INDEX

S.NO CONTENT PAGE

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1 INTRODUCTION 2
2 GMO IN ANIMALS 3
3 Potential of GMOs :- (plants) 3

4 ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS 5

5 Transfering DNA 7

6 Genetic modification using radiation from radioactive 8

elements

7 To insert part of DNA in another cell causing mutation 9

8 CRISPR 13

9 Effects of Mutations 14

10 My summary on mutation and its methods 15

11 HISTORY 17

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 12 REFERNCE 19

1.INTRODUCTION

Genetically modified crops (GM crops) are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has

been modified using genetic engineering methods.

Why it is used?

 the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the
species.

1. delayed ripening

2.  insect resistance

3. herbicide tolerance

4.  abiotic stress tolerance

5. disease resistance

6. high nutritional quality

7. high yield potential

8. enhanced ornamental value

9. male sterility

10. production of edible vaccines

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 11. chemical treatment resistance

12. bioreactors for the production of nutraceuticals

13. therapeutic agents

14. antigens

15. monoclonal antibody fragments biopolymers

ABOUT MY INVESTIGATION ≈ I am learning about different technique and the

process of genetic modification in plants. (which involves both manual cross
breading (ie. Grafting) and gene transplantation)

2. POTENTIAL OF PLANT GMOS

GM plants can potentially affect many aspects of modern society, including agricultural

production and medical treatment. Despite these potential applications, the use of GM

plants for human welfare has been restricted owing to various concerns raised by the public

and the critics. These concerns are divided into different categories, namely, health,

nutritional, environmental, ecological, socioeconomic, and ethical concerns

3.ANIMALS

Introduction

Animal breeders have used a variety of methods in selective breeding programs to

genetically improve food animal species. Recently this has included the use of both genetic

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engineering and genome editing, particularly for targeting improvement in traits for which

there is no within-species or within-breed genetic variation. Both intraspecies and

interspecies allele substitutions and gene knock-ins have been accomplished with genome

editing tools, targeting a number of important traits. The regulatory status of such animals is

unclear as the definition of a regulated article is not consistent among different regulatory

agencies and organizations. In the absence of a harmonized global regulatory approach to

the genetic improvement of animals, it will be difficult for breeders to effectively achieve

sustainable breeding objectives.

Why it is used?

The scientific method demands a willingness to correct and integrate previous knowledge,

based on observable, empirical, measurable evidence and subject to laws of reasoning; yet,

it has scarcely been applied to non-human animal (hereinafter referred to as animal)

research. Nevertheless, animal use in science started declining in the mid 1970s, at least in

the United Kingdom, resulting in a drop in the number of animals used approaching 50%

between the mid-1970s and mid 1980s (UK Home Office, 2016)—perhaps a tacit admission

of problematic species differences that render animals poor models for humans. This trend

was, however, reversed with the advent of genetically modified (GM) animals, animals

whose genetic material has been deliberately altered in some way by insertion, deletion, or

substitution of dna

Mass produce the following

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insulin

human growth hormones

follistim (for treating infertility)

human albumin

monoclonal antibodies

antihemophilic factors

vaccines

4.ENVIRONMENTAL BENIFITS

improving the environment and human health by consuming fewer resources and producing
less waste

transgenics in livestock production\

enhanced prolificacy and reproductive performance

increased feed utilization and growth rate

improved carcass composition

improved milk production and/or composition

modification of hair or fiber, and increased disease resistance

how do we transplant DNA strands? (CRISPR)

Genome editing (also called gene editing) is a group of technologies that give scientists the

ability to change an organism's DNA. These technologies allow genetic material to be added,

removed, or altered at particular locations in the genome. Several approaches to genome

editing have been developed. A recent one is known as CRISPR-Cas9, which is short for

clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats and CRISPR-associated protein 9.

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The CRISPR-Cas9 system has generated a lot of excitement in the scientific community

because it is faster, cheaper, more accurate, and more efficient than other existing genome

editing methods.

WHERE IT IS USED?

Ethical concerns arise when genome editing, using technologies such as CRISPR-Cas9, is used

to alter human genomes. Most of the changes introduced with genome editing are limited

to somatic cells, which are cells other than egg and sperm cells. These changes affect only

certain tissues and are not passed from one generation to the next. However, changes made

to genes in egg or sperm cells (germline cells) or in the genes of an embryo could be passed

to future generations. Germline cell and embryo genome editing bring up a number of

ethical challenges, including whether it would be permissible to use this technology to

enhance normal human traits (such as height or intelligence)

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5.TRANSFERING DNA

To transfer we need to know the chemical composition of DNA both plant

and animal:--

There are a few differences between plants and animals. However, at the chemical level, the

cells of all animals and plants contain DNA in the same shape – the famous “double helix”

that looks like a twisted ladder. Both Animal DNA and Plant DNA molecules are made from

the same four chemical building blocks – called nucleotides.

The difference between Animal DNA and Plant DNA is how the four nucleotides in DNA are

arranged. It’s their sequence that determines which proteins will be made. The way the

nucleotides are arranged, and the information they encode, decides whether the organism

will produce scales or leaves – legs or a stalk.

In addition, there are differences in the size of the genomes as plants tend to have larger

genomes and are often polyploid. Ploidy refers to the basic number of unique chromosomes

in the genome. Every species has a characteristic number of chromosomes, called the

chromosome number. Animals tend to have more chromosomes while plants have fewer.

Lastly, at a more detailed level, there can be certain subtle differences. The genes encoded

by DNA can be regulated by chemical modifications such as methylation.  The specific

modifications can vary from tissue to tissue within the same animal or from organism to

organism.  Some animals, such as a nematode worm known as Caenorhabditis elegans, do

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not seem to have DNA methylation.  Differences in DNA methylation patterns are not

specifically attributable to differences between animals and plants: variations also occur

in different types of animals or even in different tissues within the same animal

Method 1

6.GENTNITICALLY MODIFIED DUE RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS

The biological and molecular characterizations of biocontrol agents and bioactive compound

producers are very important for the modern agriculture . Since environmental conditions

are subject to change, the biocontrol agent requires genetic improvement for effective

performance . To improve the efficiency and productivity of biological systems, genetic

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engineering has a main role in increasing antifungal and antibacterial metabolites, host

colonization ability, and endurance in micro-ecosystem. Genetic improvement can be

achieved by chemical and physical mutations, protoplast fusion, and transformation .

Protoplast fusion is an important technique for gene manipulation. It breaks down the

barriers to genetic exchange and is a relatively new flexible technique to induce or promote

genetic recombination in a variety of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells . By protoplast fusion

interspecific or even intergeneric hybrids can be produced, and it is feasible to transfer

useful genes, for attributes (such as disease resistance, enzyme and phytotoxin production,

rapid growth rate, nitrogen fixation, protein quality, and drought resistance), from one

species to another 

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The radiation here is damaging single strands of DNA

Causing it to mutate.

Method 2

7.TO INSERT PART OF DNA IN ANOTHER CELL CAUSING MUTATION

Gene knockouts, or null mutations, are important because they provide a direct route to

determining the function of a gene product in situ. Most other approaches to gene function

are correlative and do not necessarily prove a causal relationship between gene sequence

and function. For example, DNA chips provide an exciting means to discover conditions

under which gene expression is regulated on a genomewide scale .However, because factors

other than mRNA level alone determine the activity of a gene product in situ, expression

studies, even when done on a genomewide scale, cannot prove a causal relationship. By

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contrast, the availability of a null mutation for the gene of interest allows one to directly

monitor the effect this deficiency has on the organism’s ability to function.

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Method 3

8.CRISPR

A powerful gene-editing technology is the biggest game changer to hit biology since PCR. But

with its huge potential come pressing concerns. Three years ago, Bruce Conklin came across

a method that made him change the course of his lab.

CRISPR ) (an acronym for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats) is a

family of DNA sequences found in the genomes of prokaryotic organisms such

as bacteria and archaea.[2] These sequences are derived from DNA fragments

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of bacteriophages that had previously infected the prokaryote. They are used to detect and

destroy DNA from similar bacteriophages during subsequent infections. Hence these

sequences play a key role in the antiviral (i.e. anti-phage) defense system of prokaryotes and

provide a form of acquired immunity.CRISPR are found in approximately 50% of

sequenced bacterial genomes and nearly 90% of sequenced archaea.

9.MY SUMMARY ON MUTATION AND ITS METHODS

Method 1 radiation:

The radiation from radioactive elements cause alpha ray (eletron ) to fall upon DNA strands

thus causing it to break and cause mutation .[miss matching the strands to cause new ones]

Method 2 inserting DNA into cell:

The injected DNA strand will fuse with the DNA of the cell, and causing mutation .

Method 3 CRISPR(Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats):

The crispr or cas9 in the cell will collect the information of the DNA of disease / foreign

particle and stores it . later , if the cell is attacked the same particle / pathogens then the

information DNA of the present pathogen is compare to the previous one and gives the

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signal to the antigen to produce (stimulate) antibody according. This CRISPR is used in

mutation by cutting DNA stands , analysis them and gives the only needed information .

10.EFFECTS OF MUTATIONS

A line graph shows the probability density of mutational effects. A log scale of mutational

effects is shown on the x-axis, and probability density is shown on the y-axis. The line follows

the shape of a right-skewed bell curve. Probability density increases as mutational effects

increase from 10-10 to 10-4, where the curve peaks. As mutational effects increase from 10

4 to 1, probability density decreases. All mutational effects equal to or less than 10-10 are

shown as a spike at 10-10 on the x-axis.

This example of a possible distribution of deleterious mutational effects was obtained from

DNA sequence polymorphism data from natural populations of two Drosophila species. The

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spike at 10-10 includes all smaller effects, whereas effects are not shown if they induce a

structural damage that is equivalent to selection coefficients that are 'super-lethal' (see

Loewe and Charlesworth 2006 for more details).

A single mutation can have a large effect, but in many cases, evolutionary change is based on

the accumulation of many mutations with small effects. Mutational effects can be beneficial,

harmful, or neutral, depending on their context or location. Most non-neutral mutations are

deleterious. In general, the more base pairs that are affected by a mutation, the larger the

effect of the mutation, and the larger the mutation's probability of being deleterious.

To better understand the impact of mutations, researchers have started to estimate

distributions of mutational effects (DMEs) that quantify how many mutations occur with

what effect on a given property of a biological system. In evolutionary studies, the property

of interest is fitness, but in molecular systems biology, other emerging properties might also

be of interest. It is extraordinarily difficult to obtain reliable information about DMEs,

because the corresponding effects span many orders of magnitude, from lethal to neutral to

advantageous; in addition, many confounding factors usually complicate these analyses. To

make things even more difficult, many mutations also interact with each other to alter their

effects; this phenomenon is referred to as epistasis. However, despite all these

uncertainties, recent work has repeatedly indicated that the overwhelming majority of

mutations have very small effects (Figure 1; Eyre-Walker & Keightley, 2007). Of course, much

more work is needed in order to obtain more detailed information about DMEs, which are a

fundamental property that governs the evolution of every biological system

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My summary

No change occurs in phenotype. Some mutations don't have any noticeable effect on the

phenotype of an organism

Small change occurs in phenotype. A single mutation caused this cat's ears to curl backwards

slightly.

Big change occurs in phenotype.

11.HISTORY

Mutationism is one of several alternatives to Darwinian evolution that have existed both before

and after the publication of Charles Darwin's 1859 book, On the Origin of Species. In the theory,

mutation was the source of novelty, creating new forms and new species, potentially

instantaneously, in a sudden jump. This was envisaged as driving evolution, which was

limited by the supply of mutations.

Before Darwin, biologists commonly believed in saltationism, the possibility of large

evolutionary jumps, including immediate speciation. For example, in 1822 Étienne Geoffroy

Saint-Hilaire argued that species could be formed by sudden transformations, or what would

later be called macromutation. Darwin opposed saltation, insisting on gradualism in evolution

as in geology. In 1864, Albert von Kölliker revived Geoffroy's theory. In 1901 the geneticist Hugo

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de Vries gave the name "mutation" to seemingly new forms that suddenly arose in his

experiments on the evening primrose Oenothera lamarckiana, and in the first decade of the

20th century, mutationism, or as de Vries named it mutationstheorie, became a rival to

Darwinism supported for a while by geneticists including William Bateson, Thomas Hunt

Morgan, and Reginald Punnett.

Understanding of mutationism is clouded by the mid-20th century portrayal of the early

mutationists by supporters of the modern synthesis as opponents of Darwinian evolution and

rivals of the biometrics school who argued that selection operated on continuous variation.

In this portrayal, mutationism was defeated by a synthesis of genetics and natural selection

that supposedly started later, around 1918, with work by the mathematician Ronald

Fisher. However, the alignment of Mendelian genetics and natural selection began as early as

1902 with a paper by Udny Yule,[124] and built up with theoretical and experimental work in

Europe and America. Despite the controversy, the early mutationists had by 1918 already

accepted natural selection and explained continuous variation as the result of multiple genes

acting on the same characteristic, such as height.

Mutationism, along with other alternatives to Darwinism like Lamarckism and orthogenesis,

was discarded by most biologists as they came to see that Mendelian genetics and natural

selection could readily work together; mutation took its place as a source of the genetic

variation essential for natural selection to work on. However, mutationism did not entirely

vanish. In 1940, Richard Goldschmidt again argued for single-step speciation by

macromutation, describing the organisms thus produced as "hopeful monsters", earning

widespread ridicule. In 1987, Masatoshi Nei argued controversially that evolution was often

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mutation-limited. Modern biologists such as Douglas J. Futuyma conclude that essentially all

claims of evolution driven by large mutations can be explained by Darwinian evolution. `

12.REFERENCE

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GMO_(disambiguation)

https://academic.oup.com/jmp/article-abstract/36/1/6/959278

https://www.nature.com/articles/35056009

https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.283.5410.2023

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