EXPERIMENT – 1

Aim: -
To find the resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and hence determine the specific resistance of
its materials.

Material Required: -
Metre bridge (slide wire bridge), Leclanche cell or Battery eliminator, Galvanometer, Resistance box ,
Jockey ,One way key, A resistance wire, Screw gauge, one meter scale, Connecting wires.

Theory: -

Wheatstone’s principle: - The metre bridge is operating under Wheatstone’s principle. Here, four
resistors P, Q, R, and S are connected to form the network ABCD. The terminals A and C are connected to
a battery, and the terminals C and D are connected to a galvanometer through keys K1 and K2
respectively.

In the balancing condition, there is no deflection on the galvanometer. Then,

𝑃 𝑅
𝑄
=𝑆

Metre Bridge apparatus: - The metre bridge, also known as the slide wire bridge consists of a one metre
long wire of uniform cross sectional area, fixed on a wooden block. A scale is attached to the block. Two
gaps are formed on it by using thick metal strips in order to make the Wheat stone’s bridge. The terminal
B between the gaps is used to connect galvanometer and jockey.
According to Wheatstone’s principle;
𝑅 𝐿
=
𝑋 100 − 𝐿
Now, the unknown resistance can be calculated as,
100− 𝐿
X= 𝐿 R
The specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the wire can be then calculated by using the
𝜋𝑋𝐷 2
relation, 𝜌 = 4𝐿
Where L be the length of the wire and r be its radius.

Circuit Diagram: -
Procedure: -

1. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram.

2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be measured in the right gap between C and B.

3. Connect the resistance box in the left gap between A and B.

4. Make all other connections neat, clean and tight according to the circuit diagram.

5. Take out some resistance (say 2Ω) from the resistance box, plug the key K.

6. Touch the jockey gently at left and then at right end of the bridge wire.

7. If the galvanometer shows deflection in opposite direction at both the ends then connection is
correct.

8. Move the jockey gently along the wire from left to right and get the null deflection point mention as D.

9. Note the position of point D, to know length Ad = L.

10.Take at least three sets of independent observations in same way by changing the value of R.

For Specific Resistance

11. Cut the resistance wire at points where it leaves the terminals, stretch it and find the length by metre
scale.

12. Measure the diameter of the wire at least four places in two mutually perpendicular direction using
screw guage.

13. Record your observations.

Observations:

Least count of the screw gauge (LC) =…….. cm

To find the resistance of the given wire:

S.No. Resistance, R Balancing length, AD Length, DC =(100-l) 𝟏𝟎𝟎−𝑳

X=( )𝑹
𝑳
(Ω) =l (cm) (cm)
(Ω)
1
2
3

Mean resistance, X = .................. Ω

Calculations: -

Diameter of the wire, d =………...mm

Radius of the wire, r = d/2
=……......mm
= ………..10-3 m
Length of the wire, L = ............cm
= ............10-2 m
Resistance of the wire, X = ............. Ω

Resistivity (specific resistance) of the wire,

𝜋𝑟 2 𝑋
𝜌=
𝐿
= ............Ω m
Result: -
The value of unknown resistance X =………………… Ω

The Resistivity of the wire 𝜌 = …………….. Ω m

Precautions: -
1. All the connections must be neat and clean.
2. All the plug of the resistance box must be tight.
3. The jockey should not rub with the wire of the bridge.

Sources of Errors: -
1. The instrument screw may be loose.
2. The plug may not be clean.
3. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
 EXPERIMENT – 2

Aim: -
To verify the law of combination (series) of the resistance using metre bridge.

Material Required: -
Metre bridge (slide wire bridge), Battery (Leclanche cell), Galvanometer, Resistance box, Jockey, One
way key, Two resistance coil, Metre scale, A set square, Connecting wires.

Theory: -
Wheatstone’s principle: - The metre bridge is operating under Wheatstone’s principle. Here, four
resistors P, Q, R, and S are connected to form the network ABCD. The terminals A and C are connected to
a battery, and the terminals C and D are connected to a galvanometer through keys K1 and K2
respectively. I
n the balancing condition, there is no deflection on the galvanometer. Then,

𝑃 𝑅
𝑄
=𝑆

Metre Bridge apparatus: - The metre bridge, also known as the slide wire bridge consists of a one metre
long wire of uniform cross sectional area, fixed on a wooden block. A scale is attached to the block. Two
gaps are formed on it by using thick metal strips in order to make the Wheat stone’s bridge. The terminal
B between the gaps is used to connect galvanometer and jockey.

According to Wheatstone’s principle;

𝑅 𝐿
=
𝑋 100 − 𝐿

When resistance R1 and R2 are connected in series, then their combined resistance

Rs= R1 + R2

Circuit Diagram: -
Procedure: -

1. Mark the two resistance coils as R1 and R2.

2. Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram.

3. Connect the resistance wire R1 in the right gap between C and B.

4. Connect the resistance box in the left gap between A and B.

5. Make all other connections neat, clean and tight according to the circuit diagram.

6. Take out some resistance (say 2 Ω) from the resistance box, plug the key K.

7. Touch the jockey gently at left and then at right end of the bridge wire.

8. If the galvanometer shows deflection in opposite direction at both the ends then connection is
correct.

9. Move the jockey gently along the wire from left to right and get the null deflection point mention as D.

10. Note the position of point D, to know length AD = L.

11. Take at least three sets of independent observations in same way by changing the value of R.

12. Repeat the process for resistance R2 and for series combination of R1 and R2.

13. Record your observations.

Observation Table: -

Resistance S.No. Resistance from Length AD Length DC Resistance Mean

coil the resistance box = L (cm) = 100 – L X= resistance
R (Ω) (cm) 100−𝐿 (Ω)
( )R
𝐿
R1 only 1
2
R2 only 1
2
R1 and R2 in 1
series 1

Calculations: -

Experimental value of Rs =………………(Ω)

Theoretical value of Rs= R1 + R2 = ……………..(Ω)

Result: - Within the limits of the experimental error, experimental and theoretical values of R s are same.
Hence law of resistance in series is verified.

Precautions: -

1. The connections should be clean and tight.

2. All the plug in the resistance box should be tight.
3. The jockey should not rub with the wire of the bridge.

Sources of Errors: -

4. The instrument screw may be loose.

5. The plug may not be clean.
6. The wire may not have uniform thickness.
 EXPERIMENT – 3

Aim: -
To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and to find its figure of merit.

Material required: -
A Weston type galvanometer, A battery or battery eliminator, two resistance boxes, two one-way keys, a
rheostat, an ammeter of given range, a voltmeter, Connecting wires.

Theory: -

Galvanometer
A galvanometer is a device used to detect feeble electric currents in a circuit. It consists of a coil
suspended between the poles of a powerful magnet. As current passes through the coil, it deflects. It can
be detected from the deflection on galvanometer needle. The deflection is proportional to the current
passed through it.

The resistance of the galvanometer as found by the half deflection method

𝑅.𝑆
G = 𝑅−𝑆
Where R is the resistance connected in series with galvanometer and S is the shunt resistance.
𝐸
The figure of merit, k = (𝑅+𝐺)𝜃

Where E is the e.m.f. of the cell and 𝜃 is the deflection produced with resistance R.

The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer, Ig = nk

Where n is the total number of divisions on the galvanometer scale on the either side of zero.

Circuit Diagram: -
 Procedure:-

(a) Resistance of galvanometer by half deflection method.

1. Make the connection accordingly as shown in circuit diagram.

2. Tight the plugs of resistance box.

3. Take out the high resistance (say 2000Ω) from high resistance box R and insert the key K1 only.

4. Adjust the value of R so that the deflection is maximum, even in number and within the scale. Note
the deflection. Let it be𝜃.

5. Insert the key K2 and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of S such that the deflection
𝜃
becomes half i.e. . Note the value of S.
2

6. Repeat the process 4 and 5 three times for different values of R.

(b) Figure of merit.

9. Measure the value of e.m.f (E) of cell using voltmeter.

10. Make the connections as in the circuit diagram.

11. Adjust the values of R to obtains a certain deflection 𝜃 (say 30 divisions) when circuit s closed.

12. note the value of R and 𝜃.

13. Repeat the steps 9 to 12 with different voltages like 2,4,6,8….

14. find the figure of merit k using the formula.

Observation Table:-

E.M.F. of cell, E = ………… V

Resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method.

S.No. Resistance Deflection in the Shunt Half Galvanometer Figure of

R (ohm) Galvanometer resistance deflection resistance merit
S (ohm) 𝑅.𝑆 𝐸
G = 𝑅−𝑆 (ohm) K = (𝑅+𝐺)𝜃
𝜃
2 (A/div)
1
2
3

Calculation: -

𝑅1 .𝑆1
G1 = = …………………... Ω
𝑅1 −𝑆2
 𝑅2 .𝑆2
G2 = = …………………... Ω
𝑅2 −𝑆2

𝑅 .𝑆
G3 = 𝑅 3−𝑆3 = …………………... Ω
3 3

The mean value of G = …………… Ω

𝐸
K1 = = ……………..A/div
(𝑅1 +𝐺1 )𝜃1

𝐸
K2 = = ……………..A/div
(𝑅2 +𝐺2 )𝜃2

𝐸
K3 = = ……………..A/div
(𝑅3 +𝐺3 )𝜃3

The mean value of k = ……………..A/div

Result: -

Resistance of the galvanometer G = ……………. Ω

Figure of merit of the galvanometer k = …………..A/div.

Precautions: -

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The e.m.f. of the cell or battery should be constant.

Sources of errors: -

1. The screw of the instruments may be loose.

2. The plugs of the resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The e.m.f. of the cell or battery may not be constant.
 EXPERIMENT – 4

Aim: -
To convert the given galvanometer into a voltmeter of desired range and to verify the same.

Material Required: -

A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter of 0 – 3 volts range, a battery of two cells or battery
eliminator, two (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω) resistance box, two one way key, a rheostat, connecting wires.

Theory: -

A galvanometer is a device used to detect feeble electric currents in a circuit. It has a coil pivoted (or
suspended) between concave pole faces of a strong laminated horse shoe magnet. When an electric
current passes through the coil, it deflects. The deflection is proportional to the current passed. The
galvanometer coil has a moderate resistance (about 100 ohms) and the galvanometer itself has a small
current carrying capacity (1 mA).

To convert a galvanometer into a voltmeter we connect high resistance in series with the galvanometer.
𝑉
The resistance required for conversion, R = 𝐼 − 𝐺
𝑔

Where V is the range of conversion.

Circuit Diagram: -

Procedure: -

1. Calculate the value of resistance R to be connected in series with galvanometer for the given range
(say 3 volts).

2. Connect a resistance box in series with galvanometer and take out the plugs of resistance value R.

3. Insert the key K and adjust the rheostat so that the deflection in galvanometer becomes maximum.

4. Note the readings of voltmeter and galvanometer. Convert galvanometer readings into volts.
5. find the difference if any between the readings of voltmeter and galvanometer.

6. Move the variable contact of rheostat and take at least three observations covering the whole range
of voltmeter.

7. Records your observations.

Calculations: -

Resistance of the given galvanometer, G = ………………….Ω

Figure of merit, k = …………………..A/div.

Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n = 30

Current for full scale deflection, Ig = nk =…………………..

Range of conversion, V=0–3V

Resistance connected in series, R =…………………..

Verification:-
𝑉 3
Least count of the galvanometer converted into voltmeter = 𝑛 = 30 = 0.1 𝑉

S.No. Reading for converted galvanometer into a Standard voltmeter Difference

voltmeter reading V2 (V) V 2∽ V 1
Deflection 𝜃 P.D. in volts
V1 = 𝜃 x L.C. (V)
1
2
3

Result: -

As the difference in the actual and the measured value of potential difference is very small, the
conversion is perfect.

Precautions: -

1. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight.

2. All the plugs in the resistance boxes should be tight.
3. The resistance box should be a high resistance one.

Sources of errors: -

1. The screw of the instruments may be loose.

2. The plugs of the resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The resistance box may be of low resistance value.
 EXPERIMENT – 5

Aim: -
1 1
To find the focal length of the convex lens by plotting the graphs between U and V or between and .
𝑈 𝑉

Material Required: -

An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens with the lens holder, two optical needles, a knitting
needle and half meter scale.

Theory: -

The relation between u and v for the convex lens is

1 1 1
= −
𝐹 𝑉 𝑈
𝑈𝑉
Or 𝐹 = 𝑈−𝑉

Where F = focal length of the convex lens

U = distance of the object needle from the center of the lens.

V = distance of the image needle from the center of the lens.

Ray Diagram: -

Procedure: -

To determine the rough focal length

1. Mount the convex lens in holder and face the lens towards a distant tree or building.
2. Obtain the image on white painted wall and move the lens to get a sharp image on the wall.
3. Measure the distance between the wall and the lens. It will give the rough focal length of the
lens.
 To set the convex lens

4. Clamp the holder with lens and keep the upright at 50 cm mark.
5. Keep the upright fix in this position throughout.

To set object needle

6. Take the thin optical needle as object needle O. Mount it on upright near zero end.
7. Adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on the horizontal lie through the optical
centre of lens.
8. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.

To set the image needle

9. With left eye closed, see with the right eye from the other end of the bench. An inverted and
enlarged image of the object needle will be seen.
10. Mount the thick optical needle in the fourth upright near the other end of optical bench.
11. Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the image.
12. Move the eye towards right, the tips get separated. The image tip and the image needle have
parallax.
13. Remove the parallax tip to tip.
14. Note the position of the image needle. Record the observations in the observation table.
15. Repeat the experiment for different positions of object needle.

Observations: -

Rough focal length of the convex lens, F = …………..cm

Actual length of the knitting needle, x = …………..cm

𝑈𝑉
S.No. Position of Observed distance F = 𝑈−𝑉
Object Lens (cm) Image OA = U (cm) OC = V (cm)
needle A O needle C (cm)
(cm) (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Calculations: -

(1) From the graph: -

AB = AC = 2F or OC = OB = 2F
𝑂𝐵 𝑂𝐶
So F =
2
and F = = ………… cm
2
 𝑈𝑉
(ii) From the relation F =
𝑈−𝑉

The mean value of F =………cm.

Result: -

Focal length from the graph F = ……………cm

Focal length from the lens equation F = …………….cm

Precautions: -

1. Tips of the object and the image needle lie at the same height.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip.
3. Index correction for U and V should be applied.

Sources of Errors: -

1. The uprights may not be vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
 EXPERIMENT – 6

Aim: -

To find the focal length of the convex mirror, using a convex lens.

Material Required: -

An optical bench with four uprights, a convex lens with the lens holder, a convex mirror with the mirror
holder, two optical needles, a knitting needle and half meter scale.

Theory: -A convex mirror always forms the virtual image; its focal length cannot be found directly as for a
concave mirror. For this purpose, indirect method is used.

An auxiliary convex lens L is introduced between the convex mirror M and object needle O as shown in
ray diagram. The position of the convex mirror behind the convex lens is so adjusted that the real and
inverted image of object is formed at O itself. In such case the light rays are incident normally over the
convex mirror. In the absence of convex mirror, these rays would have meet at the Centre of curvature
of convex mirror. The distance PC gives the radius of curvature R of the mirror.

PC = PI = R
𝑅
Focal length of the convex mirror f= 2

Ray Diagram: -

Procedure: -

To determine the rough focal length

1. Mount the convex lens in holder and face the lens towards a distant tree or building.
2. Obtain the image on white painted wall and move the lens to get a sharp image on the wall.
3. Measure the distance between the wall and the lens. It will give the rough focal length of the
lens.
To set the convex lens

4. Clamp the holder with lens and keep the upright at 50 cm mark.
5. Keep the upright fix in this position throughout.

To set object needle

6. Take the thin optical needle as object needle O. Mount it on upright nearly 1.5 times the
obtained rough focal length towards zero end.
7. Adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on the horizontal lie through the optical
centre of lens.
8. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright.

To set convex mirror

9. Fix the convex mirror on the second upright near the lens, keeping reflecting surface of the mirror
towards the lens.
10. Adjust the height of the mirror to make its pole lie on the principal axis of the lens.
11. Move toward the zero end of the bench.
12. Closing left eye, from the right eye see the inverted image of the object needle.
13. Adjust the height of the needle so that the two tips are seen in one line.
14. Move the eye toward right. The tip gets separated. The tips have parallax.
15. Move the object needle back and forth till the parallax is removed.
16. Note the position of the convex mirror upright.
17. To set the image needle
18. To set the image needle

To set the image needle

19. Remove the convex mirror.

20. With left eye closed, see with the right eye from the other end of the bench. An inverted and
enlarged image of the object needle will be seen.
21. Mount the thick optical needle in the fourth upright near the other end of optical bench.
22. Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the image.
23. Move the eye towards right, the tips gets separated. The image tip and the image needle have
parallax.
24. Remove the parallax tip to tip.
25. Note the position of the image needle. Record the observations in the observation table.
26. Repeat the experiment for different positions of object needle.
Observations: -

Rough focal length of the convex lens, F = …………..cm

Actual length of the knitting needle, x = …………..cm

S.No. Position of Radius of curvature (R) = Focal length

𝑅
Convex mirror Image needle PI (cm) F= (cm)
2
P (cm) I (cm)
1
2
3

Calculations: -
𝐹1 +𝐹2 +𝐹3
Mean of values of 𝐹 =
3
= …..…. cm

Result: - The focal length of the given convex mirror =…………. cm.

Precautions: -

1. Tips of the object and the image needle lie at the same height.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip.
3. Index correction for U and V should be applied.

Sources of Errors: -

1. The uprights may not be vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
3. Focal length of lens may not be small.
 EXPERIMENT – 7

Aim: -

To find the refractive index of the liquid by using convex lens and the plane mirror.

Material Required: -

A convex lens, a plane mirror, clean transparent liquid in beaker, an optical needle, an iron stand with
base and clamp arrangement, plane glass slab, a spherometer, half meter scale.

Theory: -

If f1 and f2 be the focal length of glass convex lens and liquid lens and F be the focal length of their
combination then,
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝐹
= 𝑓1
+ 𝑓2
or 𝑓2
=𝐹 −𝑓
1

Liquid lens formed is a planoconcave lens with R1 = R (radius of curvature of the convex lens), R2= ∞,
from the lens maker’s formula

1 1 1
= (𝜇 − 1) [ − ]
𝑓2 𝑅1 𝑅2
1 (𝜇−1) 𝑅
We have,𝑓 = 𝑅
or 𝜇 = 1+ 𝑓2
2

𝐿2 ℎ
Radius of curvature of convex surface is given by the relation, 𝑅 = 6ℎ + 2

Putting the value of f2 and R, 𝜇 can be calculated.

Diagram: -
Procedure: -

For focal length of convex lens

1. Take a convex lens and find its rough focal length.

2. Take a plane mirror and place the convex lens on it.
3. Screw tight the optical needle in the clamp of the stand and hold it horizontally above the lens at
a distance equal to its rough focal length.
4. Brig the needle at the vertical principal axis of the lens.
5. Move the needle up and down and remove the parallax between the tips of needle and its image.
6. Measure the distance of the tip from the surface of the lens and mirror.

For focal length of combination

7. Take a few drops of the transparent liquid on the plane mirror and put the convex lens over it.
8. Repeat the step 5 and 6.
9. Record your observations as give below.

Observations: -

Rough focal length of convex lens= ………..cm

Calculation for Radius of curvature

S.No. Circular scale reading Number of No. of disc scale Total reading
On convex On plane complete division in complete h = n x p +X x
surface (a) mirror (b) rotation (n) rotation L.C.
x=a–b (mm)
1
Radius of curvature R =…….. cm

Arrangement Distance of needle tip Focal length X

𝑋 +𝑋
From lens From plane Mean X = 1 2 2 (cm)
surface mirror (cm)
X1 (cm) X2 (cm)
Without liquid f1 =
With liquid F =

Calculations: -

𝐿2 ℎ
Calculation for 𝑅 = 6ℎ + 2 =

1 1 1
𝑓2
= 𝐹 −𝑓 =
1

𝑅
𝜇 = 1+ =
𝑓2
Result: -

The refractive index of the liquid 𝜇 = ………………

Precautions: -

1. The liquid taken should be transparent.

2. Only few drops of liquid should be taken so that its layer is not thick.
3. The parallax should be removed tip to tip.

Sources of Errors: -

1. The liquid may not be transparent.

2. The parallax may not be fully removed.
 EXPERIMENT – 8

Aim: -

To draw the I – V characteristics curve of a p – n junction in forward – bias and reverse – bias.

Material required: -

A p – n junction (semi – conductor) diode, a 1 volt battery, a 10 volt battery, a high resistance rheostat,
one 0 – 1 volt voltmeter, one 0 – 10 volt voltmeter, one 0 – 20 mA ammeter, one 0 – 200 𝜇A ammeter,
one way key, connecting wires.

Theory: -

Diode: - Diode is a semiconductor device in which there is unidirectional flow of current.

Forward Bias: - When p – region of the diode is connected with the positive terminal of the battery and n
– region with the negative terminal of the battery then the junction is said to in the forward bias. With
increase in the bias voltage the forward current increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly after
the knee voltage. The knee voltage is about 0.7 volt for Si diode and 0.3 volt for Ge diode.

Reverse Bias: - When p – region of the diode is connected with the negative terminal of the battery and n
– region with the positive terminal of the battery then the junction is said to in the reverse bias. With
increase in the bias voltage the reverse current is very small which remains almost constant. But when
reverse voltage is increased to sufficiently high value the reverse current suddenly increases to large
value. This voltage is known as break down voltage.

Circuit Diagram: -
Procedure: -

For forward – bias

1. Make the circuit connections as show in diagram.

2. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and the milli – ammeter (mA).
3. Increase the forward voltage up to 0.3 V for Ge diode. Current almost remains zero.
4. Increase the forward voltage to 0.4 V a small current is observed.
5. Increase the forward voltage in steps of 0.2 V and note the corresponding current.
6. Current increases first slowly and the rapidly till voltage becomes 0.7 V.
7. Record your observations as give ahead.

For reverse – bias

8. Make the circuit connections as show in diagram.

9. Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and the micro – ammeter (𝜇A).
10. Move the contact of potential divider towards negative end to apply a reverse voltage of 0.5 V, a
feebly reverse current starts flowing.
11. Increase the reverse voltage in steps of 0.2 V current increases first slowly and then rapidly. Note
the current.
12. At higher voltage current increases suddenly. This represents reverse break down stage.
13. Record your observations as give ahead.

Observations Table: -

(1) Forward Bias: -

Range of voltmeter =……………………… V

Range of milli – ammeter =……………………… mA

Least count of voltmeter =……………………….V

Least count of milli – ammeter =……………………….mA

S.No. Forward bias Voltage (V) Forward Current (mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
 (2) Reverse Bias:-

Range of voltmeter =……………………… V

Range of micro – ammeter =………………………𝜇A

Least count of voltmeter =……………………….V

Least count of micro – ammeter =………………………. 𝜇A

S.No. Reverse bias Voltage (V) Reverse Current (mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Result: - The obtained V – I characteristic curve resemble with the ideal curve.

Precautions: -

1. All the connections should be tight.

2. Key should be used in the circuit and opened when the circuit is not being used.
3. Forward bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

Sources of Error: -

1. Junction diode supply may be faulty.

2. Connection is not proper.