Dps 102 Computer Science

DIPLOMA IN POLICE STUDIES
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER
SCIENCE
MODULE DPS 102
1
Authors
Inspector Murenha P
Inspector Boka P
Inspector Sengwe T
Sergeant Kamangira S
Edited by
Chief Inspector Masvaure .H
Inspector Chapanduka .S.

Table of Contents
MODULE OVERVIEW ....................................................................I
UNIT 1........................................................................................ 1
COMPUTER HARDWARE .............................................................. 1
1.0 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 1
1.2 COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM ........................................... 7
1.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE ......................... 30
1.4 APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTERS IN TODAY’S WORLD ............................ 10
1.5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COMPUTERS........................... 14
1.5.1 Advantages of computers in today's arena ......................14
1.5.2 Disadvantages of computers .........................................16
1.6 TYPES AND TRENDS IN COMPUTERS .............................................. 19

UNIT 2...................................................................................... 23
COMPUTER SOFTWARE ............................................................. 23
2.4.1 System software .........................................................24
2.4.2 Application software.....................................................24
2.4.3 Types of Software Piracy ..............................................30
2.4.3 The negative effects of piracy for end-users. ...................31
UNIT 3...................................................................................... 33
APPLICATION SOFTWARE ........................................................ 33
3.1.1 Using the Application ...................................................34
3.3 FORMATTING ........................................................................ 52

3.4 OBJECTS........................................................................... 68
3.5 MAIL MERGE ........................................................................ 87
PREPARING THE MAIN DOCUMENT ..................................................... 88
PREPARING THE DATA SOURCE FILE ................................................... 88
MERGING THE DATA ..................................................................... 96
3.6 PREPARE OUTPUTS............................................................. 98
DOCUMENT ORIENTATION & PAPER SIZE ............................................. 98
PAGE MARGINS........................................................................... 99
INSERTING / DELETING PAGE BREAKS .............................................. 100
HEADERS & FOOTERS ................................................................. 101
PAGE NUMBERING ..................................................................... 103
SPELLING ............................................................................... 105
PRINTING A DOCUMENT ............................................................... 109
3.6 SPREADSHEETS ................................................................... 111
3.6.1 Using the Application .................................................... 111
3.6.2 OPENING MS EXCEL .......................................................... 111

3.6.3 Features of the MS Excel Screen .................................... 112
3.6.4.CLOSING MS EXCEL........................................................... 113

3.6.5.OPENING EXISTING WORKBOOKS ........................................... 114
3.6.6.CLOSING A WORKBOOK ....................................................... 115
3.6.7.CREATING A NEW WORKBOOK ............................................... 115
3.6.8.SAVING A WORKBOOK ........................................................ 116
3.6.9.SWITCHING BETWEEN OPEN WORKBOOKS ................................. 118
3.6.10. MODIFYING USER PREFERENCES .......................................... 119
3.6.11. USING HELP ................................................................. 119
3.6.12. MAGNIFICATION & ZOOM TOOLS ......................................... 120
3.6.13. BUILT-IN TOOLBARS........................................................ 120
3.6.14. ENTERING DATA IN CELLS ................................................. 123
3.6.15. NAVIGATING WITHIN A WORKBOOK ...................................... 124
3.6.16. SELECTING CELLS .......................................................... 124
3.6.17. EDITING CELL CONTENT ................................................... 125
3.6.18. USING UNDO/REDO COMMAND ........................................... 125
3.6.19. SEARCHING & REPLACING DATA .......................................... 126
3.6.20. SORTING DATA.............................................................. 127
3.6.21. COPYING DATA .............................................................. 128
3.6.22. USING AUTOFILL TOOL .................................................... 128
3.6.23. MOVING DATA .............................................................. 129
3.6.24. DELETING CELL CONTENTS ................................................ 129
3.6.25. SELECTING ROWS .......................................................... 130
3.6.26. SELECTING COLUMNS ...................................................... 131
3.6.27. INSERTING / DELETING ROWS & COLUMNS ............................. 133
3.6.28. MODIFYING COLUMN WIDTHS & ROW HEIGHTS ........................ 133
3.6.29. FREEZING/UNFREEZING ROW AND/OR COLUMN TITLES ............... 135
3.6.30. SWITCHING BETWEEN WORKSHEETS ..................................... 135
3.6.31. INSERTING / DELETING WORKSHEETS ................................... 135
3.6.32. MOVING, COPYING & RENAMING WORKSHEETS ........................ 137
3.7. FORMULAS & FUNCTIONS ..................................................... 138
3.7.1.FORMULAE ...................................................................... 138
3.7.2.FORMULA ERROR MESSAGES ................................................. 140
3.7.3.RELATIVE & ABSOLUTE CELL REFERENCING ................................ 141
3.7.4.ARITHMETIC FUNCTIONS ...................................................... 143
3.7.5.USING THE LOGICAL FUNCTION IF .......................................... 148
3.8. FORMATTING ................................................................... 151
3.8.1. Formatting Cells ........................................................ 151
3.8.2. Font Types & Sizes .................................................... 154
3.8.3. Typestyles: Bold, Italics, Underline & Double Underline .. 154
3.8.4. Colouring Cell Content & Background ........................... 155
3.8.5. Copying Cell Formatting ............................................. 156
3.8.6. Aligning Cell Content .................................................. 156
3.8.7. Adding Border Effects ................................................. 159
3.9. CHARTS ......................................................................... 161

3.9.1Creating a Chart............................................................ 162
3.9.2.CHANGING THE CHART TYPE ................................................. 165

3.9.3. Moving, Resizing & Deleting a Chart ............................. 166
3.9.4.ADDING, EDITING & REMOVING A CHART TITLE .......................... 166

3.9.5.ADDING DATA LABELS ........................................................ 167
3.9.6.CHANGING THE CHART AREA BACKGROUND................................ 168
3.10. PREPARE OUTPUTS ........................................................ 168
3.10.1. CHANGING WORKSHEET MARGINS ....................................... 168
3.10.2. WORKSHEET ORIENTATION & PAPER SIZE .............................. 169
3.10.3. ADJUSTING PAGE SETUP TO FIT WORKSHEET CONTENTS ............. 170
3.10.4. ADDING, EDITING & DELETING DATA IN HEADERS / FOOTERS ....... 171
3.10.5. TURNING ON / OFF GRIDLINES & ROW / COLUMN HEADINGS........ 172
3.10.6. APPLYING AUTOMATIC TITLE ROW(S) PRINTING ....................... 173
3.10.7. PREVIEWING A WORKSHEET ............................................... 174
3.10.8. PRINTING .................................................................... 174
3.11. PRESENTATIONS ............................................................... 177
3.12. DEVELOPING A PRESENTATION ............................................... 187
3.12. TEXT ........................................................................... 196
3.13. CHARTS ......................................................................... 208
3.14. GRAPHICAL OBJECTS ..................................................... 215
3.15. PREPARING OUTPUTS ......................................................... 225
UNIT 4.................................................................................... 236
ONLINE APPLICATIONS.......................................................... 236
4.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 236
4.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS ........................................................... 236
4.2 ONLINE APPLICATIONS OVERVIEW.............................................. 237
4.3 EXAMPLES OF ONLINE APPLICATIONS .......................................... 237
4.4 WITH ONLINE APPLICATIONS ONE CAN PERFORM THE FOLLOWING ACTIVITIES;
238
4.4.1 Advantages of Web Applications .................................. 238
4.4.2 Disadvantages of Web Applications .............................. 239
UNIT 5.................................................................................... 240

COMPUTER NETWORKS .......................................................... 240
5.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 240
5.1 DEFINITION ....................................................................... 240
5.2 TYPES OF NETWORKS ............................................................ 240
5.2.1 Local Area Networks (LAN) ......................................... 240
5.2.2 Personal Area Networks (PAN) ................................... 246
5.2.3 Home Area Networks (HAN) ........................................ 246
5.2.4 Wide Area Networks (WAN) ........................................ 246
5.2.6 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) .............................. 247
5.2.7 Enterprise Private Networks ........................................ 247
5.2.9 Global Area Networks (GAN) ....................................... 247
5.3 IMPORTANCE OF NETWORKS .................................................... 247

5.4 TYPES OF NETWORK CONNECTIONS ............................................ 249
5.4.1 Star Topology ........................................................... 249
5.4.2 Bus Topology ............................................................ 250
5.4.3 Ring Topology ........................................................... 250
5.4.4 Network Protocols...................................................... 251
5.4.5 Wired and Wireless Networks ...................................... 251
UNIT 6.................................................................................... 253

INTERNET............................................................................... 253
6.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 253
6.1 DEFINITION .................................................................... 254
6.2 CHOOSING INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER .................................... 254
6.3 TYPES OF INTERNET CONNECTION: ............................................. 255
6.3.1 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) ...................................... 255
6.3.2 Cable ....................................................................... 255
6.3.3 Satellite ................................................................... 256
6.3.4 3G and 4G ................................................................ 257
6.4 HOW INTERNET WORKS? ........................................................ 257

6.4.1 Requirement for connectivity ...................................... 257
6.5 INTERNET USAGES ............................................................... 258

6.6 INTERNET APPLICATIONS ........................................................ 258
6.6.1 World Wide Web (WWW) ............................................ 259
UNIT 7.................................................................................... 265

DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS ...................................... 265
7.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 265
7.1 DEFINITIONS ...................................................................... 265
7.2 DATABASE APPLICATIONS ....................................................... 266
7.3 COMPONENTS OF A DATABASE SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT ...................... 266
7.6 ADVANTAGES OF DBMS ......................................................... 269
7.6.1 Controlling Redundancy: ............................................ 269
7.4.2 Integrity can be enforced: .......................................... 271
7.4.3 Inconsistency can be avoided: .................................... 272
7.4.4 Data can be shared: .................................................. 272
7.4.5 Standards can be enforced: ........................................ 272
7.4.6 Restricting unauthorized access: ................................. 273
7.4.7 Solving Enterprise Requirement than Individual

Requirement: ....................................................................... 273
7.4.8 Providing Backup and Recovery:.................................. 273
7.4.9 Cost of developing and maintaining system is lower: ..... 274
7.4.10 Data Model can be developed: .................................... 274
7.4.11 Concurrency Control: ................................................. 274
7.5 Disadvantages of DBMS ................................................ 274
7.5.1 Complexity: .............................................................. 274

7.5.2 Size: ........................................................................ 275
7.5.3 Performance: ............................................................ 275
7.5.4 Higher impact of a failure: .......................................... 275
7.5.5 Cost of DBMS:........................................................... 275
7.5.6 Additional Hardware costs: ......................................... 275
7.5.7 Cost of Conversion: ................................................... 276
7.6 TYPES OF DBMS ................................................................. 276

7.6.1 Hierarchical DBMS ..................................................... 276
7.6.2 Network Model .......................................................... 276
7.6.3 Relational model ........................................................ 277
7.6.4 Object-Oriented Model ............................................... 277
7.7 DBMS SOFTWARE ................................................................ 277

UNIT 8.................................................................................... 279
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC BUSINESS .......................... 279
8.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 279
8.1 DEFINITION ....................................................................... 279
8.2 DISTINCTION BETWEEN E-COMMERCE AND E-BUSINESS ................... 280
8.3 E-COMMERCE APPLICATIONS ................................................... 281
8.3.1 Most Common E-commerce Applications ....................... 282
8.3.2 Types of E-commerce applications ............................... 284
8.3.3 The Anatomy of E-Commerce Applications .................... 285
8.4 ADVANTAGES OF E-COMMERCE ................................................. 286

8.4.1 Advantages to customers ........................................... 286
8.4.2 Advantages to Business .............................................. 288
8.5 DISADVANTAGES OF E-COMMERCE............................................. 289

8.5.1 Disadvantages to customers ....................................... 289
8.5.2 Disadvantages to business .......................................... 291
UNIT 9.................................................................................... 294

SOCIAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY294
9.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 294
9.1 DEFINITIONS ...................................................................... 294
9.1.1 Ethics....................................................................... 294
9.1.2 Information Technology: ............................................ 295
9.2 INFORMATION SYSTEM AND SOCIETY .......................................... 295

9.3 TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF ETHICS .......................................... 295
9.4 LEGAL ISSUES IN INFORMATION SYSTEMS ..................................... 296
9.5 ETHICAL ISSUES OF INFORMATION AGE ....................................... 297
9.5.1 Privacy ..................................................................... 297
9.5.2 Accuracy .................................................................. 297
9.5.3 Property ................................................................... 298
9.5.4 Accessibility .............................................................. 298
9.6 SOCIAL ISSUES IN INFORMATION SYSTEM .................................... 299

9.6.1 Culture ..................................................................... 299
9.6.2 Relationships Issues .................................................. 299
9.6.3 Law and Order Issues ................................................ 300
9.6.4 Cultural Behavior and Identity Issues ........................... 300
9.6.5 Information Usage Issues ........................................... 300
9.6.6 Health and Safety ...................................................... 301
9.6.7 Accountability and Control .......................................... 301
9.7 IMPACTS TO SOCIETY, ORGANISATIONS AND INDIVIDUALS. ................. 301

9.7.1 Society ..................................................................... 302
9.7.2 Government/ Organisations ........................................ 303
9.7.3 Individuals ................................................................ 305
9.8 MODEL FOR ETHICAL, SOCIAL, POLITICAL ISSUES ........................... 307

UNIT 10.................................................................................. 310
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY SECURITY310
10.0 INTRODUCTION ................................................................ 310
10.1 DEFINITIONS ................................................................... 310
10.2 ELEMENTS OF EFFECTIVE ICT SECURITY .................................... 311
10.2.1Monitoring and controlling access to confidential
information. ......................................................................... 311
10.2.2 Safe transmission of data ............................................ 312
10.2.3 Secure storage and disposal of data. ............................. 312
10.3 CATEGORIES OF SECURITY .................................................... 314

10.3.1 Data Security ............................................................. 314
10.3.2 Personnel security ...................................................... 315
10.3.3 Physical security ......................................................... 316
10.3.4 Network security ........................................................ 317
10.4 HOW DOES NETWORK SECURITY WORK? .................................... 318

10.4.1 Physical Network Security ............................................ 318
10.4.2 Technical Network Security .......................................... 318
10.4.3 Administrative Network Security ................................... 319
10.5 TYPES OF NETWORK SECURITY ............................................... 319

10.5.1Network Access Control ................................................ 319
10.5.2 Antivirus and Antimalware Software .............................. 319
10.5.3Firewall Protection ....................................................... 319
10.5.4 Virtual Private Networks .............................................. 320
10.5.5 Network security for businesses and consumers ............. 320

Module Overview
The introduction of computers brought a lot of changes pertaining the

production and delivery of goods and services. Even though it can be
argued that more harm than good have emanated from the
introduction of computers both individuals and organisations must
brace up for whatever positives or negatives associated with
computers since they are now part of our survival. Administratively
computers have brought the easy way of doing business to Zimbabwe
Republic Police but to the core business of fighting crime, computers
have posed a lot of challenges. This module aims to provide police
officers with basic knowledge in computers that will enable them to
carryout both administrative and operational functions without
challenges. This module consists of 10 units that are all aimed at
equiping readers with basic knowledge to use the computer
administratively and operationally. Units 1 & 2 introduces readers to
computer hardware and software. Unit 3 takes readers through
Application software while Unit 4 dwells on online applications. Unit 5
talks about Computer Networks with Unit 6 elaborating on the
Internet. Unit 7 introduces Database Management Systems. Unit 8
takes readers through Electronic Business. Social and Ethical Issues of
Information Technology are covered in Unit 9. Unit 10 rapes up the
module by taking readers through Information and Communication
Technology Security.
i
UNIT 1
COMPUTER HARDWARE
1.0 Introduction
A computer is a combination of hardware and software. All the
physical parts associated with a computer make it what is
termed computer hardware. This unit will define what a
computer system is. Components of the computer system will be
named and explained and the differences between hardware and
software will be outlined. A summary will be drawn up to
conclude the unit.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, trainees should be able to:
(i) Define computer, computer hardware, and computer system.
(ii) Outline the types and components of a computer system
(iii) Explain the relationships between Hardware and software
(iv) State the advantages and disadvantages of computers
1.1 Definition of terms
Computer: is a machine or device that performs processes,

calculations and operations based on instructions provided by a
software or hardware program. It has the ability to accept data
(input), process it and then produce outputs.
Computer Hardware: Computer hardware is the collection of

physical elements that constitutes a computer system.
Computer System: Is a set of integrated devices that input,

output, process and store data and information.
1
1.2 Elements of a computer
Figure 1.1 Major elements of a computer
Input Unit
This unit contains devices used to enter data into computer.
Makes the link between user and computer. The input devices
translate the information into the form understandable by
computer. Examples of input devices include,
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Joy Stick
 Light pen
 Track Ball
 Scanner
 Graphic Tablet
 Microphone
 Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
 Optical Character Reader (OCR)
 Bar Code Reader
 Optical Mark Reader(OMR)
Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device
which helps in inputting data to the computer.
Mouse
Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous
cursor-control device having a small palm size box with a round
ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are
pressed. Generally it has two buttons called left and right button
and a wheel is present between the buttons. Mouse can be used
to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used
to enter text into the computer.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor
position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball
at its lower and upper ends. The function of joystick is similar to
that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing
(CAD) and playing computer games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used
to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor
screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in
a small tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved over the
monitor screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing
element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding
signal to the CPU.
Track Ball
Is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop
computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half
inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved. A
track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a
square.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy
machine. It is used when some information is available on a
paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the computer
for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the
source which are then converted into the digital form that can be
stored on the disc. These images can be edited before they are
printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analogue information
into digital form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the
television or camera into a series of numbers that could be
stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to
create a picture of whatever the camera had been pointed at.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device used to input sound that is then
stored in digital form. The microphone is used for various
applications like adding sound to a multimedia presentation or
for mixing music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large
number of cheques to be processed every day. The bank's code
number and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a
special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material
that are machine readable. This reading process is called
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR).
Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans
text optically character by character, converts them into a
machine readable code and stores the text on the system
memory.
Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data.
Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image and then converts it
into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the computer to
which bar code reader is connected.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the
type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of
a few alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially
used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having
multiple choice questions.
CPU (CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT)

CPU consists of the following features:
 CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
 CPU performs all types of data processing operations.
 It stores data, intermediate results and instructions
(program).
 It controls the operation of all parts of computer.
CPU itself has following three components.

 Memory or Storage Unit:
 Control Unit
 ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Memory or Storage Unit:

This unit can store instructions, data and intermediate results.
supplies information to the other units of the computer when
needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or main
memory or primary storage or Random access memory
(RAM).Its size affects speed, power and capability. Primary
memory and secondary memory are two types of memories in
the computer.
Functions of memory unit are:

 It stores all the data and the instructions required for
processing.
 It stores intermediate results of processing.
 It stores final results of processing before these results are
released to an output device.
 All inputs and outputs are transmitted through main
memory.
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of computer but
does not carry out any actual data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are:
 It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and
instructions among other units of a computer.
 It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
 It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets
them, and directs the operation of the computer.
 It communicates with Input/ Output devices for transfer of
data or results from storage.
 It does not process or store data.
A.L.U (Arithmetic Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections namely
 Arithmetic section
 Logic Section
Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations
like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. All complex
operations are done by making repetitive use of above
operations.
Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic operations such as
comparing, selecting, matching and merging of data.
Output Unit
Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the
information from computer. This unit is a link between computer
and users. Output devices translate the computer's output into
the form understandable by users.
Output Devices
Following are few of the important output devices which are used
in a computer
 Monitors
 Graphic Plotter
 Printer
Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the
main output device of a computer. It forms images from tiny
dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The
sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.
Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on
paper.
There are two types of printers
 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the
ribbon which is then pressed on the paper. They are usually
noisy but useful for bulk printing since they have very low
consumable costs.
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon.
These printers print a complete page at a time so they are also
called as Page Printers. They are of two types which are laser jet
and inkjet printers.
1.3 Components of a Computer System

There are five main hardware components in a computer system
which are; Input, Processing, Storage, output and
communication devices.
Fig 1.2 Computer Systems Components
1.3.1 Types of Computers Systems
PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer
designed for an individual user. PCs are based on the
microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an
entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for
word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running
spreadsheet and database management applications. At home,
the most popular use for personal computers is playing games
and surfing Internet.
Although personal computers are designed as single-user

systems, these systems are normally linked together to form a
network. In terms of power, now-a-days High-end models of the
Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics
capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems,
Hewlett-Packard, and Dell.
Workstation
Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications
(CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and
other such types of applications which require a moderate
amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics
capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution
graphics screen, large amount of RAM, inbuilt network support,
and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a
mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of
workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk
drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and
Windows NT. Like PC, Workstations are also single-user
computers like PC but are typically linked together to form a
local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-
alone systems.
Mini-computer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable of supporting up
to 250 users simultaneously.
Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an expensive computer
capable of supporting hundreds or even thousands of users
simultaneously. Mainframe executes many programs
concurrently and supports many simultaneous executions of
programs.
Super-computer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest computers currently
available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed
for specialized applications that require immense amount of
mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example,
weather forecasting, scientific simulations, (animated) graphics,
fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic
design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical
prospecting).
Fig 1.1.3
1.4 Applications of Computers in today’s world

The computer plays a vital role in our daily life. We use a
computer regularly for various purposes. For example, we use a
computer to convert raw facts and data into meaningful
information and knowledge. We humans explore and challenge
computer science daily. These machines, whether they are
laptops, smart phones, or tables, are just like an electronic
magical. If we use computers for useful purposes, they are a
boon for humans. Following list demonstrates various
applications of computers in today's arena.
Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy,
reliability, or versatility which made it an integrated part in all
business organisations.
Computer is used in business organisations for:
 Payroll calculations
 Budgeting
 Sales analysis
 Financial forecasting
 Managing employees database
 Maintenance of stocks etc.
Banking
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer. Banks
provide following facilities:
 Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes
current balances, deposits, overdrafts, interest charges,
shares, and trustee records.
 ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to
deal with banks.
Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the
help of computers. The insurance companies, finance houses and
stock broking firms are widely using computers for their
concerns. Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all
clients with information showing
 procedure to continue with policies
 starting date of the policies
 next due installment of a policy
 maturity date
 interests due
 survival benefits
 bonus
Education
The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education
system.
 The computer provides a tool in the education system
known as CBE (Computer Based Education).
 CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
 The computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of
number of computer students.
 There are number of methods in which educational
institutions can use computer to educate the students.
 It is used to prepare a database about performance of a
student and analysis is carried out on this basis.
Marketing
In marketing, uses of computer are following:
 Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals
create art and graphics, write and revise copy, and print
and disseminate ads with the goal of selling more
products.
 At Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made
possible through use of computerized catalogues that
provide access to product information and permit direct
entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
Health Care
Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and
dispensaries. The computers are being used in hospitals to keep
the record of patients and medicines. It is also used in scanning
and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG, Ultrasounds and CT
Scans etc. are also done by computerized machines.
Some major fields of health care in which computers are used
are:
 Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data
and identify cause of illness.
 Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports
are prepared by computer.
 Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check
patient's signs for abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest,
ECG etc.
 Pharmaceutical Information System - Computer checks
Drug-Labels, Expiry dates, harmful drug’s side effects etc.
 Surgery: Nowadays, computers are also used in
performing surgery.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in engineering purpose. One of major
areas is CAD (Computer aided design).that provides creation and
modification of images. Some fields are:
 Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis
for design of Ships, Buildings, Budgets, and Airplanes etc.
 Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design,
implementation and improvement of integrated systems of
people, materials and equipments.
 Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning
towns, designing buildings, determining a range of
buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D drawings.
Military
Computers are largely used in defence, modern tanks, missiles,
weapons etc. Military also employs computerized control
systems. Some military areas where a computer has been used
are:
 Missile Control
 Military Communication
 Military Operation and Planning
 Smart Weapons
Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture
or speech that is received and understood clearly and correctly
by the person for whom it is meant for. Some main areas in this
category are:
 E-mail
 Chatting
 Usenet
 FTP
 Telnet
 Video-conferencing
Government
Computers play an important role in government. Some major
fields in this category are:
 Budgets
 Sales tax department
 Income tax department
 Male/Female ratio
 Computerization of voters lists
 Computerization of driving licensing system
 Computerization of PAN card
 Weather forecasting
1.6 Advantages and Disadvantages of Computers
1.6.1 Advantages of computers in today's arena.
(i) High Speed

 Computer is a very fast device.
 It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of
data.
 The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond,
and even the picoseconds.
 It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as
compared to man who will spend many months for doing the
same task.
(ii) Accuracy
 In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
 The calculations are 100% error free.
 Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that
correct input has been given.
(iii) Storage Capability

 Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
 A computer has much more storage capacity than human
beings.
 It can store large amount of data.
 It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text,
audio and many others.
(iv) Diligence
 Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony,
tiredness and lack of concentration.
 It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
 It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.
(v) Versatility
 A computer is a very versatile machine.
 A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
 This machine can be used to solve the problems related to
various fields.
 At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific
problem and the very next moment it may be playing a card
game.
(vi) Reliability
 A computer is a reliable machine.
 Modern electronic components have long lives.
 Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
(vii) Automation
 Computer is an automatic machine.
 Automation means ability to perform the given task
automatically.
 Once a program is given to computer i.e. stored in computer
memory, the program and instruction can control the
program execution without human interaction.
(viii) Reduction in Paper Work

 The use of computers for data processing in an organization
leads to reduction in paper work and results in speeding up a
process.
 As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when
required, the problem of maintenance of large number of
paper files gets reduced.
(ix) Reduction in Cost

 Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high
but it substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction.
1.6.2 Disadvantages of computers
Although a computer has many advantages that provide benefits

for people in different areas, there are also various
disadvantages to a computer. Below is a list of many of the
disadvantages of a computer;
(i) Too much sitting

Sitting for a long time can lead to health problems. Users usually
bend their back when they use a computer, which also cause
them to distract their body posture. As scientists have
researched that standing for a long time is not healthy, so
replacing a traditional desk for a standing desk is not a perfect
solution. But the standing desk may be better as compared to
sitting. To overcome these problems, you can take breaks where
you move stretch, around and exercise.
(ii) Carpal tunnel and eye strain

A person who spends too much time on the computer can face a
problem like carpal tunnel syndrome as a computer requires a
lot of repetitive movement. As you are required to move your
body parts to operate the computer, for example, typing and
moving hand to the mouse are repetitive actions that can cause
injuries. Understanding computer ergonomics, keeping the
proper posture, and taking breaks can all help delay or prevent
these injuries.
(iii) Potential of loss of privacy

As the computer can store a large amount of data and if you
store your personal data, or information on the computer, it can
be at risk of getting into the hands of others. Once your personal
information has been stolen by any malicious person, they can
use the information to access your online accounts or use
identity theft to open other accounts, such as a new debit or
credit card under your name.
(iv) Can limit learning and create a dependency

If you use a computer that has an Internet connection, it can be
a perfect place to get information about any topic. Getting
knowledge about anything makes you dependent on the
computer and other electronic devices. For example, to find
spelling errors, an auto-correct or spell checker is a perfect tool
that offers the benefit of finding mistakes and make the correct
spelling of a word. However, if you always depend on the spell
checker or auto-correct tools and never learn the proper spelling
of a word, you are more likely to make spelling errors.
Also, there are many other helpful tools available, such as GPS,
grammar checkers, and calculators. However, you may be
helpless when they are not working if you are overly dependent
on these tools.
(v) Time sink and lots of distractions

Although a computer can be a great creation to increase your
productivity, it can also be harmful in terms of wasting too much
time. For example, you are learning about any particular topic
and see any other interesting link, such as playing games. Then,
you click on the link and spend more time playing games. After
two hours, you realize you have wasted your time and not
achieved your original goal. Furthermore, you can get distracted
while trying to work with the popularity of social networks and
notifications
(vi) Can reduce jobs

Computers can also become the reason to replace the need for
many jobs as they are more capable and smarter. For example,
if a human can do any work within one hour, the computer can
do that work in very few times. Thus, computers are reducing
the requirement for many jobs that are also becoming
inappropriate for the future.
(vii) Increases waste and impacts the environment

Computers and other electronics are increasing rapidly and
replacing old devices. People get thrown all the old devices that
have a substantial impact on the environment.
(viii) You could become anti-social or depressed

It is very easy for users to become anti-social with the computer
as it has the ability to perform almost all work speedily. For
example, if you are playing any game like World of Warcraft or
other, they can consume too much time to end up. Also, there
are many people who mostly depend on online shopping; they
rarely go out to shop with others and that you become easily
introvert.Social networks can also be the reason to become your
anti-social. There are many social networking applications like
Facebook, Instagram, and more that offer you the option to
make more than thousands of friends. You will spend a lot of
time with your social network friends, but you may rarely
communicate with your real-life friends. It has been studying;
the social networking sites can be depressing as people tend to
compare their lives with others on social networking sites and
people believing that other people's lives are so much better
than theirs.
(ix) Trolls, abuse, stalking, and exploitation

A person who spends more time on the Internet can face abusive
or trolls' people. Over the years, another issue cyber-bullying is
also increasing speedily. Unfortunately, it is much easier to
encounter these types of people with the anonymous nature of
the Internet. With more and more people sharing information on
the Internet, you can be tracked on the Internet by hackers or
unauthorized persons in terms of stealing your personal
information. There are also some online services available that
can be used by hackers to find information about people.
(x) Heavy Reliance in the Workforce

Sometimes the computer can be devastating due to power loss
or system crash for many businesses as they heavily rely on the
computer. They can lose valuable files permanently that can
have an effect for a long time.
1.7 Types and trends in computers

Computer technology has been rapidly advancing over the past
two decades, mostly due to the high demand for personal and
institutional computers. While this trend is expected to continue
for years to come, Personal Computers (PCs) will slowly lose
their position as the main driving factor behind the computer
technology.
Computer trends are changes or evolutions in the ways that

computers are used which become widespread and integrated
into popular thought with regard to these systems. These
movements often begin with one or two companies adopting or
promoting a new technology, which grabs the attention of others
and becomes popular. Both hardware and software can be a part
of computer trends, such as the development and proliferation of
mobile devices including smart phones and tablets. Changes in
the Internet, the development of new websites, and the
expansion of cloud computing models are likely to be similar
software trends throughout the early part of the 21st Century.
The generations of computer are as follows:
First Generation of Computer (1937 – 1946):

In 1937 the first electronic digital computer was built by
Dr. John V. Atanasoff and Clifford Berry. It was called the
Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC). In 1943 an electronic
computer name the Colossus was built for the military. Other
developments continued until in 1946 the first general– purpose
digital computer, the Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator (ENIAC) was built. It is said that this computer
weighed 30 tons, and had 18,000 vacuum tubes which was used
for processing. When this computer was turned on for the first
time lights dim in sections of Philadelphia. Computers of this
generation could only perform single task, and they had no
operating system.
Characteristics:
i. Sizes of these computers were as large as the size of a
room.
ii. Possession of Vacuum Tubes to perform calculation.
iii. They used an internally stored instruction called program.
iv. Use capacitors to store binary data and information.
v. They use punched card for communication of input and
output data and information
vi. They generated a lot of heat.
vii. They have about One Thousand 1000 circuits per cubic
foot.
Second Generation of Computer (1947 – 1962):

Second generation of computers used transistors instead of
vacuum tubes which were more reliable. In 1951 the first
computer for commercial use was introduced to the public; the
Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC 1). In 1953 the
International Business Machine (IBM) 650 and 700 series
computers made their mark in the computer world. During this
generation of computers over 100 computer programming
languages were developed, computers had memory and
operating systems. Storage media such as tape and disk were in
use also were printers for output.
Characteristics:
i. The computers were still large, but smaller than the first
generation of computers.
ii. They use transistor in place of Vacuum Tubes to perform
calculation.
iii. They were produced at a reduced cost compared to the
first generation of computers.
iv. Possession of magnetic tapes as for data storage.
v. They were using punch cards as input and output of
data and information. The use of keyboard as an input device
was also introduced.
vi. These computers were still generating a lot of heat in which
an air conditioner is needed to maintain a cold temperature.
vii. They have about one thousand circuits per cubic foot.
Third Generation of Computer (1963 – 1975):

The invention of integrated circuit brought us the third
generation of computers. With this invention computers became
smaller, more powerful more reliable and they are able to run
many different programs at the same time.
Characteristics:
i. They used large-scale integrated circuits, which were used for
both data processing and storage.
ii. Computers were miniaturized, that is, they were reduced in
size compared to previous generation.
iii. Keyboard and mouse were used for input while the monitor
was used as output device.
iv. Use of programming language like COBOL and FORTRAN
were developed.
v. They have hundred thousand circuits per cubic foot.
Fourth Generation of Computer (PC 1975 – Current)

At this time of technological development, the size of computer
was re-divided to what we called Personal Computers, PC. This
was the time the first Micro-processor was created by Intel. The
microprocessor was a very large-scale, that is, VLS integrated
circuit which contained thousands of transistors. Transistors on
one chip were capable performing all the functions of a
computer’s central processing unit.
Characteristics:
i. Possession of microprocessor which performs all the
task of a computer system use today.
ii. The size of computers and cost was reduced.
iii. Increase in speed of computers.
iv. Very large scale (VLS) integrated circuits were used.
v. They have millions of circuits per cubic foot.
Fifth Generation of Computers (Present and Beyond)

Fifth generations computing devices, based on artificial
intelligence (AI) are still in development, although there are
some application such as voice recognition, facial face
detector and thumb print that are used today.
Characteristics:
i. Consist of extremely large scale integration.
ii. Parallel processing
iii. Possession of high speed logic and memory chip.
iv. High performance, micro-miniaturization.
v. Ability of computers to mimic human intelligence, e.g.
Voice recognition, facial face detector, thumb print.
vi. Satellite links, virtual reality.
vii.They have billions of circuits per cubic.
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. Define hardware citing examples

2. Name any five (5) components of a computer system
3. Outline the generations of computers that you are familiar with
1.8 Summary
This unit covered computer related terms, Components of the
computer system as well as the advantages and disadvantages
of computers. The next chapter covers software.
UNIT 2
COMPUTER SOFTWARE
2.0 Introduction
With hardware alone, the computer is lifeless. It requires a set of
instructions that tells the computer on what is to be done. This
chapter looks at computer software, the types and its functions.
OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, trainees should be to:
1. Define software
2. Outline the main types of software and their functions.
3. Describe Software piracy
2.3 Definitions
“Computer software” or “simply software”: - is that part of
a computer system that consists of encoded information or
computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from
which the system is built. The term is roughly synonymous with
computer program, but is more generic in scope. Software is
also defined as a set of programs, which is designed to perform
a well-defined function. A program is a sequence of instructions
written to solve a particular problem.
2.4 Categories of software and their functions

Software is a generic term for organizing collections of computer
data and instructions, often broken into two major categories:
(i) system software that provides the basic non-task-specific
functions of the computer, and
(ii) application software which is used by users to accomplish
specific tasks
2.4.1 System software.

System software is a generic term referring to the computer
programs used to start and run computer systems including
diverse application software and networks This software includes
the operating system and all utilities that enable the computer to
function.
Features of system software are as follows

 Close to system
 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language
2.4.2 Application software.
Application software is the general designation of computer

programs for performing tasks. The application software may be
general purpose (word processing, web browsers.) or have a
specific purpose (accounting, truck scheduling.) Application
software contrast to system software. These consist of programs
that do real work for users.
Examples of Application software are following;

 Payroll Software
 Student Record Software
 Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint
Database management systems fall under the category of

applications software. System software are low-level programs
that interact with the computer at a very basic level and include
the operating system and utilities for managing resources. In
contrast, application software includes database programs, word
processors, and spreadsheets. Application software sits above
system software because it needs the help of system software to
run.
Features of application software are as follows

 Close to user
 Easy to design
 More interactive
 Slow in speed
 Generally written in high-level language
 Easy to understand
 Easy to manipulate and use
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space
Figure 2.1: Overview of Software classification and types
The following is an overview of the different classes of software:
Operating Systems
The operating system provides interface between the user and
the hardware. It manages hardware, such as memory, CPU,
input/output devices, files, etc., for the user. Most commonly
used operating systems include Microsoft Windows, DOS, XENIX,
Mac OS, OS/2, Unix MVS, etc.
Utilities
Utilities are programs that perform the specification tasks related
to managing system resources. The operating system includes a
number of utilities for managing disk printers and other devices.
Compilers and Interpreters

A complier is a program that translates source code into object
code. The compiler derives its name from the way it works,
looking at the entire piece of source code and collecting and
reorganizing the instructions. Thus, a compiler differs from an
interpreter, which analyzes and executes each line of source
code in succession, without looking at the entire program. The
advantage of interpreters is that they can execute a program
immediately. Compliers require some time before an executable
program emerges. However, programs produced by compliers
run much faster than the same programs executed by an
interpreter.
Word Processors
A word processor is a program that enables you to perform
word-processing functions. Word processors use a computer to
create, edit, and print documents. Of all computer applications,
word processors are the most common. To perform word
processing, you need a computer, the word-processing software
(word processor), and a printer. A word processor enables you to
create a document, store it electronically on a disk, display it on
a screen, modify it by entering commands and characters from
the keyboard, and print it on a printer. The great advantage of
word processing over using a typewriter is that you can make
changes without retyping the entire document. If you make a
typing mistake, you simply back up the cursor and correct your
mistake. If you want to delete a paragraph, you simply remove
it, without leaving a trace. It is equally easy to insert a word,
sentence, or paragraph in the middle of a document. Word
processors also make it easy to move sections of text from one
place to another within a document, or between documents.
When you have made all the changes you want, you can send
the file to a printer to get a hardcopy. Some of the commonly
used word processors are Microsoft Word, WordStar,
WordPerfect, AmiPro, etc.
Spreadsheets
A spreadsheet is a table of values arranged in rows and columns.
Each value can have a predefined relationship to the other
values. If you change one value, therefore, you may need to
change other values as well. Spreadsheet applications (often
referred to simply as spreadsheets) are computer programs that
let you create and manipulate spreadsheets electronically. In a
spreadsheet application, each value sits in a cell. You can define
what type of data is in each cell and how different cells depend
on one another. The relationships between cells are called
formulas, and the names of the cells are called labels. Once you
have defined the cells and the formulas for linking them
together, you can enter your data. You can then modify selected
values to see how all the other values change accordingly. This
enables you to study various what-if scenarios. There are a
number of spreadsheet applications on the market, Lotus 1-2-3
and Excel being among the most famous. These applications
support graphic features that enable you to produce charts and
graphs from the data. Some spreadsheets are multi-dimensional,
meaning that you can link one spreadsheet to another. A three-
dimensional spreadsheet, for example, is like a stack of
spreadsheets all connected by formulae. A change made in one
spreadsheet automatically affects other spreadsheets.
Presentation Graphics
Presentation graphics enable users to create highly stylized
images for slide shows and reports. The software includes
functions for creating various types of charts and graphs and for
inserting text in a variety of fonts. Most systems enable you to
import data from a spreadsheet application to create the charts
and graphs. Presentation graphics are often called business
graphics. Some of the popular presentation graphics software
include Microsoft PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance Graphics, Harvard
Presentation Graphics, etc.
Database Management System (DBMS)

A DBMS is a collection of programs that enable you to store,
modify, and extract information from a database. There are
many different types of DBMSs, ranging from small systems that
run on personal computers to huge systems that run on
mainframes. The following are some examples of database
applications: computerized library systems, automated teller
machines, flight and railway reservation systems, computerized
inventory systems, etc. From a technical standpoint, a DBMS can
differ widely. The terms relational, network, flat, and hierarchical
all refer to the way a DBMS organizes information internally. The
internal organization can affect how quickly and flexibly you can
extract information. Requests for information from a database
are made in the form of a query, which is a stylized question.
Different DBMSs support different query languages, although
there is a semi-standardized query language called SQL
(structured query language). Sophisticated languages for
managing database systems are called fourth-generation
languages, or 4GLs for short. The information from a database
can be presented in a variety of formats. Most DBMSs include a
report-writer program that enables you to output data in the
form of a report. Many DBMSs also include a graphics
component that enables you to output information in the form of
graphs and charts. Some examples of database management
systems are IDMS, IMS, DB2, Oracle, Sybase, Informix, Ingress,
MS-SQL Server, MS Access, etc.
Image Processors
Image processors or graphics programs enable you to create,
edit, manipulate, add special effects, view, and print and save
images
2.3 Importance of Software

Computer software has become a driving force.
 It is the engine that drives business decision making.
 It serves as the basis for modern scientific investigation and
engineering problem-solving.
 It is embedded in all kinds of systems, such as transportation,
medical, telecommunications, military, industrial processes,
entertainment, office products, etc.
It is important as it affects nearly every aspect of our lives and

has become pervasive in our commerce, our culture, and our
everyday activities. Software’s impact on our society and culture
is significant. As software importance grows, the software
community continually attempts to develop technologies that will
make it easier, faster, and less expensive to build high-quality
computer programs.
2.4 Relationship between Hardware and Software
 Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each
other. Both of them must work together to make a computer
produce a useful output.
 Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
 Hardware without set of programs to operate upon cannot be
utilized and is useless.
 To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant
software should be loaded into the hardware
 Hardware is a one-time expense.
 Software development is very expensive and is a continuing
expense.
 Different software applications can be loaded on hardware to
run different jobs.
 Software acts as an interface between the user and the
hardware.
 If hardware is the 'heart' of a computer system, then software
is its 'soul'. Both are complimentary to each other.
2.5 Software piracy

Software piracy, also known as copyright infringement of
software, is the unauthorized duplication or distribution of
copyrighted computer software. Although most computer users
today are aware that unauthorized use and duplication of
software is illegal, many show a general disregard for the
importance of treating software as valuable Intellectual Property.
2.5.1 Types of Software Piracy
 CD-R Infringement: Illegally copying software using CD-R

recording technology.
 Soft-lifting: Purchasing a single licensed copy of software
and loading it on to several computers in violation of license
terms. An example of this would be sharing software with
friends, co-workers and others.
 Uploading and Downloading: Making unauthorized copies
of copyrighted software available to end users connected to
online service providers and/or peer-to-peer networks via the
Internet.
 Unrestricted Client Access Infringement: Allowing clients
of an organization to freely access software on the
organization’s network server in violation of the terms of the
license agreement.
 Software Counterfeiting: Illegally duplicating and selling
copyrighted software in a form designed to make it appear
legitimate.
 OEM Unbundling: Selling standalone software that was
intended to be bundled with specific accompanying hardware
 Hard Disk Loading: Installing unauthorized copies of
software onto the hard disks of personal computers, often as
an incentive for the end user to buy the hardware from that
particular hardware dealer.
 Renting: Unauthorized selling or viewing of software for
temporary use.
 Commercial Use of Non-Commercial Software: Using
educational or other commercial-use-restricted software in
violation of the software license
2.5.2 The negative effects of piracy for end-users.
Copyright infringement not only hurts the software industry, it

also has negative consequences for the end user. Here are just a
few of the common-sense reasons to avoid software piracy:
 No access to technical support
 Lack of product documentation and warranties
 Content may be incorrect or outdated and it can be difficult to
assess necessity for upgrade
 Software may contain viruses or be defective or corrupted
 Expensive lawsuits and/or significant penalties can be applied
ACTIVITY 2.1
1. Explain what application software is used for?
2. Differentiate the categories of software and their functions.
3. Discuss the importance of software in contemporary business.
2.5 Summary
The chapter looked at computer software, the types and

functions of the software. It also explained what software piracy
is and outlined different forms of software piracy and its
implications to end users. The next chapter is going to focus on
application software, the types and functions.
UNIT 3
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
3.0 Introduction
In Information Technology, Computer programmes are designed
to help people perform various activities. Depending on the
activity for which it was designed, an application can manipulate
text, numbers, audio, graphics, and a combination of these
elements. Some application packages focus on a single task,
such as word processing; others, called integrated software
include several applications. This chapter focuses on Microsoft
Word, a graphical word processing programme, and it also
constitutes practical activities to acquaint learners the knowledge
on how to use the application.
OBJECTIVES
1. Produce documents using Word processing software
2. Perform calculations and producing graphs using Microsoft Excel
3. Do visual presentations using Microsoft PowerPoint
3.1 Word Processor
A word processor, or word processing program, does exactly

what the name implies. It processes words. It also processes
paragraphs, pages, and entire papers. Some examples of word
processing programs include Microsoft Word, (Windows only),
AppleWorks (Mac only), and OpenOffice.org. Sometimes
abbreviated as WP, a word processor is a software program
capable of creating, storing and printing typed documents.
Today, the word processor is one of the most frequently used
software programs on a computer, with Microsoft Word being the
most popular word processor. The first word processors were
basically computerized typewriters, which did little more than
place characters on a screen, which could then be printed by a
printer. Modern word processing programs, however, include
features to customize the style of the text, change the page
formatting, and may be able to add headers, footers, and page
numbers to each page. Some may also include a "Word Count"
option, which counts the words and characters within a
document.
3.1.1 How to produce documents using the MS Word
Microsoft (MS) Word is an example of a word processor program.

You can use MS Word to prepare letters, essays, project reports
etc. All word processors have spell checking, thesaurus and
grammar checking facilities.MS Word comes in a variety of
versions.
Opening MS Word
1. Click Start button.
2. Select All Programs.
3. Click Microsoft Word.
4. Blank page appears on the screen
5. User then start typing the document
Title Bar
Menu Bar
Toolbars
Ruler Scroll bar
Blinking cursor
Task pane
WORKPLACE
Status bar
Features of the MS Word Screen
The title bar shows the document name. MS Word assigns your
document a temporary name (e.g. Document2) until you save it
with the name you choose.
The menu bar is used to choose all commands while working in
MS Word.
The toolbars provide quick access to some of MS Word’s
commands without having to use a pull-down menu.
The ruler lets you change paragraph indentations, margins, and
column widths for text and tables.
The workplace is the area where text entered through the
keyboard shows up. A small blinking vertical line can be seen at
the upper left of this text area.
The blinking cursor is the position where the next character will
be displayed when you press a key.
The scroll bar is used to move vertically or horizontally within a
document.
The task pane is a window located on the right hand side of the
document window. It serves as additional navigation to help you
quickly perform the tasks you need.
The status bar, located at the bottom of the screen displays the
page number, section number, the number of pages in the
document etc.
Closing MS Word
1. Click File menu.

2. Click Exit.
Note that:
You can close MS Word using the shortcut key combination:
ALT+F4 keys.
Opening Existing Documents
1. Click Open button.

2. Click the drop-down arrow in the Look in: field and select
the drive and/or folder that contain the document to open.
3. Double-click the document you want to open.
Note that:
 You can also open a recently used document using the File
menu. By default, the File menu displays a list of 4
recently used documents.
 You can also open a recently used document using the
New Document task pane. In the Open a document
section, click the name of the document to open. If the
Task Pane is not visible, click View menu and Task Pane.
 You can open an existing document using the shortcut key
combination: CTRL+O keys.
To open other existing documents repeat steps 1-3.
Closing a Document
1. Save your work.

2. Click File menu
3. Click Close command.
Note that:
 You can close a document using the shortcut key
combination: CTRL+F4 keys.
Creating a New Document
Every MS Word document is based on a template. A template

determines the basic structure for a document and contains
document settings such as fonts, page layout, special
formatting, and styles.
By default all new documents are created on a standard (or

default) template called normal.dot. To create a new document
based on the default template:
Click New button. A new file with an empty workplace will be

opened.
Note that:
 You also open a new document based on
the default template using the New
Document task pane. In the New section, click Blank
Document.
You can also base a new document on other templates

available in MS Word or created by
you.
1. In the New Document task pane,
click General Templates… below
New from template section.
2. Select the appropriate template tab card e.g. Memos.
3. Click the template within the template category selected in
step 2 e.g. Contemporary Memo.
4. Click OK button.
Note that:
You can open a new document using the shortcut key
combination: CTRL+N keys.
Saving a Document
It is important to save your work from time to time whilst
typing. When you save a document for the first time, you need
to give it a name. Document names can have up to 255
characters including spaces. File names cannot include any of
the following characters: forward slash (/), backslash (\), greater
than sign (>), less than sign (<), asterisk (*), period (.),
question mark (?), quotation mark ("), pipe symbol (|), colon
(:), or semicolon (;).
To save a document to a location/drive:
1. Click Save button.
2. Click the drop-down arrow in the Save in: field and select the
disk and/or folder where the document file will be saved. By
default, the file will be saved on Drive C: in the My
Documents folder.
3. Type a name for your document in the File name: field.
Note that:
 After you save a file for the first time, the filename appears in
the title bar.
 When you save the file the second, third, fourth time etc. the
computer will not ask you to input all this information again
but will only update the file with the changes made up to that
moment.
 You can save a document using the shortcut key combination:
CTRL+S keys.
To save an open document under another name:
1. Click File menu.
2. Click Save As… The Save As dialog box will be displayed.
3. Repeat steps 2-4 as above.
To save a document in another format:

1. Click File menu.
3. Click the drop-down arrow in the Save in: field and select
the disk and/or folder where the document file will be
saved.
4. Type a name for your document in the File name: field.
5. Click the Save as type drop down arrow.
6. Click the file format that you want the file saved in e.g.
Word 6.0/95.
Note that:
 The facility to save a document to another format can be
useful to convert the document which can be read by
previous versions of MS Word or other word processing
programs.
Switch between Open Documents
You can switch between two or more open documents by:

1. Click Window menu.
2. Click the name of the document file to display.
Note that:
 To switch between open documents you can click on the
document file button on the task bar (running horizontally
across the bottom of the MS Windows screen).
3.2 Document Creation
Page View Modes
You can view MS Word documents in different page

display modes.
1. Click View menu.
2. Select Normal, Web layout, Print layout or Outline view.
Depending on the task at hand, some views are better

than others.
Option To Do This
Normal Used for writing first drafts and basic editing. In
Normal view you can focus on writing. Normal view
is often quicker to use as less memory is used.
Web Used for laying out Web pages to be displayed
layout online. Colour backgrounds only appear in this
view. By switching to Web layout view, you can see
what Web pages will look like online in a browser
(e.g. Internet Explorer & Netscape Navigator)
Print Used for laying out documents. In this view, you
layout can see where graphics, columns, and the pages
begin and end. Headers and footers also appear in
this view.
Outline Used for organising long papers and reports. In
Outline view, you can move to a different location in
the document and move/copy text quicker than in
Normal view.
You can also view a document in full screen mode. Full screen
view removes the toolbars and menus from the screen and
displays the document over the entire computer screen. You can
bring the toolbars and menus back onto the screen and edit the
document as usual.
1. Click View menu.
2. Select Full Screen.
3. Click on the Close Full Screen box or press ESC key to return
to the Normal/Print layout view.
Entering Text in a Document
Somewhere in the workplace of the MS Word window there will

be a vertical line called the blinking cursor. Note that as you
type, text will always be inserted to the left of this cursor. When
the text reaches the right margin, MS Word automatically begins
a new line. This feature is called word-wrap.
The following table shows the use of spaces as you type your
document:
No Spaces One Space
after opening a bracket ( after comma ,
before closing a bracket ) after a colon :
before a fullstop . after a semi-colon ;
before an exclamation after a fullstop .
mark !
before a question mark ? after an exclamation
mark !
before a comma , after a question mark
?
before a semi-colon ;
Press the CAPS LOCK key to type text in uppercase. Press SHIFT
key in combination with an alphabetical letter key to type the
latter in uppercase.
To move the cursor within the text:
To move the Press

Insertion Point
Back one character Left Arrow

Forward one Right
character Arrow 
Up one line Up Arrow
To move the Press
Insertion Point

Down one line Down
Arrow 
To the previous word Ctrl-Left
Arrow
To the next word Ctrl-Right
Arrow
To the beginning of Home key
the line
To the end of the line End key
When pressing any of the keys indicated above, the cursor just
moves within the text but nothing else happens.
Inserting Symbols / Special Characters
Sometimes you find yourself in need of special characters, which

are not available on the keyboard. MS Word comes with an
enormous list of characters, which will enhance your document.
1. Position the cursor where the special character will be
inserted.
2. Click Insert menu.
3. Click Symbol... The Symbol dialog box shown below will be
displayed.
4. Click on the character to insert.
5. Click Insert button.
6. Click Close button.
More characters are available if you click in the font box and
select other fonts such as Wingdings etc.
Displaying / Hide Non-Printing Characters
You can display formatting marks in your document to check

where you have paragraph marks, a space, manual line breaks
and tab characters. By default, these formatting marks do not
print even if these are displayed on the screen.
Type Non-Printing Character

A space · dot between words
Paragraph mark ¶
Soft line break
Manual line
breaks
Tab characters →
To display or hide non-printing characters:

 Click Show/Hide button.
Selecting Text
A typical feature of MS Word is the ‘select and do’ function i.e.

before you carry out some function (such as applying an
underline), text has to be selected. Selecting text means that
you highlight it so that it is displayed as light text on a dark
background.
To select Do this
A word Double-click on the word.
A line of text Place the pointer in the selection bar pointing
it to the line to select.
Click the mouse.
A paragraph of Place the pointer in the selection bar pointing
text it to the paragraph to select.
Double-click the mouse.
A sentence Hold down Ctrl and click anywhere in the
sentence.
An entire Triple-click the mouse anywhere in the
document selection bar.
A phrase of Drag the mouse over the text to select.
text
To switch-off the highlighting:

1. Position the mouse pointer anywhere outside the highlighted
area.
2. Click the mouse.
Editing Text
Using Backspace or Delete keys

By default, any new text you enter in the middle of a line is
inserted between existing text.
1. Position the cursor to the right/left of the character/s to edit.

2. Press Backspace or Delete key.
3. Type in the new character/s.
Overtyping Characters
To replace existing characters as you type:
1. Position the cursor to the right/left of the character/s to
replace.
2. Press Insert key. The OVR (Overtype mode) text in the status
bar will be displayed in bold.
3. Type in the new character/s.
4. Press Insert key to switch off the overtype mode.
Note that:
You can also double-click OVR on the status bar to turn overtype
on or off.
Searching & Replacing Text
When you need to review or change text in your document, use

the Find and Replace commands in the Edit menu. Use Find to
quickly locate occurrences of the text you specify. To change a
word or phrase used throughout your document, use Replace to
make all changes quickly and accurately. These commands are
particularly useful when you have long documents.
To find text:
1. Click Edit menu.
2. Click Find...
3. Click Replace tab
4. Click More button.
5. Enter the appropriate options.
6. Click Find Next button.
Option To Do This
Match Find words that have certain uppercase and
Case lowercase letters. For example, if you type
Computing Services Centre and tick this option,
Word would find Computing Services Centre but
not computing services centre or COMPUTING
SERVICES CENTRE.
Find Find whole separate word in the document. For
Whole example, word would find the word text, but would
Words not stop at context.
Only
Use Use wild cards such as * and ? to find words that
Wildcards match search criteria. For example, use s*t to find
sit, sat, seat, sent, or s?t to find sit, set and sat.
Sounds Find words that are spelled differently, but sound
Like alike such as roam and Rome.
Search Search for words either up or down (backward or
forward) from your current position. You can also
search the entire document, forward and backward
Option To Do This
from the insertion point.
Find all Find a word or phrase, regardless of its format.
word
forms
Format Search for the particular font, language, style and
paragraph that you indicate.
Special Search for any type of special characters, such as
paragraph marks and tabs that are represented by
special codes. For example, you could use this
feature to replace all double tabs with single tabs.
To search for double characters, click on the list
twice, selecting the special character each time.
Find Next Find the next occurrence of the text.
Cancel Find no text. Return to the text and edit it.
Replace Open the Replace dialog box where you can enter
the text, format, and special characters that you
want to replace with the text you find.
Moving & Copying Text

An important feature in a word- processor is the
facility of moving text from one location of a document to
another. MS Word uses a temporary storage area called the
clipboard for moving and copying text within a document. This
area functions much like a clipboard that holds loose pieces of
paper.
To move text:
1. Select the text to move.
2. Click Cut button or press Ctrl+X
3. Position the cursor where the text will be moved.
4. Click the Paste button or press Ctrl+V
Note that:
 The Cut button removes the selected text or object and
places it on the Clipboard, where you cannot see it in the
work area.
To copy text:
1. Select the text to copy.
2. Click Copy button or press Ctrl+C
3. Position the cursor where the text will be copied.
4. Click Paste button or press Ctrl+V
Note that:
 The Copy button copies the selected text or object and
places it on the Clipboard, where you cannot see it in the
work area.
You can even cut-paste or copy-paste information from one

document to another, and to and from other programs, such as
MS Excel worksheet.
Deleting Text
Using the Backspace Key

1. Position the cursor to the right of the character to erase.
2. Press Backspace key.
Using the Delete Key

1. Position the cursor to the left of the character to erase.
2. Press Delete key.
Note that:
 The Backspace key erases characters from the right to the
left. The Delete key erases characters from the left to the
right.
Using Undo/Redo Command
The Undo button reverses the last action you performed.

1. Click the drop-down arrow next to the Undo button to
display a history list of all actions you have performed
since opening the document. From this list, you can
reverse actions.
2. Click the action you want to undo. If you don’t see the
action, scroll through the list.
Note that:
 When you undo an action, you also undo all actions above
it in the list.
 You can undo the very last action you took by just clicking
Undo on the Standard toolbar.
If you later decide you didn't want to undo an action

click Redo button on the Standard toolbar.
3.3 Formatting
Font Types & Sizes
A font is a collection of characters (letters, numerals, symbols

and punctuation marks) that have a particular design. A list of
some of the most common fonts used in MS Word documents is
below. The list shows both the font name and the way the
characters look.
The font size determines the size of the selected characters. The
height of a character is expressed in points (1 point = 1/72”).
The larger the number, the larger the character.
By default, MS Word displays Times New Roman point size 12

unless you change it.
Arial pt. 13 Bookman Old Style pt.13

Lucida Calligraphy pt.12 Impact pt. 13
Century Gothic pt.13 Courier pt.13
Mercurius Script MT pt.14 Times New Roman pt. 13
To change the font type:

1. Select the text to change its font
style.
2. Click the Font Style drop-down arrow.
3. Click the appropriate font style to apply.
To change the font size:

1. Select the text to change its font
size.
2. Click the Font Size drop-down arrow.
3. Click the appropriate size to apply.
Typestyles: Bold, Italics & Underline

Typestyles are applied to text to emphasise it. There are three
ways of emphasising text, using either or a combination of the
following typestyles:
Typestyle Button Effect Shortcut
Key
to make the characters
Bold CTRL+B
look darker
to slant the characters to
Italics CTRL+I
the right
Underline to underline characters CTRL+U
To apply typestyles:
1. Select the text to apply typestyles to.
2. Click the appropriate typestyle/s button/s required.
To removing typestyles:
1. Select the text to remove its typestyles.
2. Click the appropriate typestyle/s button/s to remove.
Subscript / Superscript
Subscript text is text that is slightly lower than other text on a

line e.g. 2 in H2O. Superscript text is text that is slightly higher
than other text on a line e.g. 2 in AB2.
To make text subscript or superscript:

1. Select the text you want to format as superscript or
subscript.
2. Click Format menu.
3. Click Font.
4. Click the Font tab.
5. Tick the Superscript or Subscript check box.
6. Click OK button.
Font Colours
To apply a different colour to the text:

1. Select the text to apply colour to.
2. Click the drop-down arrow next to the Font colour
button on the Formatting toolbar.
3. Select the appropriate colour.
Case Changes to Text
You can change the case of a text to uppercase, lower case, title
case, sentence case etc.
1. Select the text you want to change its case.

3. Click Change Case…
4. Click the appropriate case option.
5. Click OK button.
Option To Do This
Sentence Capitalises the first letter of the first word in the
case. selected sentences.
lowercase Changes all selected text to lowercase letters.
UPPERCASE Changes all selected text to capital letters.
Title Case Capitalises the first letter of each word in the
selection.
tOGGLE Changes all uppercase letters to lowercase in the
cASE selection and vice versa.
Applying Automatic Hyphenation
If a word is too long to fit on the end of a line, MS Word moves

the word to the beginning of the next line instead of hyphenating
it. However, you can switch on the option to have automatic
hyphens in your documents.
1. Click Tools menu.
2. Point to Language.
3. Click Hyphenation… The Hyphenation dialog box will be
displayed.
4. Tick the Automatically hyphenate document check box.

5. Click OK button.
Note that:
 When you turn on automatic hyphenation, MS Word
automatically inserts hyphens where they are needed in
the document. If you later edit the document and change
line breaks, MS Word rehyphenates the document.
Creating / Merging Paragraphs
To start a new paragraph press ENTER key. The cursor moves to

the next line where you can start typing the text making the new
paragraph.
To join i.e. merge two paragraphs in a single paragraph:

1. Position the cursor to the left of the second paragraph i.e.
just before the first letter of the second paragraph.
2. Press Backspace key until the second paragraph moves
just after the first paragraph.
Inserting / Removing Line Breaks
To insert a line break (soft carriage return) i.e. a new paragraph:

1. Place the cursor to the right of the last character on the
line.
2. Press Enter key.
To remove a line break:

1. Place the cursor to the left of the paragraph mark.
Aligning Text
This facility is important to change the position of text in relation

to the left and right margins. The left and right margins are the
white spaces at the left and right edges of a page.
There are four different alignment options:
This is left-aligned text.
This is centred text.
This is right-aligned text.
This is justified text. If this text is on a line that is shorter than the paragraph width,
it will remain aligned left.
Option To Do This
Left Aligns each line of the paragraph with the left margin,
leaving a ragged right edge which means that there is no
alignment on the right side.
Centere Aligns each line of the paragraph between the left and right
d margins. This is useful for headings and titles.
Right Aligns each line of the paragraph with the right margin
leaving a ragged left edge, which means that there is no
alignment on the left side. This is useful for a right-aligned
date and return address in a letter.
Justified Aligns paragraph text so that both the left and right margins
Option To Do This
have a straight edge, creating blocks. Use this option
judiciously because it can create white “rivers” of space in
the text, which can make reading difficult.
1. Select the text or position the cursor in the text to align.

2. Click:
Alignment Button Shortcut

option Key
Align Left
CTRL+L
button
Center button CTRL+E
Align Right
CTRL+R
button
Justify button CTRL+J
Indenting Text
Indentations play an important role in giving the document the

look you want it to have. When you indent a paragraph you
specify, how far in from the margin, or how far out into it you
want the text to print. It is a good practice to indent text than
inserting spaces.
To indent text using the Formatting toolbar:

1. Highlight the paragraph or position the cursor in the
paragraph to indent.
2. Click:
Increase Indent
button
Decrease Indent
button
You can also indent text using the ruler. The ruler provides an
excellent way for you to see exactly where you set indentations.
Notice the triangle on the left (Hanging Indent), the inverted
triangle above it (First Line Indent), and the small rectangle
below (Left Indent). You can move the two triangles together or
separately.
To indent text using the ruler:

1. Highlight the text to indent.
2. Perform one of the actions below for the appropriate
indentations.
Option To Do This
Indent all lines in the Click the rectangle, hold down the
selected paragraph mouse button, and drag to the left or
right.
Indent only the first line in a Click the upper triangle, hold down the
selected paragraph mouse button, and drag to the left or
right.
Move the lines on the right Click the triangle on the right and move
margin for a selected it to the left or right.
paragraph
Tabulations
In some documents, tab stops facilitates the laying out of text.

When you press the TAB key (or CTRL+TAB if the insertion point
is in a table), the insertion point jumps to the next tab stop, and
a tab character fills the space. The tab character does not print,
and it is not visible unless you choose to display it.
Each paragraph in a new document has default tab stops, which

are preset at half-inch intervals. You can use these tab stops, or
you can:
o Change the interval of the default tab stops.
o Set custom tab stops at any position within selected
paragraphs. You can specify how text aligns at custom tab
stops (e.g. centred). You can also add leader characters –
solid, dotted, or dashed lines that fill the space taken by
the tab character.
To set tab stops:

1. Select the paragraphs in which you want to set tab stops.
2. Click on at the far left of the horizontal ruler until it
changes to the type of tab you want.
Tabulation Button To Do This

option
Aligns text to the left of the tab
Left-align Tab
stop.
Aligns text to the right of the tab
Right-align Tab
stop.
Centre Tab Centres text along the tab stop.
Aligns the decimal point along
Decimal Tab
the tab stop.
3. Click on the horizontal ruler where you want to set a tab stop.
If you want to set precise measurements for tabs, click Tabs on

the Format menu.
To display tab characters:

Click Show/Hide button.
The following mark  will show on the screen wherever the Tab
key was pressed.
To clear or move tab stops:

1. Select the paragraphs in which you want to clear or move
a tab stop.
2. To clear a tab stop, drag the tab marker off the horizontal
ruler. To move a tab stop, drag the tab marker to the right
or left on the horizontal ruler.
Adjusting Line & Paragraph Spacing

The right amount of line spacing is crucial for a printed
document. MS Word uses point measurement. There are 72
points in an inch. Too many or too few points of spacing between
lines make text difficult to read.
To adjust line spacing:

1. Highlight the paragraph or position the cursor in
the paragraph to adjust its line spacing.
3. Click on Paragraph... The Paragraph dialog box will
be displayed.
4. Click the Indents and Spacing tab.
5. In the Line Spacing: box, select one of the options overleaf:
Option To Do This
Single Single-line spacing. Word increases spacing by one line,
based on the font type and size you choose.
1.5 lines One-and-a-half line spacing. Word increases spacing by
one-and-a-half lines, based on the font type and size you
choose.
Double Double line spacing. Word increases spacing by two lines,
based on the font type and size you choose.
6. Click OK button.
You can change the spacing before or after each paragraph:

1. Highlight the paragraphs in which you want to change
spacing.
3. Click the Indents and Spacing tab.
4. Under Spacing, enter the spacing you want in the Before
or After box.
5. Click OK button.
Note that:
It is a good practice to apply spacing between paragraphs rather
than use the ENTER key.
Adding Bullets & Numbers to Lists
MS Word’s powerful feature for bulleted and numbered lists

makes it easy to format information in lists. In addition, MS
Word can renumber lists automatically if you add or delete
items.
To add bullets to a list:

Highlight the paragraphs to which you want to add bullets.
Click Format menu.
Click on Bullets and Numbering... The Bullets and Numbering
dialog box will be displayed.
Click Bulleted tab.
Click any one of the 7 bullet styles.

Click OK button.
Note that:
You can also add bullets to text by highlighting the text and
clicking the Bullets button. However, this method does not
allow you to choose from the different bullet styles available in
MS Word.
To remove bullets:
Highlight the text to remove its bullets.
Repeat steps 2-4 as above.
Click None.
Click OK button.
Note that:
You can also remove bullets by highlighting the text and click on
the Bullets button.
To modify bullets:
Highlight the text to modify its bullets.
Click Format menu.
Click on Bullets and Numbering...
Select the appropriate style or click Customise... button.
Click one of the available Bullet styles or click Character... button
for more.
Select one of the bullet styles available.
Click Close button.
Click OK button twice.
To add numbers to a list:
Highlight the list to which you want to add numbers.
Click Format menu.
Click Bullets and Numbering...
Click Numbered tab.
Click one of the 7 number styles.
Click OK button.
Note that:
You can also add numbering to a list by highlighting the text
and clicking the Numbering button. However, this method
does not allow you to choose from the different number styles
available in MS Word.
To remove numbering:
Click None.
Click OK button.
To modify the number styles:

Highlight the list to modify its numbers.
Click Format menu.
Click Bullets and Numbering...
Click Customise... button.
Enter the appropriate options.
Click OK button.
Option To Do This
Number After selecting the number style to apply, you can add
Format non-editable text to appear before and after each
number in the list. For example, square brackets [ ] to
create a number format such as [1], [2], [3], and so
on.
Number Style Select the number style you want for a list.
Font Select the font you want for numbers in a list and for
any text before or after the numbers.
Start At Type the number you want numbering in a list to begin
with.
Number Indicates the position of numbers relative to the
Position margins and the text. Select the alignment you want
for the list.
Text Position Type the distance between the end of the bullet or
number list and the start of the text.
Preview The Preview box shows the effects of the formatting
and positioning you specify before you change it in the
document.
Adding Borders & Shading to Paragraphs
You can set apart text from the rest of a document by adding
borders and shading.
To add borders to a block of text:

Select the text you want to apply a border to.
Click Format menu.
Click Borders and Shading… The Borders and Shading dialog box
will be displayed.
Click the Borders tab.
Select the appropriate Setting: Style: Colour: and Width:
options.
Click OK button.
To apply shading to a block of text:

Click the Shading tab.
Select the appropriate Fill colour.
Click OK button.
Applying Styles
A style is a set of formatting characteristics that you can apply to

a word, line or paragraph in your
document to quickly change their
appearance. When you apply a style, you
apply a whole group of formats in one
simple task. For example, instead of
taking three separate steps to format your
title as 16 pt and Arial you can achieve the
same result in one step by applying the Heading 1 style.
MS Word has a number of built-in styles. By default the Normal

style is applied to all text.
To use a built-in style:

Highlight the word, line or paragraph to apply a style to.
Click the drop down arrow next of the Style box. A list of styles
will be displayed.
Click the appropriate style.
Copying Text Formatting
You can copy the formatting (typestyles, fonts etc.) of a piece of

text to another piece of text:
Highlight the word or character containing the formatting you
want to copy.
Click Format Painter button.
Drag the mouse to highlight the word or character to which
you want to apply the formatting.
3.4 OBJECTS
Creating a Table
Method A - Using the Table Menu
1. Position the insertion point where you want to insert the

table.
2. Click Table menu.
3. Point to Insert.
4. Click Table... The Insert Table dialog box will be displayed.
5. Type or select the appropriate number of columns and rows.
6. Click OK button.
Option To Do This
Number of Type or select the number of columns you want.
columns
Number of rows Type or select the number of rows you want.
Fixed column Type or select the column width. Auto, the default,
width inserts columns of equal size between the
document margins.
AutoFit to Automatically adjusts the width of columns in the
contents table based on the amount of text you type.
AutoFit to Automatically resizes the table so that it fits within
window the window of a web browser. When the window
size of the web browser changes, the table size
automatically adjusts to fit within the window.
Table style Displays the pre-defined format chosen by using
the AutoFormat button.
AutoFormat Automatically applies formats, including pre-
defined borders and shading, to a table.
Method B - Using the Standard Toolbar
1. Position the insertion point where you

want to insert a
table.
2. Click Insert Table button.
3. Drag the mouse pointer to select the
number of rows and columns needed.
4. Release the mouse button to insert the table.
Method C - Using the Tables & Borders Toolbar
1. Click Tables and Borders button. The Tables and Borders

Toolbar appears.
2. Click the appropriate options.

Button To do this
Draw Table Creates and customizes tables. This tool works like
a pen. Click and drag to draw the table boundaries
and cell partitions.
Removes any cell, row, or column partition to
Eraser
achieve the same effect as merging two cells.
Line Style Selects the line style of the border – single, dotted,
double etc.
Line Sets the thickness of the border lines.
Weight
Border
Sets the colour of the border lines.
Colour
Borders Used to create top, bottom, left, and right borders.
Shading Adds shading to the cells, columns or rows in a

Colour table.
Merge Cells To combine two or more selected cells within a row
to create a single cell.
Split Cells To split cells into two or more cells.
Align Top Aligns cell contents at the top, centre, or bottom of

Centre the cell. If your text is oriented vertically, the
Vertically buttons automatically adjust to give you left,
Align Bottom centre, and right alignment.
Distribute Adjusts the heights of the selected rows to an
Rows Evenly equal size.
Distribute Adjusts the widths of the selected columns to an
Columns Evenly equal size.
Table Applies a set of border and shading types to your
AutoFormat table.
Change Text Rotates the text flow vertically (by 90 degrees) in
Direction table cells, text boxes, and frames.
Sort Sorts the text in alphabetical order or numbers

Ascending from the smallest one to the largest one.
When you create a table, MS Word displays a table with the
number of rows and columns selected above. By default, all
tables have a ½-pt black, single solid-line border that prints.
Inserting / Editing Data in a Table
A newly created table displays the insertion point in the first cell
and lets you insert text straight away.
To insert data in a table:

1. Position the cursor in the cell where you want to insert
text.
2. Type the text.
You can move from one cell to the text by pressing TAB key.
The keystrokes shown below are helpful when editing text in a
table.
Action Press
Move to the next cell Tab key
Move to the preceding cell Shift+Tab keys
Start a new paragraph Enter key
Add a new row at the bottom Tab key when insertion point is in the
of table last cell of table
Moving up or down a row Up or Down direction keys
Selecting Tables
To highlight a cell:
1. Position the mouse pointer in the cell as shown.
2. Click the mouse
To highlight a row:
1. Position the mouse pointer in the selection bar (i.e. outside

the row) pointing it to the row to highlight.
2. Click the mouse.
To highlight a column:
1. Position the mouse pointer at the top edge of the column
to highlight.
2. Click the mouse.
To highlight the entire table:

1. Click the Table move handle.
Note that:
 You can also select rows, columns, or the entire table by
clicking in the table and then using the Select commands
on the Table menu, or by using keyboard shortcuts.
Deleting Data in a Table
In order to delete text from a table, highlight the appropriate

text and:
Action Do this
text in a cell Press Backspace or
Delete key
row of text and leave a blank rowPress Delete or
Backspace key
row of text completely Click on Cut button
text in a column Press Delete or
Backspace key
column of text and leave a blank Press Delete or
column Backspace key
a column of text completely Click on Cut button
Inserting / Deleting Rows, Columns & Cells
If you are working in a table, you press Tab to create a new row
at the end of the last one in the table, but if you go back to add
a cell between two others, pressing Tab only takes you to the
next cell; it does not create a new one. Also, as you are working
in a table, pressing Enter only adds more lines of space in a
paragraph within a cell.
To insert row/s:
1. Highlight the row/s where the new row/s will be inserted.
Select as many rows as you want to add.

3. Point to Insert.
4. Click Rows Above or Rows
Below.
Note that:
 You can also insert row/s, by highlighting the row/s
where you wish to insert blank row/s and click on
Insert Row button in the standard toolbar.
To insert column/s:
1. Highlight the column/s where the new column/s will be
inserted. Select as many columns as you want to add.

3. Point to Insert.
4. Click Columns Above or Columns
Below.
Note that:
 You can also insert a column/s, by highlighting the
column/s where you wish to insert blank column/s and
click on Insert Column button in the standard toolbar.
To insert cell/s:
1. Highlight the cell/s where the new cell/s will be inserted.
3. Click Insert.
4. Click Cells… The Insert Cells dialog box will be displayed.
5. Select the appropriate option.
6. Click OK button.
Option To Do This
Shift Cells Right New cells to the left of the
selected cells.
Shift Cells Down New cells above the selected
cells.
Insert Entire Row A row of cells.
Insert Entire A column of cells.
Column
Deleting rows, columns and cells is just as easy as adding them.

However, you cannot use the Delete or Backspace keys to delete
any cells in a table. Only text will be erased when you use these
keys.
Highlight the row or column to delete.
Click Table menu.
Point to Delete.
Click Rows or Columns as appropriate.
To delete rows:
Highlight the cells to delete.
Click Table menu.
Point to Delete.
Click Cells...
Select the appropriate option.
Click OK button.
Option To Do This
Shift Cells Left Shift cells left after you delete the
selected ones.
Shift Cells Up Move cells up after you delete the
selected ones.
Delete Entire Row Delete the row or rows.
Delete Entire Delete the column or columns.
Column
Adjusting Column Widths & Row Heights
You can change the width/height of selected cells, columns and

rows by dragging the column/row borders, by dragging the
column/row markers on the rulers, or by choosing the
column/row width from the Table menu.
To modify the column width:
Method A - Dragging the mouse

Rest the pointer on the column boundary you want to move
until it becomes
Drag the the boundary to the left or right until the column is at
the width you want.
Method B - Using the Table menu

Select the column or cell to adjust its width.
Click Table menu.
Click Table Properties...
Click Column tab.
Set the appropriate measurements.
Click OK button.
Note that:
To make the columns in a table automatically fit the contents,
click a table, point to AutoFit on the Table menu, and then click
AutoFit to Contents.
To modify the row height:
Method A - Dragging the mouse

Rest the pointer on the row boundary you want to move until
it becomes
Drag the the boundary up or down until the row is at the height
you want.
Method B - Using the Table menu

Select the column or cell to adjust its width.
Click Table menu.
Click Table Properties...
Click Row tab.
Set the appropriate measurements.
Click OK button.
Modifying Borders & Shading
As indicated earlier, when you create a table, MS Word displays

a table with a ½-pt black, single solid-line border that prints.
With the Border command you can adjust the weight (thickness)
and style of the border lines. You may also add boxes to
paragraphs of text, graphics or cells in a table.
Method A - To apply borders using the Table menu
Highlight the rows, columns or cells to which a border will be
added.
Click Format menu.
Click Borders and Shading... The Borders and Shading dialog box
will be displayed.
Click Borders tab.
Select the appropriate options.
Click OK button.
Option To Do This
None Removes all borders from the selection.
Box Inserts a box border around the selection.
All Inserts a box border around the selection and applies
preset shadow formatting to the border.
Grid Inserts a box border around the selection and applies
preset 3-D border formatting, which makes the border
look like a “window” or “picture frame”.
Custom Creates a custom border using the options you click in
the Preview diagram. Word automatically selects Custom
if you click one of the border buttons in the Preview
diagram.
Style Click the border style you want. To change an individual
border line to a new style, colour, or width, first click
Custom, click the Style, Colour, and Width settings you
want, and then click the border buttons in the Preview
diagram to apply the new options.
Colour Click the line colour you want for the border. To change
an individual border line to a new style, colour, or width,
first click Custom, click the Style, Colour, and Width
settings you want, and then click the border buttons in
the Preview diagram to apply the new options.
Width Click the line width you want for the border. To change
individual border lines to a new style, colour, or width,
first click Custom, click the Style, Colour, and Width
settings you want, and then click the border buttons in
the Preview diagram to apply the new options.
Option To Do This
Preview Click the sides of the model or click the border buttons to
add or remove the currently selected settings.
Apply Tells Word what to apply the border and shading
To formatting to.
Method B - To add borders using the Tables & Borders toolbar

Highlight the rows, columns or cells to which a border will be
added.
Select the appropriate buttons.
To add shading to a table:

Highlight the rows, columns or cells to which shading will be
applied.
Click Format menu.
Click Borders and Shading...
Click Shading tab.
Select the appropriate options.
Click OK button.
Option To Do This
Fill Click the fill colour you want for the shading, or click None
to remove the shading colour.
Style Click the shading style you want to apply "over" the fill
colour. Click Clear to apply only the fill colour (no pattern
colour). Click Solid to apply only the pattern colour (no fill
colour).
Colour Click a colour for the lines and dots in the selected shading
pattern. The Colour box is unavailable if you click Clear in
the Style box.
Preview Click the sides of the model or click the border buttons to
add or remove the currently selected settings.
Apply Tells Word what to apply the border and shading formatting
To: to.
Inserting Objects
MS Word enables you to add graphics - pictures, images, charts

and drawn objects - to your documents.
Clip arts - MS Word has a built-in gallery of images, also known

as clip arts, which can be used in your documents. Clip arts are
prepared files of black and white or colour line drawings and half
tone images to be used in documents.
To insert a clip art:

Click where you want to insert the clip art.
Click Insert menu.
Point to Picture...
Click Clip Art… The Insert Clip Art task
pane will be displayed.
In the Search text: field type a word or
phrase that describes the clip you want.
Click Search button. The Insert Clip Art
task pane will display the search results.
In the Results box, click the clip to insert it.
Note that:
To narrow your search, do one or both of the following:
To limit search results to a specific collection of clips, in the
Search in box, click the arrow and select the collections you want
to search.
To limit search results to a specific type of media file, in the
Results should be box, click the arrow and select the check box
next to the types of clips you want to find.
Images from File - You can also insert images available on a
secondary storage medium (USB flash disk, hard-disk, CD etc.).
Click where you want to insert the picture.

Click From File… The Insert Picture dialog box will be displayed.
Browse to the disk/folder where the image file is located.
Double-click the picture you want to insert.
Charts/Graphs - You can also insert graphs in your documents:

Click where you want to insert the chart.
Click Insert menu.
Point to Picture.
Click Chart. The datasheet dialog box and a chart (based on the
data in the datasheet box) will be displayed.
Highlight all data in the datsheet dialog box.

Press Delete key. The contents of the chart will be deleted. The
chart frame/border will still be visible.
Type in your data in the datasheet. As you type in the data the
chart is created.
Click outside the chart. The datasheet dialog box will disappear.
Note that:
If you close the datasheet you can reopen it by double-clicking
the chart and then clicking Datasheet on the View menu. You
may need to re-open the datasheet dialog box to edit the chart
data.
Drawn objects – The Drawing toolbar includes a number of tools

for drawing simple objects, including lines, free drawn lines,
arrows, rectangles, squares, circles, text boxes and other
shapes. You will use the Drawing toolbar to draw shapes in your
documents.
To draw a line:
Click Line button on the Drawing toolbar.
The mouse pointer changes to a cross hair.
Place the cursor where you want the line to begin.
Click and drag to where you want the line to end.
Release the mouse button.
Note that:
If the Drawing toolbar is not visible, click View menu, point to
Toolbars and click Drawings.
To constrain the line to draw at 15-degree angles from its
starting point, hold down SHIFT key as you drag.
To lengthen the line in opposite directions from the first end
point, hold down CTRL key as you drag.
To draw a free form line:

Click AutoShapes button.
Point to Lines.
Click Freeform button.
Place the cursor where you want the line to begin.
Click and drag to draw the line.
Release the mouse button when ready.
To draw an arrow:
Click Arrow button on the Drawing toolbar.
The mouse pointer changes to a cross hair.
Place the cursor where you want the arrow to begin.
Click and drag to where you want the arrow to end.
Note that:
To change the arrow start/end style click the Arrow Style
button on the Drawing toolbar. Select the appropriate option.
To draw a rectangle/square:
Click Rectangle button.
Place the cursor where you want one corner of the
rectangle.
Click and drag diagonally to where you want the opposite corner
of the rectangle.
Note that:
To draw a square, hold down SHIFT key as you drag the mouse.
To draw an oval/circle:
Click Oval button.
Place the cursor where you want the shape to begin.
Click and drag until the shape is the size you want.
Note that:
To draw a circle, hold down SHIFT key as you drag the mouse.
A text box is a rectangular area where you can insert text.

To draw a text box:
Click Text Box button.
Place the cursor where you want to type.
Click the cursor.
Start typing.
Note that:
You can resize the text box by clicking on this, position the
pointer on one of the sizing handles and drag.
To draw other shapes:

Click AutoShapes button.
Select the appropriate category of shapes.
Draw the shape.
Moving, Copying & Deleting Graphics
To move pictures, images & charts:

Click the graphic to move. The border of the graphic will display
eight small squares known as sizing handles. Besides the sizing
handles, when you pictures and images (not charts) the Picture
toolbar will be displayed.
Click Cut button or press Ctrl+X.
Position the cursor where the graphic will be moved.
Click Paste button or press Ctrl+V.
To copy pictures, images & charts:

Click the graphic to copy.
Click Copy button or press Ctrl+C
Position the cursor where the graphic will be copied.
Click Paste button or press Ctrl+V
Note that:
You can cut-paste or copy-paste graphics from one document to
another, and to and from other applications, such as MS Excel
worksheet.
Resizing / Deleting Objects
Method A – Using the mouse.

Click the graphic to resize. The border of the graphic will display
eight small squares known as sizing handles.
Position the mouse pointer on anyone of the sizing handles.
Drag the mouse to resize the graphic.
Note that:
The diagonal sizing handles increase or decrease the size of the
graphic without changing its proportion. The middle sizing
handles on the left and right of the box widen or narrow the
image. The top and bottom sizing handles in the middle of the
box make the graphic taller and shorter.
Method B – Using the format picture/object dialog box.

This method is used to resize the graphic to specific
measurements.
Click the graphic to resize.

Click Format menu.
Click Picture… (if you clicked a picture or image) or Object… (if
you clicked a chart in step 1). The Format Picture or Format
Object dialog box will be displayed.
Click Size tab.

Adjust the Height: and Width: measurements under Size and
rotate.
Click OK button.
Note that:
Alternatively you can enter the height you want for the selected
object as a percentage of the original size under Scale.
If the Lock aspect ratio check box is selected, the Height and
Width settings change in relation to one another.
To delete graphics:
Click the graphic to delete.
Press Delete or Backspace key.
3.5 Mail Merge
Sometimes you may need to send a standard letter to a large

number of contacts. Typically you will address each of these
letters specifically to the intended recipient and you may also
need to prepare labels with individual recipient addresses to affix
to the envelope.
The novice user might type the standard letter, save it and then
personalize each of these letters manually by typing the recipient
contact details. However, this task is expensive in terms of time
especially if the same letter is sent to many recipients.
The mail merge facility in MS Word makes the task of generating

mass mailing letters and labels relatively easy.
Preparing any type of merged document typically involves two

files:
 The main document contains the standardised text and

graphics to be included on the letters or labels. You insert
special instructions, known as merge fields, in this
document to indicate where you want the variable
information to be printed from the data source file.
 The data source file contains the information that varies
with each version - for example, names, addresses,
account numbers etc.
When you merge the data source file and the main document,
Word inserts the appropriate information from the data file in the
main document’s standard text.
Preparing the Main Document
The first step when you perform a mail merge is creating a main
document. If you want to use an existing document as a mail
merge main document, open it before you choose mail merge.
To create the Main Document:

1. Type the main document or letter
and save it.
3. Point to Letters & Mailings.
4. Click Mail Merge Wizard... The Mail
Merge task pane will be displayed.
5. Tick the option Letters.
6. Click Next: Starting document.
(located at the bottom of Mail
Merge task pane).
7. Tick the option Use the current document if you want to

use the active letter/document displayed on the screen.
8. Click Next: Selecting recipients. (located at the bottom of
Mail Merge task pane).
The Mail Merge wizard will prompt you to select the recipients
to be later included in the letter (refer to next section).
Preparing the Data Source File
As indicated earlier on, the data source file contains the text and
graphics that vary with each version of a merged document.
The second step when you perform a mail merge is creating a
new data source file or use an existing data source file. In this
section you will create a new data source file. However, before
creating a new data source file, you will learn about some basic
concepts of data organisation.
Each set of related information makes up one record in the data

file. One record in a person’s mailing list, for example, contains
all the information for one individual person.
The different types of information – title, name, mailing address,

father’s name, and so on - are called fields. Each field in the
data file must have a unique name. In most cases, you list the
field names in the first record of the data file, called the header
record.
The remaining records in the data file, the data records, contain
the field information corresponding to each field name in the
header record.
Field Names
Nam Surnam Addres Address2 Town Header record
e e s1
John Borg 44, Main Street Qormi
Data records
Mary Vella ‘Il- St. Philip Zebbu
Bejta’ Street g
You can go through the following steps to create a new data

source file. The following steps continue from the previous
section.
1. Tick the option Type a new list if you

want to create a new data source file.
If you want to use an existing data
source file, tick the option Use an
existing list.
2. Click Create… below Type a new list. The New Address List
dialog box will be displayed. This dialog box lists the fields
you are likely to use in letters, labels and envelopes. You
can remove any of these fields or add new fields to the data
source file.
3. Click Customise… button to remove, add or rename fields in

the data source file. The Customise Address List dialog box
will be displayed.
4. To remove a field:
5. Click the field name to delete.
6. Click Delete button in the Customise Address List dialog box.
The underlying message will be displayed.
7. Click Yes button. The deleted field will no longer be displayed
in the Customise Address List dialog box.
To add a field:
i. Click Add… button in the Customise Address List dialog
box. The Add field dialog box will be displayed.
ii. Type a name for your field.
iii. Click OK button. The fieldname will be displayed in the
Customise Address List dialog box.
To rename a field:
i. Click Rename button in the Customise Address List dialog
box. The Rename Field dialog box will be displayed.
ii. Type in the new name in the To: field.
iii. Click OK button. The fieldname will be displayed in the
To arrange the order of field:
i. Click the field name to adjust its position in the
ii. Click Move up or Move down button.
8. Following changes made in the Customise Address List dialog

box (step 4), click OK button. The Customise Address List
dialog box will be closed. The New Address List dialog box will
display the added or renamed fields.
9. Click Close button. The Save Address List dialog box will be
displayed.
10. Browse to the drive/folder where the file will be saved.
11. Type in a name for the data source file in the File name:
field.
12. Click Save button. The Mail Merge Recipients dialog box will be
displayed. Also the mail merge toolbar will be displayed.
13. Click OK button to close the Mail Merge Recipients dialog

box.
Following the creation of the data source file you will proceed with
typing in the data:
1. Click Edit recipient list… in the Mail Merge task

pane or the Mail Merge Recipients button in the
Mail Merge toolbar. The Mail Merge Recipients
dialog box will be displayed.
2. Click Edit… button. The New Address List dialog box will be
displayed.
3. Type in the data in the fields.
4. Click New Entry button to type in the data of the next record.
5. Repeat step 3-4 (in this section) for further record entries.
6. Click Close button to return to the Mail Merge Recipients dialog
box. The latter will display all record entries.
7. Click OK button to close the Mail Merge Recipients dialog box.
To edit a record:
2. You can navigate to the specific record to edit using the First,
Previous, Next or Last button in the View Entries section.
Alternatively you can move to a direct record if you know

any piece of data in this record:
i. Click the Find… button. The Find Entry dialog box will be
displayed.
ii. In the Find: field type the data you know.
iii. Tick the option All fields to search this data in all fields.
Tick the option This field and select the field (from the
drop-down list) to locate the record.
iv. Click Find Next button to move to the record showing the
data entered in step ii.
v. Repeat step iv to move to the next record showing the
data entered in step ii.
vi. Click Cancel button of the Find Entry dialog box.
3. Edit the data as necessary.

4. Click Close button to return to the Mail Merge Recipients dialog
box.
5. Click Cancel button to close the Mail Merge Recipients dialog
box.
To delete a record:
1. Click Edit recipient list… in the Mail Merge task pane or the
Mail Merge Recipients button in the Mail Merge toolbar. The
Mail Merge Recipients dialog box will be displayed.
2. Click Edit… button. The New Address List dialog box will be
displayed.
3. Repeat step 2 as above to locate the record to delete.
4. Click Delete Entry button. You will be prompted to confirm
whether you wish to proceed with the deletion or not.
5. Click Yes button. The record will be deleted from the data
source file.
6. Click Close button to return to the Mail Merge recipients
dialog box.
7. Click OK button.
Merging the Data
Once you have created the main document and attached to it a
data source file it is very easy to perform the merge process. To
tell MS Word where you want variable information printed, you
insert the merge field names defined in the attached file. When
you merge the main document with the data file, Word replaces
the merge field names with the corresponding field information
from each record in the data file.
1. In the main document, place the cursor at the location where

the merge field will be inserted.
2. Click Insert Merge Fields button in the Mail Merge
toolbar. The Insert Merge field dialog box will be displayed.
3. Select the appropriate field names.

4. Click Insert button.
6. Repeat steps 1-5 as necessary.
«Title» «Name» «Surname»

«Address_Line_1»
«Address_Line_2»
«Town» «Post_code»
7. Click View Merged Data button. The document will

display the data.
8. Click Merge to Printer button to print the letters including
the merged data. The Merge to Printer dialog box will be
displayed.
9. Tick the appropriate option.
10. Click OK button to print the letter/s.
Note that:
 Each merge field starts and ends with these special
“chevron” symbols <<>>. You cannot insert a merge field
from the keyboard; you have to use Insert Merge Fields
button.
 Don’t forget to include spaces between merge fields if
they are separate words and remember the punctuation that
needs to appear in the finished document.
 If you see a field code such as {MERGEFIELD Title}
instead of «Title», select it and press ALT+F9 key
combination to display the field result.
Some buttons in the Mail Merge toolbar:
Button Effect
Click the name of the field you want to use, and MS

Word inserts it in the main document. When you
perform the mail merge later on, Word reads this
field from the data file, and inserts it in this place in
Button Effect
the main document.
Choose this button to switch between views of the
document with the field names displayed, or with
the actual data.
These buttons move you to either the beginning of
the data file or to the previous record in the data
file.
These buttons move you to either the end of the
data file or the next record in the data file.
This button invokes the Mail Merge Helper dialog
box. Use this when you want to begin the merge
process again.
Use this button to check the mail merge main
document against the data file. If there are field
names in the main document that do not appear in
the data file, this identifies them.
These buttons control the mail merge process and
are used to perform a mail merge, send a mail
merge document to a printer or to email instead.
These buttons allow you to find a particular field in
the data file, or open a data file for editing.
3.6 PREPARE OUTPUTS
Document Orientation & Paper Size
The orientation of a page can be either portrait or landscape. By

default, MS Word will display the page in portrait layout. Use
portrait orientation if you want the reader to hold the page with
the short edge at the top; use landscape orientation if you want
the reader to hold the page sideways with the long edge at the
top.
To set the document orientation:
1. Click File menu.
2. Click Page Setup... The Page Setup dialog box will be
displayed.
3. Click Margins tab.
4. Select Portrait or Landscape below Orientation.
5. Click OK button.
You can set the size of the paper:

1. Click File menu.
2. Click Page Setup... The Page Setup dialog box will be
displayed.
3. Click Paper tab.
4. Click one of the Paper sizes supported by your printer,

or click Custom size and then enter the paper size
dimensions in the Width and Height boxes.
5. Click OK button.
Page Margins
MS Word’s default setup assumes that you are working on a 21-

by-29.7cm page with top and bottom margins of 2.54cm, left
and right margins of 3.17cm. This is acceptable for a variety of
documents. You can choose to alter these page settings at any
time while you are working in a document.
To set page margins:

1. Click File menu
2. Click Page Setup...
4. Enter the appropriate measurements.

5. Click OK button
Option To Do This
Top, Bottom, Set the width of these margins.

Left, Right
Gutter Sets the width of the extra space you want to add to
the margin for binding.
Gutter position Position the gutter at the top, left, or right of a
document.
Inserting / Deleting Page Breaks
By default MS Word starts a new page when the previous one

fills up – this is called a soft page break. You can instruct MS
Word to end one page at a specific location and begin another
using a hard / manual page break.
To set a manual page break:
2. Click Break…
3. Click Page Break.
4. Click OK button.
A manual page break is inserted at the insertion point.
To remove a hard page break:

1. Switch to Normal view.
2. Place the insertion point below the hard page break - the
dotted line.
Note that:
 It is good practice to insert a page break to move to the
next page rather than using the ENTER key.
Headers & Footers
Headers and footers are areas in the top and bottom margins of
each page in a document.
A header is any text or graphic, which is displayed at the top of

every page in a document. Similarly, a footer is any text or
graphic which is displayed at the bottom of every page in a
document. Headers and footers often contain page numbers,
chapter titles, dates or author names.
MS Word places the header text within the top margin and footer
text within the bottom margin. If you specify a margin in your
page setup that is too small for the header or footer you design,
MS Word adjusts the margin to accommodate the design.
To insert headers and footers:

1. Click View menu.
2. Click Header and Footer.
3. In the Header box (this has a dotted border), type the text to
be displayed at the top of every page.
4. Apply any appropriate formatting such as typestyles, fonts,
borders etc.
5. Click Switch between Header and Footer button.
6. In the Footer, box type the text to be displayed at the bottom
of every page.
Option To Do This
Insert
Displays a list of text/phrases e.g. Filename and path that
AutoTex
can be included in the header or footer area.
t
Inserts a page number in the header or footer (depending
on which one you are using).
Inserts the number of pages of the active document.
Formats the page numbers.
Inserts a date in the header or footer (depending on which

one you are using).
Insert the time in the header or footer (depending on which
one you are using).
Displays the Page Setup dialog box where you can change
the page setup of selected sections.
Displays or hides the document text while you are working
in a header or footer.
Makes the header or footer (depending on which you are
using) the same as the one in the previous section.
Switches between the display of the header and the footer.
Displays the header or footer in the next section of the

document if there is one.
Displays the header or footer in the previous section of the

Option To Do This
document if there is one.
To delete header/footer:
2. In the Header box,
4. Click Switch between Header and Footer button.
5. Highlight the Footer text to delete.
Page Numbering
The page numbering facility is particularly useful when you are

working on a long document such as a project report etc. There
are several ways to modify page numbering in your document.
You can skip numbering the first page of the document or
section and have MS Word begin numbering with 1 on the
second page. You may find this useful for projects/reports that
begin with a title page.
To insert page numbers:

2. Click Page Numbers... The Page Numbers dialog box
will be displayed.
3. Enter the appropriate options.

4. Click Format... button. The Page Number Format dialog
box will be displayed.
5. Select the Number Format: you want from the drop-
down list.
6. Click OK button.
Option To Do This
Position Determines whether the page number will be

printed at the bottom or top of the page.
Alignment Determines whether the page number will be
positioned on the right, left, centred, outside and
inside.
Show Number Allows you to print or else omit the page number
on First Page from the first page.
Preview Shows a sample layout for all changes that you
make in this dialog box.
Option To Do This
Position Determines whether the page number will be

printed at the bottom or top of the page.
Alignment Determines whether the page number will be
positioned on the right, left, cantered, outside
and inside.
Show Allows you to print or else omit the page
Number on number from the first page.
First Page
Preview Shows a sample layout for all changes that you
make in this dialog box.
Spelling
By default, MS Word checks the spelling and grammar of all text

entered in the document. Every single word in the active
document (including text in headers, footers, footnotes, and
endnotes) is compared to the 104,000-word dictionary available
in Word. A wavy red line appears beneath words that are not
found in the dictionary. Apart from checking the document
spelling, MS Word carefully checks the grammar and style of
text, making suggestions whenever it believes it has found an
error. A wavy green line appears beneath incorrect grammar.
However, at times a word can be spelled correctly yet MS Word

does not find it in its dictionary. Proper nouns (Rita), specialised
terms (phototranspiration), acronyms and abbreviations (UOM)
etc. are not likely to be in the MS Word dictionary. If you do not
want MS Word to question such words during spell checks, you
can add them to a custom dictionary. In addition to spelling
mistakes, Word also alerts you to repeated words - for example
“the the” - and words that have an unusual pattern of
capitalisation, such as “PLay”. Likewise grammar “errors” may
turn out to be nothing more than a misunderstanding of your
text.
To use the automatic spelling & grammar check:

1. Right-click the mouse over the word having a wavy red/green
underline.
2. A pop-up menu appears listing any suggestions Word may
have about the correct spelling or grammar, as well as the
following choices: Ignore, Delete repeated word, Add, and
Spelling. Click any suggestion and the appropriate option.
You can also resolve errors without using the pop-up menu by
simply editing the text. Word checks the spelling of the word
again as soon as you move your cursor away from it, and if the
word is now spelled correctly, the red line disappears.
To run the spelling and grammar check:

1. Click Spelling and Grammar button.
2. Click the appropriate options (refer to the following table).
3. Click OK button when MS Word displays a message that it has
checked all text in the document.
Note that:
 If the insertion point or selection was not at the beginning of
your document when you begin checking spelling, MS Word
asks if you want to continue checking from the beginning of
the document.
Option To Do This
Not In Displays a possible error, such as an incorrectly spelled

Dictionary word, a duplicate word, a grammar error, or incorrect
capitalization. Edit the text in this box to correct it, and
then click Change, or click the correct word in the
Suggestions box and then click Change.
Suggestion Lists a number of words close to the incorrectly spelled
s word. Click the appropriate suggestion to choose it.
Ignore Leaves the word unchanged and continues with the
Once checking. The spell checker stops if the same word is
encountered within the same document. This button
changes to Resume if you click in the document to edit
the document.
Ignore All Leaves the word unchanged and skips any occurrences of
the same word within the entire document throughout the
rest of the current Word session.
Add to Adds the word in the Not In Dictionary box to the custom
Dictionary dictionary.
Change Replaces the incorrectly spelled word with the highlighted
word/phrase in the Suggestions: box. When the selected
error is a repeated word, this button changes to Delete so
you can easily remove the second instance of the word.
Change All Replaces all occurrences of the same incorrectly spelled
word with the word/phrase in the Suggestions: box.
Autocorrect Adds a word to the AutoCorrect list so that Word can
correct any incorrect spelling of it automatically as you
type.
Options Displays a dialog box in which you can specify the rules
that Word uses to check spelling and grammar.
Undo Reverses the most recent spelling and grammar check
actions, one at a time.
Previewing a Document
1. Click Print Preview button.

2. Select any of the buttons in the toolbar (refer to the following
table).
3. Click Close button to return to the editing screen.
Select To Do This
Sends the document to the printer.
To zoom in and out of the text. Click the magnifier over

the area to zoom in and click.
Displays one page at a time in the Preview window.
To view a number of pages at a time. Click on this

button. A drop-down box that contains page icons
appears. Click and drag the mouse pointer over the
number of pages to display on the screen.
Allows you to increase or decrease the view of the
page/s.
Displays a ruler proportional to the size of the page/s.
The ruler is useful to change the margins.
Shrinks your document to move a small portion of text
that appears on the last page of the document to the
previous page.
Displays the page/s without any of the screen elements.
Closes the Preview Window.
Displays help on the style and formatting of the area

selected.
Printing a Document
To print a document you can click Print button on the

Standard toolbar.
Doing the above prints one copy of the entire document to the
printer. However, in some cases, you want to print only a couple
of pages from your document or else more than one copy of
your document.
1. Click File menu.

2. Click Print... The Print dialog box will be displayed.
3. Choose any of the appropriate options. (Refer to the
following table).
4. Click OK button.
Select To Do This
Page All Prints the entire document.

Range
Current Prints the page where the insertion point is
page located.
Selectio Prints the highlighted text.
n
Pages Prints any pages which you select. Enter the
page numbers to print e.g. 3,7,9-12, 18 prints
pages 3, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 18.
Copies Allows you to set the number of copies you
want to print.
Collate Copies Prints a complete range of pages before
printing the next copy. For example, if you
Select To Do This
are printing 2 copies of pages 1-3, Word prints
one copy of each page before starting over
and printing each of the three pages again to
make the second copy of the set of pages.
Print What: Indicates what you want to print: Document,
Summary, Info, Annotations etc.
Print: Prints all pages in range, odd pages or even
pages.
Print to File Prints the document to a file on disk. Word
prompts you to enter the name of the file.
3.6 Spreadsheets
Spreadsheet applications are computer programs that originated
in the accounting world. These programs can be used for a wide
variety of activities, but most applications of spreadsheets focus
on generating numeric information from other numeric
information. MS Excel is an example of a spreadsheet program.
3.6.1 Using the Application
MS Excel comes in a variety of versions. Over the years the

program has been updated, making it more powerful and easier
to use. These course notes are based on MS Excel 2003.
3.6.2 Opening MS Excel

3. Click Microsoft Excel.
3.6.3 Features of the MS Excel Screen
MS Excel screen displays a grid of rectangles similar to a graph

paper. This grid is known as a spreadsheet or worksheet - it is
the primary document where you store and manipulate data.
A worksheet is made up of vertical lines called columns and

horizontal lines called rows.
A group of worksheets make up a workbook. By default, each MS

Excel workbook displays three worksheets, which are identified
by tabs along the bottom of the screen – Sheet 1, Sheet 2,
Sheet 3.
Worksheets are like pages in a book. The workbook is the book

containing these pages or worksheets.
Each column has a heading, consisting of one or two alphabet
letters. Each row has a heading, consisting of a number.
The screen shows only a small portion of the whole worksheet.

Every single worksheet is made up of 256 columns and 65,536
rows. The intersection of each column and row is a cell. The
total number of cells in a worksheet is 16,777,216.
Each cell has a unique address known as its ‘cell reference’. A

cell reference consists of:
the column heading the row heading

(A, B, C…) (1, 2, 3…)
Examples of cell references include A1, F23, BC25 etc.
Note that:
 Cell references always start with the column heading and
then the row heading.
 Cell references are not case sensitive i.e. you can use
lowercase letters (a5) or uppercase letters (A5).
3.6.4. Closing MS Excel

1. Click File menu.
2. Click Exit.
Note that:
 You can also close MS Excel using the shortcut key
combination: ALT+F4 keys.
3.6.5. Opening Existing Workbooks
2. Click the drop-down arrow in the Look in: field and

select the drive and/or folder that contain the
workbook to open.
3. Double-click the workbook to open.
Note that:
 You can open a recently used workbook using the File
recently used workbooks.
 You can also open a recently used workbook using the New
Workbook task pane. In the Open a workbook section, click
the name of the workbook to open. If the Task Pane is not
visible, click View menu and Task Pane.
 You can open an existing workbook using the shortcut key
combination: CTRL+O keys.
To open other existing workbooks repeat steps 1-3.
3.6.6. Closing a Workbook
1. Save your work.

2. Click File menu
Note that:
 You can close a workbook using the shortcut key
3.6.7. Creating a New Workbook
Every MS Excel workbook is based on a template. A template

determines the basic structure for a workbook and contains the
settings of the workbook such as fonts, page layout, special
formatting, and styles.
By default, all new workbooks are created on a standard (or

default) template called workbook.xlt. To open a new workbook
based on the default template:
Click New button. A new file with empty cells will be
opened.
Note that:
 You also open a new workbook based on the
default template using the New Workbook
task pane. In the New section, click Blank Workbook.
You can also base a new workbook on other templates that are
available in MS Excel or created by you.
1. In the New Document task pane, click
General Templates… below New from
template section. The Templates dialog box will be displayed.
2. Select the template tab card Spreadsheet Solutions.

3. Click the template within Spreadsheet Solutions in step 2 e.g.
Balance Sheet
4. Click OK button.
Note that:
 You can open a new workbook using the shortcut key
3.6.8. Saving a Workbook

typing. When you save a workbook for the first time, you need
to give it a name. Workbook names can have up to 255
To save a workbook to a location or drive:
disk and/or folder where the workbook will be saved. By
default, the file will be saved on Drive C: in My Documents
folder.
3. Type a name for your workbook in the File name: field.
Note that:
 After you save a file for the first time, the filename
appears in the title bar.
 When you save the file the second, third, fourth time etc.
the computer will not ask you to input all this information
again but will only update the file with the changes made
up to that moment.
 You can save a workbook using the shortcut key
combination: CTRL+S keys.
To save an open workbook under another name:
1. Click File menu.
To save a workbook in to another format:

1. Click File menu.
the disk and/or folder where the workbook will be saved.
4. Type a name for your workbook in the File name: field.
5. Click the Save as type: drop down arrow.
Microsoft Excel 5.0/95 Workbook (*.xls)
Note that:
 The facility to save a workbook to another format can be
useful so that the workbook can be read by previous
versions of MS Excel or other spreadsheet programs.
3.6.9. Switching between Open Workbooks

You can switch between two or more open workbooks by:
2. Click the name of the workbook to display.
Note that:
 You can also switch between open workbooks by clicking
the workbook file button on the task bar (running
horizontally across the bottom of the MS Windows screen).
3.6.10. Modifying User Preferences
You can modify name of the author attached to every workbook
generated in MS Excel as follows:
2. Click Options… The Options dialog box will be displayed.
3. In the General tab card type in the appropriate information in
the User name: field.
4. Click OK button.
You can also set a folder location where all workbooks will be
saved:
1. Repeat steps 1-2 as for modifying the user name.
2. In the General tab card, in the Default file location: field, type
in the drive/folder where the workbooks will be saved.
3. Click OK button.
3.6.11. Using Help

1. Click Help menu.
2. Click Microsoft Excel Help. The office assistant is displayed.
3. Type a keyword or question in the Answer Wizard box.
4. Click Search button.
5. Click the topic to display.
3.6.12. Magnification & Zoom Tools

The zoom feature allows you to enlarge or reduce the view of a
page on the screen. MS Excel offers two ways of zooming – the
zoom tool on the standard toolbar and the zoom dialog box in
the View menu.
1. Click Zoom control button.

2. Select the appropriate option. At 100%, the letters
and numbers are the same size they will be when
you print them. Below 100% they are smaller.
Above 100%, they are bigger.
Note that:
 You can also type in any percentage value in the zoom
textbox.
3.6.13. Built-in Toolbars

A toolbar is a row/column of buttons/icons. These buttons are
used to perform tasks quickly without opening menus. By
default, MS Excel displays two toolbars - the Standard toolbar
and the Formatting toolbar – on a single row.
To display the Standard and Formatting toolbars on two separate

rows:
2. Click Customize…
3. In the Options tab card, tick the option Show Standard and
Formatting Toolbars on two rows.
Displaying Additional Toolbars

1. Click View menu.
2. Select Toolbars.
3. Click on the toolbar to display. The selected toolbar is
displayed on the screen
Toolbars are not fixed to any part of the MS Excel screen – they
can float. Accordingly, you can move toolbars to any part of the
screen by dragging them.
To move a floating toolbar:

1. Position the pointer anywhere on the title-bar of toolbar.
2. Drag the toolbar to any part of the screen.
3. Release the mouse button when the toolbar is at the
desired location.
To turn a fixed toolbar into a floating toolbar:

1. Position the mouse pointer on an empty part i.e. an area
without any buttons of the toolbar to detach.
2. Double-click the mouse.
To re-attach a floating toolbar:

The toolbar moves to its home port at the top or bottom of the
screen.
To hide a toolbar:
1. Click View menu.
2. Point to Toolbars. A sub-menu displaying available toolbars
will be displayed. The toolbars which are currently displayed
in MS Excel will have a checkmark.
3. Click the check marked toolbar to hide the toolbar.
3.6.14. Entering Data in Cells
Worksheet cells can hold three kinds of data: text, numbers and
formulas.
 Text entries - are labels such as December or Zebbug or
text/number combinations such as birth dates etc.
 Numeric entries - are numbers on which calculations will
be performed.
 Formulas - are calculations involving two or more values
(to be discussed later on).
A cell in a worksheet should contain only one element of data,

for example, first name detail in one cell and surname detail in
the adjacent cell.
As a good practice when you create lists:

 avoid blank rows and columns in the main body of list
 insert blank row before Total row
 ensure that cells bordering the list are blank.
To enter a number, text or date in a cell:

1. Click the cell where the data will be entered.
2. The selected cell will show a thick border. Its reference will
also be displayed in the Name box (over the top left box of
the worksheet). When you select a cell you make this active
i.e. you can type in this cell.
3. Type the appropriate data.
4. Press Enter key or click Enter button in the
formula bar.
Note that:
 By default, text entries are aligned to the left of cells and
numeric entries are aligned to the right of cells.
 Text entries are usually referred to as labels. Labels
describe numeric data in a cell/s.
 To enter dates use a slash or a hyphen to separate the
parts of a date; for example, type 19/08/2002 or 19-Aug-
2002.
3.6.15. Navigating within a Workbook

To move from one cell to the next you press the arrow/cursor
keys on the keyboard. You can also click on any cell to make this
active.
You can move to column IV (the last column in the spreadsheet)

by pressing CTRL+ keys. You can move to row 65,536 (the
last row in the spreadsheet) by pressing CTRL+ keys. To return
back to cell A1 – the home cell – press HOME key.
3.6.16. Selecting Cells
To select a single cell:

Click the cell to select.
Note that:
 The thick border around the cell indicates that it is
highlighted.
 Click anywhere outside the highlighted cell/area to switch
off the highlighting.
A range of cells is a group of cells in a worksheet.
An adjacent cell range is a group of cells that are directly beside,

above or below one another. Adjacent cells are sometimes
referred to as contiguous cells.
To select an adjacent cell range:

1. Click the first cell to select.
2. Hold down the mouse button and drag through the
remaining cells to select.
Note that:
 The first cell will also be included in the selection even
though it is not shaded.
A non-adjacent cell range consists of group of cells that are not

directly beside, above or below one another. Non-adjacent cells
are sometimes referred to as non-contiguous cells.
To select a non-adjacent cell range:

1. Select the first cell or range of cells to select.
2. Press and hold the CTRL key and drag through another
range of cells.
To select the entire worksheet:

Click Select All button of the worksheet
i.e. the shaded cell where row 1 meets
the column A.
3.6.17. Editing Cell Content

You can replace the content of a cell as follows:
1. Double-click the cell that contains the data to edit.
2. Perform the necessary editing.
Note that:
 You can also edit the contents of a cell by clicking the cell
and pressing F2 key.
3.6.18. Using Undo/Redo Command

MS Excel records all actions you performed since you opened the
workbook during a session. All actions are stored in the Undo
list. If you change your mind, you can tell MS Excel to ‘undo’
them.
Click Undo button to reverse your previous action/s.

Click Redo button to undo your Undo action.
Note that:
 The Undo feature does not work once you close your
workbook. Closing a workbook removes all contents from
the Undo list.
3.6.19. Searching & Replacing Data

When you need to review or change data in your workbook, use
the Find and Replace commands in the Edit menu. Use Find to
quickly locate occurrences of the data you specify. To change
data use Replace command.
1. Select the range of cells you want to search. If you want to

search the entire worksheet, click any cell in the worksheet.
2. Click Edit menu.
3. Click Replace... The Find and Replace dialog box will be
displayed.
4. In the Find what: field, enter the text or numbers you want to
search for or choose a recent search from the Find what: drop
down box.
5. Click Options button to further define your search. For
example, you can search for all of the cells that contain the
same kind of data, such as formulas.
6. In the Replace with: field, enter the replacement characters
and specific formats if necessary.
7. Click Find Next button.
8. To replace the highlighted occurrence or all occurrences of the
found characters, click Replace button or Replace All button.
Note that:
 If you want to delete the characters in the Find what: field,
leave the Replace with: field blank.
 To cancel a search in progress, press ESC key.
3.6.20. Sorting Data

You can sort the data in ascending (A to Z, 0-9) or descending
order (Z-A, 9-0).
1. Click a cell in the column you would like to sort by.

2. Click Sort Ascending button
or Sort Descending button.
Note that:
 If you sort by clicking the Column Heading button the
column itself is sorted. The data in the other columns will
not be sorted.
The Sort Ascending button works as follows:
Data Type Sorting Rule
Numbers From smallest negative to largest positive.

Dates and Actual values, regardless of the formatted appearance.
Times (April does not come before February, because
alphabetical formatting is ignored).
Text 0-9, space ! “ # $ % & ( ) * + , . / : ; < = > ? @ [ \ ] ^
_ ‘ { } ~ A-Z.
Blank cells Blank cells are last, whether the sort order is ascending
or descending.
3.6.21. Copying Data
You can copy the content of one or more cells from one location
to another, either within a worksheet, between worksheets or to
another workbook.
1. Highlight the cell/s to copy.
2. Click Copy button.
3. Select the upper-left cell of the paste area - the cells you
want the data to be copied to - or select the entire paste
area. You can click on a cell in a different
sheet within the same workbook or open another workbook
file.
4. Click Paste button.
Note that:
 When you click Copy button, MS Excel surrounds the
selected cells with a moving border and copies the data to
the Clipboard. You can use ESC key to switch off the
moving border.
3.6.22. Using AutoFill Tool
Sometimes you find yourself entering data in a logical sequence

such as days of the week, month names, numbers etc. The
AutoFill feature logically repeats some series as indicated in the
table shown below.
1. Type in the cell.

2. Position the mouse on the fill handle of the cell. The
fill handle is the solid, small square located in the
lower-right corner of the selection.
3. Drag the fill handle down or to the right.
4. Release the mouse button at the end of the series range you
want to create.
Note that:
 You can see the current value in the series in the
reference area of the formula bar. This changes as you
drag the fill handle. If you drag the fill handle further
than you intended, you can drag it in the opposite
direction to clear the unwanted values. Stop dragging at
the last value you want.
Data type Starting series Extended

value series
Quarter abbreviated Qtr 3 Qtr 4, Qtr 1,

Qtr 2
Month names November December,
January
Month names Nov Dec, Jan
abbreviated
Weekday Saturday Sunday,
Monday
3.6.23. Moving Data

You can move the content of one or more cells from one location
to another, either within a worksheet, between worksheets or to
another workbook.
1. Select the cell/s to move.
2. Click Cut button.
3. Select the upper-left cell of the paste area - the cells you
want the data to move to - or select the entire paste area.
You can click on a cell in a different sheet within the same
workbook or open another workbook file.
3.6.24. Deleting Cell Contents

To delete the contents of a cell:
1. Select the cell to delete.
2. Press DELETE key. The cell will be emptied.
3.6.25. Selecting Rows
To select a single row:
Click the heading of the row to select e.g. click
3 to select row 3.
Note that:
 The entire row of the spreadsheet will be highlighted. The
leftmost cell will also be included in the selection even
though it is not shaded.
To select a range of adjacent rows:

1. Click the heading of the first row to select e.g. click row
heading 3.
2. Press and hold SHIFT key and click the heading of the last
row to select e.g. row heading 5.
Note that:
 Alternatively you can drag across the row headings of the
rows to be selected.
To select a range of non-adjacent rows:

1. Click the heading of the row to select e.g. click row heading
3.
2. Press and hold CTRL key and click the heading of the row to
select next row e.g. row heading 5.
3. Repeat step 2 to select other rows.
4. Release the mouse.
5. Release CTRL key.
3.6.26. Selecting Columns

To select a single column:
Click the heading of the column to select e.g.
click column heading D.
Note that:
 The entire column of the spreadsheet will be selected. The
topmost cell will also be included in the selection even though
it is not shaded.
To select a range of adjacent columns:

1. Click the heading of the first column to select e.g. click
column heading B.
2. Press and hold SHIFT key and click the heading of the last
column to select e.g. column heading D.
Note that:
 Alternatively you can drag across the column headings of
the columns to select.
To select a range of non-adjacent columns:

1. Click the heading of the column to select e.g. click column
heading A.
2. Press and hold CTRL key and click the heading of the column
to select next column e.g. column heading C.
3. Repeat step 2 to select other columns.

5. Release CTRL key.
3.6.27. Inserting / Deleting Rows & Columns
To insert rows or columns:
1. Select the entire row or column you want shifted to open
space for the new row or column.
3. Click Rows or Columns.
Note that:
 To insert multiple rows or columns, extend the selection to
include the same number of rows or columns you want to
insert.
To delete cells, rows or columns:

1. Select the cells, rows or columns to
delete.
2. Click Edit menu.
3. Click Delete...
5. Click OK button.
3.6.28. Modifying Column Widths & Row Heights

Column widths can be changed to allow enough space for the
data to fit in the cells of the column.
1. Position the mouse pointer over the right

border of the column heading to adjust.
2. Drag the mouse.
3. Release the mouse button to complete the adjustment.
The same procedure can be used to adjust the row height but
instead you use the row heading.
To modify column widths to a specified value:

1. Select the column/s to adjust its width.
3. Point to Column.
4. Click Width…
5. Enter the width value.
6. Click OK button.
To modify row heights to a specified value:

1. Select the row/s to adjust its width.
3. Point to Row.
4. Click Height…
5. Enter the height value.
6. Click OK button.
You can also adjust the width of a column according to the

longest data entry in that column:
1. Select the column/s to adjust its width.
3. Point to Column.
4. Click AutoFit Selection.
Note that:
 Alternatively you can double-click the right edge of the
column heading. This adjusts the column width according to
the longest entry in that column.
You can also adjust the height of a row according to the data
entry in that row:
1. Select the row/s to adjust its height.
3. Point to Row.
4. Click AutoFit.
Note that:
 Alternatively you can double-click the bottom edge of the
row heading.
3.6.29. Freezing/Unfreezing Row and/or Column Titles
Comparing two pieces of information at either ends of a large
spreadsheet can be very difficult. MS Excel enables you to ‘lock
in’ column and/or row titles such that these will be in view no
matter where you scroll through your sheet. This facility of
‘locking in’ columns and/or rows is known as freezing.
To freeze column and/or row titles:

1. Click the appropriate cell e.g. if row 1 and column 1 will be
‘locked in’, click cell B2.
3. Click Freeze Panes.
Note that:
 Two dark lines appear above and to the left of the cell
selected in step 1. These lines mark the areas of the
spreadsheet you have chosen to freeze. Now as you scroll
horizontally or vertically inside the spreadsheet, the areas
above and to the left of the dark, lines will stay on the
screen while the rest of the sheet is allowed to scroll.
To unfreeze column and/or row titles repeat steps 2-3 as above.
3.6.30. Switching between Worksheets

You can switch to another sheet within the
same workbook by clicking on the appropriate
tab at the bottom left of the spreadsheet screen.
3.6.31. Inserting / Deleting Worksheets

Earlier on you have learnt that workbooks can contain several
sheets (also known as worksheets). By default each workbook
displays three sheets – Sheet1, Sheet2 & Sheet3. To switch from
one sheet to the next you need to click on the appropriate sheet
tab (bottom right of the workbook).
The sheet feature allows you to split your data into manageable
sections. The sheets could have the same type of information,
for example, sales per person per month i.e. each sheet would
be a different month. Or, the sheets could contain totally
different information, but you have a need to use data from one
sheet on another sheet.
To insert a single sheet:

2. Click Worksheet.
Note that:
 A new sheet tab will be displayed at the bottom of the
workbook screen.
To add multiple sheets:

1. Determine the number or worksheets you want to add.
2. Hold down SHIFT, and then select the same number of
existing worksheet tabs that you want to add in the open
workbook. For example if you want to add three new
worksheets, select three existing worksheet tabs.
3. Repeat steps 1-2 as for inserting a single sheet.
You can delete one or more sheets:

1. Select the sheets you want to delete.
2. Click Edit menu.
3. Click Delete Sheet. You will be prompted to confirm the
deletion.
4. Click Delete button to delete or Cancel button to stop the
deletion.
3.6.32. Moving, Copying & Renaming Worksheets
To move or copy sheets within a

workbook:
1. Select the sheets you want to move or
copy.
2. Click Edit menu.
3. Click Move or Copy Sheet… The Move
or Copy dialog box will be displayed.
4. In the To book: field select the
workbook to receive the sheets. To
move or copy the selected sheets to a
new workbook, click new book.
5. In the Before sheet: field select the sheet before which you
want to insert the moved or copied sheets.
6. To copy the sheets instead of moving them, select the Create
a copy check box.
7. Click OK button.
Note that:
 To move or copy sheets to another workbook, open the
workbook that will receive the sheets. Repeat steps 1-7 as
above.
 You can also move a sheet within a workbook by dragging
the sheet tab.
As you start to use sheets, you will probably need to give the
sheets more meaningful names.
To rename the active sheet:

2. Point to Sheet.
3. Click Rename. The name in the sheet tab will be
highlighted.
4. Type the new name over the current name.
Note that:
 You can also rename a sheet, by right-clicking the sheet
tab card, selecting the option Rename… and repeating step
4 as above.
 The sheet name can consist of one or more words. The
longer the name, however, the fewer tabs you can see at
once.
 It is a good practice to use meaningful worksheet names
rather than accept default names.
3.7. Formulas & Functions
3.7.1. Formulae
Formulae allow you to perform calculations – addition,

subtraction, multiplication and division - using values from any
cell/s in a spreadsheet. You build formulae using the arithmetic
operators:
The plus sign (+). The slash (/) for division.
The minus sign (-). The asterisk (*) for
multiplication.
There are some basic rules associated with formulae:
 A formula always begins with an equal (=) sign.
 Cells are referenced in a formula by their column-row
identifier, i.e. A1, B2 etc.
 You do not have to enter capital letters in your formula; MS
Excel will automatically capitalize them for you.
 The symbols for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and
division are: + - * /
 A formula cannot contain spaces.
 Always press Enter key to confirm your formula. The answer
to the formula displays in the cell into which the formula is
entered.
Addition
Consider the following sheet:
A B C D
1 Income
2 Total Sales 4000 5000
3
4 Expenses
5 Cost of Goods 1500 1800
Sold
6 Advertising 300 350
7 Rent 450 650
8 Total Expenses
9
10 Profit or Loss
11
12 Average
Expenses
13
14 Tax Rate @8%
15
1. Click the cell where the answer will be placed e.g. C8

2. Enter the formula: =C5+C6+C7
3. Press ENTER key.
Note that:
 The answer will be displayed in the cell where you entered
the formula.
 You can still see the formula in the formula bar.
 The answer can also be worked out by typing
=1500+300+450 in cell C8, however, if one of the values
in cell C5, C6 or C7 change, you will also need to change
the number in cell C8 otherwise the answer will be wrong.
Instead of numbers we use cell references in cell C8 so
that the answer will be automatically updated when values
change.
Subtraction
2. Enter the formula: =C2-C8
3. Press ENTER key.
Multiplication
2. Enter the formula: =C10*8%
3. Press ENTER key.
Division
2. Enter the formula: =C8/3
3. Press ENTER key.
3.7.2. Formula Error Messages

Excel displays error messages when your formula/function
cannot do the calculation. The following are some standard error
messages associated with formulae:
Error Explanation
##### The cell contains a number or calculation result that is too
wide for the cell to display. Adjust the column width to
accommodate the result.
#VALUE! The formula contains text (or a cell reference that points to
a cell containing text) instead of a number. Edit the formula
or cell to sort this problem.
#REF! Probably the formula contains a cell reference that points to
an invalid cell (the cell could have been deleted).
Error Explanation
#NAME? Excel does not recognise text contained within a formula.
#DIV/0 The formula divides a number by zero or by a cell reference
that points to a cell containing a zero. The same message is
displayed if you divide a number by a cell reference that
points to an empty cell.
3.7.3. Relative & Absolute Cell Referencing
Consider the example displayed on the next page, you can use
the AutoFill feature to copy formulae from one cell to another.
1. Click in the cell where the answer will be placed e.g. C8.
2. Type the formula =C5+C6+C7 to calculate the total
expenses.
3. Use AutoFill to replicate the function on cells D8.
Note that:
 Cell D8 displays the answer. If you click this cell, the
formula bar displays the formula used to calculate the
answer.
However you need to use the AutoFill with caution when

replicating formulas and functions. If you calculate the tax rate
in cell C14 and then drag the formula to D14, E14 and F14 you
will get strange answers. Click in the cell where the answer will
be placed e.g. in C14 and type the formula =C10*B14 to
calculate the tax rate on the Profit. Now drag the formula using
the AutoFill handle to cell D14. The first answer will be correct
(140) but the second one is definitely incorrect (308000). What
happened?
A B C D
1 Income
3
4 Expenses
Sold
7 Rent 450 650
8 Total Expenses
9
10 Profit or Loss
11
12 Average
Expenses
13
14 Tax Rate 8%
15
When you dragged the formula =C10*B14 to cell D14, the

computer created the formula =D10*C14. MS Excel adjusted
the formula according to its new position - this is called relative
referencing.
However, in your example you expected MS Excel to continue to

refer to the same tax rate. Therefore you have to modify the
formula to continue referring to a specific cell called absolute
referencing.
Absolute cell references allow you to continue to refer to a cell,

no matter where you copy a formula. You create an absolute
cell reference by entering dollar signs ($) before each part of a
cell reference of a formula you want to copy. The above tax rate
formula will be modified to =C10*$B$14.
Therefore:
 A relative cell reference is a reference to a cell in the format
A1. MS Excel changes a relative cell reference when you copy
a formula or function containing such a reference.
 An absolute cell reference is a reference to a cell in the format
$A$1. MS Excel does not adjust an absolute cell reference
when you copy a calculation containing such a reference.
3.7.4. Arithmetic Functions

Functions, like formulae, allow you to perform calculations using
values from any cell/s in a spreadsheet. You will use the
following common functions:
sum( ) average( ) count( )
min( ) max( ) round( )
There are some basic rules associated with functions:
 Functions always begins with an equal (=) sign.
 Cells are referenced in a function by their column-row
identifier, i.e. A1, B2 etc.
 You do not have to enter capital letters in your function;
MS Excel will automatically capitalize them for you.
 Function cannot contain spaces.
 Always press Enter key to confirm your function. The
answer to the function displays in the cell into which the
function is entered.
Sum Function
Consider the following sheet:
A B C D
1 Income
3
4 Expenses
Sold
7 Rent 450 650
8 Total Expenses
9
10 Minimum
Expense
11 Maximum
Expense
12 Average
Expenses
13

5. Enter the function: =sum(C5:C7)
6. Press ENTER key.
Note that:
 The answer will be displayed in the cell where you entered
the function.
 You can still see the function in the formula bar.
 Using the sum function facilitates the addition of a range of
cells. The function in the above example tells the
computer to add the contents of cells C5 to C7.
You can use the AutoSum function to add the contents of a

range of cells:
1. Click the cell where the answer will be placed e.g.
C8
2. Click the AutoSum button.
3. Highlight the cells to add their values by dragging the mouse.
4. Press ENTER key.
Minimum Function
The Minimum function returns the smallest value in a range of

cells.
2. Enter the function: =min(C5:C7)
3. Press ENTER key.
Maximum Function
The Maximum function returns the largest value in a range of

cells.
2. Enter the function: =max(C5:C7)
3. Press ENTER key.
Average Function
The Average function returns the average (arithmetic mean) of a

range of cells.
2. Enter the function =average(C5:C7)
3. Press ENTER key.
Count Function
Sometimes you may wish to count values or worksheet elements

(text, blank cells, specific number or text, etc.) in a spreadhseet.
A "counting" function will return the number of cells in a range
that meet certain criteria.
The COUNT function works out how many cells in a given range
contain numbers (including dates and formulae with numerical
answers). It ignores blank cells and cells containing text, logical
or error values.
=COUNT(value1,value2,…)
Where value1, value2,... are 1 to 30 arguments that can contain

or refer to a variety of different types of data, but only numbers
are counted.
Consider the following example.

Formula Description (Result)
=COUNT(A2:A8) Counts the number of cells that
contain numbers in the list (3).
=COUNT(A5:A8) Counts the number of cells that
contain numbers in the last 4
rows of the list (2).
=COUNT(A2:A8,2) Counts the number of cells that
contain numbers in the list, and
the value 2 (4)
CountA Function
The COUNTA function counts the number of cells that contain
any type of value - numbers, text, error text etc. It does not
include empty cells.
=COUNTA(value1,value2,…)
Where value1, value2,... are 1 to 30 arguments representing the

values you want to count.
Consider the following example.
=COUNTA(A2:A8) Counts the number of

nonblank cells in the list (6).
=COUNTA(A5:A8) Counts the number of

nonblank cells in the last 4
rows of the list (4).
=COUNTA(A1:A7,2) Counts the number of
nonblank cells in the list above
and the value 2 (7).
=COUNTA(A1:A7,"Two") Counts the number of

nonblank cells in the list above
and the value "Two" (7).
Round Function
The ROUND function rounds a number to a specified number of

digits.
=ROUND(number,num_digits)
Where the number is the number you want to round. Num_digits

specifies the number of digits to which you want to round
number.
Note that:
 If num_digits is greater than 0 (zero), then number is
rounded to the specified number of decimal places.
 If num_digits is 0, then number is rounded to the nearest
integer.
 If num_digits is less than 0, then number is rounded to
the left of the decimal point.

=ROUND(2.15, Rounds 2.15 to one decimal place (2.2)
1)
=ROUND(2.149, Rounds 2.149 to one decimal place (2.1)
1)
=ROUND(-1.475, Rounds -1.475 to two decimal places (-1.48)
2)
=ROUND(21.5, - Rounds 21.5 to one decimal place to the left of the
1) decimal point (20)
3.7.5. Using the Logical Function IF
The logical function IF (also known as the IF statement) tells MS
Excel what to place in a cell (text, number or calculation) if
certain defined parameters are either met or not met.
Consider the following values A=5 and B=6. The results of the
following logical tests are:
Operators Symbol Values for Result

Evaluation
Equal to = A=B FALSE
Not equal to <> A<>B TRUE
Greater than > B>A TRUE
Less than < B<A FALSE
Greater than or >= B>=A TRUE
equal to
Less than or equal <= B<=A FALSE
to
The IF( ) function decides the contents of a cell on a spreadsheet

based on whether a test condition is TRUE or FALSE. It returns a
value if a one condition is TRUE, and another value or result if
the condition is FALSE.
The IF( ) function is written as:

IF(logical_test, value_if_true, value_if_false)
Where:
logical_test is any value or expression that can be evaluated to
TRUE or FALSE.
value_if_true is the value returned if the logical test is TRUE.
value_if_false is the value returned if the logical test is FALSE.
Example 1:
A B C
1 Part No. Amount Available
2 542013B 4 Yes
3 190802A 0 No
4 121271C 10 Yes
The spreadsheet uses the IF() function to display a message in

column C depending on the Amount for each part which is
recorded in column B. If the Amount is 0 column C displays ‘No’
otherwise it displays ‘Yes’.
The formula in C2 is written as follows: =IF(B2=0, “No”, “Yes”)

The logical_test is B2=0
The value_if_true is “No”
The value_if_false is “Yes”
Example 2:
A B C
1 Part No. Amount Ordered
2 542013B 4 On order
3 190802A 0 On order
4 121271C 10 No

column C depending on the Amount for each part which is
recorded in column B. If the Amount is less than 5, column C
displays ‘On order’ otherwise it displays ‘No’.
The formula in C2 is written as follows: =IF(B2<5, “On order”,

“No”)
The logical_test is B2<5
The value_if_true is “On order”
The value_if_false is “No”
Example 3:
A B C
1 Student Average Mark Pass/Fail
2 Borg Jan 55 Pass
3 Callus Mario 44 Fail
4 Portelli Carlo 78 Pass

column C depending on the Average Mark obtained by a student.
If the Average Mark is equal to or greater than 45, column C
displays ‘Pass’ otherwise it displays ‘Fail’.
The formula in C2 is written as follows: =IF(B2>=45, “Pass”,

“Fail”)
The logical_test is B2>=45
The value_if_true is “Pass”
The value_if_false is “Fail”
Example 4:
A B C
1 Staff Sales Commission
@ 2%
2 Bartolo Carol 500 10
3 Felice Philip 255 5.1
4 Zammit 210 0
Lourdes

column C depending on the Sales made by each staff. If the
Sales is equal to or greater than 250, column C displays a 2%
commission of the sales otherwise it displays ‘0’.
The formula in C2 is written as follows: =IF(B2>=250, B2*2%,
0)
The logical_test is B2>=250
The value_if_true is the answer returned by B2*2%
The value_if_false is “0”
3.8. Formatting
3.8.1. Formatting Cells
By default, MS Excel uses the General format for numbers that

you type in cells. The General format has the following
characteristics:
 Zeros are not displayed after the decimal point – if you type
23.50 this will be displayed as 23.5.
 Thousand numbers are not separated by the comma symbol –
if you type 4,000 this will be displayed as 4000.
You can use several methods to change the formatting of

numbers. Several number format features are available on the
Formatting toolbar.
Option Button To Do
Currency Puts the default currency style on the left;

puts a decimal point at the end; displays
two numbers to the right of the decimal
point; adds commas to separate thousands.
Displays the number as a percentage with
Percent
no decimals.
Comma Separates thousands with a comma; adds a
decimal point; displays two digits to the
right of the decimal point.
Increase Increases the number of characters
Decimal (numbers) to the right of the decimal point
by one.
Decrease Decreases the number of characters
Decimal (numbers) to the right of the decimal point
by one.
To format numbers:
1. Highlight the cell/s you want to format.
2. Click Currency, Percent, Comma, Increase Decimal or
Decrease Decimal button.
You can also format numbers as follows:

1. Highlight the cell/s you want to format.
3. Click Cells...
4. Click Number tab.
5. Select a format category from the Category: list box. The
listing of format codes changes to reflect the category you
choose.
6. Select the appropriate numeric format code. The Sample
information box shows a sample of the format applied to
the current cell’s contents.
7. Click OK button.
To format cells to display a date style:
2. Click Date below the Category: list box.
3. Select the appropriate option in the Locale (location): drop

down menu.
4. Click the appropriate date style in the Type: list.
5. Click OK button.
3.8.2. Font Types & Sizes

and punctuation marks) that have a particular design. The font
size determines the size of the selected characters. The height
of a character is expressed in points (1 point = 1/72”). The
larger the number, the larger the character.
By default, MS Excel is set to use Arial font pt. 10. You can
change the font style of the data:
1. Select the cells or specific data in a single cell to change its

font style.
2. Click the drop-down arrow of the Font box.
3. Select the appropriate font style.
To change the font size of the data:
1. Select the cells or specific data in a single cell to change its

font size.
2. Click the drop-down arrow of the Font Size box.
3. Select the appropriate size.
3.8.3. Typestyles: Bold, Italics, Underline & Double

Underline
1. Select the cells or specific data in a single cell that you want
to apply a typestyle to.
2. Click the appropriate typestyle/s button/s required

Key
to make the characters

Bold CTRL+B
look darker
to slant the characters to
Italics CTRL+I
the right

To apply double-underlining to data:
1. Select the cells or specific data in a
single cell that you want to format.
3. Click Cells… The Format Cells dialog box
will be displayed.
4. Click Font tab.
5. Select Double below Underline:
6. Click OK button.
3.8.4. Colouring Cell Content & Background
You can change the colour of the text/numbers in a cell:

1. Select the cells or specific data in a single cell that you want
to format.
2. Click the drop-down arrow of the Font Colour
button.
3. Select the appropriate colour.
You can apply a different colour (shading) to the cell background

1. Select the cell/s to add shading to.
3. Click Cells... The Format Cells dialog box will be displayed.
4. Click Patterns tab.

5. Select the appropriate shading.
6. Click OK button.
3.8.5. Copying Cell Formatting
You can copy the formatting (typestyles, fonts etc.) of characters

in a cell to other cell/s as follows:
1. Highlight the cell containing the formatting you want
to copy.
2. Click Format Painter button.
3. Drag the mouse to highlight the cell/s to which you want to
apply the formatting.
3.8.6. Aligning Cell Content
By default, MS Excel aligns text to the left edge of a cell and

values (numbers, dates, time) to the right edge of a cell. There
are several alignment options in MS Excel:
Option Butto Effect

n
Align Left Aligns data to the left edge of the cell. If the data
does not fit, excess data is placed in the cell to the
right (if that cell is empty). If the cell to the right
is not empty, the display of the data ends at the
right edge of the cell.
Centre Aligns data in the centre of the cell. Spill over
data appears in the adjoining cells if either or both
are empty. Otherwise, the display of the data is
truncated.
Align Aligns data to the right edge of the cell. Spill over
Right data appears in the cell to the left if it is empty.
Otherwise, the display of the data is truncated.
Merge Joins the selected cells and centers the data in the
and resulting single cell.
Centre
To change the alignment (left, centre, right) of data in a cell/s:

1. Highlight the cell/s.
2. Click Align Left, Centre or Align Right button.
To centre data (e.g. a title) across a number of cells:

1. Highlight the cells across which the data will be centred.
2. Click Merge and Centre button.
The alignment options indicated above allow you to position cell

contents horizontally (left-to-right). MS Excel also allows you to
align cells vertically (top-to-bottom):
1. Highlight the cell/s containing the data to be aligned.

3. Click Cells...
4. Click Alignment tab.
5. Click the drop-down arrow of the Vertical: field.
7. Click OK button.
The following table outlines all the available options in the
Alignment tab in the Format Cells dialog box.
Option To Do This
Horizontal Aligns text to the left, numbers to the right, and centres
logical and error values.
Left Aligns cell contents to the left.
(Indent)
Center Centres cell contents.
Right Aligns cell contents to the right.
Fill Repeats the contents of the selected cell until the cell is
full. If blank cells to the right also have the Fill alignment,
they are filled as well.
Justify Aligns wrapped text within a cell to the right and left. You
must have more than one line of wrapped text to see the
justification.
Center Centres a cell entry across the selected cells.
Across
Selection
Option To Do This
Vertical
Top Aligns cell contents along the top of the cell.
Center Centres cell contents in the middle of the cell.
Bottom Aligns cell contents along the bottom of the cell.
Justify Justifies the cell contents up and down within the width of
the cell.
Wrap text Wraps text into multiple lines in a cell. The number of
wrapped lines is dependent on the width of the column and
the length of the cell contents.
Shrink to Reduces the apparent size of font characters so that all
fit data in a selected cell fits within the column. The character
size is adjusted automatically if you change the column
width. The applied font size is not changed.
Merge Combines two or more selected cells into a single cell. The
cells cell reference for a merged cell is the upper-left cell in the
original selected range.
Orientatio Rotates selected cell entries.
n
To adjust the cell orientation:

1. Repeat steps 1-4 as for above.
2. Select the appropriate orientation option. You can also
specify a value in degrees to rotate the data.
3. Click OK button.
3.8.7. Adding Border Effects
1. Highlight the range of cells to add border to.

3. Click Cells... The Format Cells dialog box will be displayed.
4. Click Borders tab.
5. Click the appropriate Style: below Line.
6. Click the appropriate button below Border.
7. Click OK button.
Note that:
 You can also use the Borders button on the Formatting
toolbar to apply borders.
3.9. Charts
A chart/graph is a graphical representation of the numeric data
in a worksheet. Each cell (or piece of data) represented in the
chart is called a data point. Data points are represented on the
chart by bars, columns, lines, or some other graphical device. A
group of related data points is called a data series.
Name Englis Maltese Maths

h
Antho 55 80 74
ny
Maria 63 43 84
Philip 62 57 65
Rita 43 7 95
Typically, values are plotted along the vertical plane (y-axis) and
categories are plotted along the horizontal plane (x-axis). Labels
that run horizontally under the various data series and display
the categories represented are x-axis labels. Labels running
vertically and listing the value increments are the y-axis labels.
3.9.1Creating a Chart
1. Highlight the data to be included in the graph.

3. Click Chart… The Chart Wizard dialog box will be displayed.
4. Select a chart from the Chart type: list, and then select a
subtype from the Chart sub-type: group.
If you selected your data in advance, you can see a preview
of the chart by clicking the Press and Hold to View Sample
button. Click Next button. The second Chart Wizard dialog
box appears.
5. If you did not highlight the data earlier, use the Data range
box to enter the range you want to chart. You can select the
range coordinates by highlighting the range directly on the
sheet. Click Next button. The third Chart Wizard dialog box
appears.
6. Click the Chart-title: field and type in a title explaining the
subject of the chart. Click in the Category (X) axis: field and
type in a title explaining what type of data is on the X-axis.
Click in the Value (Y) axis: field and type in a title explaining
what unit/s of measurement is/are used for the values.
Examine the sample Chart on the left of the dialog box and if
everything is right click on Next button. The final Chart
Wizard dialog box is displayed.
7. To insert the chart as a new chart sheet, activate the As new

sheet: option and enter a title for the sheet in the text box
provided. If you prefer to embed the chart on an existing
worksheet, activate the As object in: option and use the
drop-down list to choose the sheet you want to use. Click
Finish button.
Note that:
 You can click the Chart Wizard button instead of step 3
and 4.
3.9.2. Changing the Chart Type

You can change the chart type after you create a chart:
1. Click anywhere in the chart. If the chart is embedded on the
sheet where the data is located, the chart border will display
sizing handles (small black squares).
2. Click Chart menu.
3. Click Chart Type… The Chart Type dialog box will be
displayed.
4. Select a chart from the Chart type: list, and then select a
subtype from the Chart sub-type: group.
5. Click OK button.
3.9.3. Moving, Resizing & Deleting a Chart
To move or copy a chart between different sheets or workbooks:

1. Click anywhere in the chart to copy/move.
2. Click Cut button (to move) or Copy button (to copy).
3. Click in the sheet or workbook where the chart will be moved
or copied.
To resize a chart:
1. Click anywhere inside the chart. The chart border displays
sizing handles.
2. Position the pointer on one of the sizing handles. The pointer
changes to a double-headed arrow.
3. Drag the mouse to resize the chart.
Note that:
 If you drag the corner handles, the chart expands/contracts
proportionately to its current size. If you drag the edge
handles, the chart expands or contracts in that direction
only.
To delete a chart:
1. Click anywhere inside the chart.
2. Press DELETE key.
Note that:
 If the chart is in a separate sheet click Edit menu and click
Delete Sheet.
3.9.4. Adding, Editing & Removing a Chart Title
1. Click anywhere in the chart.

3. Click Chart Options… The Chart Options dialog box will be
displayed.
4. Edit or remove the chart or axis titles.
5. Click OK button.
3.9.5. Adding Data Labels

You can add two kinds of labels to a chart:
 Value Labels – these indicate the numerical values of the
individual data points.
 Text Labels – these display the names of the data points.
By default, Excel already displays these names on an
axis.
To add/remove labels to your chart:

1. Click anywhere in the chart.
3. Click Chart Options… The Chart Options dialog box will be
displayed.
4. Click Data Labels tab.
5. Select or deselect either Show value or/and Show label.
6. Click OK button.
3.9.6. Changing the Chart Area Background
You can modify the colours of the chart area, plot area and data
series:
1. Click anywhere on the chart area (outside the plot area), plot
area or data series.
3. Click Selected Chart Area, Selected Plot Area or Selected
Data Series. The Format Chart Area or Plot Area or Data
Series dialog box will be displayed.
5. Select the appropriate colours for the Border and Area.
6. Click OK button.
3.10. PREPARE OUTPUTS
3.10.1. Changing Worksheet Margins
To change the margins of a worksheet:

1. Click File menu.
2. Click Page Setup… The Page Setup dialog box will be
displayed.
4. Enter the appropriate measurements in the Top: Bottom:
Left: and Right: fields.
5. Click OK button.
3.10.2. Worksheet Orientation & Paper Size
To change the orientation of the worksheet to portrait or
landscape:
1. Click File menu.
displayed.
3. Click Page tab.
4. Tick the option Portrait or Landscape below Orientation.
5. Click OK button.
To change the paper size:

1. Click File menu.
displayed.
3. Click Page tab.
4. Select the appropriate option from the Paper size: drop
down list.
5. Click OK button.
3.10.3. Adjusting Page Setup to Fit Worksheet Contents
You can also adjust the page setup such that worksheet contents
fit on a single page or on a specific number of pages:
1. Click File menu.
displayed.
3. Click Page tab.
4. Select Fit to: check box.
5. Type a number in the page(s) wide by box.
6. Type a number in the tall box.
7. Click OK button.
Note that:
 The Fit to: option reduces the worksheet or selection when
you print so that it fits on the specified number of pages.
 To fill the paper width and use as many pages as
necessary, type 1 in the pages(s) wide by box and leave
the tall box blank.
3.10.4. Adding, Editing & Deleting Data in Headers /
Footers
To add headers/footers to a worksheet:
1. Click View menu.
2. Click Header and Footer… The Page Setup dialog box will
be displayed.
3. Click Header/Footer tab.
4. ClickCustomise Header… button or Customise Footer… button.

The Header or Footer dialog box will be displayed depending
on your choice.
5. Type the text or insert any of the following fields in the
appropriate section (left, centre or right) of the header or
footer.
6. Click OK button to close the Header or Footer dialog box.
7. Click OK button to close the Page Setup dialog box.
Option Butto Effect

n
Font To format text i.e. set font style, size

and typestyles.
Page number To insert a page number field.
Number of To insert number of pages in the sheet.

pages
Date To insert a date field.
Time To insert the time field.
File name To insert the name of the workbook.
Worksheet To insert the name of the sheet within

name the workbook.
To edit or delete data in headers or footers:

2. Edit or delete the data displayed in the appropriate
section (left, centre or right) of the header or footer.
3.10.5. Turning On / Off Gridlines & Row / Column

Headings
To turn on or off the display of gridlines on a sheet:
1. Click File menu.
displayed.
3. Click Sheet tab.
4. Tick the option Gridlines.
5. Click OK button.
To turn on/off row and column headings on printed sheet:

2. Tick the option Row and column headings.
3. Click OK button.
3.10.6. Applying Automatic Title Row(s) Printing
To set automatic titles to print on every page of a printed

worksheet:
1. Click File menu.
displayed.
3. Click Sheet tab.
4. Select the appropriate collapse button (under Print titles) to

print the same columns or rows as titles on every page of a
printed worksheet.
5. Click the appropriate row or column.
6. Click Expand button to display the Page Setup dialog
box again.
7. Click OK button.
3.10.7. Previewing a Worksheet

By previewing the worksheet, you can see each page exactly as
it will be printed, with the correct margins and page breaks, and
the headers and footers in place.
1. Click File menu.

2. Click Print Preview.
3. Click Close button to return to the editing screen.
Note that:
 You can click Print Preview button.
3.10.8. Printing
To print the entire spreadsheet:
Click Print button.
Doing the above prints one copy of the entire workbook to the
printer. However, in some cases, you want to print parts of the
workbook or else more than one copy of the workbook.
1. Click File menu.

2. Click Print… The Print dialog box will be displayed.
3. Select the appropriate options.
4. Click OK button.
Option To do this
Printer
Name: Select a printer. The information that appears below
the Printer box applies to the selected printer.
Print to File Prints the workbook to a file on disk. MS Excel
prompts you to enter the name of the file.
Print range
All Prints the entire document.
Page(s) Prints only the pages you specify. In the From: field
enter the starting page number of the page range
you want to print. In the To: field enter the ending
page number of the page range you want to print.
Print What
Selection Prints only the cells and objects selected on the
worksheet.
Entire Prints all sheets in the active workbook that contain
workbook any data. If a sheet has a print area, only the print
area is printed.
Option To do this
Active Prints each of the selected sheets. Each sheet in the

sheet(s) workbook starts on a new page. If a sheet has a
print area, only the print area is printed. If a chart
object is selected, this option changes to Selected
chart.
Copies
Number of Specifies the number of copies you want to print.
copies
Collate Prints a complete range of pages before printing the
next copy. For example, if you are printing 2 copies
of pages 1-3, MS Excel prints one copy of each page
before starting over and printing each of the three
pages again to make the second copy of the set of
pages.
To define a specific part of the sheet to print:

1. Highlight the cell/s to print.
2. Click File menu.
3. Point to Print Area.
4. Click Set Print Area.
Note that:
 The print area is one or more ranges of cells you
designate to print when you don’t want to print the entire
worksheet. If a worksheet includes a print area, only the
print area is printed.
 When you save the workbook, the print area selection is
also saved.
 To remove a print area, repeats steps 1-3 and click
Remove Print Area.
3.11. PowerPoint (Presentations)
Using the Application

Presentation software is a program designed for the production
and display of computer text and graphics, usually for
presentation to a group. It is intended primarily to replace the
functions typically associated with a slide or an overhead
projector. Besides presentation software, you will need additional
hardware – the data projector – to project your presentations on
a display surface (e.g. whiteboard, screen).
MS PowerPoint comes in a variety of versions. Over the years

the program has been updated, making it more powerful and
easier to use. These course notes are based on MS PowerPoint
2003.
Opening / Closing MS PowerPoint & Presentations
To open MS PowerPoint:
3. Click Microsoft PowerPoint.
Features of the MS PowerPoint Screen
MS PowerPoint opens in the Normal view.
 The title bar shows the name of the presentation.

PowerPoint assigns your presentation a temporary name
(e.g. Presentation1) until you save it with the name you
choose.
 The menu bar is used to choose all commands while
working in PowerPoint.
 The toolbars provide quick access to some of PowerPoint’s
commands without having to use a pull-down menu.
 The slide pane displays a large view of the current slide.
 The notes pane is the area where you type notes that you
want to accompany a slide.
 The status bar, located at the bottom of the screen
displays the slide number and the name of the slide
design.
Basic Terms
A presentation is a collection of slides, audience handouts, and

speaker’s notes all in one file.
Slides are the individual ‘pages’ or overhead transparencies of

the presentation. Slides can have titles, text, charts, drawn
objects and clip arts. They can be presented on a screen or as
black-and-white transparencies or as colour overhead
transparencies or 35mm slides.
A Slide show is a group of slides organised in a specific order or

with a specific choice of paths from one slide to the next.
To close MS PowerPoint:
1. Click File menu.
2. Click Exit.
Note that:
 You can close MS PowerPoint using the shortcut key
combination: ALT+F4 keys.
To open an existing presentation:

2. Click the drop-down arrow in the Look in: field and select
the drive and/or folder that contain the presentation to
open.
3. Double-click the presentation you want to open.
Note that:
 You can open a recently used presentation using the File
recently used presentations.
 You can also open a recently used presentation using the
New Presentation task pane. In the Open a presentation
section, click the name of the presentation to open. If
the Task Pane is not visible, click View menu and Task
Pane.
 You can open a presentation workbook using the shortcut
key combination: CTRL+O keys.
To open other existing presentations repeat steps 1-3.
To close an existing presentation:
1. Save your work.
2. Click File menu
Note that:
 You can close a presentation using the shortcut key
Creating a New Presentation
By default all new presentations are created on a standard (or

default) template:
Click New button.
Note that:
 You also open a new presentation based
on the default template using the New
Presentation task pane. In the New section, click Blank
Presentation.
 You can open a new workbook using the shortcut key
Saving a Presentation

typing. When you save a presentation for the first time, you
need to give it a name. Presentation names can have up to 255
To save a presentation to a location or drive:

disk and/or folder where the presentation will be saved. By
default, the file will be saved on Drive C: in the My
Documents folder.
3. Type a name for your presentation in the File name: field.
Note that:
 After you save a file for the first time, the filename
appears in the title bar.
 When you save the file the second, third, fourth time etc.
the computer will not ask you to input all this information
again but will only update the file with the changes made
up to that moment.
 You can save a presentation using the shortcut key
combination: CTRL+S keys.
To save an open presentation under another name:

1. Click File menu.
Saving a Presentation as another File Type
You can save a presentation as another file type: Rich Text

Format, template, show, image file format and version number.
1. Click File menu.

the disk and/or folder where the presentation will be
saved.
4. Type a name for your presentation in the File name: field.
5. Click the Save as type drop down arrow.
PowerPoint 95 (*.ppt)
Note that:
 The facility to save a presentation to another format can
be useful so that this can be read by previous versions of
MS PowerPoint.
Switching between Open Presentations
You can switch between two or more open presentations by:

2. Click the name of the presentation to display.
Note that:
 To switch between open presentations you can click on the
presentation file button on the task bar (running
horizontally across the bottom of the MS Windows screen).
Modifying User Preferences
You can modify the author’s name attached to every workbook

generated in MS PowerPoint as follows:
2. Click Options… The Options dialog box will be displayed.
3. In the General tab card type in the appropriate information
in the Name: field
4. Click OK button.
You can also set a folder location where all presentations will be
saved:
1. Repeat steps 1-2 as for modifying the user name.
2. In the Save tab card, in the Default file location: field, type
in the drive/folder where the presentations will be saved.
3. Click OK button.
Using Help
1. Click Help menu.
2. Click Microsoft PowerPoint Help. The office assistant is
displayed.
3. Type a keyword or question in the Answer Wizard box.
5. Click the topic to display.
Magnification & Zoom Tools
The zoom feature allows you to enlarge or reduce the

view of a page on the screen. MS PowerPoint offers
two ways of zooming – the zoom tool on the standard
toolbar and the zoom dialog box in the View menu.
1. ClickZoom control button.

2. Select the appropriate option. At 100%, the text
and images are the same size they will be when you print
them. Below 100% they are smaller. Above 100%, they are
bigger.
Note that:
 You can also type in any percentage value in the zoom
textbox.
Built-in Toolbars
A toolbar is a row/column of buttons/icons. These buttons are

used to accomplish tasks quickly without opening menus. By
default, MS PowerPoint displays three toolbars - the Standard,
Formatting and Drawing toolbars. The Standard and Formatting
toolbars are displayed on a single row.
To display the Standard and Formatting toolbars on two separate

rows:
2. Click Customize… The Customize dialog box will be displayed.
3. In the Options tab card, tick the option Show Standard and
Formatting Toolbars on two rows.
To display additional toolbars:

1. Click View menu.
2. Select Toolbars.
3. Click on the toolbar to put one display. The selected toolbar
is displayed on the screen
Toolbars are not fixed to any part of the MS PowerPoint screen –

they can float. Accordingly, you can move toolbars to any part of
the screen by dragging them.
To move a floating toolbar:

2. Drag the toolbar to any part of the screen.
3. Release the mouse button when the toolbar is at the
desired location.
To turn a fixed toolbar into a floating toolbar:

1. Position the mouse pointer on an empty part i.e. an area
without any buttons of the toolbar to detach.
To re-attach a floating toolbar:

The toolbar moves to its home port at the top or bottom of the
screen.
To hide a toolbar:
1. Click View menu.
2. Point to Toolbars. A sub-menu displaying available toolbars
will be displayed. The toolbars which are currently displayed
in MS PowerPoint will have a check mark.
3. Click the check marked toolbar to hide the toolbar.
3.12. Developing a Presentation
Changing between Presentation View Modes
You can view MS PowerPoint Presentations in different page
display modes.
1. Click View menu.
2. Select Normal, Slide Sorter, Notes Pages or Slide Show
view.
Depending on the task at hand, some views are better than

others.
Option To Do This
Normal Contains three panes: the outline pane, the slide pane, and
the notes pane. These panes let you work on all aspects of
your presentation in one place. You can adjust the size of the
different panes by dragging the pane borders.
Slide Displays a miniature version of all the slides in your
Sorter presentation. You can use this to check the consistency of the
layout and colour scheme. You change the order of slides,
delete slides, add timings, and select animated transitions for
moving from slide to slide.
Notes Used to add the speaker’s or presenter’s notes or information
Pages to be shared with the audience.
Slide Show Used to view slides full-screen (without any menu bars),
exactly as they would appear projected. To exit from Slide
Show view, press the ESC key.
Note that:
 You can also switch to different views using the view
buttons at the bottom left corner of the PowerPoint
screen:
Slide
Sorter
View
Normal View Slide Show

Changing the Slide Layout
During this course you will be using the following slide layouts:
Title Slide Title & Text Title & 2 Title Only

Column Text
Title & Chart Title & Table Text & Clip art Organisation
Chart
To change the layout of a slide:
2. Click Slide Layout…The Slide Layout task pane will be
displayed.
3. On the Slides tab in normal view, select the slide/s you
want to apply a layout to.
4. In the Slide Layout task pane, point to the layout you
want, and then click it.
Note that:
 If you skip step 3, the formatting will be applied to the
current slide.
Using Design Templates
You don’t need to be a professional graphic designer to enhance

the presentation of your slides. MS PowerPoint comes with
many artist-created templates. A template is a presentation in
which the masters and the colours have been especially designed
for a particular ‘look’. Templates define what your text will look
like and where it will appear, and they offer a complete colour
scheme.
Using the Slide Design task pane, you can preview and apply a
design template to your presentation. The template can be
applied to all slides or selected slides, and you can apply more
than one type of design template in a single presentation.
To apply a design template to a presentation:

1. Click Slide Design button on the Formatting
toolbar. The Slide Design task pane will be displayed.
2. Click Design Templates in the Slide Design task pane.
3. Click the template you want to apply to all the slides.
Note that:
 To apply a template to a single slide, select the thumbnail
on the Slides tab; in the task pane, point to the template
and click the arrow, and then click Apply to Selected
Slides.
 To apply a template to multiple selected slides, select the
thumbnails on the Slides tab, and in the task pane, click
the template.
 The design templates you have applied appear below the
Recently Used list in the Slide Design. All available design
templates appear under Available for use.
 To change between available templates repeat steps 1-3
as above.
Changing the Background Colour
You can change the background color of a specific slide or all the
slides in the presentation. Changing the background is useful if
you want to change the background to emphasize sections of a
presentation. Besides changing the color, you can add shading,
a pattern, a texture, or a picture.
To change the slide background

colour:
2. Click Background... The
Background dialog box will be
displayed.
3. Under Background fill, click the arrow on the right of the box,
and then select the appropriate option.
4. Click Apply button or Apply to All button.
Note that:
 If you click the Apply button, the background will be
applied only to the active slide or selected slides.
Inserting New Slides
Each time you insert a new slide you will choose a speicific
layout depending on the content of the slide. Layout refers to the
way content is arranged in a slide. A layout contains
placeholders, which in turn hold text such as titles and bulleted
lists and slide content such as tables, charts, pictures, shapes,
and clip art.
By default the Title Slide layout will be displayed when you open
a new presentation file. This layout contains two placeholders –
the main title and the subtitle placeholder.
To insert a new blank slide, do either of the following:

1. On the Formatting toolbar, click New Slide
button.
2. In the Slide Layout task pane, click the layout you want.
Note that:
 If the insertion point is in the
Outline or Slides tab, you can
insert a new slide, by pressing
Enter key.
 You can also insert a new slide
from the Slide Layout task pane:
point to a layout, click the arrow,
and then click Insert New Slide.
 If you want to keep the Slide Layout task pane from
displaying each time you click New Slide clear the Show
when inserting new slides check box at the bottom of the
pane.
Copying / Moving Slides
You can copy an entire slide within the same presentation file:
1. Click View menu.

2. Click Slide Sorter.
3. Click the slide to copy. A blue frame will be displayed around
the selected slide.
5. Click at the location where the slide will be copied.
Note that:
 You can also switch to the Slide Sorter View by clicking
the Slide Sorter View button.
You can also copy a slide to a different presentation file:

2. Open the other presentation file.
3. Switch to Slide Sorter view by clicking Slide Sorter View
button.
You can move / re-order slides in a presentation.

1. Switch to Slide Sorter view by clicking Slide Sorter View
button.
2. Click the slide to move.
3. Drag the slide to the new position.
You can move slides to another presentation file:

1. In the first presentation file, switch to Slide Sorter view
by clicking Slide Sorter View button.
2. Right-click the slide to move.
4. In the second presentation file, switch to Slide Sorter
view and click at the location where the slide will be
copied.
Note that:
 If you want to select more than one slide, click on the
first slide, press and hold CTRL key and click on the next
slide/s.
Deleting Slides
1. On the Outline tab or Slides tab in normal view, select the

slide/s you want to delete.
2. Click the Edit menu.
3. Click Delete Slide.
Note that:
 If you want to select slides in order, press and hold SHIFT
key as you click.
 If you want to select slides that are not in order, press
and hold CTRL key as you click.
 Instead of step 2 and 3 above, you can press the DELETE
key to delete slides.
Inserting a Graphical Object into the Master Slide
The Slide Master is the slide that holds the format for all slides in
the presentation. It enables you to add background items that
you want to appear on every slide in a presentation. If you make
a change to the Slide Master (e.g. choosing a special font for the
text, italicising the slide title or changing the bullet styles), the
change affects all slides in your presentation that follow the
master. You can also add a logo or page number to a slide.
To display the Slide Master:

1. Click View menu.
2. Point to Master.
3. Click Slide Master. MS PowerPoint will display a slide similar
to the following. Also the Slide Master View toolbar will be
displayed.
4. To return to the normal view, click Close Master View button in

the Slide Master View toolbar.
To insert a picture from the clip art gallery in the Slide Master:
3. Point to Picture.
4. Click Clip Art… The Insert Clip Art task pane will be
displayed.
5. In the Search text box, type a word or phrase that
describes the clip you want or type in all or some of the
file name of the clip.
7. Click the graphic to insert.
Note that:
 You can resize and re-position the picture as necessary.
Read further down for more details.
 To clear the search criteria fields and begin a new search,
below the Results box, click Modify.
To insert an image in the Slide Master:

1. Click View menu.
2. Point to Master.
3. Click Slide Master.
6. Click From File… The Insert Picture dialog box will be
displayed.
7. Browse to the disk/folder where the image file is located.
8. Click Insert button. The picture will be inserted.
To insert a drawn object in the Slide Master:

2. On the Drawing toolbar click AutoShapes button.
3. Point to a category and click the shape you want.
To delete the clip art, image or drawn object in the Slide Master:
1. Click the clip art, image or drawn object to delete.
Adding Footers
Footers consist of text, slide numbers, and a date at the bottom

of your slides. To add text, slide numbers and a date at the
bottom of your slide/s:
1. Click View menu.
2. Click Header and Footer…
3. Select or enter the appropriate options.
4. Click Apply to All or Apply button.
Note that:
 If you don't want the information to appear on the title slide,
select the Don't show on title slide check box.
Option To Do This
Date and Time
Update Displays and updates the current date and time in
automatically the slide footer. Click the date and time format you
want in the Update automatically list. This option is
unavailable unless the Date and time check box is
selected
Fixed Displays the date and time in the slide footer. Type
the date and time you want in the Fixed box.
Slide number Adds the slide number to the slide footer.
Footer Adds the text you type in the Footer box to the
bottom of the slide.
3.12. TEXT
Adding, Editing & Deleting Text
To add or edit text in a slide:
1. Click in a text placeholder. Sizing handles will be
displayed at the edges of the placeholder.
2. Type in or edit text as necessary.
3. Click outside the placeholder to deselect it.
Note that:
 If your text exceeds the size of the placeholder, MS
PowerPoint reduces the font size and line spacing
incrementally as you type, to make the text fit.
You can also insert text in the Outline

view:
1. In the Normal view, click the
Outline tab.
2. Position the pointer at the
appropriate location and
add/edit text as necessary.
Note that:
 As a good practice you should avoid long sentences or
paragraphs in a slide. Keep your text short (concise). Use
bullet points and numbered lists for your text as
appropriate.
To delete text:
1. Select the text to delete.
2. Press DELETE key.
Moving & Copying Text
You can move text from one slide to another within the same
presentation:
1. Select the text to move.
3. Move to the slide where the text will be inserted.
4. Click in the appropriate text placeholder.
You can also move text from one slide to another in a different
presentation file:
You can copy text from one slide to another within the same
presentation:
1. Select the text graphic to copy.
3. Move to the slide where the text will be inserted.
4. Click in the appropriate text placeholder.
You can also copy text from one slide to another in a different
presentation file:
Using Undo/Redo Command
There are different types of actions that you can undo: actions
you make yourself, such as typing a word, or actions that MS
PowerPoint makes automatically using the AutoCorrect feature,
such as automatically capitalizing the first letter of a sentence.
To undo or redo your most recent actions:
On the Standard toolbar, click Undo or Redo button. This

will undo or redo the last action.
Note that:
 To undo or redo your most recent action (or actions), click the
arrow next to Undo or Redo, select the actions you want to undo
or redo, and click.
Changing Font Types & Sizes

and punctuation marks) that have a particular design. The font
size determines the size of the selected characters. The height
of a character is expressed in points (1 point = 1/72”). The
larger the number, the larger the character.
To change the font style of text:

1. Select the text or the placeholder containing the text you
want to change its font style.
2. Click the Font Style drop-down
arrow.
3. Click the appropriate font style to apply.
Note that:
 To change the font for all the text in a placeholder, either
drag to select all the text, or select the placeholder
containing the text. To select the placeholder, first click
the text. The placeholder border becomes hatchmarked.
Point to the border and click. The border changes to a
thick, dotted border, and it's now selected.
To change the font size:

want to change its font size.
2. Click the Font Size drop-down arrow.
3. Click the appropriate size to apply.
Note that:
 You can also increase the font size using the Increase Font
Size button. You can decrease the font size using the
Decrease Font Size button.
Typestyles: Bold, Italics, Underline & Shadow
Typestyles are applied to text to emphasise it. There are several

ways of emphasising text, using either or a combination of the
following typestyles:

Key
to make the characters look

Bold CTRL+B
darker
to slant the characters to the
Italics CTRL+I
right
to apply a shadow effect to

Shadow n/a
characters
want to apply typestyles to.
2. Click the appropriate typestyle/s button/s required.
To remove typestyles from text:

want to remove its typestyles.
2. Click the appropriate typestyle/s button/s to remove.
Changing Text Colour
To apply a different colour to text:

want to apply colour to.
2. Click Font Colour button drop-down arrow on the
Formatting toolbar.
Applying Case Changes to Text
You can change the case of a text to uppercase, lower case, title
case, sentence case etc.

want to change its case.
3. Click Change Case…
4. Click the appropriate case option.

5. Click OK button.
Option To Do This
Sentence Capitalises the first letter of the first word in the

case. selected sentences.
lowercase Changes all selected text to lowercase letters.
UPPERCASE Changes all selected text to capital letters.
Title Case Capitalises the first letter of each word in the selection.
tOGGLE Changes all uppercase letters to lowercase in the
cASE selection and vice versa.
Aligning Text
This facility is important to change the position of text in relation

to the left and right edges of the placeholder.
There are four different alignment options:
This is left-aligned text.

This is centered text.
This is right-aligned text.
This is justified text. If this text is on a line that is shorter than the
paragraph width, it will remain aligned left.
Option To Do This
Left Aligns each line of the paragraph with the left edge of the
placeholder, leaving a ragged right edge which means that
there is no alignment on the right side.
Centere Aligns each line of the paragraph between the left and right
d edges of the placeholder.
Right Aligns each line of the paragraph with the right edge of the
placeholder leaving a ragged left edge, which means that
there is no alignment on the left side.
Justified Aligns paragraph text so that both the left and right margins
have a straight edge, creating blocks.

want to align.
2. Click:
Alignment Button Shortcut

option Key
Align Left
CTRL+L
button
Center button CTRL+E
Align Right
CTRL+R
button
Justify button CTRL+J
Note that:
 The Justify button can be accessed through the
Alignment option in the Format menu.
Applying / Removing Indentations
You can indent bulleted text in a slide:

1. Highlight the bulleted text or position the cursor in the
bullet text to indent.
2. Click Increase Indent button
To remove indent from bulleted text:

1. Highlight the bulleted text or position the cursor in the
bullet text to indent.
2. Click Decrease Indent button
Adjusting Line Spacing
There is no limit to the amount of text you can add to a slide.

However avoid the use of long sentences. Suitably spaced short
text is more effective to convey your message.

want to adjust its spacing.
3. Click Line Spacing...
4. Enter the appropriate adjustments.

5. Click OK button.
The new spacing will be applied to the selected paragraphs or
paragraph containing the insertion point.
Option To Do This
Line Spacing Sets the amount of space you want between lines of
selected text.
Before Sets the amount of space you want to leave before
Paragraph the first line of each selected paragraph.
After Paragraph Sets the amount of space you want to leave after
each selected paragraph.
Applying / Changing Bullet & Number Styles
To apply bullets to text:

1. Select the text or the placeholder containing the
text you want to apply bullets to.
3. Click Bullets and Numbering... The Bullets and
Numbering dialog box will be displayed.
4. Click Bulleted tab.
5. Click any one of the 7 bullet styles.
6. Click OK button.
Note that:
 You can also apply bullets by highlighting the text
and clicking the Bullets button. However, this
method does not allow you to choose from the
different bullet styles available in MS PowerPoint.
To remove bullet lists:
2. Click None
3. Click OK Button.
Note that:
 You can also remove bullets by highlighting the text
and clicking the Bullets button.
To modify bullet style:

want to change its bullet style.
4. Select the appropriate bullet style or click the Character...
button.
5. Select one of the Bullet styles available.
6. Click OK button.
To apply numbering to a list of text:

want to apply numbering to.
4. Click Numbered tab.
5. Click any one of the 7 bullet styles.
6. Click OK button.
Note that:
 You can also apply numbering highlighting the text and
clicking the Numbering button. However, this method
does not allow you to choose from the different numbering
styles available in MS PowerPoint.
To remove numbering:
2. Click None
3. Click OK Button.
Note that:
 You can also remove numbering by highlighting the text and
clicking the Numbering button.
To modify the numbering style:

want to change its numbering style.
4. Select the appropriate numbering style.
5. Click OK button.
Entering / Editing Text in Table Slide
To create a table in a slide:

1. Apply a Table slide layout.
2. Double-click the icon in the middle
of the slide to add the table.
3. Set the number of columns and
rows needed for the table.
4. Click OK button.
To insert text in the table:

1. Click in the cell where you want to insert the table.
2. Type the text.
Note that:
 To move from one cell to the next press TAB key.
Selecting Rows, Columns & Entire Table
To highlight a row, column or the entire table:
Highlight Action
Row Drag the mouse across the row.
Column Drag the mouse down the column.
Table Drag the mouse from the top left to the bottom
right of the table.
Inserting / Deleting Rows & Columns
To insert a row:
1. Highlight the row where the new row will be inserted.
2. Right-click the highlighted row.

3. Click Insert Rows.
To insert a column:
1. Highlight the column where the new column will be
inserted.
2. Right-click the highlighted column.

3. Click Insert Columns.
To delete a row:
1. Highlight the row to delete.
2. Right-click the highlighted row.
3. Click Delete Rows.
To delete a column:
1. Highlight the column to delete.
2. Right-click the highlighted column.
3. Click Delete Columns.
Modifying Column Widths & Row Heights
You can change the width/height of selected columns and rows

by dragging the column/row borders
To modify the column width:
1. Rest the pointer on the column boundary you want to
move until it becomes
2. Drag the the boundary to the left or right until the
column is at the width you want.
To modify the row height:

1. Rest the pointer on the row boundary you want to
move until it becomes
2. Drag the the boundary up or down until the row is at the
height you want.
3.13. Charts
Creating Charts
MS PowerPoint gives you the ability to insert charts or graphs

directly in your presentation. These become particularly
important when you want your audience to visualise numeric
data. Different charts may be used depending on what the
numeric data represents:
 Pie charts are used for figures representing percentages.
 Line charts are used to demonstrate a trend in numeric data.
 Bar charts are used to compare different sets of numbers.
To insert a graph in a slide:

2. Click Slide Layout…
3. Select Title & Chart Layout from the Slide
Layout task pane.
4. Click OK button.
5. Double-click the graph placeholder.
Note that:
 MS PowerPoint displays a table containing data (a
miniature spreadsheet) known as datasheet, and
immediately below this a bar graph based on the table
data.
 If you click outside the graph, the datasheet will
disappear. Double-click the chart to re-display the
datasheet.
A datasheet looks like a spreadsheet. Information is entered in

cells, which are formed by the intersection of rows and columns.
For most types of charts each column represents a category of
data, while each row is a data series, and is marked with a
symbol – for example, a small 3-D bar – to indicate what type of
chart you are creating.
To edit data in the datasheet window:
1. Click the cell at the top left corner. All cells will be
highlighted.
2. Press Delete key. All the data will be removed from the
datasheet.
3. Type the new data.
As new data is entered in the datasheet, the graph is created.

Selecting a Chart
Double-click the chart to select. The datasheet will also be

displayed.
Changing the Chart Type
By default, MS PowerPoint displays a bar chart. You can change

the sample chart inserted as follows:
2. Click Chart Type. The Chart Type dialog box will be
displayed.
3. In the Chart Type category, select the chart to use.
4. Select the Chart sub-type: (on the right). The chart sub-
type name appears in the message area below the chart
sub-types.
5. Press and hold the mouse on the Press and Hold to View
Sample button.
6. Click OK button to apply the new chart type.
Adding, Removing & Editing a Chart Title
1. Double-click the chart to add a title to.

3. Click Chart Options…
4. In the Titles tab, click in the Chart title field:

5. Type, edit or remove the title.
6. Click OK button.
Adding Data Labels
1. Double-click the chart to add a title to.

3. Click Chart Options…
4. Tick Value to add values or numbers. If you are working on a
pie-chart, you can tick Percentage.
5. Click OK button.
Changing Colour in a Chart
You can modify the colours of the chart area, plot area and data
series:
1. Click anywhere on the chart area (outside the plot
area), plot area or data series.
3. Click Selected Chart Area…, Selected Walls… or
Selected Data Series. The Format Chart Area or Walls
or Data Series dialog box will be displayed.
5. Select the appropriate colours for the Border and Area.
6. Click OK button.
Creating an Organisation Chart

To insert an organisation chart in a slide:
2. Click Slide Layout…
3. Select Organisation Chart Layout
from the Slide Layout task pane.
4. Click OK button.
5. Double-click the organisation chart placeholder. The
Diagram Gallery will be displayed.
6. Select organisation chart below Select a diagram type:
7. Click OK button.
Note that:
 MS PowerPoint displays an organisation chart template
and the organisation chart toolbar.
To enter text:
1. Click the box you
want to type in.
2. Begin typing in the
first line.
3. Press Enter key and
type in the second
line.
4. Click outside the text box when you are ready – the data
entered in the current box will be retained.
Note that:
 To edit the content of a text box, click in the text box and
enter your typing.
Adding / Removing Co-workers & Subordinates

To add managers, co-workers and sub-ordinates:
1. Click the appropriate text box.
2. Click Insert Shape drop-down arrow button in the
Organisation Chart toolbar.
3. Click Subordinate, Co-worker or Assistant.
To delete co-workers and sub-ordinates:

1. Click the appropriate text box.
3.14. GRAPHICAL OBJECTS
To insert a picture from the clip art gallery in a slide:

3. Click Clip Art… The Insert Clip Art task pane will be
displayed.
4. In the Search text box, type a word or phrase that
describes the clip you want or type in all or some of the file
name of the clip.
6. Click the graphic to insert.
Note that:
 You can resize and re-position the picture as necessary.
Read further down for more details.
 To clear the search criteria fields and begin a new search,
below the Results box, click Modify.
To insert an image in a slide:

3. Click From File… The Insert Picture dialog box will be
displayed.
4. Browse to the disk/folder where the image file is located.
5. Click Insert button. The picture will be inserted.
To insert a drawn object:

1. Click AutoShapes button on the Drawing toolbar.
2. Highlight Basic Shapes.
3. Click the shape to add.
4. Draw the shape on the slide.
Selecting a Graphical Object
To select a clipart, image or drawn object:

1. Click the graphical object.
2. The boundary of the graphical object displays 6 sizing
handles.
To deselect a clipart, image or drawn object:

Click anywhere outside the graphical object.
Copying / Moving Graphical Objects
You can copy graphics from one slide to another within the same
presentation:
1. Highlight the graphic to copy.
3. Move to the slide where the graphic will be inserted.
4. Click in the appropriate graphic placeholder.
You can also copy graphics from one slide to another in a

different presentation file:
You can move graphics from one slide to another within the
same presentation:
1. Highlight the image to move.
3. Move to the slide where the graphic will be
inserted.
4. Click in the appropriate graphic
placeholder.
You can also move images from one slide to another in a

different presentation file:
Resizing / Deleting Graphical Objects
You can resize graphics manually:

1. Click the graphic to resize. Sizing handles appear on the
border of the graphic.
2. Position the mouse pointer over one of the sizing handles.
The pointer changes to a double-headed arrow.
3. To increase or decrease the size in one or more directions,
drag the mouse away from or toward the centre.
Note that:
 To keep the centre of an object in the same place, hold
down CTRL key while dragging the mouse.
 To maintain the object's proportions, hold down SHIFT key
while dragging the mouse.
 To maintain the proportions while keeping the centre in the
same place, hold down CTRL + SHIFT key while dragging
the mouse.
You can resize a graphic to an exact height and width:

1. Click the graphic to resize. Sizing handles appear on the
border of the graphic.
3. Click Picture… The Format Picture dialog box will be
displayed.
4. Click Size tab.
5. Enter measurements for the height and width of the
object.
6. Click OK button.
Note that:
 If the Lock aspect ratio box is checked, the height and
width settings change in relation to one another.
To delete a graphical object:
1. Highlight the graphic to delete.
2. Press Backspace or Delete key.
Rotating / Flipping a Graphical Object
To rotate a graphic:
1. Click the graphic to rotate.
2. Click Draw button on the Drawing toolbar.
3. Point to Rotate or Flip. The sizing handles are replaced by
green circles known as rotate handles.
4. Drag the rotate handle on the object in the direction you
want to rotate it.
5. Click outside the object to set the rotation.
Note that:
 You can limit the object’s rotation to 15 steps by holding
down SHIFT key whilst dragging the mouse.
 You can also rotate an object 90 to the left or to the right
by repeating steps 1-3 as above and clicking Rotate Left
or Rotate Right.
To flip a graphic:
1. Click the graphic.
2. Click Draw button.
3. Point to Rotate or Flip.
4. Choose Flip Horizontal or
Flip Vertical.
Aligning a Graphical Object
You can align an object to the left, centre, right, top and bottom
of a slide:
1. Click the drawn object.
2. Click Draw button.
3. Point to Align or Distribute.
4. Click the option Relative to Slide.
5. Repeat step 3.
6. Click the appropriate option.
Inserting Drawn Objects
The Drawing toolbar includes a number of tools for drawing

simple objects, including lines, free drawn lines, arrows,
rectangles, squares, circles, text boxes and other shapes. You
will use the Drawing toolbar to draw shapes in your documents.
To draw a line:
1. Click Line button on the Drawing toolbar.
2. The mouse pointer changes to a cross hair.
3. Place the cursor where you want the line to begin.
4. Click and drag to where you want the line to end.
5. Release the mouse button.
Note that:
 If the Drawing toolbar is not visible, click View menu,
point to Toolbars and click Drawings.
 To constrain the line to draw at 15-degree angles from its
starting point, hold down SHIFT key as you drag.
 To lengthen the line in opposite directions from the first
end point, hold down CTRL key as you drag.
To draw a free form line:

1. Click AutoShapes button.
2. Point to Lines.
3. Click Freeform button.
4. Place the cursor where you want the line to begin.
5. Click and drag to draw the line.
6. Release the mouse button when ready.
To draw an arrow:
1. Click Arrow button on the Drawing
toolbar.
2. The mouse pointer changes to a cross hair.
3. Place the cursor where you want the arrow to begin.
4. Click and drag to where you want the arrow to end.
Note that:
 To change the arrow start/end style click the Arrow Style
button on the Drawing toolbar. Select the appropriate
option.
To draw a rectangle/square:
1. Click Rectangle button.
2. Place the cursor where you want one corner of
the rectangle.
3. Click and drag diagonally to where you want the opposite
corner of the rectangle.
Note that:
 To draw a square, hold down SHIFT key as you drag the
mouse.
To draw an oval/circle:
1. Click Oval button.
2. Place the cursor where you want the shape to begin.
3. Click and drag until the shape is the size you want.
Note that:
 To draw a circle, hold down SHIFT key as you drag the
mouse.
A text box is a rectangular area where you can insert text. To

draw a text box:
1. Click Text Box button.
2. Place the cursor where you want to type.
3. Click the cursor.
4. Start typing.
Note that:
 You can resize the text box by clicking on this, position
the pointer on one of the sizing handles and drag.
To draw other shapes:

1. Click AutoShapes button.
2. Select the appropriate category of shapes.
3. Draw the shape.
Adding Text to a Drawn Object
You can add text into a text box, block arrow, rectangle, square,
oval and circle:
1. Right click the drawn object.
2. Click Add Text. The drawn object displays a cursor.
3. Type the text.
Formatting Drawn Objects
To change the background colour of a drawn object:

2. Click Fill Colour button.
3. Select the appropriate background colour for the drawn
object.
To change the line colour of a drawn object:

1. Select the line to modify.
2. Click Line Colour button.
3. Select the colour to apply.
To change the line style & weight of a drawn object:

1. Select the line to modify its style. Sizing handles appear at
the left and right edge of the line.
2. Click Line Style button.
3. Select the appropriate line style and weight (thickness)
Changing the Arrow Start / Finish Style
To change the arrow start style and finish style:

1. Double-click the drawn arrow in the slide.
2. Choose the appropriate Begin style: and / or End style:
3. Click OK button.
Applying Shadow to a Shape

2. Click Shadow button. A menu containing different shadow
styles appear.
3. Click the appropriate shadow option.
Note that:
 When you apply a shadow to a text box, all text and
attributes of the text box take on the shadow effect.
Grouping / Ungrouping Drawn Objects
Before you can group two or more objects you need to select
these:
1. Click the first drawn object.
2. Press and hold CTRL key.
3. Click the next drawn object/s.
5. Release the CTRL key.
To group drawn objects:
1. Select the objects you want to group.
2. On the Drawing toolbar click Draw button.
3. Click Group.
To ungroup drawn objects:

1. Select the group you want to ungroup.
2. On the Drawing toolbar click Draw button.
3. Click Ungroup.
Bringing an Object to the Front or Sending it to the Back
1. Click the object to bring to front or send to back.

2. Click Draw button on the Drawing toolbar.
3. Point to Order.
4. Click the appropriate option.
Option To Do This
Bring to Front To bring an object to the front.
Send to Back To send an object to the back
Bring Forward To bring an object one step closer to the
front.
Send Backward To send an object one step toward the
back
3.15. Preparing Outputs
Adding / Removing Transition Effects
Transitions are the visual special effects you see when you go
from one slide to the next in an electronic slide show.
To add the same transition effect to all the slides:

1. Click Slide Show menu.
2. Click Slide Transition... The Slide Transition task pane
will be displayed.
3. Click the transition effect to apply.
4. Click Apply to All Slides button.
To add different transitions between slides:

1. On the Slides tab in normal view, select the slides you
want to add a transition to.
3. In the list, click the transition effect you want.
Note that:
 Repeat the following process for each slide you want to
add a different transition to.
Adding / Removing Preset Animations
You can animate text, graphics, sounds, movies, and other

objects on your slides so you can focus on important points,
control the flow of information, and add interest to your
presentation.
You can have each main bullet point appear independently of

others, or you can have objects appear progressively, one after
another. You can set up the way you want each bullet point or
object to appear on your slide to fly in from the left, for
example, and whether you want other bullets or objects to dim
or change colour when you add a new element.
You can apply a preset animation scheme:
2. Click Animation Schemes… The Slide
Design task pane will be displayed.
3. Under Apply to selected slides, click an
animation scheme in the list.
Note that:
 If you want to apply the scheme to all
slides, click the Apply to All Slides
button.
 To preview animations for a slide click
Play button in the Slide Design task
pane.
 To preview how the set animations will
be displayed, click Slide Show button
in the Slide Design task pane.
 To change a preset animation repeat
steps 1-3 as above.
 To remove a preset animation repeat step 1-2 as above
and click No Animation under Apply to selected slides.
Adding Presenter’s Notes
You can add speaker’s notes for any or all of the slides in your
presentation. Normally, these notes are used as a quick
reference for key points you want to make during a presentation.
You can print the notes for your reference during the
presentation.
You can add presenter’s notes using the Normal view or the
Notes Page view.
To add presenter notes using the Normal view:

1. Click the notes pane.
2. Type your notes for the current slide.
Note that:
 To see more of the notes pane, point to the top border of
the notes pane until the pointer becomes a double-
headed arrow, and then drag until the pane is the size
you want.
 To move to other slides (to add notes) use the
Slide/Outline tab.
To add presenter notes using the Notes Page view:

1. Click View menu.
2. Click Notes Pages. The Notes Page that corresponds to
the slide you are working on appears. An image of the
current slide appears at the top of the Notes Page.
3. Click the notes box below the slide.
4. Type your notes in the box below the slide image.
Note that:
 To enlarge the Notes Page view, click the Zoom Control
button on the Standard toolbar.
 If you want to provide pages on which your audience can
make notes, then print notes pages but leave the notes
area blank. If you plan to make some notes by hand
below the slide, try putting some lines in the notes box.
Selecting an Output Format
You can select an appropriate output format for the slide

presentation such as: overhead, handout, 35mm slides and on-
screen show. You can also change the slide orientation (portrait
or landscape) and paper size.
1. Click File menu.

2. Click Page Setup…
3. Click the drop-down arrow below Slides sized for:
5. Click OK button.
Hiding / Showing Slides
You may wish to hide a slide from being displayed during your
presentation. To hide a slide:
1. On the Slides tab in normal view, select the slide you
want to hide.
3. Click Hide Slide.
Note that:
 The hidden slide icon appears with the slide number
inside, next to the slide you have hidden.
 The slide remains in your file, even though it is hidden when
you run the presentation.
To reset a hidden slide to be viewed in a slide show:

1. On the Slides tab in normal view, select the hidden slide
you want to make visible again.
Spell Checking a Presentation
By default, MS PowerPoint checks the spelling of the text in your

slides and presenter’s notes. Every single word in each slide and
notes is compared to a built-in dictionary available in MS Office.
A wavy red line appears beneath words that are not found in the
dictionary.
However, at times a word can be spelled correctly yet MS

PowerPoint does not find it in its dictionary. Proper nouns (Rita),
specialised terms (phototranspiration), acronyms and
abbreviations (UOM) etc. are not likely to be in the MS Office
dictionary. If you do not want MS PowerPoint to question such
words during spell checks, you can add them to a custom
dictionary. In addition to spelling mistakes, MS PowerPoint also
alerts you to repeated words - for example “the the” - and words
that have an unusual pattern of capitalisation, such as “PLay”.
To use the automatic spelling check:

1. Right-click the mouse over the word having a wavy red
underline.
2. A pop-up menu appears listing any suggestions Word may
have about the correct spelling or grammar, as well as the
following choices: Ignore, Delete repeated word, Add, and
Spelling. Click any suggestion and the appropriate option.
You can also resolve errors without using the pop-up menu by
simply editing the text. MS PowerPoint checks the spelling of the
word again as soon as you move your cursor away from it, and if
the word is now spelled correctly, the red line disappears.
To run the spelling and grammar check:

1. Click Spelling and Grammar button.
2. Click the appropriate options (refer to the following
table).
3. Click OK button when MS PowerPoint displays a message
that it has checked all text in the document.
Option To Do This
Not In Displays a possible error, such as an incorrectly spelled

Dictionary word, a duplicate word, a grammar error, or incorrect
capitalization. Edit the text in this box to correct it, and
then click Change, or click the correct word in the
Suggestions box and then click Change.
Suggestion Lists a number of words close to the incorrectly spelled
s word. Click the appropriate suggestion to choose it.
Ignore Leaves the word unchanged and continues with the
checking. The spell checker stops if the same word is
encountered within the same document. This button
changes to Resume if you click in the document to edit
the document.
Ignore All Leaves the word unchanged and skips any occurrences of
the same word within the entire document throughout the
rest of the current MS PowerPoint session.
Add Adds the word in the Not In Dictionary box to the custom
dictionary.
Change Replaces the incorrectly spelled word with the highlighted
word/phrase in the Suggestions: box. When the selected
error is a repeated word, this button changes to Delete so
you can easily remove the second instance of the word.
Change All Replaces all occurrences of the same incorrectly spelled
word with the word/phrase in the Suggestions: box.
Autocorrect Adds a word to the AutoCorrect list so that Word can
correct any incorrect spelling of it automatically as you
Option To Do This
type.
Note that:
 If the insertion point or selection was not at the beginning
of your document when you begin checking spelling, MS
PowerPoint asks if you want to continue checking from the
beginning of the document.
 MS PowerPoint doesn't check the spelling in embedded
objects such as charts or in inserted objects such as MS
Word documents.
 If the insertion point is in the notes pane or slide pane,
the spelling check alternates checking between the two. If
the insertion point is on the Outline tab, all the slides are
checked first, then all the notes.
Printing
Like all other computer application programs, MS PowerPoint has

its printing features. These are somewhat different from MS
Word, because you can print different components of your
presentation. You can print slides, outlines, notes pages, and
handouts.
1. Click File menu.

2. Click Print... The Print dialog box will be displayed.
3. Select the range of slides or notes pages to be printed.
4. In the Copies box, type the number of copies you want to
print.
5. Select what you want to print in the Print what: box.
(refer to the table)
6. Choose any additional print options (refer to the table).
7. Click OK button.
Option To Do This
All Prints all the slides in the presentation.

Current Slide Prints the current slide or notes page.
Selection Prints all the slides that are currently selected.
Slides Prints the range of slides or notes pages you specify.
If you type only a beginning number, all slides or
notes pages from that slide or notes page will be
printed. If you want to print only one slide or notes
page, type that slide's number in both boxes.
Handouts (2 Prints two slide images per page (use for the largest
slides per page) images and the greatest amount of detail).
Option To Do This
Handouts (3 Prints three slide images per page (use when you
slides per page) want space for notes on one side of the page).
Option To Do This
Handouts (6 Prints six slide images per page.
slides per page)
Notes Pages Prints the presenter’s notes pages that correspond
to the slide numbers you request.
Outline View Prints your outline according to how your outline
appears on-screen in Outline view. An outline can be
formatted or unformatted (plain text) and expanded
or collapsed (titles only). Also, the type size depends
on the view scale in which you are working.
Scale To Fit Scales slides automatically to fit the paper loaded in
Paper your printer.
Frame Slides Adds a thin frame around the border of printed
slides, handouts, and notes pages.
Include Prints pages containing comments for all slides that
comment pages contain comments. When printing slides, all
comments for a slide are printed on one page. When
printing handouts, a comment page contains
comments from all the slides on a handout page.
Print Hidden Prints all hidden slides. Otherwise, slides marked as
Slides hidden aren't printed.
Pure Black & Turns all colours fills to white, all text and lines to
White black, adds outlines or borders to all filled objects,
and renders pictures in greyscale. This option is
useful when you want to print draft copies on a
colour printer or when you want to print very
readable speaker's notes and handouts.
Black & White Turns all fills to white (or black and white, if
patterned). Unbordered objects that have no text
appear with a thin black frame.
Preview Displays your slides, handouts, notes, or outline as
they will look when printed.
Running the Slide Show
In Slide Show view, you see your slides as an electronic

presentation on your computer. Each slide fills the screen.
You can start a slide show so that the entire presentation will be
displayed starting from the first slide:
2. Click View Show.
Note that:
 To start a slide show on the current slide click Slide show
(from current slide) button.
During the Slide Show you can navigate from one slide to the
next or to a specific slide as indicated here:
To Do This
Advance to the next Mouse click, SPACEBAR, N, RIGHT ARROW,
slide. DOWN ARROW or PAGE DOWN.
Return to the previous Right click mouse, BACKSPACE, P, LEFT
slide. ARROW, UP ARROW or PAGE UP.
Go to a specific slide. Press number key followed by ENTER key.
ACTIVITY 3.1
Create a document in word and give it the title “My First

Experience”. Save it on the desktop. Insert a table with 5 rows and 4
columns. The headings in each column should read “Station” written in
Century Gothic, Font Size 14, bold.
Create a PowerPoint presentation with

(i) With 5 slides
(ii) An Apex design
(ii) Each slide should contain at least 5 bulleted sentences.
Summary
Word processor, Spreadsheets and Power point Presentations

give Zimbabwe Republic Police the ability to communicate with
the outside world. This unit explored and reviewed various
techniques and how they are used. The next chapter will focus
on online applications.
UNIT 4
ONLINE APPLICATIONS
4.0 Introduction
Increased Internet usage among companies and individuals has
influenced the way businesses are run. This has led to the
widespread adoption of web applications as companies shift from
traditional models to cloud-based and grid models. Online or
Web applications can be designed for a wide variety of uses and
can be used by anyone; from an organization to an individual for
numerous reasons. This unit will explore and review various
online applications and how they work in assisting end users.
Their advantages and disadvantages will also be outlined. A
summary will be given at the end of the unit.
OBJECTIVES
1. Define online applications
2. Outline the examples of online applications
3. State the uses of online applications
4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of online applications
5.
4.1 Definition of terms

Online applications are programmes, like ones you would use on
your computer such as paint or word that operate online on a
website. Online applications may also be referred to by other
names like SaaS or ‘Software as a Service’. Apple products refer
to all their programmes as applications and these include ones
that are used online and offline. It simply means a programme –
or something that will carry out some kind of a task.
Software as a service (or SaaS) is a way of delivering

applications over the Internet—as a service. Instead of
installing and maintaining software, you simply access it via the
Internet, freeing yourself from complex software and hardware
management.
4.2 Online Applications overview
In the early days of the internet, websites and web pages
existed as static content. Pages were online to be read and
viewed but little interaction occurred. Interaction online took
place by email. Slowly, a need for onsite interaction evolved and
was developed in all kinds of ways from commenting to booking
forms.
Since then the internet has come so far in terms of

functionalities and interaction that it came to be referred to by
some people as Web 2.0. Web 2.0 refers to the highly
interactive, non static web that we now use in our day to day
lives. Google Drive, formerly referred to as Google docs is a
great example of an online application. It allows Gmail users to
create, edit and share documents all within their browser. It’s
extremely useful as it saves automatically and if your computer
crashes or your laptop is stolen, you can simply log into your
Gmail account and all your Google Drive documents are there as
they were when you last edited them.
Businesses can benefit from these exciting new functionalities

too. Perhaps there’s something that you’d like your website to
offer your customers that is more than just a sharing of
information. Central Hub Dublin created a nifty online application
for a client that offers an online canvas printing service recently.
4.3 Examples of Online Applications

Web applications include;
 online forms
 shopping carts
 word processors
 spreadsheets
 video and photo editing
 file conversion
 file scanning
 email programs such as Gmail, Yahoo and AOL.
Popular applications include Google Apps and Microsoft 365.
Google Apps for Work has Gmail, Google Docs, Google Sheets,
Google Slides, online storage and more. Other functionalities
include online sharing of documents and calendars. This lets all
team members access the same version of a document
simultaneously.
Rather than having to bring a photo in to the canvas printers, or

edit it themselves, Central Hub added an application that will
allow users to upload their photo to the site, edit it, add a filter
and adjust colours and even view what their print will look like
and see what parts of the photo will appear on the edges of the
canvas.
4.4 With online applications one can perform the

following activities;
 Sending and receiving email.
 Searching and browsing information archives.
 Copying files between computers.
 Conducting financial transactions.
 Navigating (in your car, smart scooter, smart bike, or other)
 Playing interactive games.
 Video and music streaming.
 Chat or voice communication (direct messaging, video
conferencing)
4.4.1 Advantages of Web Applications
 Accessible from any Internet-enabled computer.

 Usable with different operating systems and browser
applications.
 Easier to roll out program updates since only software on the
server needs to be updated and not on every desktop in the
organization.
 Centralized storage on the server means fewer security
concerns about local storage (which is important for sensitive
information such as health care data).
4.4.2 Disadvantages of Web Applications
 Requirement to have an active Internet connection (the

Internet is not always available everywhere at all times).
 Security concerns about sensitive private data being
transmitted over the Internet.
 Concerns over the storage, licensing, and use of uploaded
data.
 Problems with certain websites on certain browsers not
looking quite right.
 Restrictions on access to the operating system can prevent
software and hardware from being installed or accessed (like
Adobe Flash on iOS).
ACTIVITY 4.1
1. Explain the differences and or similarities between online

applications and application software giving examples of each.
2. Outline the uses, advantages and disadvantages of online apps
Summary
Web applications give businesses the ability to streamline their
operations, increase efficiency and reduce costs. These online
apps such as email clients, word processors, spreadsheets and
other programs provide the same functionality as the desktop
versions. However, they have an added advantage of working
across multiple platforms, having a broader reach, and being
easily accessible from anywhere. This unit explored and
reviewed various online applications and how they are used.
Their advantages and disadvantages were also discussed. The
next chapter will focus on Computer Networks.
UNIT 5
COMPUTER NETWORKS
5.0 Introduction
Computer networks are the basis of communication in IT. They
are used in a huge variety of ways and can include many
different types of networks. This unit is going to review aspects
of computer networks, ranging from the different types
available, their differences and how they work. The significance
of networks is also going to be outlined and a summary shall be
drawn thereafter.
OBJECTIVES
1. Define a Computer network
2. Outline types of Networks
3. Identify how the Intranet works
4. Outline Differences between intranet and internet
5. Outline Differences between intranet and extranet
6. Importance of networks
7. Types of network connections
8.
5.1 Definition
A computer network is a set of computers that are connected
together so that they can share information.
5.2 Types of Networks

There are many different types of network, which can be used
for different purposes and by different types of people and
organization. Here are some of the network types that you might
come across:
5.2.1 Local Area Networks (LAN)
A local area network or LAN is a network that connects

computers within a limited area. This might be in a school, an
office or even a home.
Fig 5.0 Intranet
The intranet is a private network that belongs to a particular

organization. It is designed for the exclusive use of an
organization and its associates, such as employees, customers,
and other authorized people. It offers a secure platform to
convey information and share data with authorized users.
Confidential information, database, links, forms, and applications
can be made available to the staff through the intranet. So, it is
like a private internet or an internal website that is operating
within an organization to provide its employees access to its
information and records. Each computer in intranet is identified
by a unique IP Address.
 It is cheap and easy to implement and run, and is more

safe than the internet and extranet.
 It streamlines communication that enables the company to
share its data, information, and other resources among
employees without any delay. The entire staff can receive
company's announcements, ask questions, and access
internal documents.
 It provides a secure space to store and develop
applications to support business operations.
 It improves the efficiency of the company by speeding up
workflow and reducing errors. Thus, it helps achieve
targets by completing the tasks on time.
 It offers a testing platform for new ideas before they are
uploaded on the company's internet webpage. Thus, it
helps maintain the credibility of the company
 Information is shared in real-time, or updates are reflected
immediately to all the authorized users.
 Modern intranets also offer a mobile app that allows
employees to stay connected on the go.
 It aids in project management and tracking workflow and
teams' progress.
 It can work with mobile devices, which means it can
provide information that exists on intranet directly to
mobile devices of employees such as phones, tablets, etc.
 It can also be used to motivate employees, facilitate
employee recognition, and to reward them for performing
beyond expectations.
How the Intranet Works:

Intranet basically comprises three components: a web server, an
intranet platform, and applications. The web server is hardware
that contains all the intranet software and data. It manages all
requests for files hosted over the server and finds the requested
files and then delivers it to the user's computer.
Fig 5.1 Intranet Connection
The intranet platform, which is software, allows communication

tools, collaboration apps, and databases to work seamlessly with
each other. It is tailored to the specific needs of a business. The
applications are required to enable users to work smoothly. They
are the computing tools that allow users to do their work,
communicate, and coordinate with each other and retrieve and
store information. Furthermore, the user who wants to access
the intranet is required to have a special network password and
should be connected to the LAN. A user who is working remotely
can gain access to the intranet through a virtual private network
(VPN) that allows them to sign in to the intranet to access the
information.
Disadvantages of Intranet:
 It may be costly to set up an Intranet due to hidden costs and
complexity.
 If the firewall does not work properly or not installed, it can
be hacked by someone
 High-security passwords are required, which cannot be
guessed by outside users
 There is always a fear of losing control over the intranet
 Sometimes document duplication may happen which can
cause confusion among employees
 It can be hard to control this network since access is given to
multiple users.
Differences between Intranet and Internet
Table 5.0 Internet and Intranet differences
Extranet
An extranet is a controlled private network allowing customers,
partners, vendors, suppliers and other businesses to gain
information, typically about a specific company or educational
institution, and do so without granting access to the
organization's entire network. An extranet is often a private part
of a website. It is restricted to select users through user IDs,
passwords and other authentication mechanisms on a login
page. An extranet may be viewed as an intranet mapped onto
the public Internet or onto some other private network.
Benefits of extranet:
 It acts as a single interface between the company and its
trading partners.
It automates the firm's processes like automatically places
an order with suppliers when inventory drops.
 It improves customer service by providing customers a
platform to resolve their queries and complaints.
 It enables the firm to share information with trading
partners without engaging in paper-based publishing
processes.
 It streamlines business processes that are repetitive in
nature, such as ordering from a vendor on a regular basis.
 Allows the exchange of large volumes of data using
electronic data interchange
 Joint company collaboration and training
 Sharing services such as online banking applications
among affiliated banks
Limitations of Extranet:
 Hosting: If you host extranet pages on your own server, it

requires a high bandwidth internet connection, which is may
be very expensive.
 Security: You need extra firewall security if you host it on
your own server. It increases the workload and makes
security mechanism very complex.
 Dependency: It is dependent on the internet as outsiders
cannot access information without using the internet.
 Less Interaction: It reduces the face to face interaction
between customers, business partners, vendors, etc., which
results in poor relationship building.
Difference between Intranet and Extranet:

Table 5.2. Intranet and Extranet differences
5.2.2 Personal Area Networks (PAN)
A personal area network is a network that is based on an

individual's workspace. The individual's device is the centre of
the network, with other devices connected to it. There are also
wireless personal area networks.
5.2.3 Home Area Networks (HAN)
A home area network connects devices within a home

environment. It might include personal computers, tablets,
smartphones, printers, TVs and other devices.
5.2.4 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
A wide area network is a network that covers a larger

geographical area, usually with a radius of more than a
kilometre.
5.2.5 Campus Networks

A campus network is a LAN or set of connected LANs which is
used by a government agency, university, corporation or similar
organization and is typically a network across a set of buildings
that are close together.
5.2.6 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
Metropolitan area networks are networks that stretch across a

region the size of a metropolitan area. A MAN is a series of
connected LANs in a city, which might also connect to a WAN.
5.2.7 Enterprise Private Networks
An enterprise private network is used by a company to connect

its various sites so that the different locations can share
resources.
5.2.8 Internetworks
Internetworks connect different networks together to build a
larger network. Internetworking is often used to describe
building a large, global network.
5.2.9 Global Area Networks (GAN)
A global area network is a worldwide network that connects

networks all over the globe, such as the internet.
5.3 Importance of Networks

Both computers and computer networks are indispensable to us
now. All workplaces contain computers, and they are invariably
interconnected. If they are connected via a LAN, they can
communicate with other computers. In most residential flats,
computers are connected to the Internet through broadband
connections for e-mail, Web browsing, and the like.
Apart from at home and in the office, computer networks are

present in all mass transport systems for the smooth operation
of ticketing systems, carriage signalling, and safety protection
and performance analysis. Doing business requires computer
networks as well. When we eat or shop, computer networks
come in to connect the ordering, inventory and payment
systems.
The administration of a country or a city also needs computers
and computer networks. For example, computer networks are
required to allow access to information, including citizen and
business registration information, at different government
offices. Computer networks are required to support checking our
identity at border control points, and for operating traffic lights
Computer networks have the following three goals:

 Overcoming geographic separation
Computer networks overcome geographical separation in a
city and across countries. Computers that need to
communicate with other computers are often located in
different parts of the world, and they need computer
networks to pass information across long distances to
overcome that geographical separation.
 Allowing information sharing

Computer networks allow information sharing by allowing
connected people or computers to access information on
databases distributed in different locations. There are
databases hosted on many computers. People or computers may
need to access the data in these databases. Without a
computer network, it would take a long time to select and
transport the required data from the database to the requiring
users. With computer networks, we can conveniently
access the databases to retrieve data.
 Supporting distributed processing

Computer networks support processing distributed in
different locations. These different locations can be physically
close together inside a single computer room, or they can be
separated by a long distance across mountains and oceans.
Physical transportation of the intermediately processed data
is impractical. Hence, a computer network becomes
indispensable in distributed processing. It allows timely passing
of semi-processed data between computers located in
distributed locations.
Computer networks are used to carry out a large number of
tasks through the sharing of information.
Some of the things that networks are used for include:

 Communicating using email, video, instant messaging and
other methods
 Sharing devices such as printers, scanners and
photocopiers
 Sharing files
 Sharing software and operating programs on remote
systems
 Allowing network users to easily access and maintain
information
5.4 Types of Network Connections

There are also different types of network connections that
concern how elements in a network are connected to each other.
Topologies are used to connect computers, with a collapsed ring
being the most common type due to the Ethernet supporting the
internet, local area networks and wide area networks. Here are
some of the topologies that are used to create networks;
5.4.1 Star Topology
A central node connects a cable to each computer in the network

in a star topology. Each computer in the network has an
independent connection to the centre of the network, and one
connection breaking won't affect the rest of the network.
However, one downside is that many cables are required to form
this kind of network.
5.4.2 Bus Topology
In a bus topology network connection, one cable connects the

computer. The information for the last node on the network has
to run through each connected computer. There is less cabling
required, but if the cable breaks it means that none of the
computers can reach the network.
5.4.3 Ring Topology
A ring topology is similar to a bus topology. It uses a single cable

with the end nodes connected to each other so the signal can
circle through the network to find its recipient. The signal will try
several times to find its destination even when the network node
is not working properly. A collapsed ring has a central node
which is a hub, router or switch. The device has an internal ring
topology and has places for cable to plug in. Every computer in
the network has its own cable to plug into the device. In an
office, this probably means having a cabling closet, where all
computers are connected to the closet and the switch.
5.4.4 Network Protocols
Network protocols are the languages that computer devices use

to communicate. The protocols that computer networks support
offer another way to define and group them. Networks can have
more than one protocol and each can support different
applications. Protocols that are often used include TCP/IP, which
is most common on the internet and in home networks.
5.4.5 Wired and Wireless Networks
Many protocols can work with both wired and wireless networks.
In recent years, however, wireless technologies have grown and
become much more popular. Wi-Fi and other wireless
technologies have become the favourite option for building
computer networks. One of the reasons for this is that wireless
networks can easily support different types of wireless gadgets
that have become popular over the years, such as smart phones
and tablets. Mobile networking is now an important thing to
consider because it's not going to go away anytime soon.
Network design
Computer networks can have different designs, with the two
basic forms being client/server and peer-to-peer networks.
Client/server networks have centralized servers for storage,
which are accessed by client computers and devices. Peer-to-
peer networks tend to have devices that support the same
functions. They are more common in homes, while client/server
networks are more likely to be used by businesses.
ACTIVITY 5.1
1. Amongst all the networks that you are familiar with or you have
learnt, choose one that is suitable for the Zimbabwe Republic
Police.
2. State the reasons for your choice.

Summary
The unit reviewed aspects of computer networks, ranging from
their types, their differences and how they work. The significance
of networks was also outlined. The next chapter is going to look
at the Internet and its uses.
UNIT 6
INTERNET
6.0 Introduction
It's no secret that more and more the internet is becoming an
integral part of our everyday lives. But if you are new to the
online experience, it may be a bit overwhelming. You may be
wondering, "What exactly is the internet, and how does it work?"
In this unit, we will give a brief overview of the internet, and we
will talk about its uses, how it can be abused and some
fundamental concepts such as networks, servers, and clients.
OBJECTIVES
1. Define the term internet
2. Considerations when choosing an Internet Service Provider
3. Types of internet connections
4. Explain the uses of internet
5. Explain Services of internet
6. State how internet can be abused
7. Outline Internet requirements and Applications
6.1 Definition
The Internet is a global wide area network that connects
computer systems across the world. It includes several high-
bandwidth data lines that comprise the Internet "backbone."
These lines are connected to major Internet hubs that distribute
data to other locations, such as web servers and ISPs.
In order to connect to the Internet, you must have access to an

Internet service provider (ISP), which acts the middleman
between you and the Internet. Most ISPs offer broadband
Internet access via a cable, DSL, or fibre connection. When you
connect to the Internet using a public Wi-Fi signal, the Wi-Fi
router is still connected to an ISP that provides Internet access.
Even cellular data towers must connect to an Internet service
provider to provide connected devices with access to the
Internet.
6.2 Choosing Internet Service Provider

Below are some things to consider as you research for ISPs:
 Speed
 Price
 Ease of Installation
 Service Record
 Technical Support
 Contract Terms
6.3 Types of Internet connection:
 Dail-up
 Integrated services digital network
 Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
 Wireless Internet Connections
 Internet over Satellite
6.3.1 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
 Broadband – faster than dial-up connection

 Connects through phone lines, but does not require phone
service
 Always on
 Internet and phone can be used in the same time
 Unavailable in many location
6.3.2 Cable
 Broadband – faster than dial-up and DSL

 Use cable connection
 Always on
 Only available where cable is available
6.3.3 Satellite
 Broadband – faster than dial-up, but data is delayed

 Connects via satellites
 Can be affected by rain and snow
 Does not require phone lines and cables
 Can be use anywhere around the world
6.3.4 3G and 4G
 Available for mobile phones, computers and tablets

 Connects wirelessly through 3G/4G provider
 Can access Internet anywhere
 Slower than DSL and Cable connection
6.4 How Internet Works?

Because the Internet is a global network of computers each
computer connected to the Internet must have a unique address.
This address is known as an IP address.
6.4.1 Requirement for connectivity
 Computer with modem/router/network card.

 Internet account with ISP.
 Application software:
- Web browser (Firefox, Chrome)
-Email client (MS Outlook)
-Plugins software (Adobe Reader, Flash Player)
 Optional: Speaker, Printer, Webcam
6.5 Internet Usages

 Communication
 Send and receive emails
 Download files
 Post your opinion to a newsgroup
 Chatting
 Surf the world wide web
 Business
 Shopping
 Entertainment
6.6 Internet Applications

An Internet application is an interactive, compiled application
that can be accessed through a corporate or through the
Internet. Internet applications can perform complex business
processes on either the client or the server. The application uses
the Internet protocol to receive requests from a client, typically a
Web browser, process associated code, and return data to the
browser. Listed hereunder are some of the Internet applications;
 The World-Wide Web (WWW)

 Electronic Mail (E-Mail)
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Search Engine
 Chatting
 Video Conferencing
 E-Commerce
6.6.1 World Wide Web (WWW)
 The World Wide Web is a system of interlinked hypertext

documents accessed via the Internet
 With a web browser, one can view web pages that may
contain text, images, videos, and other multimedia and
navigate between them via hyperlinks
 It use a protocol called HTTP – Hypertext Transfer Protocol
 HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted,
and what actions Web servers and browsers should take in
response to various commands.
 A Uniform Resource Locator, or URL is the address of a
document you'll find on the WWW.
 The elements in a URL: Protocol://server's address/filename
 Example: http://www.google.com/index.html
Types of website
 Static
A static website is one that has web pages stored on the
server in the format that is sent to a client web browser. It is
primarily coded in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)
 Dynamic
A dynamic website is one that changes or customizes itself
frequently and automatically, based on certain criteria.
6.6.2 Electronic Mail (Email)

 The transmission of messages over communications
networks.
 It is a fast and efficient way to communicate with friends or
colleagues.
 You can communicate with one person at a time or
thousands; you can receive and send files and other
information.
Basic email functions

 send and receive mail messages
 save your messages in a file
 print mail messages
 reply to mail messages
 attach a file to a mail message
Electronic Mail (Email)

 Email address someone@mail server
 The email address has three parts:
-a user name
-an "at" sign (@)
-the address of the user's mail server
 Example Harris@ftms.edu.my
Email Client
 An email client is a computer program used to manage a
user's email.
 Popular email clients include Microsoft Outlook, Pegasus Mail,
Mozilla's Thunderbird, and Apple Inc.'s Mail.
Web-based mail
 Is an e-mail service intended to be primarily accessed via a
web browser.
 Very popular webmail providers:
-Gmail
-Yahoo! Mail
-Hotmail
 Web mail is popular as it allows you to send or receive e-mail
from anywhere
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

 The protocol for exchanging files over the Internet.
 Used for moving files between two hosts on a TCP/IP
network.
 FTP is most commonly used to download a file from a server
using the Internet or to upload a file to a server.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 To do FTP, a user invokes one of two commands:
-get - the command for transferring a file from another server to
your own computer.
-put - the command for moving a file from your computer to
another one.
Search Engine
 A search engine is designed to search for information on the
internet.
 Search engine presents the search results in the form of a
search results list.
 The search results can be web pages, images, videos, and
other type of files.
 Example:
-Google
-Bing
Chatting
 Chatting is the other method for Internet conversation.
 It enables people connected anywhere on the Internet to join
in live discussions.
 Chat sessions allow many users to join in the same free
-form conversation, usually centred around a discussion topic.
Chatting
Examples:
 MSN Messenger
 Yahoo Messenger
 IRC
 Pidgin
Video Conferencing
A videoconference or video conference is a set of interactive
telecommunication technologies which allow two or more
locations to interact via two-way video and audio transmissions
simultaneously.
The other components required for a videoconferencing
system include:
 Video input and output
 Audio input and output
 Data transfer
 Computer
E-Commerce
 Electronic commerce or E-Commerce consists of the buying
and selling of products or services over electronic systems
such as the Internet and other computer networks.
 It includes the entire online process of developing, marketing,
selling, delivering, servicing and paying for products and
services.
Some common applications related to electronic commerce are
the following:
 Domestic and international payment systems
 Group buying
 Automated online assistants
 Online shopping and order tracking
 Online banking
 Shopping cart software
 Electronic tickets
ACTIVITY 1.1
1. Figure out the requirements of internet connection.
2. Illustrate one type of internet connection with a diagram
3. Explain internet applications, give examples and their uses.
Summary
The Internet today is a widespread information infrastructure,
the initial prototype of what is often called the National (or
Global or Galactic) Information Infrastructure. Its history is
complex and involves many aspects – technological,
organizational and community. And its influence reaches not only
to the technical fields of computer communications but
throughout society as we move toward increasing use of online
tools to accomplish electronic commerce, information acquisition
and community operations.
UNIT 7
DATA BASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
7.0 Introduction
For there to be fluidity, data should be easily stored and
retrieved conveniently and efficiently. Because information is so
important in most organizations, computer scientists have
developed a large body of concepts and techniques for managing
data. This unit is going to explain what data and database
managements systems are. Components of the database
management system are going to be looked at and the types of
DBMS are also going stated.
OBJECTIVES
1. Define a Database
2. Define what DBMS is
3. State examples of Database applications
4. State the components of a database
5. List at least 5 advantages of DBMS
6. List at least 5 disadvantages of DBMS
7. Types of DBMS
8. DBMS Software
9.
7.1 Definitions
What is a Database?
A database is a collection of related data which represents some
aspect of the real world. A database system is designed to be
built and populated with data for a certain task.
DBMS: A database management system is the software system

that allows users to define, create and maintain a database and
provides controlled access to the data.
A Database Management System (DBMS) is basically a collection

of programs that enables users to store, modify, and extract
information from a database as per the requirements. DBMS is
an intermediate layer between programs and the data. Programs
access the DBMS, which then accesses the data. There are
different types of DBMS ranging from small systems that run on
personal computers to huge systems that run on mainframes.
7.2 Database Applications

The following are main examples of database applications:
 Computerized library systems
 Automated teller machines
 Flight reservation systems
 Computerized parts inventory systems
7.3 Components of a Database System environment

There are five major components in the database system
environment and their interrelationship is.
 Hardware
 Software
 Data
 Users
 Procedures
Hardware: The hardware is the actual computer system used

for keeping and accessing the database. Conventional DBMS
hardware consists of secondary storage devices, usually hard
disks, on which the database physically resides, together with
the associated Input-Output devices, device controllers and· so
forth. Databases run on a’ range of machines, from
Microcomputers to large mainframes. Other hardware issues for
a DBMS includes database machines, which is hardware
designed specifically to support a database system.
Software: The software is the actual DBMS. Between the

physical database itself (i.e. the data as actually stored) and the
users of the system is a layer of software, usually called the
Database Management System or DBMS. All requests from users
for access to the database are handled by the DBMS. One
general function provided by the DBMS is thus the shielding of
database users from complex hardware-level detail. The DBMS
allows the users to communicate with the database. In a sense,
it is the mediator between the database and the users. The
DBMS controls the access and helps to maintain the consistency
of the data. Utilities are usually included as part of the DBMS.
Some of the most common utilities are report writers and
application development.
Data : It is the most important component of DBMS

environment from the end users point of view. Data acts as a
bridge between the machine components and the user
components. The database contains the operational data and the
meta-data, the ‘data about data’. The database should contain
all the data needed by the organization. One of the major
features of databases is that the actual data are separated from
the programs that use the data. A database should always be
designed, built and populated for a particular audience and for a
specific purpose.
Users : There are a number of users who can access or retrieve

data on demand using the applications and interfaces provided
by the DBMS. Each type of user needs different software
capabilities. The users of a database system can be classified in
the following groups, depending on their degrees of expertise or
the mode of their interactions with the DBMS. The users can be:
 Naive Users
 Online Users
 Application Programmers
 Sophisticated Users
 Data Base Administrator (DBA)
(i) Naive Users

Naive Users are those users who need not be aware of the
presence of the database system or any other system supporting
their usage. Naive users are end users of the database who work
through a menu driven application program, where the type and
range of response is always indicated to the user. A user of an
Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) falls in this category. The user is
instructed through each step of a transaction. He or she then
responds by pressing a coded key or entering a numeric value.
The operations that can be performed by valve users are very
limited and affect only a precise portion of the database. For
example, in the case of the user of the Automatic Teller Machine,
user’s action affects only one or more of his/her own accounts.
(ii) Online Users

Online users are those who may communicate with the
database directly via an online terminal or indirectly via a
user interface and application program. These users are
aware of the presence of the database system and may have
acquired a certain amount of expertise with in the limited
interaction permitted with a database.
(iii) Sophisticated Users

Such users interact with the system without, writing
programs. Instead, they form their requests in database
query language. Each such query is submitted to a very
processor whose function is to breakdown DML statement into
instructions that the storage manager understands.
(iv) Specialized Users

Such users are those, who write specialized database
application that do not fit into the fractional data-processing
framework. For example: Computer-aided design systems,
knowledge base and expert system, systems that store data
with complex data types (for example, graphics data and
audio data).
(v) Application Programmers

Professional programmers are those who are responsible for
developing application programs or user interface. The
application programs could be written using general purpose
programming language or the commands available to
manipulate a database.
(vi) Database Administrator

The database administrator (DBA) is the person or group in
charge for implementing the database system, within an
organization. The “DBA has all the system privileges allowed
by the DBMS and can assign (grant) and remove (revoke)
levels of access (privileges) to and from other users. DBA is
also responsible for the evaluation, selection and
implementation of DBMS package.
Procedures: Procedures refer to the instructions and rules that

govern the design and use of the database. The users of the
system and the staff that manage the database require
documented procedures on how to use or run the system.
These may consist of instructions on how to:

 Log on to the DBMS.
 Use a particular DBMS facility or application program.
 Start and stop the DBMS.
 Make backup copies of the database.
 Handle hardware or software failures.
 Change the structure of a table

 Reorganize the database across multiple disks
 Improve performance
 Archive data to secondary storage.
7.6 Advantages of DBMS

The database management system has promising potential
advantages, which are explained below:
7.6.1 Controlling Redundancy:
In file system, each application has its own private files, which
cannot be shared between multiple applications. This can often
lead to considerable redundancy in the stored data, which results
in wastage of storage space. By having centralized database
most of this can be avoided. It is not possible that all
redundancy should be eliminated. Sometimes there are sound
business and technical reasons for· maintaining multiple copies
of the same data. In a database system, however this
redundancy can be controlled. For example: In case of college
database, there may be the number of applications like General
Office, Library, Account Office, Hostel etc. Each of these
applications may maintain the following information into own
private file applications:
Table 7.1: College Database
It is clear from the above file systems, that there is some

common data of the student which has to be mentioned in each
application, like Roll number, Name, Class, Phone Number, and
Address etc. This will cause the problem of redundancy which
results in wastage of storage space and difficult to maintain, but
in case of centralized database, data can be shared by number
of applications and the whole college can maintain its
computerized data with the following database:
Table7.2: College Database where redundancy has been
eliminated
It is clear in the above database that Roll number, Name, Class,

Father’s Name, Address,
Phone Number, Date of birth, which are stored repeatedly in file
system in each application, need not be stored repeatedly in
case of database, because every other application can access
this information by joining of relations on the basis of common
column i.e. Roll number. Suppose any user of Library system
need the Name, Address of any particular student and by joining
of Library and General Office relations on the basis of column
Roll number he/she can easily retrieve this information.
Thus, we can say that centralized system of DBMS reduces the
redundancy of data to great extent but cannot eliminate the
redundancy because Roll Number is still repeated in all the
relations.
7.4.2 Integrity can be enforced:
Integrity of data means that data in database is always accurate,

such that incorrect information cannot be stored in database. In
order to maintain the integrity of data, some integrity
constraints are enforced on the database. A DBMS should
provide capabilities for defining and enforcing the constraints.
For Example: Let us consider the case of college database and

suppose that college having only BTech, MTech, MSc, BCA, BBA
and BCOM classes. But if a \.,ser enters the class MCA, then this
incorrect information must not be stored in database and must
be prompted that this is an invalid data entry. In order to
enforce this, the integrity constraint must be applied to the class
attribute of the student entity. But, in case of file system tins
constraint must be enforced on all the application separately
(because all applications have a class field).
In case of DBMS, this integrity constraint is applied only once on

the class field of the General Office (because class field appears
only once in the whole database), and all other applications will
get the class information about the student from the General
Office table so the integrity constraint is applied to the whole
database. So, we can conclude that integrity constraint can be
easily enforced in centralized DBMS system as compared to file
system.
7.4.3 Inconsistency can be avoided:
When the same data is duplicated and changes are made at one
site, which is not propagated to the other site, it gives rise to
inconsistency and the two entries regarding the same data will
not agree. At such times the data is said to be inconsistent. So,
if the redundancy is removed chances of having inconsistent
data is also removed.
An inconsistent database is capable of supplying incorrect or
conflicting information. So there should be no inconsistency in
database. It can be clearly shown that inconsistency can be
avoided in centralized system very well as compared to file
system. If redundancy is less, it is easy to implement
consistency of data. Thus, DBMS system can avoid inconsistency
to great extent.
7.4.4 Data can be shared:
As explained earlier, the data about Name, Class, Father’s name

etc. of General Office is shared by multiple applications in
centralized DBMS as compared to file system so now applications
can be developed to operate against the same stored data. The
applications may be developed without having to create any new
stored files.
7.4.5 Standards can be enforced:
Since DBMS is a central system, so standard can be enforced

easily may be at Company level, Department level, National level
or International level. The standardized data is very helpful
during migration or interchanging of data. The file system is an
independent system so standard cannot be easily enforced on
multiple independent applications.
7.4.6 Restricting unauthorized access:
When multiple users share a database, it is likely that some

users will not be authorized to access all information in the
database. For example, account office data is often considered
confidential, and hence only authorized persons are allowed to
access such data. In addition, some users may be permitted only
to retrieve data, whereas other are allowed both to retrieve and
to update. Hence, the type of access operation retrieval or
update must also be controlled. Typically, users or user groups
are given account numbers protected by passwords, which they
can use to gain access to the database. A DBMS should provide a
security and authorization subsystem, which the DBA uses to
create accounts and to specify account restrictions. The DBMS
should then enforce these restrictions automatically.
7.4.7 Solving Enterprise Requirement than Individual

Requirement:
Since many types of users with varying level of technical

knowledge use a database, a DBMS should provide a variety of
user interface. The overall requirements of the enterprise are
more important than the individual user requirements. So, the
DBA can structure the database system to provide an overall
service that is “best for the enterprise”.
For example: A representation can be chosen for the data in

storage that gives fast access for the most important application
at the cost of poor performance in some other application. But,
the file system favours the individual requirements than the
enterprise requirements
7.4.8 Providing Backup and Recovery:
A DBMS must provide facilities for recovering from hardware or

software failures. The backup and recovery subsystem of the
DBMS is responsible for recovery. For example, if the computer
system fails in the middle of a complex update program, the
recovery subsystem is responsible for making sure that the
.database is restored to the state it was in before the program
started executing.
7.4.9 Cost of developing and maintaining system is lower:
It is much easier to respond to unanticipated requests when data

is centralized in a database than when it is stored in a
conventional file system. Although the initial cost of setting up of
a database can be large, but the cost of developing and
maintaining application programs to be far lower than for similar
service using conventional systems. The productivity of
programmers can be higher in using non-procedural languages
that have been developed with DBMS than using procedural
languages.
7.4.10 Data Model can be developed:
The centralized system is able to represent the complex data

and interfile relationships, which results better data modeling
properties. The data madding properties of relational model is
based on Entity and their Relationship, which is discussed in
detail in chapter 4 of the book.
7.4.11 Concurrency Control:
DBMS systems provide mechanisms to provide concurrent access

of data to multiple users.
7.5 Disadvantages of DBMS
The disadvantages of the database approach are summarized as

follows:
7.5.1 Complexity:
The provision of the functionality that is expected of a good

DBMS makes the DBMS an extremely complex piece of software.
Database designers, developers, database administrators and
end-users must understand this functionality to take full
advantage of it. Failure to understand the system can lead to
bad design decisions, which can have serious consequences for
an organization.
7.5.2 Size:
The complexity and breadth of functionality makes the DBMS an

extremely large piece of software, occupying many megabytes of
disk space and requiring substantial amounts of memory to run
efficiently.
7.5.3 Performance:
Typically, a File Based system is written for a specific application,

such as invoicing. As result, performance is generally very good.
However, the DBMS is written to be more general, to cater for
many applications rather than just one. The effect is that some
applications may not run as fast as they used to.
7.5.4 Higher impact of a failure:
The centralization of resources increases the vulnerability of the

system. Since all users and applications rely on the ~vailabi1ity
of the DBMS, the failure of any component can bring operations
to a halt.
7.5.5 Cost of DBMS:
The cost of DBMS varies significantly, depending on the

environment and functionality provided. There is also the
recurrent annual maintenance cost.
7.5.6 Additional Hardware costs:
The disk storage requirements for the DBMS and the database
may necessitate the purchase of additional storage space.
Furthermore, to achieve the required performance it may be
necessary to purchase a larger machine, perhaps even a
machine dedicated to running the DBMS. The procurement of
additional hardware results in further expenditure.
7.5.7 Cost of Conversion:
In some situations, the cost of the DBMS and extra hardware

may be insignificant compared with the cost of converting
existing applications to run on the new DBMS and hardware. This
cost also includes the cost of training staff to use these new
systems and possibly the employment of specialist staff to help
with conversion and running of the system. This cost is one of
the main reasons why some organizations feel tied to their
current systems and cannot switch to modern database
technology.
7.6 Types of DBMS

There are various types of DBMS systems which include the
following:
 Hierarchical database
 Network database
 Relational database
 Object-Oriented database
7.6.1 Hierarchical DBMS
In a Hierarchical database, model data is organized in a tree-like

structure. Data is Stored Hierarchically (top down or bottom up)
format. Data is represented using a parent-child relationship. In
Hierarchical DBMS parent may have many children, but children
have only one parent.
7.6.2 Network Model
The network database model allows each child to have multiple

parents. It helps you to address the need to model more
complex relationships like as the orders/parts many-to-many
relationship. In this model, entities are organized in a graph
which can be accessed through several paths.
7.6.3 Relational model
Relational DBMS is the most widely used DBMS model because it

is one of the easiest. This model is based on normalizing data in
the rows and columns of the tables. Relational model stored in
fixed structures and manipulated using SQL.
7.6.4 Object-Oriented Model
In Object-oriented Model data stored in the form of objects. The

structure which is called classes which display data within it. It
defines a database as a collection of objects which stores both
data members’ values and operations.
7.7 DBMS software

It is software designed to store, retrieve, define and manage
data in a database. The software interacts with end users,
applications and the database itself to capture and analyse the
data.
Here, is the list of some popular DBMS system:
 MySQL
 Microsoft Access
 Oracle
 PostgreSQL
 dBASE
 FoxPro
 SQLite
 IBM DB2
 LibreOffice Base
 MariaDB
 Microsoft SQL Server etc.
ACTIVITY 7.1
1. Explain what DBMS is and give its software examples
2. Discuss the importance of DBMS in an organization
3. Outline the implications associated with the use of DBMS’
4. Outline components of a DBMS environment
Summary
Brands must always employ a database system that is capable of
meeting their organization's aims and objectives. Extraction and
filtration of data, insights and analysis, automation, forecasting
methods, visualization tools, and return of investment
management are just a few of the functions and models that
businesses should constantly look for in a database management
system.
UNIT 8
INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRONIC BUSINESS
8.0 Introduction
In the emerging global economy, e-commerce and e-business
have increasingly become a necessary component of business
strategy and a strong catalyst for economic development. The
integration of information and communications technology (ICT)
in business has revolutionized relationships within organizations
and those between and among organizations and individuals.
This unit looks at E-commerce or E-business outlining its
importance, characteristics and applications thereby scanning
the pros and cons of conducting business electronically.
OBJECTIVES
1. Outline the Importance of e-business
2. Outline how are websites developed?
3. Explain Characteristics of good websites
8.1 Definition
Electronic commerce or e-commerce refers to a wide range of
online business activities for products and services. It also
pertains to “any form of business transaction in which the parties
interact electronically rather than by physical exchanges or
direct physical contact.”
E-commerce is usually associated with buying and selling over

the Internet, or conducting any transaction involving the transfer
of ownership or rights to use goods or services through a
computer-mediated network. Though popular, this definition is
not comprehensive enough to capture recent developments in
this new and revolutionary business phenomenon.
A more complete definition is: E-commerce is the use of

electronic communications and digital information
processing technology in business transactions to create,
transform, and redefine relationships for value creation
between or among organizations, and between
organizations and individuals
Electronic commerce draws on technologies such as mobile

commerce, electronic funds transfer, supply chain management,
Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic
data interchange (EDI), inventory management systems, and
automated data collection systems. Modern electronic commerce
typically uses the World Wide Web for at least one part of the
transaction's life cycle, although it may also use other
technologies such as e-mail.
8.2 Distinction between E-Commerce and E-Business

While some use e-commerce and e-business interchangeably,
they are distinct concepts. In e-commerce, information and
communications technology (ICT) is used in inter-business or
inter-organizational transactions (transactions between and
among firms/organizations) and in business-to-consumer
transactions (transactions between firms/organizations and
individuals).
In e-business, on the other hand, ICT is used to enhance one’s

business. It includes any process that a business organization
(either a for-profit, governmental or non-profit entity) conducts
over a computer-mediated network. A more comprehensive
definition of e-business is: “The transformation of an
organization’s processes to deliver additional customer value
through the application of technologies, philosophies and
computing paradigm of the new economy.”
Three primary processes are enhanced in e-business:

1. Production processes, which include procurement, ordering
and replenishment of stocks; processing of payments;
electronic links with suppliers; and production control
processes, among others;
2. Customer-focused processes, which include promotional
and marketing efforts, selling over the Internet, processing
of customers’ purchase orders and payments, and
customer support, among others; and
3. Internal management processes, which include employee
services, training, internal information-sharing, video-
conferencing, and recruiting. Electronic applications
enhance information flow between production and sales
forces to improve sales force productivity. Workgroup
communications and electronic publishing of internal
business information are likewise made more efficient.
8.3 E-Commerce Applications

E-commerce applications is a bit misleading terminology, as it
leads to two possible perceptions: one, where it refers to the use
of e-commerce as a medium of marketing; retail and wholesale;
auctioning; e-banking; booking and so on.
The second idea one gets is that of a software application like

Amazon, eBay, Groupon, etc. It may be a web application or
mobile application (now popularly known as m-commerce
applications). Mobile e-commerce applications are nothing but an
extension of e-commerce. Mobile app ideas are the driving force
behind every successful business app, be it an Uber-like taxi app
or a DoorDash like a food delivery app.
The picture below describes the two meanings accurately. The

orange colour implicates the use of e-commerce applications
with the first intention, and the green shows the use for the
second.
Figure 8.0: Depiction of two applications of e-commerce
8.3.1 Most Common E-commerce Applications
In the previous section, we briefly touched upon the two

perceptions of e-commerce applications. Now, let us delve into
them in more detail.
Retail and Wholesale: E-retailing or online retailing refers to

the transaction of goods and services through online stores from
businesses to consumers. It is achieved through means such as
virtual shopping carts and e-catalogs. The applications of e-
commerce in this sector is numerous.
Finance: Finance and e-commerce is more connected today

than ever. Banks and stock markets use e-commerce
significantly in their operation. Online banking provides
provisions such as balance check, bill payment, money transfer,
etc. Online stock trading enables people to carry out trading
electronically by giving information about stocks such as
performance reports, analysis, charts, etc. through websites.
Manufacturing: In manufacturing, e-commerce forms a

medium for companies to execute the electronic exchange.
Combined buying and selling, sharing market status, inventory
check information, etc. enables groups of companies to fluidly
carry out their operations.
Auctioning: Applying e-commerce to auctions takes it to a more

significant level where people can participate without any
geographical boundaries. That leads to more participation, more
negotiation, and helps to make auctions successful.
Marketing: Marketing activities such as pricing, product

features, and building customer relationships can be
strengthened using e-commerce to provide users an enhanced
and customized shopping experience. Digital marketing
strategies have become a significant way to promote businesses.
Online Shopping: The shopping preferences of people have

undergone a massive change in the last few years. “Go online”
has become a mantra for all businesses to succeed. Online
shopping is comfortable, convenient, and at most times, cost
effective. The prosperity of online shopping apps such as
Flipkart, Amazon are proof of this.
Mobile and Web Applications: Popularly called mobile

commerce or m-commerce applications, this is a subset of retail
e-commerce. Mobile or web application development has become
a staple for brands to showcase their business capabilities. The
consumer carries out purchases through mobile or web
applications that are optimized for the retailer. These
applications also ensure payment security through safe e-
payment methods.
Online Booking: Travel and tourism is a thriving industry

today, and online booking is an ecommerce application that is
growing as a result of it. Online booking helps people book travel
essential services like train/flight tickets, hotel rooms, tourism
packages, transportation services, etc. It makes travel very
convenient and easy for people as everything can be set from
the tip of the fingers.
Online Publishing: Digital magazines and e-books are slowly

replacing traditional printed books. It has several advantages
such as portability, lightweight, accessible from everywhere, etc.
They are also environment friendly as they help in reducing
paper and saving trees. Due to these reasons, online publishing
or e-publishing has been seeing a rise in popularity.
E-banking: E-banking or internet banking is an e-commerce

application that has simplified time-consuming and complex
banking processes for people. It enables bank users to perform
transactions easily online without having to wait in long queues
in banks. Every major bank has its own online application today
to provide virtual banking services to its customers.
8.3.2 Types of E-commerce applications
We can classify e-commerce applications in many ways, but here

we present a classification that is in line with the mobile app
development of e-commerce.
B2B (Business- to – Business): A B2B e commerce

application is concerned with providing goods and services
between two businesses. Hence, the products they are selling
will be such that it becomes a raw material for another industry.
Mobile apps that sell spare automobile parts, machine parts, etc.
come into this category of apps. Boodmo is an example of such
an app.
B2C (Business- to – Consumer): It represents the majority of

the mobile apps that we use today. It connects a business
offering a product or service to an individual customer. The
dealing here is direct with the consumer. PIU, a taxi booking
solution, is an example of such an app.
C2C (Consumer -To- Consumer): Here the exchange happens
between two or more consumers. The best examples of such
dealings are the apps that facilitate the auctioning of products.
C2B (Consumer -to -Business): Though this kind of apps are

very few, yet agencies like Clutch and GitHub are building
foundations for such possibilities. Designers, content writers, or
experts in various fields can offer their masterpieces to
businesses through such C2B e-commerce applications. If you
have such amazing mobile app ideas, don’t just wait, start
working upon them.
8.3.3 The Anatomy of E-Commerce Applications
How do these e-commerce applications work? What are the

different elements that constitute an e-commerce application?
Let us take a look at their anatomy and discuss them in some
detail.
Multimedia content for e-commerce applications

Multimedia content is the life of e-commerce applications that
makes them unique and innovative. It basically involves the use
of content in several formats, such as images, animations,
audio, video, text, etc. The idea behind the use of multimedia
content is to increase the interactivity of users by making digital
content imitate everyday human communication.
Multimedia storage servers and e-commerce applications

Powerful servers are the lifeline of e-commerce applications as
they aid the storage and distribution of digital content to people.
These servers must be capable of storing large and diverse
content, must support large scale distribution, and provide
complete security and reliability.
 Client-server architecture: The architecture followed by all e-
commerce applications, the client-server model implements a
standard called message passing to execute the interaction
between client and server. This interaction takes the form of a
“request-reply” sequence. While the client device handles the
user interface, the server handles the tasks, storage, security,
and scalability.
 Internal processors of multimedia servers: Multimedia servers
take raw data as input and give legible information as output.
The internal processes that deal with the storage and
manipulation of data are crucial for e-commerce applications.
It requires cutting edge symmetric multiprocessors and
enormous parallel systems to handle thousands of users and
manage their executions simultaneously.
 Video servers and e-commerce: On-demand videos are an
integral feature of e-commerce applications. These will
include telecommunicating, video-conferencing, corporate
multimedia servers, shopping kiosks, etc. These video servers
must be capable of delivering information to thousands of
users simultaneously.
Information transport and ecommerce applications

In e-commerce applications, telecommunication, cables, and
wireless services are the primary transportation providers.
Telephone lines, local and long-distance, are managed by
telecommunication companies, while cellular, paging, and radio
are managed by wireless communications. Cable operators
manage coaxial, optical fibre, satellite lines, and computer-based
services to handle the internet and related services.
Consumer access devices

The way users access e-commerce applications is dependent on
the devices that they use. Access devices can be videophones,
personal computers, consumer electronics like television and
game boxes, digital assistants like voice-driven, pen-based
computing, etc.
8.4 Advantages of E-Commerce
8.4.1 Advantages to customers
Convenience: Every product is at the tip of your fingers on the

internet, literally. Type in the product you are looking for into
your favourite search engine and every option will appear in a
well-organized list in a matter of seconds.
Time saving: With e-commerce there is no driving in circles

while looking and digging in hopes of finding what you need.
Stores online offer their full line as well as use warehouses
instead of store fronts—products are easy to locate and can be
delivered to your door in just days.
Options, options, and options: Without driving from store to

store the consumer can easily compare and contrast products.
See who offers the best pricing and have more options to choose
from. While a physical store has limited space, the same store
on the internet will have full stock.
Easy to compare: Side by side comparisons are readily

available and easy to do. When products are placed online, they
come with all the specifics, and they want you to compare them
with others, know they have the best options and come back for
more!
Easy to find reviews: Because the competition is high,

companies’ online want you to look at other consumer reviews.
Good and bad reviews are on every site, not only can you see if
the product is liked, you can also see the reasons behind the
thumbs up or down.
Coupons and deals: With every online business wanting you,

more and more coupons and deals can’t be avoided, which are
totally great for customers. With major sites that act as
department store, you may find items up to 80% off. Take
advantage of the competition and find the best price available.
Service available 24/7: Unlike a normal shop which closes in

the evening you can shop via the internet 24ours, 7days a week
and 365 days a year.
Large stock range: A larger range of stock can be carried than
a conventional store. The stock does not have to be distributed
and duplicated over many physical stores but rather it can be
held in one central distribution warehouse.
Detailed product information: A detailed product description

for each product, along with a picture can be given. There can
even be links to the product manufacturers’ own website
Ability to compare prices: Many sites claim to offer you the

very best prices. You can use the information on these sites to
compare prices.
Equal delivery to own country: The fact that you may live in
the countryside, far from the nearest town makes no difference
at all when shopping via the net.
Right to return defective goods: Most e-commerce web sites

will have a returns policy and it is advisable to read this priory to
purchase. In many cases you will find that the law gives you a
right to return defective goods or even goods which are not quite
as you expected.
8.4.2 Advantages to Business
Increasing customer base: The customer base is every

business’s main concern, online or off. When online, a business
doesn’t have to worry about getting the best property in town,
people from around the world have access to their products and
can come back at any time.
Rise in sales: By not managing a storefront, any business will

have more sales online with a higher profit margin. They can
redistribute money to make the consumer shopping experience
faster and more efficient. While being available to international
markets, more products will sell.
24/7, 365 days: If it’s snowing and the roads are closed, or it’s
too hot and humid to even step outside in the summer, or a
holiday that every store in town closes, your online business is
open for consumers 24/7 every day of the year. The doors never
close and profits will keep rising.
Expand business reach: A great tool on the internet

is…translation! A business online does not have to make a site
for every language. With the right marketing, every consumer
around the globe can find the business site, products and
information without leaving home.
Recurring payments made easy: With a little research, every

business can set up recurring payments. Find the provider that
best suits your needs and billing will be done in a consistent
manner; payments will be received in the same way.
Instant transactions: With e-commerce there is no more

waiting for the check to clear or a 30-day wait for certain other
types of payment. Transactions are cleared immediately or at
most two to three days for the money to clear through the
banking system.
8.5 Disadvantages of E-Commerce
8.5.1 Disadvantages to customers
Privacy and security: Before making instant transactions

online, be sure to check the sites certificates of security. While it
may be easy and convenient to shop, no one wants their
personal information to be stolen. While many sites are
reputable, always do your research for those with less than
sufficient security.
Quality: While e-commerce makes everything easily accessible,

a consumer cannot actually touch products until they are
delivered to the door. It is important to view the return policy
before buying. Always make sure returning goods is an option.
Hidden costs: When making purchases, the consumer is aware
of the product cost, shipping, handling and possible taxes. Be
advised: there may be hidden fees that won’t show up on your
purchasing bill but will show up on your form of payment. Extra
handling fees may occur, especially with international purchases.
Delay in receiving goods: Although delivery of products is

often quicker than expected, be prepared for delays. A snow
storm in one place may throw off the shipping system across the
board. There is also a chance that your product may be lost or
delivered to the wrong address.
Need access to internet: Internet access is not free, and if you

are using free Wifi, there is the chance of information theft over
an unsecure site. If you are wearing of your public library, or
cannot afford the internet or computer at home, it may be best
to shop locally.
Lack of personal interaction: While the rules and regulations

of each e-commerce business is laid out for you to read, there is
a lot to read and it may be confusing when it comes to the
legalities. With large or important orders, there is no one you
can talk to face to face when you have questions and concerns
Possible credit card fraud: Some web sites have been set up
solely to trick you into providing your credit card details, which
can later be sold to criminals so that they can make purchases
with your money. When it comes to credit card fraud there is
basically one rule, ‘wherever humanly possible the bank never
pays someone else does’, make sure that someone else does’,
make sure that someone is not you. Check the small print on
your credit card agreement.
Is the web genuine: When you purchase from a company such

as Amazon.com, you know that the company is well respected, is
unlikely to go bust tomorrow, and above all will not attempt to
‘run off with your money’. But what about when you purchase
online from a company you have never heard of? Look for clues.
Is there a client list on the site? How long has the company been
trading. Are full contact details available? If in doubt ring the
phone numbers provided on the site and try to decide whether
the company sounds genuine. Ask for references from on their
customers. Just because you see trade association logos on a
site, do not assume that the use of those logos is genuine. There
are organisations now whose sole purpose is to verify that other
web sites belong to honest companies.
What about returning faulty goods? If the goods arrive and

are substandard, who pays to return them? Where do you return
them to? Be sure you know about a company’s returns policy
before you make an online purchase.
How are you covered when you purchase goods from

another country? This is minefield. Each country may have its
own laws relating to consumer protection. Be warned?
8.5.2 Disadvantages to business
Security issues: While businesses make great efforts to keep

themselves and the consumer safe, there are people out there
that will break every firewall possible to get the information they
want. We have all seen recently how the biggest and most
renowned business can be hacked online.
Credit card issues: Many credit card businesses will take the
side of the consumer when there is dispute about billing—they
want to keep their clients, too. This can lead to a loss for e-
commerce business when goods have already been delivered
and the payment is refunded back to the consumer.
Extra expense and expertise for e-commerce

infrastructure: To be sure an online business is running
correctly, money will have to be invested. As an owner, you
need to know transactions are being handled properly and
products are represented in the most truthful way. To make sure
you get what you need, you will have to hire a professional to tie
up any loose ends.
Needs for expanded reverse logistics: The infrastructure of

an online business must be on point. This will be another cost to
the business because money will need to be invested to ensure
proper handling of all aspects of buying and selling, especially
with disgruntled consumers that want more than a refund.
Sufficient internet service: Although it seems that everyone is

now on the internet all the time, there are still areas in which
network bandwidth can cause issues. Before setting up an
ecommerce business, be sure your area can handle the
telecommunication bandwidth you will need to run effectively.
Constant upkeep: When a business has started as e-

commerce, they must be ready to make changes to stay
compatible. While technology grows, the systems that support
your business must be kept up to date or replaced if needed.
There may be additional overhead in order to keep data bases
and applications running.
ACTIVITY 8.1
E-commerce is the use of electronic communications and digital

information processing technology in business transactions to create,
transform, and redefine relationships for value creation between or
among organizations, and between organizations and individuals.
Zimbabwe Republic Police as an organization how does it use E-
Commerce ?
Summary
The growth of e-business in recent decades has given rise to
new business requirements. On the customer front, consumers
expect organizations to offer self-service options for conducting
transactions; they expect personalized experiences; and they
want speedy, secure interactions. On the regulatory front, new
laws and best practices for keeping electronic data secure have
been instated. As e-commerce accelerated, companies have
adopted stringent security protocols and tools, including
encryption and digital certificates, to protect against hackers,
fraud and theft.
UNIT 9
SOCIAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
9.0 Introduction
New advances particularly in the field of information technology
have brought new scientific gains to humans but it should be
noted that the entry of new scientific and technological fields will
always have ethical issues and limitations. Today, in the digital
age, the society is dependent on computers in almost all its
affairs, and the study of ethics in the field of computer and
information technology must always be considered. This unit will
look at social and ethical issues in information technology with
emphasis on its impact on society, organisations and individuals.
A summary will be drawn at the end of the unit.
OBJECTIVES
1. Define the terms Ethics and Information Technology
2. Outline ethical and social issues of information technology
3. Impact of information technology to society, organisations and
individuals.
9.1 Definitions
9.1.1 Ethics
At its simplest, ethics is a system of moral principles. They affect

how people make decisions and lead their lives. Ethics is
concerned with what is good for individuals and society and is
also described as moral philosophy.
The notion of ethics is regularly drawn upon in the context of

expected patterns of behaviors written or unwritten, consistent
with generally accepted standards for those to whom they may
concern. However, there are various perspectives on the concept
of ethics. Ethics can be defined as an individual’s personal belief
about what is right or wrong, good or bad. Conversely, ethics
can be viewed as right or wrong actions that stems from the
value and expectation of society. They are acceptable standards
of behavior that define how a person ought to act (i.e.
prescriptive) not how people really act (i.e. descriptive).
9.1.2 Information Technology:
Information technology (IT) is the use of any computers,

storage, networking and other physical devices, infrastructure
and processes to create, process, store, secure and exchange all
forms of electronic data. Typically, IT is used in the context of
business operations, as opposed to technology used for personal
or entertainment purposes. The commercial use of IT
encompasses both computer technology and
telecommunications.
Explain the Impacts Social and ethical issues of Information
Technology to society, organisations and individuals.
9.2 Information System and Society

The information system has transformed the way information is
being transmitted and communicated from one place or person
to other. This use of computer technology has allowed business
and social communities to interrupt, interconnect and manage
data among themselves. Therefore, this system has helped the
organizations by providing them efficiency, innovation, ease,
speed, quality, security, accuracy, and reliability of information
transferability. However, the innovation brought by the
information system in data collection, processing, and storage
practices have also introduced many social and ethical concerns
which require attention and adequate solutions.
9.3 Technological aspects of ethics

There are many advantages and disadvantages of technology.
Manager operations are in a complex environment who, other
management inclusive, takes necessary decisions based on
environment. Therefore, it is the main focus of the organizations
to establish an environment favourable to the society as well as
to the business; every corporation has some responsibility
towards the society and the individuals. Therefore, nowadays,
corporations are operating to setup social responsiveness to
incorporate policies and operations to the social environment in
such ways as will benefit both the society and the company.
Ethics, therefore, deals with the moral obligations and duties;
what is good or what is bad. Technology has helped to establish
a value for the product manufactured, to achieve economies of
scale and simplify the operation, helping to minimize production
costs and giving more revenue to the organizations for products
manufactured (Beauchamp, Bowie, & Arnold, 2004). What a
corporation can do in case of increased revenues is to work in
the best interests of the society, providing those items which
satisfy customer needs, providing more employment
opportunities, and keeping nature away from the emission of
wastages, thereby reducing chances of environmental issues.
9.4 Legal Issues in Information systems

In Information Technology, the Legal Issues is devised for
managers and technologists responsible for implementing and
creating policies for the protection of IT resources within
government agencies or private corporations. Surveys are
established for understanding regulatory laws, intellectual
property, crimes and privacy that establish boundaries and
liability related to organization’s information systems; practical
aspects and issues of these legal implications are focused on in
this (Beauchamp, Bowie, & Arnold, 2004). In an organization,
working people are made to suggest standard practices as well
as spot issues to minimize risk. It activates cyber defences by
ensuring preliminary look at the surrounding and legal issues.
Individuals use the original methods to protect themselves from

trouble in future while operating information system. If we make
use of pirated versions or unauthorized versions of software, we
tend to face this serious trouble (Beauchamp, Bowie, & Arnold,
2004). The security system or the firewall are not inclined to
provide any assistance for such systems because these systems
can be seriously impacted by spammers, hackers, etc. Therefore,
we should try only originals to get maximum safety and
protection from damages in case anything happens in future.
9.5 Ethical Issues of Information Age

According to Richard O. Mason, there are four main ethical
issues being faced in this age of information which is discussed
in this section (Mason, 1986). The information develops the
intellectual capital that shapes the human life and enables them
to secure their self-esteem. This social contract among people is
threatened by four ethical issues in this information age, named
privacy, accuracy, property, and accessibility (Mason, 1986).
9.5.1 Privacy
This concern relates to the questions about what information

should be shared. With whom? What information should be
forced to keep to ones’ self only? The privacy concern has
increased the importance of information sensitivity and its value
on a strategic level, so it is required to be private and not
shared.
The privacy of an individual is very important about his/her

information. Personal information is required legally by many
organizations for different functions, e.g., banks required
personal information for the safety of funds and security to
ensure anti-money laundering, theft, and security. The
individuals must have to know about the intended purpose of the
organization which is asking for it and also the privacy protection
laws.
9.5.2 Accuracy
This concern related to the questions that who is going to be

responsible for the authenticity of the information? If the
authenticity hurts, who is going to be set up for the inaccurate
information being conveyed and loss occurred in the result?
In an information system, inaccurate data will bring same

results, so it is essential to ensure the data integrity while using,
referring and citing it. The validity and correctness of the
information involve the data verification checks and reliability of
sources from where it is collected. For instance, data collection
procedure in research requires the data integrity to generalize
the results in related context.
9.5.3 Property
The third ethical issue is the property of the information that

who is conveying the information and at what price? Who own
the ways and channels through which information is being
transferred?
The complex issue of privacy relates to the intellectual property

of the information, and it is important to disseminate the
information with the replication and preserve original version
(Kizza, 2007). The institutions try to maintain their intellectual
property through patents, copyrights, confidentiality laws and
encryption. For instance, the official documents, product, and
services have copyrights owned by the specific organization and
other organizations are not allowed to use their formulas,
products, and documents without their permission.
9.5.4 Accessibility
This concern relates to the questions that what is right for an

individual or organization access information and what are the
conditions under which this access is obtained?
The last main ethical issue is accessibility to the information

data. In general, information system should be designed in such
a way as induvial must have access to the educational
information through databases, internet, libraries and other
sources (Kizza, 2007). However, the sensitive information, e.g.,
personal information on individuals, examination papers,
research articles not intended to be shared publicly, sensitive
information about the national and international institution is not
meant to be shared on public sources without legitimate
approval (Kizza, 2007).
9.6 Social Issues in Information System
The information system has many social issues that are
triggered by the unethical behaviors. These social problems have
a great impact on culture and society. Due to the advancement
of technology, various moral and political issues are the main
cause of social unrest and unethical practices (Laudon & Laudon,
2015). The information system has made the social structure
very complex as it is very tough to avoid the privacy invasion
and protect traditional norms and values to be violated through
the impact of globalization. The cultural issues are the most
linked with the technology because of conceptualization of social
issues and their related underpinnings (Beauchamp, Bowie, &
Arnold, 2004). The social issues mainly include the topics of
culture, relationships, law and order, behavior patterns &
importance of cultural identity, use of information, health &
safety and accountability.
9.6.1 Culture
The issues of education, uneven distribution of wealth,

multiethnic and multigenerational workforce are commonly
discussed in society. The information systems have made it
difficult to learn the latest knowledge for all as the latest
education can be possessed by privileged social class only which
is increasing disparity among society. Therefore, a specific
educated class is getting benefit from the technology in a true
sense. Furthermore, the information technology has realized the
generation gap as senior citizens have lack of knowledge about
information systems and new technology.
9.6.2 Relationships Issues
Unlike past, the development of partnerships is more diverse

with long distant teams working together. The relationship of
buyers, sellers and suppliers has become easy, but it has also
created social issues like lack of trust and low moral values.
Many cases have been reported where people have used
personal and business information for their stake or fraud
purpose.
9.6.3 Law and Order Issues
The national and international databases have information about

millions and billions of people for identity purpose. But the
cybercrime practices and hacking of these sensitive websites
have laid the foundation for many law and order situations.
Nowadays, it is very easy to access someone’s information
through social networking sites, but the cases of ATM scamming,
using fake sim cards and national identity cards have made it
very difficult for law enforcement agencies to main the peace.
9.6.4 Cultural Behavior and Identity Issues
The pace of globalization has become possible due to the

introduction of the information system. This system has enabled
the business to grow on a global level due to online inventory
systems and information transfer. This aspect has caused great
impact on human interaction, organizational recruitment
systems, networking and societal presence which are also
transforming the cultural behaviors of people. Furthermore,
people being part of the social world are more inclined towards
global identity which is dangerous for traditional norms and
cultural identity reservation (Jensen, Arnett, & McKenzie, 2011).
9.6.5 Information Usage Issues
The information is created or collected for a purpose, but

inappropriate use of information can cause serious problems.
For example, in the recent controversial scandal of “Blue Whale”
game in many countries (‶ Blue Whale Game Blamed, ″2017)
the convicts had an e-mail address and information about the
teenagers and children who installed the game and it caused
them to kill themselves as it was a trap from the game
designers. Therefore, using the technology and social websites
or engines has various risks attached to it.
9.6.6 Health and Safety
The people-oriented organizations have health and safety

concerns faced by the workers in their workplace which require
the responsible regulations and acts to provide them legal cover.
The most participants of information system work on various
computer stations at their work, and it is important to outline
their rights and responsibilities of both employers and employees
to maintain occupational health and safety.
9.6.7 Accountability and Control
The moral obligation related to information systems demand

accountability and control over the information transfer from one
point to the other. This is important to comply with the rule and
regulations. For example, information gathered by the bank
about client requires complete secrecy and Central bank of any
country has accountability and monitoring standards for
commercial banks for their evaluation and regulation purpose to
avoid fraud and secure consumer rights (Beauchamp, Bowie, &
Arnold, 2004).
9.7 Impacts to society, organisations and individuals.

In the past few decades there has been a revolution in
computing and communications, and all indications are that
technological progress and use of information technology will
continue at a rapid pace. Accompanying and supporting the
dramatic increases in the power and use of new information
technologies has been the declining cost of communications as a
result of both technological improvements and increased
competition. According to Moore’s law the processing power of
microchips is doubling every 18 months. These advances present
many significant opportunities but also pose major challenges.
Today, innovations in information technology are having wide-
ranging effects across numerous domains of society, and policy
makers are acting on issues involving economic productivity,
intellectual property rights, privacy protection, and affordability
of and access to information. Choices made now will have long
lasting consequences, and attention must be paid to their social
and economic impacts
9.7.1 Society
Social attitudes have changed with the effect that citizens of a

society now expect the various elements of that society to be
better informed than previously. They also expect to be able to
access more information about a specific product, service or
organisation so that they can make informed decisions with
regard to their interactions with that entity
 Multimedia technology and internet networks have

revolutionized the whole philosophy of learning and distance
learning and provided us with the opportunity for close
interaction between teachers and learners with improved
standard of learning materials compared to what was existing
only with the printed media. As we mentioned earlier it has
gone to such an extent to create a virtual class room where
teachers and students are scattered all over the world.
 We could be able to work on jobs being thousands of miles

away through electromagnetic wave. That way the problem of
skills shortage in some countries could be reduced and
efficient people would be available to do the job.
 Quick dispatch of information globally has facilitated the

commercial expansion to an extremely high level with a small
firm being able to sell its products to another part of the
world very easily as they can communicate to each other in
no time and fix up the deal
 Development of electronic commerce has made it very

convenient for individual buyer to select the product online
and make payment immediately. However this has its
problem as the buyer has not seen whom he/she is buying
from and can never hear from the seller once the money has
been paid.
 Mobility may be very important these days, however, in the

new century, the need to travel physically is decreasing
significantly, instead of flying to a meeting in New York one
can just attend the meeting virtually and save a lot of time
and money (and protect the environment)
 Treating untreatable disease like cancer would be much easier

as the DNA structure could be defined accurately to guide the
kind of cell-based treatment required for a particular patient.
9.7.2 Government/ Organisations
 The “government” of a nation will be comprised of many

varied institutions. However developments in information
technology have helped governments to improve their
“service” to their citizens. Advances in Database technology
for example have enabled the governments of various
countries to collate and monitor statistical information that
they can use to combat fraud and manage the economy in a
more informed way
 Information Technology also has a major impact on the

defence capabilities of governments. This covers both a
government’s capability to wage war and their intelligence
gathering capability. Advances in weapons technology and
weapons design have increased the effectiveness of various
governments’ armed forces
 Information Technology has also had a major impact on a

government’s intelligence agencies. Encryption of sensitive
information has enabled governments to obtain added
security. However attempting to decrypt information is also a
major area of work for those employed by the government
 The advances in information technology have heavily

influenced commercial businesses in several ways. The most
important role of information technology in a commercial
business, however, is to provide a commercial advantage.
Advances such as computer aided design, relational database
technologies, spreadsheets, and word processing software all
provide a commercial benefit to the business, as does
automation of manufacturing processes
 The use of information technology to monitor a business
performance can also enable the business to highlight areas
where they are not making the most use of their resources.
The use of information technologies can also increase the
businesses income through advertising in the various
available forums
 Developments such as the Internet and satellite television

have created new media and audiences through which and to
which News & Media organisations can disseminate their
information
 An infrastructure of computing and communication

technology, providing 24-hour access at low cost to almost
any kind of price and product information desired by buyers,
will reduce the information barriers to efficient market
operation
 The information technologies have facilitated the evolution of

enhanced mail order retailing, in which goods can be ordered
quickly by using telephones or computer networks and then
dispatched by suppliers through integrated transport
companies that rely extensively on computers and
communication technologies to control their operations
 The use of information technology to monitor a business

performance can also enable the business to highlight areas
where they are not making the most use of their resources.
 Developments such as the Internet and satellite television

have created new media and audiences through which and to
which News & Media organisations can disseminate their
information
 By using ICT has brought a number of benefits to

organisations, such as: Cost savings by using e.g. VoIP
instead of normal telephone, email / messaging instead of
post, video conferencing instead of traveling to meetings, e-
commerce web sites instead of sales catalogues. This could
allow access to larger, even worldwide, markets
9.7.3 Individuals
 Computers and communication technologies allow individuals

to communicate with one another in ways complementary to
traditional face-to-face, telephonic, and written modes. They
enable collaborative work involving distributed communities of
actors who seldom, if ever, meet physically.
 By reducing the fixed cost of employment, widespread

telecommuting should make it easier for individuals to work
on flexible schedules, to work part time, to share jobs, or to
hold two or more jobs simultaneously
 Increasing representation of a wide variety of content in

digital form results in easier and cheaper duplication and
distribution of information.
 There are a lot of positive things to do with social

communication for example you can communicate with people
at the other end of the world there is no limit to how far you
can communicate as long as there is another person who is
able to reply to your email / Facebook comments
 The internet is a wonderful thing when it comes to searching

for information. People who would like to learn new things can
do this via the internet you don’t need to read paragraphs
and paragraphs of information you can just get the answer
you need by a click of a mouse
 Improved communication using email, social networking -

This is a good way to communicate. People use the web to
send emails to people at other ends of the world. They do this
because it is a cheap and easy and quick way to communicate
 Improved access to education, e.g. distance learning and on-
line tutorials. There are new ways of learning, e.g. interactive
multi-media and virtual reality
 There are new job opportunities, e.g. flexible and mobile

working, virtual offices and jobs in the communications
industry.
 ICT can be used for processes that had previously been out of
the reach of most individuals, e.g. photography, where digital
cameras, photo-editing software and high quality printers
have enabled people to produce results that would have
previously required a photographic studio.
 ICT can be used to help people overcome disabilities e.g.

screen magnification or screen reading software enabling
partially sighted or blind people to work with ordinary text
rather than Braille
 Job loss: One of the largest negative effects of ICT can be the
loss of a person’s job. This has both economic consequences,
loss of income, and social consequences, loss of status and
self-esteem.
 Job export e.g. data processing works being sent to other

countries where operating costs are lower. Multiple workers
are being replaced by a smaller number who are able to do
the same amount of work e.g. a worker on a supermarket
checkout can serve more customers per hour if a bar-code
scanner linked to a computer is used to detect goods instead
of the worker having to enter the item and price manually.
 Reduced personal interaction: Being able to work from home

is usually regarded as being a positive effect of using ICT, but
there can be negative aspects as well. Most people need some
form of social interaction in their daily lives and if they do not
get the chance to meet and talk to other people they may feel
isolated and unhappy.
 Reduced physical activity: A third negative effect of ICT is
that user may adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. This can lead
to health problems such as obesity, heart disease, and
diabetes. Many countries have workplace regulations to
prevent problems such as repetitive strain injury or eyestrain,
but lack of physical exercise is rarely addressed as a specific
health hazard
9.8 Model for Ethical, Social, Political Issues

Society as a calm pond
IT as rock dropped in pond, creating ripples of new situations not
covered by old rules
Social and political institutions cannot respond overnight to these
ripples. It may take years to develop etiquette, expectations,
laws
Requires understanding of ethics to make choices in legally gray
areas
Five Moral Dimensions of Information Age

-Information rights and obligations
-Property rights and obligations
-Accountability and control
-System quality
-Quality of life
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. Explain the implication of ICT to organisations, society and

individuals.
2. Discuss the social issues that have impact in Information systems
Summary
The growth and development of the Internet has made it possible to
store a large number of individuals’ personal data by relying on
advanced information systems and the abuse of personal data and
privacy violations in the field of information technology is increasing. A
large percentage of users are exposed to moral damages and IT
abnormalities and having a virtual identity has become a commonplace
cause of many social abnormalities. The phenomenon of Internet
addiction has long been considered as one of the consequences of the
ever increasing development of the electronic communications network
and has caused various harms to the individual, family and society.
The excessive use of social networks can lead to addiction and is not
tolerated by many physical communities. The use of social networks is
an inseparable part of the lives of many people and pose different
effects on their lifestyle. The theft of software, films, music, etc. with
copyrights has become common in some societies.
UNIT 10
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY SECURITY
10.0 Introduction
Today we live in a digital world, where information processing is

inexpensive and telecommunications costs are decreasing. It is
an increasingly interconnected world.
The wealth of new technical possibilities gives rise not only to
new products and more efficient and effective ways of doing
things, but also to the possibility of misuse of the technology.
Like other technologies, ICTs are essentially neutral and can be
used in ways that most of us would consider beneficial, as well
as in ways that are harmful. The work of ICTs is done at
microsecond speed, carrying information invisible to the naked
eye, under the control of software developed by people, so
harmful intentions in this environment are often carried out
rapidly, invisibly and are difficult, if not impossible to trace. This
unit will explain what Information and Network security is about,
the security types and the controls used to secure information
systems.
OBJECTIVES
1. Define the terms information and information security
2. Outline key elements of effective ICT security
3. State the categories of security
10.1 Definitions
Information: It is the data that is processed & presented in an
organized manner.
Example: When the names of students are arranged in
alphabetical order, total and average marks are calculated &
presented in a tabular form, it is information.
Information and communication technology (ICT) security
measures are necessary to protect confidential information from
unauthorized use, modification, loss or release.
The three key elements of an effective ICT security system

include:
 Monitoring and controlling access to confidential information
 Safe transmission of data
 Secure storage and disposal of data
10.2 Elements of effective ICT Security
10.2.1Monitoring and controlling access to confidential

information.
A fundamental principle of protective security is to ensure access

to information that the government holds in trust is on a need-
to-know basis only. There are a number of technical security
measures that are commonly used to monitor and control access
to confidential information, in accordance with the requirements
of the Government Protective Security Policy Framework. These
measures should be applied for all data integration projects
involving Commonwealth data:
 Assignment of unique personal identification code and a
secure means of authentication for system access.
 User accounts, access rights and security authorizations
managed through an accountable system or records
management process.
 Protocols that ensure access rights are not shared with or
provided to others.
 Audit trails that include date and user identification to track
and monitor access to systems and data and how they are
used.
 Control mechanisms to prevent unauthorized access, deletion,
modification, duplication, printing or transmission of files.
 Systems maintenance plans that provide adequate ongoing
resources for security upgrades.
10.2.2 Safe transmission of data
The safe transmission of data, including source data, linkage

keys, as well as that associated with remote or electronic access
to integrated datasets, is a primary consideration for data
integration projects. The following security measures for the
transmission of data are essential for all data linkage projects:
 A secure internet gateway. For high risk projects this gateway
must be reviewed annually by ICT, or equivalent.
 Encryption of all electronic data transfer to restrict access to
information to authorized users and prevent deciphering of
intercepted information. Electronic data transfer should only
occur where there is a secure internet gateway.
 Use of a courier, if there are technical, security or other
reasons that restrict the transfer of data electronically. At
media level, it is expected that all information contained on
the disc or other medium will be encrypted.
10.2.3 Secure storage and disposal of data.
The integrating authority is responsible for the ongoing storage

or destruction of the integrated dataset, in accordance with the
requirements of the data custodians. Information must be
protected for the life of the data – that is, it should only be
released in a way that will not allow the identification of any
individual or organisation, unless otherwise agreed with data
custodians and permitted by legislation.
The following measures are recommended as best practice to

ensure that data is stored and destroyed securely for all data
integration projects involving Commonwealth data:
 Protocols and control mechanisms to prevent storage of
sensitive or confidential information on portable devices such
as laptops or thumb drives unless they are both encrypted
and password protected. This requirement is consistent with
the Protective Security Framework.
 Storage of datasets associated with an integration project on
a password protected stand-alone computer in a secure room
or on a password protected server on a computer network
with a secure firewall.
 To preserve privacy and confidentiality in accordance with
High Level Principle 6, identifying information (such as name,
address and date of birth) should be used only for the
purpose of creating linkage keys and not stored on the
integrated dataset, unless specifically required and approved
for the project purpose and enabled by legislation.
 Project specific linkage keys should not enable links to be
established with other datasets or projects. The code
(algorithm) used to create linkage keys should also be kept
confidential to prevent anyone re-identifying records through
their knowledge of the key.
 Once the approved purpose of the project is met, the
integrated dataset and project linkage keys should be
destroyed in a way that complies with secure disposal
requirements, unless retention of the dataset is required for
long-term studies or has otherwise been agreed by data
custodians.
Secure disposal of electronic records could include: overwriting

records so that the underlying, previously stored data is
rendered beyond easy recovery, deletion of back-up files, and
for very sensitive information at high risk, degaussing might be
considered (this involves demagnetization using alternating
electric currents and renders any previously stored data on the
storage media as unreadable). The recommended form of
destruction of paper records or physical media, such as DVDs, is
shredding.
 Linkage keys that have been created to facilitate future
studies involving data linkage, should always be stored
separately from the integrated dataset and the source
dataset, with appropriate security and authorization controls.
 If integrated datasets are being retained, the reasons for
retention as well as storage and disposal arrangements
should be well documented in the project agreements, and a
review of storage and access process set up. If such retention
was not part of the initial approval process then the
integrating authority must get approval of the decision to
retain the dataset from the data custodian(s). This is essential
to comply with High Level Principle 6 – Preserving Privacy and
Confidentiality.
 Where identifiers need to be retained, for example for
longitudinal studies, they will be kept separate from the
integrated dataset and the separation principle observed. The
integrating authority is responsible for the integrated dataset
and must strictly control access for the life of the data.
10.3 Categories of security
10.3.1 Data Security
What is Data?
It is the collection of raw facts, figures & symbols. e.g. Names of
students and their marks in different subjects listed in random
order.
Protective security measures and safe data management

practices are essential to ensure that information held in
confidence. The data custodian eg the government ensures data
is safeguarded from unauthorized access, disclosure, loss or
misuse. It is critical that adequate protections are in place for
data integration projects because integrating datasets creates
new combinations of data, which in turn increases the likelihood
that an individual or organisation may be identified in the data.
Most Commonwealth agencies are subject to mandatory

requirements detailed in the Government Protective Security
Policy Framework. Compliance will satisfy data security
requirements for data integration projects.
There are three core protective security policies that together

safeguard government information assets from unauthorized
access or harm:
 Personnel security- ensuring that access to information is
provided on a strict need to know basis only to people who
have been assessed as suitable.
 Physical security- preventing unauthorized access or harm to
government resources, including information assets, through
physical control measures such as entry barriers and security
systems.
 Information and communication technology security– having
in place operational procedures and technical control
measures to manage access, transmission, storage and
disposal of information.
All data integration projects using Commonwealth data should

comply with these core policies. In addition, data integration
projects that are considered high risk will need to be undertaken
in a very secure environment by an accredited Integrating
Authority. The accreditation process for integrating authorities
examines an agency’s ability to ensure secure data
management, technical capability and how the disclosure of
identifiable information will be prevented.
10.3.2 Personnel security
In the context of data integration projects, personnel security

encompasses procedural and personnel measures for limiting
access to confidential information, where access is limited to
authorized staff for approved purposes only. The personnel
security measures that are used for data integration projects
may vary according to the differences in personnel security
policies that apply across agencies and the assessed risk of the
project.
However, the range of measures recommended for data

integration projects are:
 Access to unit record information is decided on a strict need-

to-know basis through a formal approval process. Individuals
must only have access to information that is required for
them to perform specific functions or tasks for a specific data
integration project. The ‘need-to-know’ principle is a
fundamental rule of personnel security according to the
Protective Security Framework and is mandatory for all data
integration projects.
 A senior officer is responsible for managing and monitoring
access control, including reviewing who can access particular
datasets when personnel move positions and their work no
longer requires access.
 Appropriate personnel security arrangements are in place to
ensure only those who are eligible and suitable to have access
to the information are authorized to have access. For
example, staff undergo security checks, sign an undertaking
to acknowledge their confidentiality responsibilities, and are
subject to sanctions or penalties for breaches of
confidentiality. In the case of high risk projects penalties for
disclosure should include jail terms and/or fines.
 The policies, protocols and obligations regarding security, the
protection of personal information and breaches of security or
confidentiality are communicated to all staff on an on-going
basis through training, policy and procedural documentation
and other corporate awareness raising activities.
 Induction and training strategies are in place for staff to place
a strong emphasis on the appropriate use of the technology
environment, e.g. not having passwords written down where
they can be discovered by third parties, not storing
confidential information on laptops or thumb drives without
protection such as encryption and passwords.
10.3.3 Physical security
The Protective Security Framework requires government

agencies to have in place policies, processes and physical
security measures to minimize or remove the risk of
unauthorized access or harm to government resources, including
information, IT hardware and software, employees and other
assets or resources.
The security measures implemented for a data integration

project may vary depending on the physical security protocols of
the Commonwealth data custodian(s) and/or the assessed risk of
the project. There are a number of physical control measures
that should be considered in the context of data integration
projects including:
 Control of access to all buildings or areas where confidential data

is accessed or stored. This is required for all security classified
information according to the Protective Security Framework
and should apply in the case of all high risk data integration
projects.
 Sign in registers for all visitors to the building.
 Reception personnel and/or contract guards.
 Wearing of photographic security passes.
 Procedures to escort and supervise contractors, consultants and
other persons on site when in secure or non-public areas.
 Security surveillance and alarm systems (closed circuit TV
cameras, CCTV etc. to detect unauthorized access.
 Building access control barriers.
 Secure storage of sensitive and classified material, and high
value assets, for example through clear desk and clear screen
policies (required to comply with the protective security
framework). When unattended, sensitive information or high
value assets should be stored in locked cabinets, containers or
rooms and computers should be locked by activating the
screen saver or logging off.
10.3.4 Network security
Network security is a broad term that covers a multitude of

technologies, devices and processes. In its simplest term, it is a
set of rules and configurations designed to protect the integrity,
confidentiality and accessibility of computer networks and data
using both software and hardware technologies. Every
organization, regardless of size, industry or infrastructure,
requires a degree of network security solutions in place to
protect it from the ever-growing landscape of cyber threats in
the wild today.
Today's network architecture is complex and is faced with a
threat environment that is always changing and attackers that
are always trying to find and exploit vulnerabilities. These
vulnerabilities can exist in a broad number of areas, including
devices, data, applications, users and locations. For this reason,
there are many network security management tools and
applications in use today that address individual threats and
exploits and also regulatory non-compliance. When just a few
minutes of downtime can cause widespread disruption and
massive damage to an organization's bottom line and reputation,
it is essential that these protection measures are in place.
10.4 How does network security work?

There are many layers to consider when addressing network
security across an organization. Attacks can happen at any layer
in the network security layers model, so your network security
hardware, software and policies must be designed to address
each area.
Network security typically consists of three different controls:

physical, technical and administrative. Here is a brief description
of the different types of network security and how each control
works.
10.4.1 Physical Network Security
Physical security controls are designed to prevent unauthorized

personnel from gaining physical access to network components
such as routers, cabling cupboards and so on. Controlled access,
such as locks, biometric authentication and other devices, is
essential in any organization.
10.4.2 Technical Network Security
Technical security controls protect data that is stored on the

network or which is in transit across, into or out of the network.
Protection is twofold; it needs to protect data and systems from
unauthorized personnel, and it also needs to protect against
malicious activities from employees.
10.4.3 Administrative Network Security
Administrative security controls consist of security policies and

processes that control user behavior, including how users are
authenticated, their level of access and also how IT staff
members implement changes to the infrastructure.
10.5 Types of network security

We have talked about the different types of network security
controls. Now let's take a look at some of the different ways you
can secure your network.
10.5.1Network Access Control
To ensure that potential attackers cannot infiltrate your network,

comprehensive access control policies need to be in place for
both users and devices. Network access control (NAC) can be set
at the most granular level. For example, you could grant
administrators full access to the network but deny access to
specific confidential folders or prevent their personal devices
from joining the network.
10.5.2 Antivirus and Antimalware Software
Antivirus and antimalware software protect an organization from

a range of malicious software, including viruses, ransomware,
worms and trojans. The best software not only scans files upon
entry to the network but continuously scans and tracks files.
10.5.3Firewall Protection
Firewalls, as their name suggests, act as a barrier between the

untrusted external networks and your trusted internal network.
Administrators typically configure a set of defined rules that
blocks or permits traffic onto the network. For example,
Forcepoint's Next Generation Firewall (NGFW) offers seamless
and centrally managed control of network traffic, whether it is
physical, virtual or in the cloud.
10.5.4 Virtual Private Networks
Virtual private networks (VPNs) create a connection to the

network from another endpoint or site. For example, users
working from home would typically connect to the organization's
network over a VPN. Data between the two points is encrypted
and the user would need to authenticate to allow communication
between their device and the network. Forcepoint's Secure
Enterprise SD-WAN allows organizations to quickly create VPNs
using drag-and-drop and to protect all locations with our Next
Generation Firewall solution.
10.5.5 Network security for businesses and consumers
Network security should be a high priority for any organization

that works with networked data and systems. In addition to
protecting assets and the integrity of data from external exploits,
network security can also manage network traffic more
efficiently, enhance network performance and ensure secure
data sharing between employees and data sources. There are
many tools, applications and utilities available that can help you
to secure your networks from attack and unnecessary downtime.
ACTIVITY 10.1
1. Describe the types of Network Security

2. Explain the Network security controls providing examples
3. Elements of effective IT Security
4. Outline the categories of security
Summary
As long as computer systems and services are dynamically
evolving, the network security strategies will also continue to be
an evolving and volatile paradigm. In order to enhance network
security, there is need to incorporate new innovative strategies
whilst embracing network security best practices and principles
to mitigate appropriately the evolving threats within the
computer network ecosystem.
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DIPLOMA IN POLICE STUDIES

Chief Inspector Masvaure .H

Inspector Chapanduka .S.

1.5.2 Disadvantages of computers .........................................16

1.6 TYPES AND TRENDS IN COMPUTERS .............................................. 19

2.4.2 Application software.....................................................24

2.4.3 Types of Software Piracy ..............................................30

2.4.3 The negative effects of piracy for end-users. ...................31

3.3 FORMATTING ........................................................................ 52

3.6.2 OPENING MS EXCEL .......................................................... 111

3.6.4.CLOSING MS EXCEL........................................................... 113

3.8.2. Font Types & Sizes .................................................... 154

3.8.3. Typestyles: Bold, Italics, Underline & Double Underline .. 154

3.8.4. Colouring Cell Content & Background ........................... 155

3.8.5. Copying Cell Formatting ............................................. 156

3.8.6. Aligning Cell Content .................................................. 156

3.8.7. Adding Border Effects ................................................. 159

3.9. CHARTS ......................................................................... 161

3.9.2.CHANGING THE CHART TYPE ................................................. 165

3.9.4.ADDING, EDITING & REMOVING A CHART TITLE .......................... 166

4.4.2 Disadvantages of Web Applications .............................. 239

UNIT 5.................................................................................... 240

5.2.2 Personal Area Networks (PAN) ................................... 246

5.2.3 Home Area Networks (HAN) ........................................ 246

5.2.4 Wide Area Networks (WAN) ........................................ 246

5.2.6 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) .............................. 247

5.2.7 Enterprise Private Networks ........................................ 247

5.2.9 Global Area Networks (GAN) ....................................... 247

5.3 IMPORTANCE OF NETWORKS .................................................... 247

5.4.2 Bus Topology ............................................................ 250

5.4.3 Ring Topology ........................................................... 250

5.4.4 Network Protocols...................................................... 251

5.4.5 Wired and Wireless Networks ...................................... 251

UNIT 6.................................................................................... 253

6.3.3 Satellite ................................................................... 256

6.3.4 3G and 4G ................................................................ 257

6.4 HOW INTERNET WORKS? ........................................................ 257

6.5 INTERNET USAGES ............................................................... 258

UNIT 7.................................................................................... 265

7.4.2 Integrity can be enforced: .......................................... 271

7.4.3 Inconsistency can be avoided: .................................... 272

7.4.4 Data can be shared: .................................................. 272

7.4.5 Standards can be enforced: ........................................ 272

7.4.6 Restricting unauthorized access: ................................. 273

7.4.7 Solving Enterprise Requirement than Individual

7.4.8 Providing Backup and Recovery:.................................. 273

7.4.9 Cost of developing and maintaining system is lower: ..... 274

7.4.10 Data Model can be developed: .................................... 274

7.4.11 Concurrency Control: ................................................. 274

7.5 Disadvantages of DBMS ................................................ 274

7.5.1 Complexity: .............................................................. 274

7.5.3 Performance: ............................................................ 275

7.5.4 Higher impact of a failure: .......................................... 275

7.5.5 Cost of DBMS:........................................................... 275

7.5.6 Additional Hardware costs: ......................................... 275

7.5.7 Cost of Conversion: ................................................... 276

7.6 TYPES OF DBMS ................................................................. 276

7.6.2 Network Model .......................................................... 276

7.6.3 Relational model ........................................................ 277