineer. He gives what help is necessary

relying on what the students already know. The teacher's task is also to focus
students' perception and to provide exercises to ensure their self reliance.
Regarding the students:
Students pay great attention to the learning tasks and overcome any obstacles.
They also engage actively in exploring the language.
a) Students begin their study of the language with the sound system which is
learned through sound-colour charts.
b)The teacher leads students(relying on their knowledge of their NL)to associates

the sounds of the TL with particular colours .Later the same colours are used to
help students learn the spelling of the words through colour-Fidel charts .Then they
pronounce and read words through color-word charts.
c) The teacher sets up situations to focus students' attention to the structures of

the language which also make them understand the meaning.
d) Sometimes rods are used by the teacher to draw students' attention to the
structures of the language and also to conceive meaning.
e) Students' errors can help the teacher find the problematic areas and hence
where he works.
17
f) Students gain autonomy in the language by exploring it and making choices.

Regarding student-teacher interaction
The teacher is silent for much of student –teacher interaction. However, he is still
active setting up situations, listening to students' speech, and silently working with
them on their production through the use of gestures and other tools available. He
speaks only when he wants to give clues.
Regarding student-student interaction
Teacher's silence encourages student-student interaction. Students can learn from

one another.
The teacher tries to find ways to overcome the negative feelings of the students
that might interfere with their learning. He can make use of students' remarks they
make at the end of the lesson throughout feedback session. Students' cooperation
is encouraged through creating relaxed and enjoyable learning environment.
Each language has its unique spirit or reality since it is the expression of a
particular group of people. Culture is inseparable from language.
Since sounds are basic, pronunciation is worked on from the beginning. There is
also a focus on the structure of the language by giving the grammar rules
inductively. Vocabulary is restricted at first. There is no linear structural syllabus.
Instead, the teacher begins with what the students know and builds from one
structure to another. The syllabus is developed according to the learners' needs.
All four skills are worked on from the beginning. Though there is a sequence in
that they learn to read and write what they have produced orally.
18
Meaning is not made clear by translation, but by students' perception .The NL can
be used by the teacher when he wants to give instructions and to help students
improve their pronunciation. It is also used during the feedback sessions. Students'
knowledge in the NL can be exploited by the teacher especially in teaching sounds.
He begins with sounds that are similar in two languages and then introduces the
new sounds in the TL.
Though the teacher may never give a formal test, he assesses students' learning
all the time. Teacher's silence gives him a chance to be aware of his students'
needs. One criterion whether students learn or not is their ability to transfer what
they learn to new context. The teacher neither praises nor criticizes his/her
students' behaviour so as not to interfere with developing their inner criterion.
Students' errors are seen as natural .They are inevitable since students are
encouraged to explore the language. On students' errors the teacher can decide
whether or not further work is necessary. The teacher can get his/her students to
self-correct because they do not learn if they are provided with the correct
language .The teacher provides them with the correct language only as a last resort.
TECHNIQUES OF THE SW
1-Sound-colour chart
The chart has blocks of colour .Each one represents a particular sound in the TL.
The teacher and then the students point to the blocks of colour to form syllables,
words and even sentences. Sometimes the teacher taps strongly a particular block
of colour when forming words. This draws students' attention to the word stress.
The chart draws students' attention to the language rather than the teacher.
2-Teacher's silence
The teacher gives help (when necessary) and also sets up situations and then is
silent. Even in error correction the teacher supplies a verbal answer as a last resort.
19
3-Peer correction
Students are encouraged to help another student in a cooperative way, not in a

competitive one. The teacher monitors them.
4-Rods
We can use rods to represent objects like making a floor plan (e.g. to make
students learn some grammar points) or a clock where they learn how to tell time in
the TL .Rods trigger meaning. Meaning is made clear with rods.
Then the language is connected to the meaning. At the beginning level, rods are
used to teach colours and numbers. Later they are used to express more
complicated structures like prepositions (e.g.The blue rod is between the green one
and the yellow one), command (e.g. Give the red rod to Tom), conditionals, etc. So
there are multiple uses for rods. They allow students to be imaginative and creative.
5-Self-correction gestures
The teacher can use gestures like putting his palms together and moving them
outwards to signal to the students to lengthen a particular sound they are working
on.
6-Word chart
The teacher and later students point to the words on the wall chart in a sequence
that they read the sentences they have spoken. The way the words coloured helps
students with their pronunciation. The chart contains functional vocabulary of
English.
7-Fidel chart
The teacher and later students point to the colour-coded Fidel chart so that
students can associate the sounds in colour sound chart with their ways of spelling
in colour Fidel chart. A particular sound is in the same colour with its spelling.
8-Structured feedback
Students are asked to give notes about the day's lesson and what they have
learned. The teacher accepts students' comments in a non-defensive manner. This
can help the teacher where he needs to work. Students can take responsibility of
21
their own learning by becoming aware of how they use certain learning strategies in
the classroom.
21
Desuggestopedia
Desuggestopedia is a teaching method which is based on a modern understanding
of how human brain works and how we learn most effectively. It was developed by
the Bulgarian psychotherapist George Lozanov. It was called Suggestopedia ,but
now it is called Desuggestopedia to refer to the importance of desuggesting
limitations on learning. The most important thing in this method is the decoration
of the classroom.
Classroom set- up:
-armchair
-light is comfortable
-everything is bright and colourful
-posters
-music
THE MAIN PRINCIPLES

1-Learning is facilitated in a cheerful environment.
2-Students should learn from what is present in the environment (peripheral

learning).
3-Students will accept and retain the information better if they trust and respect
the teachers' authority.
4-The teacher should attempt to desuggest the psychological barriers students

bring with them to the learning situations.
5-The students have new names and identities in the TL. This helps them feel more
secure and open to learning since their performance is that of another person.
6-The dialogue the students learn contains the language they can use immediately.
7-Songs are useful for freeing the speech muscles and evoking positive emotions.
8-The teacher should integrate indirect positive suggestion into the learning
situations.
22
9-English grammar and vocabulary are written in bold print in the dialogue to focus
students' attention to shift from the whole text to them and they are explained
briefly by the teacher.
10-Fine arts provide positive suggestion for students.
11-Meaning is made clear by using the NL translation.
12-The teacher reads the dialogue with musical accomplishment.
13-Dramatization is helpful in activating the materials. Fantasy reduces barriers to

learning.
14-The fine arts (music, art, and drama) enable suggestion to reach subconscious
.The art should be integrated in to the teaching process.
15-Teachers should help students to activate various materials .Novelty aids

acquisition.
16-Music and movement reinforce linguistic materials. It is desirable that students

achieve the state of infantilization so as to be more open to learning.
17-Errors are corrected gently by the teacher using a soft voice.
18-In the atmosphere of play, the conscious attention of the students doesn't focus
on the form of the language, but on language use.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1-What are the goals of teachers who use Desuggestopedia ?
Teachers help students to eliminate and overcome the barriers to learning and
increase their communicative ability.
The teacher is the authority in the classroom. Students should trust and have
confidence in the teacher because this will help them retain the information easily
and feel more secure.
a-A Desuggestopedia course is conducted in a bright and cheerful classroom.

Posters containing grammatical information are hung around the rooms. This will
23
help students benefit from peripheral learning. These posters are changed every
few weeks.
b- Students select new names and occupations.
c-The text has lengthy dialogues in the TL and their translation in the students' NL.
There are also notes about grammar and vocabulary arose from the dialogue.
d) The teacher presents the materials through two major phases: receptive phase
and active phase. In the receptive phase the teacher presents the dialogue during
two concerts. In the first concert (active concert) the teacher reads the dialogue,
matching his/her voice to the rhythm and pitch of the music while the students'
brains become activated and they follow the TL dialogue and its translation. In the
second concert (the passive concert) the students listen calmly while the teacher
reads the dialogue at normal speed.
In the second phase (the active phase) the students are engaged in various
activities like dramatization, games, songs and question and answer exercises.
4-What is the nature of student-teacher-interaction? What is the nature of

The teacher initiates the interaction with the whole group or with individuals.
At the beginning the students respond nonverbally or with the few words they
have practiced. Later, they respond more appropriately when they control the
language.
This method pays great attention to students' feelings. One of the main principles
is that if students are relaxed and confident, learning will come naturally and easily.
It also focuses that psychological barriers to learning is to be desuggested .Students
choose new TL names on the assumption that new identities make them feel more
secure and open to learning.
The process of communication occurs through two planes: language and the
factors which influence the linguistic message. These factors are like the nonverbal
behaviour and the way someone dresses which help interpret the linguistic
24
message .Culture is the everyday life of people who speak the language. The use of
fine art is also important
7-What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are

emphasized?
-Vocabulary is emphasized and it is claimed that a large number of words can be

acquired by using this method.
-Grammar is dealt with explicitly .It is believed that students will learn better if their
conscious attention focuses on language use rather than the forms of the language.
-Speaking communicatively is emphasized. Students also read in TL(e.g. dialogue)

and write (an imaginary composition).
NL translation is used to make the meaning clear. The teacher also uses the NL
when necessary.
Formal tests are not used in this method since they threaten the relaxed
atmosphere needed for accelerated learning. Evaluation is made through observing
student performance in the classroom.
10-How does the teacher respond to the student errors?
Errors are corrected softly by the teacher using a soft voice.
IMPORTANT TECHNIQUES
1-Classroom set up
It is teacher responsibility to create a positive environment in the classroom for

the students. So the class should be bright and cheerful.
2-Peripheral learning
Students will learn better and get information effortlessly from the posters hung
on the walls of the classroom .They have grammatical information in the T L and
they are changed from time to time according to the student needs.
25
3-Positive suggestion
It is teacher responsibility to integrate positive suggestion in the learning

situations directly or indirectly .Direct positive suggestion appeals to students'
consciousness and the teacher can tell them directly they will be successful. Indirect
positive suggestion appeals to their subconscious (there is no limit to what they can
do).
4-Choose a new identity
The students choose a TL name and a new occupation. Later, they are asked to
write about their fictional hometown, childhood and family.
5-Roleplay
Students are asked to pretend they are someone else and to perform in the TL as
if they were that person.
6-The lesson presentation
There are two major phases of presenting the materials in the classroom: a) the
receptive phase and b) the active phase
6.1 The receptive phase
There are two components of the receptive phase: the first concert( active
concert) and the second concert( passive concert). In the first concert the teacher
introduces the story as related in the dialogue calling student attention to the
grammatical points arose in it. After that he reads the dialogue in the TL. The
students have copies of the dialogue in the TL and its translation in the NL. They
refer to the dialogue while the teacher is reading. The music (classic or Baroque) is
played. The teacher begins a dramatic reading by rising and falling his voice with the
music.
In the second concert (passive concert), the students are asked to put their
scripts away and listen to the teacher while reading the dialogue at the normal
speed with the music accompaniment. The content of the dialogue governs the
way the teacher reads, not the music .At the conclusion of the concert the lesson
ends.
26
6.2 The active phase
There are two components of the active phase: primary activation and creative
adaptation.
In primary activation the students playfully reread the dialogue either in group or
as individuals.
In creative adaptation, the students engage in various activities designed to help

them learn the new materials. These activities involve singing, dancing,
dramatization and games. They focus on language communication rather than
language forms.
27
COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING METHOD ( CLLM)
This method is based on Counselling –Learning approach developed by Charles A.
Curran in which the teacher acts as a counsellor and the learner is a client. It also
advises teachers to consider their students as' whole persons' which means that
teachers consider not only students' intellect but also their feelings.
THE MAIN PRINCIPLES

1-Building a relationship with and among students is very important.
2-Any new learning experience can be threatening.
3-Language is for communication.
4-The superior knowledge and power of the teacher can be threatening.
5-The teacher should be sensitive to students' level of confidence and give them
just what they need to be successful.
6-Students feel more secure when they know the limits of an activity.
7-Teacher and students are whole persons.
8-Guided by the knowledge that each person is unique, the teacher creates an
atmosphere of acceptance.
9-The teacher counsels the students. He does not offer advice, rather he shows
them that he is really listening to them and understanding what they are saying.
10-The students' NL is used to make the meaning clear.
11- The teacher is responsible for structuring the activities in a way that is
appropriate and clear for whole persons.
12-Learning at the beginning stages is facilitated if students attend to one task at a

time.
13-The teacher encourages students initiative and independence, but does not let
students flounder in uncomfortable silence.
14-Students need quiet reflection time in order to learn.
15-Student learn best when they have a choice in what they practise.
28
16-Students need to learn to discriminate, for example, in perceiving similarities
and differences among the TL forms.
17-In groups, students can feel a sense of community and can learn from each other
and from the teacher.
18-The teacher should work in a non-threatening way with what the learner has
produced.
19-Developing a community among the class members builds trust and can help to
reduce the threat of the new learning situation.
20-Learning does not take place when the material is too new or too familiar.
21-In addition to reflecting on the language, students reflect on what they have
experienced.
22-In the beginning stages, the syllabus is generated by the students.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1-What are the goals of teachers who use Community Language Learning
Method?
Teachers want their students to
- use language for communication.
-know about their learning, to be responsible for their learning and to learn from
one another. The teacher and students treat each other as whole persons valuing
both thoughts and feelings.
The teacher is a counsellor (i.e., he understands and supports the students in

their struggle to control the TL.). He monitors students' utterances, providing
assistance when requested.
The students are very dependent upon the teacher at the beginning. Gradually,
they become independent when they continue to study.
29
3-What are the characteristics of the teaching learning process?
The teacher helps the students what they want to say in the NL by giving them
the NL translation in chunks or phrases. These chunks are recorded and when they
are replayed they seem as if they were a fairly fluid conversation. Later a transcript
for this conversation is made and the NL translation is written beneath it.
This transcript becomes a text on which students work on and do various

activities like examining some grammar points, working on pronunciation of certain
phrases or working on vocabulary. During the course students are asked about their
feelings and about their learning experience and the teacher listens and
understands. Curran states that there are six elements for non-defensive learning:
security, aggression, attention, reflection, retention and discrimination.

The nature of student-teacher interaction changes within the lesson and over
time. We can say that this method is teacher-student centred .Sometimes the
students are assertive to have the conversation and the teacher helps them to
express themselves in the TL .Then he physically removes them from the circle to
encourage them to cooperate with each other .He is also in charge and providing
directions .Initially the teacher structures the activities and at later stages the
students are supposed to have more responsibility of their learning.
There is an activity in this method in which students express how they feel about
their learning and the teacher listens and understands them. This will help them
overcome the negative feelings that might block their learning. Security is obtained
by using the NL. Other ways of making the students feel secure are telling them
what to do during the lesson, respecting the time limit and structuring the activities
in an appropriate way.
6- How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?
-language is for communication
-learning is persons ( i.e., the teacher and the students are working to build trust
upon each other and on learning process)
31
-culture is an integral part of language learning.
In the early stages, the students themselves generate the materials they want to
work on. Based on the language the students choose, many grammar points,
pronunciation patterns and vocabulary are worked on later. When the course
progresses and the students feel more secure the teacher can prepare specific
materials.
The most important skills especially at the beginning are listening and speaking
and later they are reinforced with reading and writing.
Students' security is initially enhanced by using their NL. It is also used during the
sessions in which students express their feelings about their learning process. Later
it is less used and other ways are used to clarify the meaning like using synonyms,
pictures or pantomimes.
In this method, evaluation should be in keeping with its principles. So integrative

test is used. The teacher might ask the students to write a paragraph or be given an
oral interview.
10- How does the teacher respond to students' errors?
The teacher repeats correctly what the students have said incorrectly in a non-
defensive way without paying attention to the errors. The most important thing is
to keep a respectful relationship between the teacher and the students.
THE TECHNIQUES
1-Tape recording student conversation
At the beginning, the students are asked to have a conversation in their own NL.
Then the teacher gives the translation in TL in chunks or phrases. The students
repeat after the teacher .Each chunk is recorded on a tape and the recording will
have the TL conversation only. After that the recording is replayed and the students
will have a chance to associate the meaning in the NL with TL utterances in the
recorded conversation.
31
2-Transcription
The teacher transcribes the students' conversation and each student has a chance
to translate the utterances .The teacher writes the NL equivalent beneath the TL
words. On the basis of this transcript many activities will be worked on later.
3-Reflection on experience
After various activities the teacher asks the students to reflect about how they
feel about learning a language and about their relationship with each other. The
teacher understands them and he can encourage them as well.
4-Reflective listening
There are three possibilities in this technique: the first, students listen to their
voices in the TL in the recorded conversation. The second phase, the teacher reads
the transcript while the students are listening with eyes open or close. The third
one is that students mouth the words the teacher says.
5-Human computer
The students are in control of the teacher. They can choose any part of the
transcript they want to practise pronouncing it .The teacher repeats the phrase as
often as the students want to practise it. In this way the students can get to self –
correct through imitating the teacher model.
6-Small group tasks
Many activities can be worked on through 'small group' like asking the students to
choose words from the transcript and putting them in meaningful sentences to
share with the rest of the class. Working in groups can help the students know and
cooperate with one another, practise the TL and develop the sense of community
among the class members.
32
TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE ( TPR )
This method is created by James Asher .It is based on the principles of
Comprehension Approach because of the importance of listening comprehension. It
is supposed that language learning should start first with understanding and later
proceed to production. Asher reasons that the less stressful way to achieve
understanding of any TL is to follow the directions uttered by the teacher without
NL translation.
THE MAIN PRINCIPLES

1-Meaning in the TL can often be conveyed through actions.
2-The students' understanding of the TL should be developed before speaking.
3-Students can initially learn one part of the language rapidly by moving their
bodies.
4-The imperative is an important device through which the teacher can direct
student behaviour.
5-Students can learn through observing actions as well as performing the actions
themselves.
6-It is important that students feel successful because this facilitates learning.
7- Students should not be made to memorize fixed routines.
8- Correction should be done in an unobtrusive way.
9- Students need to understand more than the exact sentences used in training.
Novelty is also motivating.
10- Language learning is more effective when it is fun.
11-Spoken language should be emphasized over the written language.
12-Students will begin to speak when they are ready.
13-Students are expected to make errors when they first begin speaking.
33
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1-What are the goals of teachers who use TPR?
The teachers want their students to enjoy the experience in learning to

communicate in a FL. They also aim at reducing the stress the students feel when
studying the FL .
In the beginning, the teacher is the director of all student behaviour. The
students are imitators of the teacher nonverbal model. Later, when the course
progresses the role is reversed, i.e. , the individual students direct the teacher and
other students.
3- What are some characteristics of the teaching /learning process?
The first phase of the lesson is one of modelling .The teacher issues commands and
performs the actions with them. In the second phase, the students themselves
perform the action after they understand them. Then the teacher recombines the
elements of the commands (often humorous) to develop flexibility in understanding
unfamiliar utterances. After that the students learn to read and write .They will
issue the commands themselves when they are able to speak and perform other
activities like skits and games.

Initially, the interaction is characterized by the teacher speaking and students

responding non-verbally .Later, as the students begin to speak they issue
commands to the teacher and other students, i.e., their actions become verbal and
the teacher responds nonverbally.
5- How are the feelings of the students dealt with?
This method is developed to reduce the stress the students feel when learning a
FL. The students are not forced to speak the FL until they are ready to speak so as
not to create anxiety .This method also makes the language learning as enjoyable as
possible through the use of funny commands .Feeling of success and low anxiety
facilitate learning.
34
Learning a FL is the same as the acquisition of the NL .Learning is done through

oral modality. Culture is the lifestyle of the people who speak the NL.
7- What areas of language are emphasized? What language skills are emphasized?
Vocabulary and grammar are emphasized and they are embedded through
imperatives .The reason for using imperatives is that children receive imperatives
while acquiring the NL.
Regarding the language skills, understanding the spoken word should precede its
production. The spoken language is emphasized over the written language.
Initially, TPR is introduced in students' NL .After the introduction, the NL is rarely

used and meaning is made clear through body movement.
9- How is evaluation accomplished?
Formal evaluation is conducted by the teacher by commanding individual

students to perform a series of action. As students progress, their performance of
skits they have created can become the basis for evaluation.
10 – How does the teacher respond to students errors?
In the beginning the teacher should tolerate students' errors they make when
they begin to speak and so the teacher should correct only the major errors in
unobtrusive way .When the students advance the teacher can correct softly the
more minor errors.
THE TECHNIQUES
1-Using commands to direct behaviour
Using commands is the major technique in TPR. The commands are given to get
the students to perform an action. So the teacher should plan which commands he
will use in the classroom. Initially, the teacher performs the actions with the
students to clarify the meaning. Later, the teacher directs the students alone. The
teacher varies the sequence of commands so that the students can connect the
actions with the language. It is recommended that the teacher gives three
commands at one time and when the students are successful he can give three
35
other commands .Asher claims that all grammar features can be communicated
through commands.
2- Role reversal
Students command their teacher and classmates to perform some actions .They
are not encouraged to speak until they are ready. They may be ready after ten to
twenty hours of instruction.
3-Action Sequence
The teacher may give the students three connected commands at one time .When
the students learn more about the TL ,a longer series of connected commands can
be given.
36
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT)
It is an approach to the teaching of second and FLs that emphasizes interaction as
both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language .In the late 1970s
some educators observed that students could produce sentences accurately in the
classroom, but they couldn't use the language appropriately when communicate
outside the classroom .It is noted that being able to communicate requires more
than linguistic competence (LC), it requires communicative competence (CC).
Definitions of important terms
-Linguistic competence refers to the rules for creating grammatically correct

sentences.
-Communicative competence is the ability to use language appropriately in a given

social context. Hymes is the first who coins CC
THE PRINCIPLES
1-The authentic language 'the language used in a real context' should be used in
the classroom.
2-The ability to predict the writer's or the speaker's intention is part of being
communicatively competent.
3-The TL is a vehicle for classroom communication.
4-The focus of the course is on real language use (how to use language in real life
situations). So different language forms are used to reflect a certain function or
different functions can be expressed by a certain linguistic form.
5-Students should work with the language at a discourse level .They should know
about coherent and coherence which are the properties of a written text.
Cohesion is how different sentences in a text are linked properly. Coherence is how
the text appears to make sense to the reader.
6- Games are important because they have certain features in common with real
communicative events.
7-Students should be given a chance to express their ideas and feelings.
37
8-Errors are tolerated and seen as a natural outcome of development of
communication skills.
9-The main teacher task is to establish situations to promote learning.
10-Cooperative interaction encourages cooperative relationships among students.
11-The social context of the communicative event is essential in giving meaning to

the utterances.
12-Learning to use language forms appropriately is part of communicative

competence.
13-The teacher acts as a facilitator in setting up the activities and an advisor during
the activities.
14-In communicating, a speaker has a choice of what to say and how to say.
15-The grammar and vocabulary follow from the function, situational context and
the roles of the interlocutors.
16- Students should be given opportunities to listen to the language as it is used in

authentic communication.
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS
1-What are the goals of teachers who use CLT?
-the aim is to enable students to communicate in the TL .So students need to know
the linguistic forms, meaning and function.
-students should know that there are various forms used to express a certain
function and there are also different functions can be expressed by a certain
linguistic form. They have to choose among different forms.
The roles of the teacher are the following:
-He facilitates communication in the classroom.
- He also establishes situations to promote communication.
38
He acts as an advisor answering students' questions and monitoring their
performance.
He might take notes of students' errors to be worked on later.
-He is a co communicator engaging in the communicative activities along with the

students. In this method the teacher is less dominant than other teacher –centred
methods.
Regarding students' roles:
-They are communicators engaging in negotiating meaning and understanding

others.
-They are more responsible managers of their own learning.
3-What are some characteristics of teaching/learning process?
-Students use the TL through communicative activities like games, role plays and
problem solving tasks.
--The activities have three features in common: information gap, choice , and
feedback. Information gap means that one person knows something that the
other person doesn't . In this way, the exchange would be communicative.
-In communication, the speaker has a choice of what to say and how to say.
-True communication is purposeful.
-The use of authentic materials to help students develop strategies for

understanding language as it is actually used.
-The activities are carried out through small groups. It is preferred that group
should be small to maximize the time allotted to each students.
4-What is the nature of student teacher interaction? What is the nature of

The teacher may present part of the lesson when he works with linguistic
accuracy. At other time he is a facilitator of the activities .Sometimes he is a co-
communicator establishing situations to promote communication between and
among the students.
39
Regarding the students, they interact with one another like working in pairs,
triads, small groups and the whole group.
Students will be motivated since they feel they are learning to do something
useful with the language .Teachers give the students opportunities to share and
express their
ideas and opinions. Student security is enhanced by many opportunities for

cooperative interactions with their fellow students and the teacher.
Regarding language:
-Language is for communication.
-LC is one part of CC .
-One aspect of CC is the knowledge of the functions language is used for.
-Different language forms can express a certain function and different functions
can be expressed by a certain language form .So the learner should know the
meaning ,the knowledge of forms and function .He should also take into
consideration the social context so as to express the intended meaning. For
example, the speaker can use 'May I have a piece of fruit? 'to ask for permission,
but if the speaker is of social equal or the situation is informal the speaker can use
'Can I have a piece of fruit?' instead.
Regarding culture:
Culture is the everyday lifestyle of people who use the language. The use of non-
verbal behaviour receives great attention in CLT.
Regarding the areas of language
-language functions are emphasized over forms.
-a functional syllabus may be used.
41
-a variety of forms are introduced for each function .At the beginning simple forms
are introduced, but as the students get more proficient in the TL ,more complex
forms are introduced.
-students learn the language at the discourse level .They learn about cohesion and
coherence. Concerning the language skills, students work on all four skills from the
beginning.
8-What is the role of students' NL?
The judicious use of the NL is permitted in CLT .The TL is used during the
communicative activities, explaining the activities, and assigning HW for the
students.
The teacher can evaluate his students' accuracy and fluency. He can evaluate
them informally through his role as an advisor and co communicator. Formally, he
can use an integrative test.
Since the focus of language instruction in this method is on fluency more than
accuracy, students' errors of language forms are tolerated and seen as a natural
outcome of the development of the communication skills .The teacher may take
notes of student's errors during the fluency activities and comment on them later
with an accuracy activity.
THE TECHNIQUES
1-Authentic materials
One of the big problems students face is that they cannot use the TL outside the
classroom in real life situations. In order to solve this problem CLT advocates the
use of authentic materials in the classroom like using a real newspaper articles
inside the classroom especially for the high intermediate level .Concerning the
lower level class it is possible to use realia that do not contain a lot of language , but
a lot of discussion can be generated.
41
2-Scrambled sentences
The students are given a passage that they might have seen it before in which
sentences are put in the wrong order .The teacher asks them to unscramble these
sentences. This exercise helps the students to learn about coherence and cohesion.
They might also be asked to put the picture of a picture strip story in the correct
order and write lines to accompany the pictures.
3-Language games
Students find games very interesting and enjoyable .There are three features of
communicative activities : information gap, a choice of what the speaker wants to
say and how to say.
4-Picture strip story
In this activity one student in a small group is given a strip story. He (she) shows
the first picture to the whole members of the group and asks them to predict what
the next picture is .They have a choice as to what their prediction would be and
how they word it .They receive feedback from others on the content of the
prediction and hence be able to view the picture and compare it with the
prediction.
5- Role play
This technique is used both in Desuggestopedia and CLT .It gives students
opportunities to practise communication in different social communication and in
different social roles. It can be structured by the teacher who tells the students who
they are and what they will say. In a less structured way, the teacher can tell the
students who they are, what the situation is and what they are talking about, but
the students themselves decide what they say.
42
43

طرائق مهمة جدا

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

طرائق مهمة جدا

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ALM Audio-Lingual Method

CLT Communicative Language Teaching

CLTM Community Language Teaching Method

GTM Grammar Translation Method

TPR Total Physical Response

1 Inst. Afrah Adil Mahmood

THE MAIN PRINCIPLES

5-The teacher is the authority in the classroom.

7-Similarities between the two languages facilitate learning.

8- Students should learn the form of the TL.

9-The grammar rules are taught deductively.

10-Language learning provides good mental exercise.

11-Students should be conscious of the grammatical rules of the TL.

12-Verb conjugations and other grammatical paradigms should be kept by heart.

The fundamental purpose of learning a FL is to be able to read literature written in

2 Inst. Afrah Adil Mahmood

*they learn grammatical paradigms.

*They memorize words in the NL with their meanings in the TL.

4-What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of

Most interaction is from the teacher to the students.

5-How are the feelings of the students dealt with?

No feelings are dealt with in this method.

6-How is the language viewed? How is culture viewed?

Literary language is superior to spoken language. Culture consists of literature and

*Vocabulary and grammar are emphasized.

8-What is the role of the students' NL?

9-How is evaluation accomplished?

THE TECHNIQUES OF GTM

1-Translation of a literary passage

2-Reading comprehension questions

5-Deductive application of rule

8-Use words in sentences

Students are asked to put a certain vocabulary item in a complete sentence in

It is called Direct Method because meaning is to be conveyed directly in the TL

THE MAIN PRINCIPLES

3- The NL should not be used in the classroom.

5-Students should learn to think in the TL.

6-The purpose of language learning is communication.

7-Pronunciation should be worked on from the beginning of the language

8-Self correction facilitates language learning.

9-Lessons should contain some conversational activity to encourage students to use

10-Grammar should be taught inductively.

12-The syllabus is based on situations or topics.

3-What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning process?

*Students practise vocabulary through using a new word in a complete sentence.

4-What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the nature of

5-How are the feelings of the students dealt with?

There are no principles of the method relate to this area.

6-How is language viewed? How is culture viewed?

Language is primarily spoken, not written. Culture consists of the history,

Vocabulary is emphasized over grammar. Oral communication is basic though

8-What is the role of the students' NL?

The NL should not be used in the classroom.

9-How is evaluation accomplished?

10-How does the teacher respond to student errors?

The teacher uses different techniques to get students to self-correct whenever

2-Question and answer exercise

3-Getting students to self-correct

5-Fill in the blank exercise

THE MAIN PRINCIPLES

2-The NL and the TL have separate linguistic systems.