Lab Mannual

RF Simulation Lab

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

 RF Simulation Lab(5EC4-21)
List of Experiments
1 Introduction of RF simulation Lab , outcomes and HFSS .

2 Study of field pattern of various modes inside a rectangular waveguide and circular waveguide.

3 Find the change in characteristics impedance and reflection coefficients of the transmission line by changing the
dielectric properties of materials embedded between two conductors.

4 Design and simulate the following Planar Transmission Lines:

Stripline and Microstrip Line
Coplaner line
Coupled line and slot Line

5. Design and simulate the following components

3-dB branch line coupler
Wilkinson power divider
Hybrid ring
Backward wave coupler
Low pass filters
Band pass filters
6. Design the RF amplifier using microwave BJT

7. Design the RF amplifier using Microwave FET.

Experiment no 1: Introduction to HFSS

Theory:
Starting Ansoft HFSS

Click theMicrosoft Start Button ,Select Programs and Select the Ansoft>HFSS9>HFSS9
or Double click the HFSS9 icon on the desktop

To set up an HFSS design, follow this general procedure. Note that after you insert a design, you do not need to
perform the steps sequentially, but they must be completed before a solution can be generated.
I - Insert an HFSS design into a project.
II -Selecting the Solution Type
Before you draw the model, specify the design’s solution type.
2) Select Driven Modal in the solution types.

We select Driven Modal as our model is a rectangular waveguide and Driven modal is used for calculating the
mode-based S-parameters of passive, high-frequency structures such as microstrips, waveguides, and
transmission lines, which are “driven” by a source

III- Drawing a Model

You can create 3D objects by using HFSS’s Draw commands. Objects are drawn in the 3D Modeler window.
IV- Assigning Excitations
Excitations in HFSS are used to specify the sources of electromagnetic fields and charges, currents, or voltages on
objects or surfaces in the design.
V- Solution Setup
a) Adaptive solution setup
b) Frequency sweep setup
VI – Running a Simulation
VII--To Analyze
On the HFSS menu, click Analyze

VIII-Plotting the results

Experiment No.2

Aim of Experiment:

Study of field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular waveguide.

Requirement:
Ansoft HFSS
Knowledge Required for the Experiment:

 Waveguides
 Wave behavior inside a waveguide
 Configuration of Modes (TEmn ,TM mn )
 Cut off frequency
 Surface current density

Objective of Experiment:
This experiment provides the field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular waveguide. This gives the
basic idea of the change in the field pattern; that is, electric and magnetic field patterns with the change in
modes inside a rectangular waveguide. One can observe the field patterns of various modes in xy, xz and yz
planes for different frequency bands. Surface current density can also be observed on the walls of a rectangular
waveguide.

Fig.1 Rectangular Waveguide

Theory:

Electromagnetic waves propagating in open space travel out in all directions. The power intensity of these
waves decreases as the distance increases - it is proportional to the power of the source divided by the square of
the distance. The waveguide operates by confining the electromagnetic wave inside a metallic structure so that it
does not spread out, and losses resulting from this effect are eliminated. In electromagnetics, the term
waveguide may refer to any linear structure that guides electromagnetic waves between two endpoints.
Typically a waveguide is thought of as a transmission
line comprising a hollow conducting tube, which may be rectangular or circular within which electromagnetic
waves are propagated. Unlike coaxial cable, there is no centre conductor within the waveguide. Signals
propagate within the confines of the metallic walls that act as boundaries. The signal is confined by total
internal reflection from the walls of the waveguide. Waveguides are used principally at frequencies in the
microwave range. Waveguides will only carry or propagate signals above a certain frequency, known as the cut-
off frequency. Below this the waveguide is not able to carry the signals. The cut-off frequency of the waveguide
depends upon its dimensions.

Rectangular Waveguide

A rectangular waveguide is a hollow metallic tube with a rectangular cross section. The conducting walls of the
waveguide confine the electromagnetic fields and thereby guide the electromagnetic wave. The rectangular
waveguide is basically characterized by its dimensions i.e., length ‘a’ and breadth ‘b’.

Fig. 2 Waveguide structure with dimension ‘a’ and ‘b’

Modes: Electromagnetic waveguides are analyzed by solving Maxwell's equations, or their reduced form, the
electromagnetic wave equation, with boundary conditions determined by the properties of the materials and
their interfaces. These equations have multiple solutions, or modes, which are eigen functions of the equation
system. Each mode is therefore characterized by an eigenvalue, which corresponds to a cutoff frequency below
which the mode cannot exist in the guide

Waveguide propagation modes depend on the operating wavelength and polarization and the shape and size of
the guide. The modes of the waveguide are typically classified into following types:

 TE modes (Transverse Electric) have no electric field component in the direction of propagation.
 TM modes (Transverse Magnetic) have no magnetic field component in the direction of
propagation.
 TEM modes (Transverse Electromagnetic) have neither electric nor magnetic field component in the
direction of propagation.

Field Theory: As we know, an electromagnetic field is comprised of electric and magnetic fields which are
perpendicular to each other. These fields have different patterns for each mode. These patterns depend upon the
mode numbers (m and n) and the dimensions (‘a’ and ‘b’) of the waveguide. The electric field and magnetic
field pattern are different for various modes in different waveguides. The electric field component of an EM
wave is characterized by Ex, Ey and Ez components of the wave. Similarly, the magnetic field component of an
EM wave is characterized by Hx, Hy and Hz components of the wave. These components are usually plotted on
an XY plane which shows the field pattern for both the fields.
 Field Equations:

For mode, the field equations for a rectangular waveguide

For mode, the field equations for a rectangular waveguide are:

Circular Waveguide design :

 Figure.3 Circular Waveguide
Procedure:
Step 1: Select the frequency band in which you wish to see the field pattern.
Step 2: Select the type of mode, i.e. either Transverse Electric (TE) or Transverse magnetic (TM).

Step 3: Select pattern:

 Electric Field: Select this to view the electric field pattern of the given mode.
 Magnetic Field: Select this to view the magnetic field pattern of the given mode.
 Surface Current: Select this option to view the surface current density for TE10 mode.
Step 4: Enter the values of m and n to obtain the field pattern, where m stands for number of half waves of
electric or magnetic intensity in the X- direction, and n stands for number of half waves in the y direction if
the propagation of wave is in z direction.
Step 5: Run the VI up to see the desired field pattern in XY, YZ and XZ planes. In case, you wish to see the
other field pattern then click stop and repeat steps 1-4 before running the program again.
Observation:
1. Plot the electric and magnetic field patterns for TE11 mode in X-band inside a rectangular
waveguide. Explain the field patterns with proper reasons.
2. Plot the electric and magnetic field patterns for TM11 mode and also check for TM10 mode and check if
the mode exists, explain the facts behind the behavior of the mode.
Summary:
From the experiment, we can observe the field patterns of various modes inside a rectangular
waveguide in xy, yz and zx planes. This also shows the current density variation in TE10 mode in all
 three planes. Here, one can observe the field patterns for various frequency bands. One can correlate the above
mentioned field equations with the field patterns of various modes and can develop better understanding of the
modes of the rectangular waveguides.
Viva Questions
1.What is the microwave frequency range ?
2. What is the range of wavelength of micro wave frequency?
3. Which is the band of frequency used usually in laboratory experiments ?
4.What is the cut off wave length?
5. What is the dominant mode of rectangular waveguide? Explain.
6. What are m and n representing?
7. How TEM waves are propagated?
8. What is dominant mode in circular waveguide?
9.Difference between rectangular and circular waveguide?
10. What is Phase and Group velocity?

Experiment No.3
Aim of Experiment:

Find the change in characteristics impedance and reflection coefficients of the transmission line by changing
the dielectric properties of materials embedded between two conductors.

Requirement: Ansoft HFSS

Knowledge Required for the Experiment:

 Transmission Lines
 Reflection Coefficient (Г)
 Coaxial Transmission Lines
 Parallel Plate Transmission Lines
 Strip Lines
 Microstrip Lines

Objective of Experiment:

This experiment will make you familiar to the design of the various transmission lines and the differences in
their geometry. Here, one can get the brief description of the transmission line parameters as well. This
experiment shows the change in the dielectric property of the material effects the characteristic impedance (Z o)
and the reflection coefficients (Г) of the transmission lines. In this experiment, one can see the variation of the
reflection coefficient magnitude (|Г|) and the phase with the frequency. Here, you can get well acquainted with
the geometry of the various transmission lines and the difference between them.

Theory:

Transmission Lines: The transmission lines are used as wave-guiding structures for transferring power and
information from one point to another. Transmission line is often schematically represented as a two wire line,
since transmission lines always have at least two conductors. A maximum transfer of power from a given
voltage source occurs under "matched conditions". A line is matched when the load impedance is equal to the
characteristic impedance of the line.

Fig.1 Transmission line terminated with a load impedance ZL

 For a finite transmission line having characteristic impedance Zo terminated by a load impedance of ZL, and the
length of line isℓ"." A sinusoidal voltage source Vg with an internal impedance Zg is connected to the line at
z=0. In such a case, total voltage on the line can be written as the sum of incident and reflected waves.

Similarly, the total current on the line is described as:

The total voltage and current at the load are related by the load impedance, so at z=0 we must have

o
Solving for V - gives

The amplitude of the reflected voltage wave normalized to the amplitude of the incident voltage wave
is defined as the voltage reflection coefficient, Г

From the above relation, we can see that only when Г = 0, there is no reflected wave.

Coaxial Transmission Lines: This consists of an inner conductor and a coaxial outer conducting sheath
separated by a dielectric medium. This structure has an important advantage of confining the electric and
magnetic fields entirely within the dielectric region. No stray fields are generated by a coaxial transmission line,
and little external interference is coupled into the line. Examples are telephone and TV cables and the input
cables to high - frequency precision measuring instruments.

(a) (b)

Fig 2.(a) Geometry of coaxial line (b) Layered structure of

Coaxial line
Characteristic Impedance, Zo can be given as:

Parallel Plate Transmission Line This type of transmission line consists of two parallel conducting plates
separated by a dielectric slab of a uniform thickness. It is the simplest type of the transmission lines.

Fig.3 Geometry of parallel Plate Transmission Line

For a parallel plate transmission line with perfectly conducting plates of width 'w' and separated by a lossless
dielectric slab of thickness d, the characteristic impedance, Zo is d/w times the intrinsic impedance η of the
dielectric medium.
Characteristic Impedance, Zo of the parallel plate transmission line can be obtained from the relation:

Strip Lines: This is a planar type of transmission line that lends itself well to microwave integrated circuitry and
photolithographic fabrication. A thin conducting strip of width 'W' is centered between two wide conducting
ground planes of separation 'H', thickness of strip is 'T' and the entire region between the ground planes is filled
with dielectric, εr . Since strip line has two conductors and a homogeneous dielectric, it can support a TEM
wave, and this is the usual mode of operation.

Fig.4 Geometry of strip lines

The phase velocity of a TEM mode is given by, where ‘c’ is the speed of light in vaccum.
The characteristic impedance is given by:

Where we is the effective width of the center conductor given by:

Microstrip Lines: The microstrip line is one of the most popular types of planar transmission lines, because it
can be fabricated by photolithographic processes and is easily integrated with other passive and active
microwave devices. The geometry of a microstrip line is shown in the figure below. A conductor of width 'W' is
printed on a thin, grounded dielectric substrate of thickness 'h' and relative permittivity εr.

Fig.5 Geometry of microstrip lines

The presence of the dielectric, and particularly the fact that the dielectric does not fill the air region above the
strip, complicates the behavior of microstrip line. The microstrip has some (usually most) of its field lines in the
dielectric region, concentrated between the strip conductor and the ground plane, and some fraction in the air
region above the substrate. For this reason the microstrip line cannot support a pure TEM wave, since the phase
velocity of TEM fields in the dielectric region would be c/√ε r, but the phase velocity of TEM fields in the air
region would be c. Thus, a phase mismatch occurs at the dielectric- air interface.

Microstrip lines support quasi-TEM mode. Since some of the field lines are in dielectric region and some are in
air, the effective dielectric constant satisfies the relation:

1 < εe < εr and is dependent on the substrate thickness, h, and the conductor width, W.
 The effective dielectric constant of a microstrip line is given approximately by

For given dimensions of the microstrip line, the characteristic impedance can be calculated as:

For given characteristic impedance Zo and dielectric constant εr, the W/h ratio can be found as:

where A = (Zo/60)√(εr + 1)/2 + {(εr - 1)/(εr + 1)}*(0.23 + 0.11/εr) B

= 377π / (2Zo√εr)

Procedure:
Step 1: Set the maximum frequency range between 5-10 GHz.
Step 2: Design any transmission line with given frequency.
Step 3: Now select the sample material for which you wish to find the change in characteristic
impedance and reflection coefficient of the transmission line.
Step 4: Run the design to see the characteristic impedance (Zo), the |Г| vs. frequency curve and the
reflection coefficient phase angle vs. frequency curve.
Step 5: Compare the reflection coefficient magnitude and phase variation with frequency for dielectric material
Teflon and Alumina in case of microstrip transmission line and note down the observations.
Step 6: Explain the change in characteristic impedance and reflection coefficient magnitude and phase for
coaxial transmission line. Plot the reflection coefficient magnitude and phase vs. frequency graph for parallel
plate transmission line for dielectric material resin.
Summary: The experiment shows the change in dielectric properties of a material embedded between the two
conductors change the characteristic impedance and reflection coefficients. This experiment provides the better
understanding of geometry of transmission lines. Here one can observe the reflection coefficient magnitude and
phase variation with frequency.
Viva Question:
1. What is the role of transmission line?
2. Define refection coefficient?
3. What are various transmission lines?
4. At which frequencies strip lines are widely used?
5. What is strip line?
6. What is microstrip line?
7. What is planer transmission line?
8. What is Impedance characteristics of microstrip line.
9. What is dielectric losses?
10. Explain VSWR?
Experiment No.4

Aim of Experiment: Design and simulate the following planer transmission Lines:
Strip Line and Microstrip Line
Parallel coupled strip
Coplanar and slot lines

Requirement: Ansoft HFSS

Knowledge Required for the Experiment:

This experiment will make you familiar to the design of the various transmission lines and the differences in
their geometry.
Theory:

(a) Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line  that was invented in the 1950s by
Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre. Strip lines are essentially modification of
the two wire lines and coaxial lines. These are basically planar transmission lines that are widely used at
frequencies from 100 MHz to 100 GHz. Fig.1 shows the cross-sectional view of the strip line structure.

Fig 1: Strip line transmission Line

As seen in fig1, a strip line consist of a central thin conducting strip of width w which is greater than its
thickness t, placed inside the low loss dielectric (εr) substrate of thickness b between two wide ground
plates. Usually the thickness of the metallic central conductor and the metallic ground plane are the same.
The dominant mode for the strip line is a TEM mode shown in fig 2  and the field are confined within the
transmission line with no radiation losses. The width of the ground planes is at least five times greater than
the spacing between the plates there by avoiding any vertical side walls at the two transverse end. There
are practically no fringing fields after a certain distance from the edge of the center conductor. For b ≤ λ/2,
there will be no propagation in the transverse direction.

Fig 2: TEM mode of strip line

However, there are certain disadvantage of strip lines in that the circuit is not accessible during development for 
adjustment and tuning and also it is difficult to mount discrete and active components (like transistors, diodes,
chip resistor, circulators, chip capacitors etc.)
 
An expression for characteristic impedance (Z0) of the strip line is:
Width of the strip line can be calculated by:

And the wavelength of the electromagnetic signal on the strip line is given by:

To design the Strip Line, we have to calculate the guided wavelength which is equal to length of the slot line.
Procedure is given as following:
Expression for characteristic impedance (Z0) of the strip line is:

Width of the strip line can be calculated by:

And the wavelength of the electromagnetic signal on the strip line is given by:

 
Example: Calculate the wavelength (length) of slot line at 1.5 GHz .
 
Given Parameters:
Frequency f = 1.5 GHz
Substrate Thickness b = 1.1 mm
Strip line thickness t = 0.02 mm
Substrate Permittivity εr = 5.5
Characteristic Impedance Z0 = 50 Ω

Speed of light c = 
Calculate the width W

W= 0.398 mm
Calculate the value of Z0

 Ω

This value is close to 50Ω but generally we consider 50 Ω as the characteristic impedance hence we consider Zo =
50 Ω at the place of Zo = 46.57 Ω
Calculate the value of guided wavelength  λg which is equal to the length of strip line

(b) Microstrip Line

In microstrip line, some part of the electromagnetic wave is propagated through substrate and some part through
air above it. Since the substrate and air both have different dielectric constant. So wave propagates with different
velocities in both medium. This inhomogeneity in the medium produces a discontinuity in the electric and
magnetic field. This make the analysis complicated. To simplify the analysis, we define the effective dielectric
constant of the microstrip line which is the dielectric constant of an equivalent homogeneous medium. Due to this
inhomogeneity, microstrip line support a quasi TEM wave because electric and magnetic field both have
component in the direction of wave propagation. As the frequency increases, the effective dielectric constant also
increases. This results in the decrease of phase velocity. So micostrip line become dispersive at high frequencies.
Similarly characteristic impedance of microstrip line also either increases or decreases or first decreases then
increases with increase of frequency. 
 

. Figure 2: Field distribution pattern in Microstrip line

 
A conductor of width W is printed on a thin, grounded dielectric substrate of thickness d and relative permittivity
er; asketch of the field lines is shown in figure 2. If the dielectric were not present we could think of the line as a
two-wire line consisting of two flat strip conductors of width W, separated by a distance d. In those cases we
would have a simple TEM transmission line, width v p= c and β=k0.The presence of the dielectric does not fill the
air region above the strip (y>d), complicated the behavior and analysis of microstripline, where all the fields are
contained within a homogeneous dielectric region, concentrated between the strip conductor and the ground plane
and some fraction the air region above the substrate. For this reason the microstripline cannot support the pure
TEM wave, since the phase velocity of TEM fields in the air region would be c/e r, but the phase velocity of TEM
fields in the air region would be impossible to attain for a TEM-type wave. The dielectric substrate is electrically
very thin (d<< λ), and so the fields are quasi TEM. In other words, the fields are essentially the same as those of
the static case. Formulas for Effective Dielectric Constant, Characteristic Impedance, and Attenuation the effective
dielectric constant of a microstripline is given approximated by

 
The effective dielectric constant of a homogeneous medium that replaces the air and dielectric region of the
microstrip, the phase velocity and propagation constant are then given by 
 
Given the dimension of the microstripline the characteristic impedance can be calculated as

 
For a given characteristic impedance Z0 and dielectric constant er, the W/d ratio can be found as:

Where 

 
Hence effective dielectric constant and width of microstrip line calculated by the above equation and guided wave
length of microstrip line is calculated by:

 
Given Parameters:
Frequency f = 1.5 GHz
Substrate Thickness d = 1.1 mm
Substrate Permittivity εr = 5.5
Calculate:
Guided Wavelength (length of microstrip line) l = ?
Width of the microstrip line W = ?
. 
 Design the microstrip line

To design the microstrip line, we have to calculate the width and length of the microstrip line.
Procedure is given as following:
Given Parameters:
Frequency f = 1.5 GHz
Substrate Thickness d = 1.1 mm
Substrate Permittivity εr = 5.5
Characteristic Impedance z0 = 50 Ω
Width of microstrip line
To calculate the width of the microstrip line, we will use following formula
 

 =  
 
Where w= width of microstripline
            εr= substrate permittivity
             d= substrate thickness
andvalue of A and B is given by following equations
 
                        

A=
                                        
                        

B = 
 
Using given parameters, we can calculate the ratio W/d. Now value of d is given already. After substituting that
value, we can get width of microstrip line.
 
Length of microstrip line
Since length of microstrip line is equal to the guided wavelength of the microstrip line.
Therefore to calculate length of microstrip line, first we have to calculate the value of guided wavelength which is
given by following formula

Where c = speed of light

 = effective permittivity
f= operating frequency
andeffective permittivity   is given by following formula
 

           
 
Example: Calculate the length and width of microstrip line 1.5 GHz by using following    
                  parameters:
Frequency f = 1.5 GHz
Substrate Thickness d = 1.1 mm
Substrate Permittivity εr = 5.5
Characteristic Impedance z0 = 50 Ω
Solution:
Calculate the value of A

A=

A= 
A = 1.67
Now calculate the value of B

B = 

B = 
B = 5.04
Now calculate the width W

  =   

Hence the width of the microstrip line is 1.77 mm

Now calculate effective permittivity 
 

           

Calculate the value of guided wavelength (length of the microstripline)

Hence length of the microstrip line is 99.7 mm and width of microstrip line is 1.77 mm
 
(c ) Parallel Coupled Line
A representation of coplanar waveguide is shown in figure1. At first glance, it resembles microstrip construction.
It has a single circuit board, just like microstrip; it has the circuit traces on the top of the board, just like
microstrip; and it has air over the top of the circuit board, just like microstrip. When you look at it a little closer,
however, you see some very distinct difference. In microstrip construction, there is a circuit trace on the top of the
board material of a certain width and thickness. There is also a complete ground plane on the reverse side of the
board. In a coplanar waveguide, there is still a circuit trace  on top of the board that is a certain width and
thickness, but there are also ground planes on both sides of the circuit trace and, as can be seen in figure 1, there is
also ground plane on the bottom of the circuit board.  Ground plane on  both sides of the circuit trace is where this
type of transmission line structure get its name. A conductor surrounded by ground “guides” the electromagnetic
wave down the transmission line.

Figure 1: Coplanar Waveguide Structure

A coplanar waveguide is a planar transmission structure for transmitting microwave signals (f>300MHz).  A
conventional CPW on a dielectric substrate consists of a center strip conductor with semi-infinite ground planes on
either side as shown in Figure 1. This structure supports a quasi-TEM mode of propagation. The CPW offers
several advantages over conventional microstrip line: First, it simplifies fabrication: second, it facilitates easy
shunt as well as series surface mounting of active and passive devices third, it eliminates the need for wraparound
and via holes and, and fourth, it reduces radiation loss. In addition a ground plane exists between any two adjacent
lines, hence cross talk effects between adjacent lines are very week. As a result, CPW circuits can be made denser
than conventional microstrip circuits. These, as well as several other advantages, make CPW ideally suited for
MIC (Microwave Integrated Circuits) as well as MMIC(Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits) applications.
The coplanar waveguide (CPW) proposed by C. P. Wen in 1969 consisted of a dielectric substrate with conductors
on the top surface. The conductors formed a center strip separated by a narrow gap from two ground planes on
either side. The dimensions of the center strip, the gap, the thickness and permittivity of the dielectric substrate
determined the effective dielectric constant (eeff), characteristic impedance (Z0) and the attenuation (a) of the line.
This basic structure has become known as the conventional CPW.

Figure 2 Field Distribution in Coplanar Waveguide

Figures 2 and 3 illustrate the computed electric field and magnetic field, respectively, in the cross section of the
coplanar waveguide. It is observed that the electric-field lines extend across the slot while the magnetic-field lines
are perpendicular to the air-dielectric interface in the slot. The electric and magnetic field in the right half of the
structure are in a direction opposite to the electric and magnetic field in the left half of the structure. Furthermore
part of the magnetic-field lines encircles the center conducting strip separating the two slots. Hence it should be
possible to realize CPW circulators whose function is dominated by the transverse magnetic field component. The
longitudinal view in Figure 2 shows that in the air regions the magnetic-field lines curve and return to the slot at
half-wavelength intervals. Consequently a wave propagating along the structure has an elliptically polarized
magnetic field. Hence it should be possible to successfully exploit the elliptically polarized magnetic field in the
design of CPW resonance isolators and differential phase shifters.
 
 

Figure 3: Computed magnetic-field distribution in the cross section (x0 plane).

 
The coplanar waveguide have a single plane waveguiding structure. The circuit is printed on one side in one plane,
the dimension of the slot width and strip width is small, which may realize the circuit as hybrid circuit. Because of
the small strip cross sectional area power transfer is also limited, which causes the higher attenuation in the
device.  The coplanar structure is surrounded by conductor with ground potential hence the structure leads the
decoupling behavior of neighboring transmission line. The dielectric region of the structure should be thick
because field can lack from the backside of the device.   . Generally, the thickness of the substrate should be one
or two time the width of the slots. It is obvious that the finite thickness of the substrate will influence the
dispersion characteristics of the transmission line. The characteristic impedance of the coplanar transmission line
can be approximately derived by applying conformal mapping:
 

 
And K/K’  is given by:

 
And effective dielectric constant can be found by
 
  

( d) Slot Line
A slot line structure is a planar structure. It consists of a dielectric substrate, in which a slot is etched on the
metallization of the substrate. The other surface is without any metallization. The series and parallel elements can
be connected without much difficulty in this type of substrate. The structure is thus complementary to that of the
microstrip. The slot-line configuration (shown in Fig. 1) is useful in circuits requiring high-impedance lines, series
stubs, and short circuit and in hybrid combinations with microstrip circuit in MICs.
Approximate electric and magnetic field distribution in the structure are shown in fig. 2. It can be seen that the
magnetic field has a component in the direction of propagation as well. Thus the mode of propagation is TE mode
and not the TEM mode. The main features of slot line are as follows.
1.      The slot transmission line has a simple geometry that is compatible with microwave integrated circuits.
2.      In a slot line, both the conductors are in one plane, and therefore shunt mounting of the component (active or
passive) across the line is very convenient.
3.     In the cross section of the line, at some region the magnetic field is circularly polarized. This feature can be
used in the design of several ferrite components such as resonance isolators.
4.     Slot line configuration is useful in circuits requiring high impedance line, series stub, and short circuit and in
hybrid combination with microwave circuits in MICs.
A slotline on a dielectric surface and electric and magnetic field distribution in the slot line are shown in following
figure…..

 
Figure 1: (a) Slot line on a dielectric substrate (b) Slot line configuration
 

                                      
 
Figure.2  (a) E-field distribution in cross section. (b) H field in longitudinal section
 
Slot Wavelength:  The slot line field component is not confined to the substrate only but extended into the air
region above the slot and also below the substrate. Thus the energy is distributed between the substrate and the air
region. Therefore, the effective dielectric constant for the slot line is less than the substrate permittivity for an
infinitely large thick substrate the average dielectric constant of the two media is:
  

where   is the cutoff value for the TE10 surface-wave mode on the slot line and is given by
 

 
1.     For  0.02  ≤ W/h ≤ 0.2

 
2.     For 0.2  ≤  W/h  ≤  1.0
 

 
 
Given Parameters:
Frequency f = 2.670 GHz
Substrate Thickness h = 3.4798 mm
Substrate Permittivity εr = 20
width of the device W = .635 mm
Calculate:
Guided Wavelength (length of microstrip line) λg = ?
 
Procedure for Calculating Length of Slot Line

To design the slot line, we have to calculate the guided wavelength which is equal to length of the slot line.
Procedure is given as following:
To calculate the the guided wavelength of the slotline (eqaul to length of slot line) first of all we have to calculate
the value of wavelength   corresponding to given frequency at which we want to design slot line.

Where
 = wavelength in free space
c = velocity of light in free space
Conditions are given as following

where    is the cutoff value for the TE10 surface-wave mode on the slot line and is given by

Calculate the ratio     for given case

Case 1:  For  0.02  ≤ W/h ≤ 0.2

Case 2: .     For 0.2  ≤  W/h  ≤  1.0

 
Example: Calculate the wavelength (length) of slot line at 2.67 GHz .
 
Given Parameters:
Frequency f = 2.67 GHz
Substrate Thickness h = 3.4798 mm
Width of slot line W = 0.635 mm
Substrate Permittivity εr = 20
Characteristic Impedance z0 = 50 Ω
Speed of light c = 
 
Calculate the wavelength 

Now calculate the value of

Now width  W and substrate thickness h are already given so check the case 1
Case 1: For  0.02  ≤ W/h ≤ 0.2
W/h = 0.1824

It is clear from the above value that case 1 exist for the calculation of 

But we consider case 1 hence guided wavelength of slot line  is 33.72 mm. that means the length of slot line is
33.72 mm.
Summery: Plot the field and reflection coefficients of all types transmission lines.

Viva Question:

1.What are the lower order and higher order modes in co axial cables?
2. At which frequencies strip lines are widely used?
3. What is the dominant mode for strip line?
4. What are the losses in micro strip lines and how those can be compensated?
5. Which mode does not exist in micro strip lines?
6. Which transmission line has higher Quality factor?
7. What are the various types of micro strip lines?
8. Parallel strip lines supports which mode?
9. Why micro strip antenna are more popular?
10. What is planar transmission line?

Experiment No-5

Aim of Experiment:

Design and simulate the following:

I. 3-dB branch line coupler
II. Wilkinson power divider
III. Hybrid ring
IV. Backward wave coupler
V. Low pass filters
VI. Band pass filters

Requirement: Ansoft HFSS

Knowledge Required for the Experiment:

I. 3-dB branch line coupler
II. Wilkinson power divider
III. Hybrid ring
IV. Backward wave coupler
V. Low pass filters
 VI. Band pass filters

Theory:

(a)Branch-line coupler
The branch-line coupler consists of two parallel transmission lines physically coupled together with two or more
branch lines between them. The branch lines are spaced λ/4 apart and represent sections of a multi-section filter
design in the same way as the multiple sections of a coupled line coupler except that here the coupling of each
section is controlled with the impedance of the branch lines. The main and coupled line are root of 2 of the system
impedance. The more sections there are in the coupler, the higher is the ratio of impedances of the branch lines.
High impedance lines have narrow tracks and this usually limits the design to three sections in planar formats due
to manufacturing limitations. A similar limitation applies for coupling factors looser than 10 dB; low coupling also
requires narrow tracks. Coupled lines are a better choice when loose coupling is required, but branch-line couplers
are good for tight coupling and can be used for 3 dB hybrids. Branch-line couplers usually do not have such a
wide bandwidth as coupled lines. This style of coupler is good for implementing in high-power, air dielectric,
solid bar formats as the rigid structure is easy to mechanically support.

Figure 1 A 3-section branch-line coupler implemented in planar format

Branch line couplers can be used as a crossovers as an alternative to an air bridges, which in some applications
cause an unacceptable amount of coupling between the lines being crossed. An ideal branch-line crossover
theoretically has no coupling between the two paths through it.
The design is a 3-branch coupler equivalent to two 3 dB 90° hybrid couplers connected in cascade. The result is
effectively a 0 dB coupler. It will cross over the inputs to the diagonally opposite outputs with a phase delay of 90°
in both lines.
(b) Wilkinson Power Divider 
In the field of microwave engineering and circuit design, the Wilkinson Power Divider is a specific class
of power divider circuit that can achieve isolation between the output ports while maintaining a matched condition
on all ports. The Wilkinson design can also be used as a power combiner because it is made up of passive
components and hence reciprocal. First published by Ernest J. Wilkinson in 1960 this circuit finds wide use
in radio frequency communication systems utilizing multiple channels since the high degree of isolation between
the output ports prevents crosstalk between the individual channels.
It uses quarter wave transformers, which can be easily fabricated as quarter wave lines on printed circuit boards. It
is also possible to use other forms of transmission line (e.g. coaxial cable) or lumped circuit elements (inductors
and capacitors).
(c ) Hybrid Ring
A 3 dB, 90° hybrid coupler is a four-port device that is used either to equally split an input signal with a resultant
90° phase shift between output ports or to combine two signals while maintaining high isolation between the ports.

Figure 1
The basic configuration of a hybrid coupler is shown in Figure 1 which illustrates two cross-over transmission
lines over a length of one-quarter wavelength, corresponding with the center frequency of operation. When power
is introduced at the IN port, half the power (3dB) flows to the 0° port and the other half is coupled (in the opposite
direction) to the 90° port. Reflections from mismatches sent back to the output ports will flow directly to the ISO
port or cancel at the input. This is why hybrids are so widely used to split high power signals in applications where
unwanted reflections could easily damage the driver device.
3 dB, 90° degree hybrids are also know as quadrature hybrids because a signal applied to any input, will result in
two equal amplitude signals that are quadrant (90° apart). It also makes no difference which port is the input
because the relationship at the outputs remains the same as these devices are electrically and mechanically
symmetrical. This configuration ensures a high degree of isolation between the two output ports and the two input
ports without unwanted interaction between them.
3dB, 180° Hybrid Ring Couplers
180° hybrid ring couplers (also called “rat race” couplers) are four-port devices used to either equally split an
input signal or to sum two combined signals. An additional benefit of the hybrid ring is to alternately provide
equally-split but 180 degree phase-shifted output signals.
The center conductor ring is 1½ wavelengths in circumference (or six ¼ wavelengths) and each port is separated
by 90°. This configuration creates a lossless device with low VSWR, excellent phase & amplitude balance, high
output isolation and match output impedances. The low loss, airline construction also makes the device a perfect
choice for combining high power mixed signals.
Figure 2 shows all four possible port configurations and the resultant phase relationships at the outputs of the
device. Again, it makes no difference which port is the input because the device is electrically and mechanically
symmetrical.

Figure 2

(d ) Low Pass Filter

Filters are used in many areas of electronics. One of the main areas where they are used is within the radio
frequency or RF domain.

RF filters are used to remove or accept signals that fall in certain areas of the radio spectrum.
Basic types of RF filter

There are four types of filter that can be defined. Each different type rejects or accepts signals in a different way,
and by using the correct type of RF filter it is possible to accept the required signals and reject those that are not
wanted. The four basic types of RF filter are:

Low pass filter:   As the name indicates the low pass filter is a form of filter that only allows through the lower
frequencies. Typically it is nominally flat until the cut-off point, and then it rolls off.
High pass filter:   The high pass filter is in many ways the inverse of the low pass filter. It only allows signals
through that are higher than the cut-off frequency. Above this point it is nominally flat, and below the RF filter
cut-off frequency the response falls away at a rate determined by the order of the filter.
Band pass filter:   The band pass RF filter only allows through signals within certain frequencies. Above and
below the cut-off frequencies, the signals will be attenuated and within the accepted band of radio frequencies,
signals will be passed through.
Band reject filter:   The band reject filter is the opposite of a band pass filter, as it rejects signals within a certain
RF band. This form of RF filter is often used to remove unwanted signals that are know to exist in a system.

Design Parameters of Low pass filter

Third order low pass filter have been designed in microstrip configuration with the following specification.
Dielectric constant = 2.2(duorid)
Passband Ripple = 1dB
Cut off frequency c f = 1 GHz
Substrate thickness,h =1.6 mm
Lowest Line impedance = 17 Ω
Characteristic impedance = 50 Ω
Highest Line impedance = 93 Ω
 Design Model
Design Parameters of Bandpass filter:

 Dielectric constant, εr = 6.15

 Loss Tangent, tanδ = 0.01
 Thickness =1.27mm
 Cut Off frequency, fc = 2 GHz
 Normalised frequency, Ωc = 1 By using the above parameters and specifications, the fifth order hairpin line
microstrip bandpass filter can be
Summary: Observe the return loss for power divider, directional coupler and filters.

Viva Question:
1.What is the primary purpose of a directional coupler?
2. How far apart are the two holes in a simple directional coupler?
3.What is the purpose of the absorbent material in a directional coupler.
4.What are the applications of power divider?
5. What is the difference between passive and active filters.
6. Draw the frequency response of low pass filter.
7. What is roll of rate in filter.
8. What is coupling loss.
9. Explain return loss .
10.Write S parameters matrix for hybrid coupler.
Experiment No. 6

AIM: Design RF amplifier using microwave BJT.

Requirement: Ansoft HFSS

Knowledge Required for the Experiment

Solid state devices
Bipolar Junction Transistor

Theory:
Most RF and microwave amplifiers today used transistor devices such as Si or SiGe BJTs, GaAs HBTs
(Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor), GaAs or InP (Indium Phosphide) FETs, or GaAs HEMTs (High electron
mobility transistor).
Microwave transistor amplifiers are rugged, low cost, reliable and can be easily integrated in both hybrid and
monolithic integrated circuitry.
 Amplifier can be categorized in 2 manners.
 According to signal level:
 Small-signal Amplifier.
 Power/Large-signal Amplifier.
 According to D.C. biasing scheme of the active component:
 Class A.
 Class B.
 Class AB.
 Class C.

To determine the performance of an amplifier, the following characteristics are typically observed.
1. Power Gain.
2. Bandwidth (operating frequency range).
3. Noise Figure.
4. Phase response.
5. Gain compression.
6. Dynamic range.
7. Harmonic distortion.
8. Intermodulation distortion.

9. Third order intercept point (TOI).

For amplifiers functioning at RF and microwave frequencies, usually of interest is the input and output power
relation.
10 ( Input Power ) dB
Output Power
G=10 log
 The ratio of output power over input power is called the Power Gain (G), usually expressed in dB.
 There are a number of definition for power gain as we will see shortly.
Furthermore G is a function of frequency and the input signal level

Design Parameters:
 R R
P o rt C
RD1 C RC
VCC CD2
R=1 0 0 Oh m CD1 R=4 7 0 Oh m
Nu m =3 C=10 0 p F
C=0.1 u F

R
L
RB1
LC
R=1 kOh m
L=1 0 0.0 n H
R=

L
L2
L=1 0 0 .0 n H
R=
L
C P o rt
L4
Cc2 Ou tp u t
L=1 2 .0 n H
C=1 0 0 .0 p F Nu m =2
L R=
P o rt C L
L1 p b _ p h l_ BFR9 2 A_ 1 9 9 2 1 2 1 4
In p u t Cc1 L3
L=4 .7 n H Q1
Nu m =1 C=1 0 0 .0 p F L=1 0 0 .0 n H C
R=
C R= C2
C1 C=0 .6 8 p F
C=3 .3 p F
R
RB2
R=1.5 kO h m

Summary: observe the various results like S parameters and calculate the different types of gains and find the
stability also.

Viva Question:
1. What is the main difference between general amplifier and power amplifier?
2. What are the classifications of Power amplifiers?
3. What are the percentage of active region in various Power amplifiers?
4. What is an Audio amplifier?
5. What is a Video amplifier?
6. What is Power amplifier?
7. What is the formula of Power Gain?
8. Why impedance matching network required for amplifier circuit?
9. What is the need of biasing?
10. What is the stability criteria for amplifier.

Experiment No.7

AIM: Design RF Amplifier using FET.

Requirement: Ansoft HFSS

Knowledge Required for the Experiment

Solid state devices
FET
Theory:
In contrast to BJTs, ,field effect transistors (FETs) are monopolar, with only one carrier type (holes or electrons)
providing current flow through the device: n-channel FETs employ electrons, while p-channel devices use holes.
In addition, while a BJT is a current controlled device, an FET is a voltage-controlled device, having a source-to-
drain characteristic that is similar to that of a voltage-dependent variable resistor. There are different types of FET
available

1. MESFET (metal semiconductor FET),

2. MOSFET (metal oxide semiconductor FET),
3. HEMT (high electron mobility transistor),
4. PHEMT (pseudomorphic HEMT).

Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor:

Figure shows the cross section of a typical n-channel GaAs MESFET. The gate junction is formed as a Schottky
(metal and semiconductor) barrier. The desirable gain and noise features of this transistor are a result of the higher
electron mobility of GaAs compared to silicon, and the absence of shot noise. The device is biased with a drain-to-
source voltage, Vds, and a gate to- source voltage, Vgs . In operation, electrons are drawn from the source to the
drain by the positive Vds supply voltage. An applied signal voltage on the gate then modulates these majority
electron carriers, producing voltage amplification. The maximum frequency of operation is limited by the gate
length; present FETs have gate lengths on the order of 0.2–0.6 μm, with corresponding upper frequency limits of
100 to 50 GHz.
The substantial improvement in FET performance over the silicon bipolar transistor is due mainly to two reasons:-

 In gallium arsenide the conduction electrons have a six times larger mobility and twice the peak drift
velocity of those in silicon (Ruch et al, 1970).
 The active layer is grown on a semi-insulating GaAs substrate with resistivity larger than 107 Ω/ cm. This
compares with a typical value of 30 Ω/ cm for intrinsic silicon.

The first property results in lower parasitic resistances, larger transconductances and shorter electron transit times.

The second property results in lower gate-bonding pad parasitic capacitance when the gate pad is on the semi-
insulating (SI) substrate.

Design circuit of RF amplifier Using FET:

Summary: observe the various results like S parameters and calculate the different types of gains and find the
stability also.

Viva Questions
1. Why FET is called as “voltage operated device”?
2. Sketch the ohmic region in drain characteristics of JFET?
3. What are the advantages of FET over BJT?
4. Define Tran’s conductance?
5.  List the JFET parameters?
6. Why are FET’s preferred to bipolar transistor at high frequencies?
7. Explain stable amplification mode.
8. What are microwave detector?
9. List some application of spectrum analyzer.
10. Draw equivalent circuit diagram of FET.