Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles Module by Faunillo

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN EDUC.
I
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Vision/Mission/Goals and Objectives of ILOILO STATE COLLEGE OF
FISHERIES
VISION
To become a premier academic institution in Southeast Asia
MISSION
To upgrade quality education, generate jobs, and alleviate poverty

through excellent academic programs
CORE VALUES
Fortitude, Integrity, Scholarship, Humanity, Excellence, Service
GOALS
A. Quality Instructions
B. Relevance and Responsiveness
C. Access and Equity
D. Human Resource Development
E. Linkages and Infrastructure Development
OBJECTIVES:
The Objectives are to:
a. Produce quality graduates who will contribute to the advancement

of their chosen field;
b. Conduct viable researchers, develop and discriminate
technologies, and provide technical assistance to the community
for an increase production;
c. Offers courses that are responsive to the needs of the community
and industries for national development;
d. Promote self employment and entrepreneurship;
e. Strengthen opportunities for student scholarship and access to quality
education;
f. Promote faculty and staff development;
i. Strengthen and develop linkages with other agencies or institutions
to achieve both in the national and international levels; and
g. Improve facilities and structures that will efficiently and effectively
carry out quality instruction, research and development, extension and
production.
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN EDUC. I

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I. GOALS OF THE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
The Iloilo State College of Fisheries, School of Education

provides quality education and training in academic, professional,
and technological competencies through instruction, extension and
research development.
II. Program Objectives:

1. Produce globally competitive and humane graduates
of Bachelor of Elementary Education.
2. Provide relevant training for holistic development as
elementary school educators with high degree of
professionalism.
3. Conduct training on instruction, extension and
research for skills development.
4. Network with private and government agencies and
other related people’s organization in the implementation of
plans and programs of elementary teachers training.
III. Program Outcomes of Bachelor of

Elementary Education:
Based on CHED Memorandum No. 30,s. 2004 on revised policies

and standards for Undergraduate Teacher Education Curriculum, the
graduate of Bachelor of Elementary Education must:
a. Have the basic and higher level literacy, communication,

numeracy, critical thinking, learning skills needed for higher learning.
b. Have a deep and principled understanding of the learning processes
and the role of the teacher in facilitating these processes in their
students.
c. Have a deep and principled understanding of how education
processes relate to a larger historical, social, cultural and
political processes.
d. Have a meaningful and comprehensive knowledge of the
subject matter they will teach.
e. Can apply a wider range of teaching process skills (including
curriculum development, lesson planning, materials
development, educational assessment and teaching approach).
f. Have direct experience in the field/ classroom (e.g. classroom
g. Demonstrate positive attributes of a modern teacher, both as
an individual and as a professional
h. Manifest a desire to continuously pursue personal and
professional development.
i. Can reflect on the relationship among the teaching process skills,
the learning processing in the students, the nature of the
content/subject matter and the broader social forces encumbering
the school and
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educational processes in order to constantly improve their teaching
knowledge, skills and practices.
j. Can be creative and innovative in thinking of alternative teaching
approaches, take informed risk in trying out these innovative
approaches and evaluate the effectiveness of such approaches
in improving student learning.
k. Are willing and capable to continue learning in order to better
their mission as teachers.

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C ECRETRI TFIIFCIAC TA ITOI ON N
This is to certify that the module on

prepared by
has been evaluated by the
committee and passed the criteria set.
This is to certify further that this module is approved for reproduction

and use of students.
Signed this day of , .
Evaluation Committee Member Evaluation Committee Member
Evaluation Committee Chairperson

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Letter to the Students
Dear Students,
Good Day!
This module is part of the instructional materials especially designed to
prepare you become teachers in the near future. Being a second parent is not
an easy task, child care, understanding the nature of children and real life
application of the teaching learning processes are highly encouraged. This
subject will help you understand and investigate how children grow and
develop as we look thoroughly on the nature, characteristics and development
of the human person. Detailed information from various sources including
principles of development, learning, and motivation as they relate to the
educational processes are also included. Special emphasis will be placed on
applications of approaches and principles from infancy period to adolescence.
With this, you will be armed with knowledge on how to manage children and
handle difficult situation when you will become teachers.
Furthermore, this course focuses on current research and theory on
biological, linguistic, cognitive, social and emotional dimensions of
development, factors that affect the process of development, implications to
the teaching- learning process and teacher- learner relationships. Added to
these, concepts, principles and approaches in dealing with children and
adolescents are also presented. Ideas of various authors based on the
theories and concepts of theorists and educationalists are integrated in this
module so that the future teacher like you will have an in-depth understanding
of the developmental needs of children and adolescents.
Thus, this course encourages you to be more open and participative on
the activities being asked of you. You, as an active learner must participate in
the discussions, read and understand while searching, and collaborate in the
fun- eliciting activity in order to bring about responses that are situation
based. This course is composed of activity, written reports, reflections,
examinations and case study. It is indeed enjoyable, it brings fun and
motivation while learning.
Enjoy every bit of knowledge as it unfolds. Make it meaningful and
worth remembering.
Ma’am Ruby

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Course
Outline ……….2 hours
----
Orientation of Vision/Mission/Goals and Objectives of …
ISCOF
Unit 1 – Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development

.............................................................................................................. 8 hours
Module 1 – Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and
Approaches Module 2 – The Stages of Development and Development
Task Module 3 – Issues on Human Development
Module 4 – Research in Child and Adolescent Development
Unit II – Development Theories and other Relevant Theories

……………………………………………………………………………… 12 hours
Module 5 – Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
Module 6 – Piagets’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Module 7 – Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of
Development Module 8 – Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development Module 9 – Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
Module 10 – Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory
Part II – Development of the Learners at Various Stages
………………………………………………………………………………. 8 hours
Unit 1 – Pre-natal Period
Module 11 – Pre-natal Development
Unit 2 – Infancy and Toddlerhood
Module 12 – Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers

Module 13 – Cognitive Development of Infants and Toddlers
Module 14 – Socio-emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers
Unit 3 – Early Childhood (The Preschooler)

……………………………………………………………………………… 6 hours
Module 15 – Preschoolers’ Physical Development
Module 16 – Cognitive Development of the Preschoolers
Module 17 – Socio-emotional Development of the Preschoolers
Unit 4 – Middle Childhood (The Primary Schooler)

…………………………………………………………………………….. 6 hours
Module 18 – Physical Development of Primary Schoolers
Module 19 – Cognitive Development of Primary Schoolers
Module 20 – Socio-emotional Development of Primary Schoolers
Unit 5 – Late Childhood (The Intermediate Schooler)

…………………………………………………………………………… 6 hours
Module 21 – Physical Development of the Intermediate Schoolers
Module 22 – Cognitive Development of the Intermediate Schoolers
Module 23 – Socio-Emotional Development of the Intermediate
Schoolers
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Unit 6 – Adolescence (The High School Learner)
…………………………………………………………………………… 6 hours
Module 24 – Physical Development of High School Learners
Module 25 – Cognitive Development of High School Learners
Module 26 – Socio-emotional Development of High School Learners
Culminating Activity
Grading System
Midterm and Final..........................................................40%
Quizzes and Activities.........................................................30%
Projects..........................................................................20%
Oral Participation...........................................................10%
100%
Final Grade = Midterm grade + Tentative Final Grade

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Requirements:
1. Major Exam (Midterm & Final)
2. Individual/Group Report (Soft and Hard Copy)
3. Online activities/ Videos/Attendance
4. Final Output
 Further Instructions will be given online.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Title Page ………………………………………………………………... 1
Mission, Vision, Goals & Objectives ……………………………….. 2
Goals of the College ……………………………………………………. 3
Certification …………………………………………………………… 5
Letter to the Students …………………………………………………… 6
Course Outline …………………………………………………………... 7
Table of Contents ……………………………………………………….. 9
Unit I – Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development ………
Module 1 – Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches … 11

Module 2 – The Stages of Development and Development Task...................20
Module 3 – Issues on Human Development.......................................................31
Module 4 – Research in Child and Adolescent Development..........................36
Unit 2 – Development Theories and other Relevant Theories ………………
Module 5 – Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory........................................................48

Module 6 – Piagets’s Stages of Cognitive Development..................................55
Module 7 – Erikson’s Psycho-Social Theory of Development ………… 61
Module 8 – Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development.......................................65
Module 9 – Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory....................................................71
Module 10 – Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory ……………………… 76
Part II – Development of the Learners at Various Stages ………
Unit 1 – Pre-natal Period ………………………………………………
Module 11 – Pre-natal Development …………………………………………

Unit 2 – Infancy and Toddlerhood ………………………………………..
Module 12 – Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers ………………

Module 13 – Cognitive Development of Infants and Toddlers ……………
Module 14 – Socio-emotional Development of Infants and Toddlers ………
Unit 3 – Early Childhood (The Preschooler) …………………………………
Module 15 – Preschoolers’ Physical Development ………………………

Module 16 – Cognitive Development of the Preschoolers …………………
Module 17 – Socio-emotional Development of the Preschoolers ………
Unit 4 – Middle Childhood (The Primary Schooler) ………………………
Module 18 – Physical Development of Primary Schoolers …………………

Module 19 – Cognitive Development of Primary Schoolers ……………………
Module 20 – Socio-emotional Development of Primary Schoolers ……

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Unit 5 – Late Childhood (The Intermediate Schooler) ………………
Module 21 – Physical Development of the Intermediate Schooler…………
Module 22 – Cognitive Development of the Intermediate Schoolers ………
Module 23 – Socio-emotional Development of the Intermediate Schoolers ….
Unit 6 – Adolescence (The High School Learner) …………………………

Module 24 – Physical Development of High School Learners …………
Module 25 – Cognitive Development of High School Learners …………
Module 26 – Socio-emotional Development of High School Learners ……
Part III – Revisiting the 14-Learner-Centered Psychological Principles in

Relation to the Learner’s Development Stage …………………………………
Unit 1 – Pre-natal Period, Infancy and Toddlerhood …………………
Module 27 – Synthesis of the Physical, Cognitive and Socio-emotional

Development of Pre-natal Period ………………………………………………
Module 28 – Synthesis of the Physical, Cognitive and Socio-emotional
Development of Toddlers ………………………….………………………….

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Module I
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: MEANING,
CONCEPTS
AND PRINCIPLES

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Module I
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: MEANING, CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES
“All Human Development, as an approach, is concerned with what I take to be the

basic development idea: namely, advancing the richness of human life, rather than
the richness of the economy in which human beings live, which is only a part of it”.
-Amartya Sen-
Welcome to the first topic of the course, let us examine
the key principles that govern human development, you
will also identify its domains, factors, types and causes.
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this module you must have:

a. Defined human development in your own words;
b. Identified its domains, factors, types and causes;
c. Constructed the implications of knowing the principles
of development to the teaching profession.
INTRODUCTION:
Human development is the scientific study of the quantitative and
qualitative ways by which people change over time. Growth is often referred
to as quantitative change. The child increases in height and weight and
changes in proportion as he progresses toward maturity. These changes in
the body and any of its parts is known as physical growth.
Development or qualitative change refers to the increase in skills and
complexity of function resulting in increased specialization. It is the gradual
and orderly unfolding of the characteristics of the successive stages of
growth.
ACTIVITY: Observe the Child
If you have a younger sister or brother, niece or nephew at home,

observe him or her. But if you don’t have one, observe your neighbor’s
baby or someone in your area with a baby.
While observing the baby, describe what he/she before birth (his/her point of
origin) and who he/she will possibly be after birth. What will he/she possibly
become? Expound your answers.

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ANALYSIS:
After observing the baby, answer the following questions:
1. When you gave your own predictions as to the kind of child,
adolescent and adult he/she may become and hypothesized on
who he/she once was, you were referring to human
development. What then is development?
2. Will there be anything common in the pattern of development

when compared with other children? If yes, what?
3. Will there be differences in his/her development, e.g. pace or rate

of development? What and why?
ABSTRACTION:
Human development refers to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial
development of humans throughout the lifespan. What types of development
are involved in each of these three domains, or areas, of life? Physical
development involves growth and changes in the body and brain, the senses,
motor skills, and health and wellness. Cognitive development involves
learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity.
Psychosocial development involves emotions, personality, and social
relationships.
Domains in Human development

This course is focused on the development of the child and
adolescent, later in part II, Unit II we will discuss these three domains of
development.
Children’s development and learning in one domain influenced by what takes
place in other domains.
Physical Domain
Many of us are familiar with the height and weight charts that
pediatricians consult to estimate if babies, children, and teens are growing
within normative ranges of physical development. We may also be aware of
changes in children’s fine and gross motor skills, as well as their increasing
coordination, particularly in terms of playing sports. But we may not realize
that
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physical development also involves brain development, which not only
enables childhood motor coordination but also greater coordination between
emotions and planning in adulthood, as our brains are not done developing in
infancy or childhood. Physical development also includes puberty, sexual
health, fertility, menopause, changes in our senses, and primary versus
secondary aging. Healthy habits with nutrition and exercise are also important
at every age and stage across the lifespan.
Cognitive Domain
If we watch and listen to infants and toddlers, we can’t help but wonder
how they learn so much so fast, particularly when it comes to language
development. Then as we compare young children to those in middle
childhood, there appear to be huge differences in their ability to think logically
about the concrete world around them. Cognitive development includes
mental processes, thinking, learning, and understanding, and it doesn’t stop in
childhood. Adolescents develop the ability to think logically about the abstract
world (and may like to debate matters with adults as they exercise their new
cognitive skills!). Moral reasoning develops further, as does practical
intelligence—wisdom may develop with experience over time. Memory
abilities and different forms of intelligence tend to change with age. Brain
development and the brain’s ability to change and compensate for losses is
significant to cognitive functions across the lifespan, too.
Psychosocial Domain
Development in this domain involves what’s going on both
psychologically and socially. Early on, the focus is on infants and caregivers,
as temperament and attachment are significant. As the social world expands
and the child grows psychologically, different types of play and interactions
with other children and teachers become important. Psychosocial
development involves emotions, personality, self-esteem, and relationships.
Peers become more important for adolescents, who are exploring new roles
and forming their own identities. Dating, romance, cohabitation, marriage,
having children, and finding work or a career are all parts of the transition into
adulthood. Psychosocial development continues across adulthood with similar
(and some different) developmental issues of family, friends, parenting,
romance, divorce, remarriage, blended families, caregiving for elders,
becoming grandparents and great grandparents, retirement, new careers,
coping with losses, and death and dying.
Types of Change in Development

A. The major types of change are:
1. Changes in size.
2. Changes in proportion.
3. Disappearance of old features.
4. Acquisition of new features.
Causes of Development
A. Two Causes of Development Are as follows:
1. Maturation

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a. Is the development or unfolding of traits potentially present in the
individual from his hereditary endowment.
b. According to Gesell, it is the net sum of the gene effects operating
in a self – limited life cycle.
c. It is not only changes in physical characteristics but also in function,
capacity to perform or behave which are possible through changes
in any part of the organism.
2. Learning
a. The result of the activities of the child himself.
B. Studies of Maturation and Learning
1. Method of Isolation.
2. Method of co-twin control.
3. The matched-group method.
4. The genetic study of large groups.
Factors Influencing Development

A. There Are Nine Factors That Influence Development.
1. Intelligence.
2. Sex.
3. Glands of internal secretion.
4. Nutrition
5. Fresh air and sunlight.
6. Injuries and diseases.
7. Race.
8. Culture.
9. Position in the family
Major Principles of Human Development

1. Development is continuous
The process of growth and development continues from the
conception till the individual reaches maturity. Development of both
physical and mental traits continues gradually until these traits reach
their maximum growth. It goes on continuously throughout life. Even
after maturity has been attained, development does not end.
2. Development is Gradual
It does not come all on a sudden. It is also cumulative in nature.
While some changes occur in a flash of insight, more often it takes
weeks, months or years for a person to undergo changes that result in
the display of developmental characteristics.
3. Development is Sequential or orderly
Most psychologists agree that development is sequential or
orderly. Every species, whether animal or human, follows a pattern of
development peculiar to it. The muscular control of the trunk and arms
comes earlier as compared to the hands and fingers. This is the
proximodistal pattern. If the growth occurs on the top- the head
region down to its neck, shoulders and so on. This is the
cephalocaudal pattern. The pattern in general is the same for all
individuals. The child crawls before he creeps, stands before he walks
and babbles before he talks.

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4. Rate of Development Varies Person to Person
Rate of development is not uniform. Individuals differ in the rate of
growth and development. Boys and girls have different development
rates. Each part of the body has its own particular rate of growth. There
are periods of great intensity and equilibrium and there are periods of
imbalance.
5. Development Proceeds from General to Specific:
Development proceeds from general to specific. In all areas of
development, general activity always precedes specific activity. For
example, the fetus moves its whole body but is incapable of making
specific responses. With respect to emotional behavior infants approach
strange and unusual objects with some sort of general fear response.
Later, their fears become more specific and elicit different kinds of
behavior, such as, crying, turning away and hiding etc.
6. Most Traits are Correlated in Development
Generally, it is seen that the child whose mental development is
above average, is also superior in so many other aspects like health,
sociability and special aptitudes.
7. Growth and Development is a Product of Both Heredity
and Environment:
Development is influenced by both heredity and environment. Both
are responsible for human growth and development.
8. Development is Predictable
The difference in physiological and psychological potentialities can
‘t be predicated by observation and psychological tests.
9. Development is both structural and functional
Development brings about both structural and functional changes.
10. There is a Constant Interaction Between All Factors of
Development
Development in one area is highly related to development in
other areas. For example, a child who has a good health can be active
socially and intellectually.
Principles of Human Development Characteristics of Human

(NAEC, 2009) Development from Life-span
Perspective
a. All the domains of development e.g Development is multidimensional
and learning – physical, social and
emotional, and cognitive – are
important, and they are closely
interrelated. Children’s development
and learning in one domain influence
and are influenced by what takes
place in other domains.
b. Many aspects of children’s
learning and development follow well
documented sequences, with later
abilities, skills, and knowledge
building on those already acquired.

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c. Development and learning
proceed at varying rates from
child to child, as well as at uneven
rates
across different areas of child’s
individual functioning.
d. Development and learning
result from a dynamic and
continuous interaction of biological
maturation
and experience.
e. Early experiences have
profound effects, both cumulative
and delayed, on a child’s
development and learning; and
optimal periods exist for certain
types of
development and learning to occur.
f. Development proceed toward
greater complexity, self-regulation,
and symbolic or representational
capacities.
g. Children develop best when
they have secure, consistent
relationships with responsive adults
and opportunities for positive
relationships with peers.
h. Development and learning occur
in and are influenced by multiple
social and cultural contexts.
i. Always mentally active in seeking
to understand the world around
them, children learn in a variety of
ways; a wide range of teaching
strategies and interaction are
effective in supporting all these kinds
of learning.
j. Play is an important vehicle for
developing self-regulation as well as
for promotion language, cognition,
and social competence.
k. Development and learning
advance when children are
challenged to achieve at a level just
beyond their current mastery, and
also when they have many
opportunities to practice newly
acquired skills.
l. Children’s experience shapes
their motivation and approaches
to learning, such as persistence,
initiative, and flexibility; in turn, these
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dispositions and behaviors affect
their learning and development.
SUMMING-UP:
Are you done reading? Now, it’s time to sum up what you have learned in the 1st module. Summarize your learning i
APPLICATION:
w was it? Did you find difficulty in understanding the lessons? Or you find it easy to grasp? Do the following to ensure mastery of the b
1. Meaning of human development
2. Principles of human development and their educational implications.

Principles Educational Implications
_ _

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3. In two sentences, write the principle of human development as described
in the three domains of development.
Physical Domain
Cognitive Domain
Socioemotional Domain
Let’s see what you have learned. There are two guide questions
which you will answer as you reflect on the principles of
development and how it affects you as future teacher? Your
learning will help you become a better teacher someday. Answer
the following questions.
REFLECTIONS:
1. You are a bundle of possibilities. You are meant to develop like any
other thing. Remember, “Growth is the evidence of life.” If you are alive,
then you must be growing and developing. Are you in your way to
development?
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2. Like you, each of your future student is also a bundle of possibilities.
How should you look at them in terms of development? Write down your
reflections.
REFERENCES:
1. Corpuz, Brenda B., Ph. D., (2018) Lucas, Ma. Rita D., Ph. D., Borabo,
Heidi Grace l., Ph. D., Lucido, Paz I., Ph. D. The Child and Adolescent
Learners and Learning Principles
2. Acero, Victorina D., Ph. D., (2014) Javier, Evelyn S., Ph. D.,
Castro, Herminia O., M.A., Child and Adolescent Development
3. Ariola, Mariano M. (2009), General Psychology
https://www.psychologydiscussion.net/educational-psychology/principles-of-
human-growth-and-development/1813
https://www.slideshare.net/janettecbalagot/2nd-lecture-human-development-
meaning-concepts-and-approaches
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-lifespandevelopment/chapter/defining-
human-development/

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Module II
THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
AND

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Module II
THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS
“Every child has a different learning style and pace, each child is unique, not only
capable of learning but also capable of succeeding.”
-Robert John Meehan
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this module you must have:

 define developmental tasks in your own words.
 describe the developmental tasks in each developmental stage.
 come up with research abstracts/ summaries of researches
on developmental tasks.
INTRODUCTION:
For every developmental stage, there is an expected developmental
task. What happens when the unexpected developmental tasks are not
achieved at the corresponding developmental stage? How can you help
children achieve these developmental tasks?
ACTIVITY:

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ANALYSIS:
Study the pictures and answer the following questions.
1. Do the pictures suggest the respective developmental stages?
2. Symbolize each developmental stage. Give a symbol that stands for

the developmental task for each stage.
3. If you were given a chance, which developmental stage would you like
to be in? Why? Share your answers with your small group.
Pre-natal Period:
Referring to pre-natal development, Santrock (2002) asked the
following questions succinctly:
“How from so simple a beginning do endless forms develop and grow
and mature? What was the organism, what is it now, and what it will become?
Birth’s fragile moments arrives, when the newborn is on a threshold between
two worlds.”
Infancy (from birth to 2 years)

As newborns, we were not empty-headed organisms. We cried,
kicked, coughed, sucked, saw, heard and tasted. We slept a lot and
occasionally we smiled, although the meaning of our smiles was not entirely
clear. We crawled and then we walked, a journey of a thousand miles
beginning with a single step Sometimes we conformed, sometimes other
conformed to us. Our
development was continuous creation of complex forms, and our helpless
kind demanded the meeting eyes of love. We split the universe into two
halves: “me and not me”. And we juggled the need to curb our own will with
becoming what we could will freely.
Early Childhood (3 to 5 years)

In early childhood, our greatest untold poem was being only four years
old. We skipped, played, and ran all day long, never in our lives so busy, busy
becoming something we had not quite grasped yet. Who knew our thoughts,
which worked up into small mythologies all our own. Our thoughts and
images and drawings took wings. The blossoms of our heart, no wind could
touch.
Our small world widened as we discovered new refuges and new people.
When we said “I” we meant something totally unique, not to be confused with
any other.”
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Middle and Late Childhood (6-12 years)
“In middle and late childhood, we were on a different plane, belonging
to a generation and a feeling properly our own. It is the wisdom of human
development that at no other time we are more ready to learn that at the end
of early childhood’s period of expansive imagination. Our thirst was to know
and to understand. Our parents continued to cradle our lives but our growth
was also being shaped by successive choirs of friends. We did not think
much about future or the past, but enjoy the present.”
Adolescence (13-15 years)

“In order of things was adolescence, the simple time of life for us. We
clothed ourselves with rainbows and went ‘brave as the zodiac’, flashing from
one end of the world to the other. We tried on one face after another,
searching for a face of our own. We wanted our parents to understand us and
hoped they would give up the privilege of understanding them. We wanted to
fly but found that first we had to learn to stand and walk and climb and dance.
In our most pimply and awkward moments we became acquainted with sex.
We played furiously at adult games but were confined to a society of our own
peers. Our generation was the fragile cable by which the best and the worst of
our parents’ generation was transmitted to the present. In the end, there were
two but lasting bequests our parents could leave us – one being roots, the
other wings.
Early Adulthood (19-29 years)

Early adulthood is a time for work and a time for love, sometimes living
little time for anything else. For some of us, finding our place in adult society
and committing to more stable life take longer than we imagine. We still ask
ourselves who we are and wonder if it isn’t enough just to be. Our dreams
continue and our thoughts are bold but at some point we become more
pragmatic. Sex and love are powerful passions in our lives – at times angels
of light, at other times of torment. And we possibly will never know the love of
our parents until we become parents ourselves.
Middle Adulthood (30-60 years)

In middle adulthood what we have been forms what we will be. For
some of us, middle age is such a foggy place, a time when we need to
discover what we are running from and to and why. We compare our life with
what we vowed to make it. In middle age, more time stretches before us and
some evaluations have to be made, however reluctantly. As the young\old
polarity greets us with a special force, we need to join the daring of youth with
the discipline of age in a way that does justice to both. As middle-aged adults
we come to sense that the generations of living things pass in a short while
and like runner’s hand on the torch of life.
Late Adulthood (61 years and above)

“The rhythm and meaning of human development eventually wend their
way to late adulthood, when each of us stands alone at the heart of the earth
and “suddenly it is evening”. We shed the leaves of youth and are stripped by
the winds of time down to the truth. We learn that life is lived forward but
understood backward. We trace the connection between the end and

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beginning of life and try to figure out what this whole show is about before it is
over. Ultimately we come to know that we are what survives of us.
ANALYSIS:
1. How many developmental stages were described? How these stages
compare to Havighurst’s developmental stages given below?
Havighurst has identified six major age periods:

1. Infancy and early childhood (0-5 years)
2. Middle childhood (6-12 years)
3. Adolescence (13-18 years)
4. Early adulthood (19-29 years)
5. Middle adulthood (30-60 years)
6. Later maturity (61+)
2. What is an outstanding trait or behavior of each stage?
3.What task/s is/are expected of each developmental stage?
4. Does a developmental task in a higher level require accomplishment of

the lower level developmental tasks?
5. Refer to Havighurst’s Developmental Task given in the table on the next

page. Match the descriptions given by Santrock. Are Havighurst and
Santrock saying the same things?

24
Developmental Tasks
Infancy and Early Middle Childhood Adolescence Early Adulthood Middle Adulthood Later Maturity
Childhood (0-5) (6-12) (13-18) (19-29) (30-60) (61 and over)
1. Learning to walk 1. Learning 1. Achieving mature 1. Selecting a mate 1. Helping 1. Adjusting to

2. Learning to take physical skills relations with both 2. Learning to teenage children to decreasing
solid foods necessary for sexes live with a partner become happy and strength and health
3. Learning to talk ordinary games 2. Achieving a 3. Starting a family responsible adults 2. Adjusting to
4. Learning to 2. Building a whole- masculine or 4. Rearing children 2. Achieving retirement and
control the some attitude toward feminine social role 5. Managing a home adult social and reduced income
elimination of body oneself 3. Accepting 6. Starting civic responsibility 3. Adjusting to
wastes 3. Learning to get one’s physique an occupation 3. Satisfactory death of spouse
5. Learning sex along with the age- 4. Achieving 7. Assuming career achievement 4. Establishing
differences and mates emotional civic responsibility 4. Developing adult relations with
sexual modesty 4. Learning an independence of leisure time activities one’s own age
6. Acquiring appropriate sex role adults 5. Relating to one’s groups
concepts and 5. Developing 5. Preparing for spouse as a person 5. Meeting social
language to describe fundamental skills in marriage and family 6. Accepting the and civic obligations
social and physical reading, writing, and life physiological 6. Establishing
reality calculating 6. Preparing for changes of middle satisfactory living
7. Readiness for 6. Developing an economic age quarters
reading concepts career 7. Adjusting to aging
8. Learning to necessary for 7. Acquiring values parent
distinguish right everyday living and an ethical system
from wrong and 7. Developing to guide behavior
developing a conscience, morality, 8. Desiring and
conscience and a scale of values achieving socially
8. Achieving responsible behavior
personal
independence
9. Developing
acceptable attitudes
toward society
25
Concept of Developmental Tasks
In each stage of development, a certain task or tasks are expected of
every individual. Robert Havighurst defines developmental task as one that
“arises at a certain period in our life, the successful achievement of which
leads to happiness and success with later tasks while failure leads to
unhappiness, social disapproval, and difficulty with later task.”
Developmental Stages
There are eight (8) developmental stages given by Santrock. The eight
(8) developmental stages cited by Santrock are the same with Havighurst’s
six (6) developmental stages only that Havighurst did not include prenatal
period. Havighurst combined infancy and early childhood while Santrock
mentioned them as two (2) separate stages. These developmental stages
are described more in detail in the next paragraphs.
The Developmental task (Santrock, 2002)

Let’s describe the developmental task and outstanding trait of each
stage as described by Santrock and compare them to those listed by
Havighurst himself.
1. Prenatal period (from conception to birth) – It involves

tremendous growth- from a single cell to an organism complete
with brain and behavioral capabilities.
2. Infancy (from birth to 18-24 months) – A time of extreme
dependence on adults. May psychological activities are just
beginning – language, symbolic thought, sensorimotor coordination
and social learning.
3. Early childhood (end of infancy to 5-6 years (Grade I) – These are
preschool years. Young children learn to become more self-
sufficient and to care to themselves, develop school readiness skills
and spend many hours in play with peers.
4. Middle and late childhood (6-11 years of age, the elementary school
years) – The fundamental skills of reading, writing and arithmetic
are mastered. The child is formally exposed to the larger world and
its culture. Achievement becomes a more central theme of the
child’s world and self-control increases.
5. Adolescence – (10-12 years of age ending up to 18-22 years of
age) Begins with rapid physical changes – dramatic gains in height
and weight, changes in body contour, and the development of
sexual characteristics such as enlargement of the breasts,
development of pubic and facial hair, and deepening of the voice.
Pursuit of independence and identity and prominent. Through is
more logical, abstract and idealistic. More time is spent outside of
the family.
6. Early adulthood (from late teens or early 20s lasting through the 30s) –
It is a time of establishing personal and economic independence,
career development, selecting a mate, learning to lie with someone in
an inmate way, starting a family and rearing children.
7. Middle adulthood (40 to 60 years of age) – It is a time of
expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility; of
assisting the
26
next generation in becoming competent and mature individuals; and of
reaching and maintaining satisfaction in a career.
8. Late adulthood (60s and above) It is a time for adjustment to
decreasing strength and health, life review, retirement, and
adjustment to new social roles.
APPLICATION:
1.Answer the following questions. What are the implications of these
developmental tasks to your role as a teacher and or parent? Let’s pay
particular attention to each of the developmental stages-prenatal period,
infancy, early childhood, middle and late childhood and adolescence.
Preschool Period- what are pregnant others supposed to do to ensure the

birth of a normal and healthy baby?
Infancy what should mothers and baby sitters do and not do to help infants
develop normally and healthily?
Let’s do #1. Early childhood- What are preschool teachers supposed to do

with preschoolers? Help them develop readiness for school and not to be too
academic in teaching approach. They ought to give much time for
preschoolers to play. Or perhaps help preschoolers develop school readiness
by integrating children’s games in school activities.
Middle and Late childhood

Elementary school teachers ought to help their pupils by
Parents ought to help their children

27
Adolescence
High School teachers ought to help their students by
Parents ought to help their teenage children by
Early Adulthood College

Teachers ought to help their students by
Parents can help their children who are now young adults by
Middle Adulthood
What should adults do to obtain satisfaction in their career?
What should schools teach for students to be prepared for middle
adulthood?
Late Adulthood
In their retirement, adults should
How should children relate to their parents in their late adulthood stage? What
should teachers teach to students on how they should treat and relate to
parent, grand parents in their late adulthood?

28
REFLECTION:
1. Reflect on your early childhood, middle and late childhood days. Were you
able to acquire the developmental tasks expected of early, middle, late
childhood and adolescence. What facilitated your acquisitions of the ability to
perform such tasks? Write your reflections.
2. Having mastered the developmental tasks of early childhood, middle and

late childhood and adolescence, reflect on what you should do as a teacher to
facilitate your students’ acquisition of these developmental tasks. Write down
your reflections.

29
UNIT II-ASSESSMENT
CHECK-UP TIME:
Name: Year and Section:
Test I. True or False

Direction: Write (/) if the statement is TRUE and (X) if the statement is FALSE.
1. Development and learning proceed at varying rates from child to child.

2. Children develop best when they have secure, consistent
relationships with responsive adults.
3. Development is unpredictable.
4. Children show the same social growth in different culture and place
of socialization.
5. Physical development like any other domains influenced by what
takes place in other domains.
6. Adolescents develop the ability to think logically like children do.
7. There are only nine factors influencing development.
8. Development varies from person to person.
9. The pattern of growth in general is the same for all individual.
10. Physical development also involves brain development.
Test II. Identification

Identify the word or group of words being described in the sentence.
1. It involves emotions, personality, self- esteem and relationships.

2. Development continuous from conception until individual reaches
maturity.
3. Growth occurs on the top- the head region down to its neck and
shoulders.
4. It refers to the physical, cognitive and psychosocial development of
humans.
5. Refers to the increase in skills and complexity of function resulting in
increased specialization.
6. Refers to quantitative change.
7. It includes mental
8. Unfolding of traits potentially present in the individual.
9. The result of the activities of the child himself.
10. It includes puberty, sexual health, fertility and menopause.
Test III. Enumeration

List down what is being asked of you.
1-10- Major principles of human
development. 1-9- Factors Influencing
Development.
10-13- Major Types of Change in
Development 14-17- Studies of Maturation and
Learning
18-20- Domains of Development.
30
Test IV- Multiple Choice
Encircle the letter of your choice from the choices given below.
1.Period when the baby slept a lot, crawled and walked.

a. infancy b. pre-natal period c. middle and late childhood
2. it is the simple time of life for us. They played furiously at adult games but
were confined to a society of our own peers.
a. early adulthood b. adolescence c. late adulthood
3. This is a foggy place, a time to discover what we are running from and to
and why.
a. middle adulthood b. early adulthood c. late adulthood
4. Birth’s fragile moments arrives, when the newborn is on a threshold
between two worlds.
a. infancy b. pre-natal period c. early childhood
5. A developmental task when the child develops concept necessary for
everyday living.
a. early adulthood b. middle childhood c. later maturity
6. Developmental task when an adult is adjusting to retirement and reduced
income.
a. middle adulthood b. later maturity c. early adulthood
7. A period when an adult learns to live w/a partner and starting an occupation.
a. early childhood b. adolescence c. early adulthood
8. He defines developmental task as one that arises at a certain period in our
life, successful achievement leads to happiness and success.
a. Santrock b. Havighurst c. Corpuz
9. A time of expanding personal and social involvement and responsibility.
a. adolescence b. early childhood c. early adulthood
10. age bracket for middle and late childhood.
a. 10-12 years old b. 6-11 years old c. 5-6 years
V. Enumeration
Enumerate the following.
1-8- Developmental tasks according to Santrock,

2002 9-14-Developmental tasks according to
Havighurst.
15-20- Developmental task of Infancy and early childhood.
REFERENCES:
31
Module III
Issues on Human
Development

32
Module II I
Issues on Human Development
“The interaction of heredity and environment is so extensive that to ask which is more
important, nature or nurture, is like asking which is more important to a rectangle,
height or width”.
-William Greenough
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this Module, you should be able to take a
research-based position on the three (3) issues on
development.
INTRODUCTION:
Each of us has his/her own informal way of looking at our own and
other people’s development. These paradigms of human development while
obviously lacking in scholastic vigor, provide us with a conceptual framework
for understanding ourselves and others. Scholars have come up with their
own models of human development. Back up by solid research, they take
stand on issues on human development.
Key Issues in Human Development
There are many different theoretical approaches regarding human

development. As we evaluate them in this course, recall that human
development focuses on how people change, and the approaches address
the nature of change in different ways:
 Is the change smooth or uneven (continuous versus discontinuous)?
 Is this pattern of change the same for everyone, or are there different
patterns of change (one course of development versus many
courses)?
 How do genetics and environment interact to influence
development (nature versus nurture)?
1. Is Development Continuous or Discontinuous?
Continuous development views development as a cumulative process,

gradually improving on existing skills (Figure 2). With this type of
development, there is a gradual change. Consider, for example, a child’s
physical growth: adding inches to their height year by year. In contrast,
theorists who view development as discontinuous believe that development
takes place in unique stages and that it occurs at specific times or ages. With
this type of development, the change is more sudden, such as an infant’s
ability to demonstrate awareness of object permanence (which is a cognitive
skill that develops toward the end of infancy, according to Piaget’s cognitive
theory—more on that theory in the next module).
33
Figure 2. The concept of continuous development can be visualized as a
smooth slope of progression, whereas discontinuous development sees
growth in more discrete stages.
2. How Do Nature and Nurture Influence Development?
Are we who we are because of nature (biology and genetics), or are we who
we are because of nurture (our environment and culture)? This longstanding
question is known in psychology as the nature versus nurture debate. It
seeks to understand how our personalities and traits are the product of our
genetic makeup and biological factors, and how they are shaped by our
environment, including our parents, peers, and culture. For instance, why do
biological children sometimes act like their parents—is it because of genetics
or because of early childhood environment and what the child has learned
from their parents? What about children who are adopted—are they more like
their biological families or more like their adoptive families? And how can
siblings from the same family be so different?
We are all born with specific genetic traits inherited from our parents, such as
eye color, height, and certain personality traits. Beyond our basic genotype,
however, there is a deep interaction between our genes and our environment.
Our unique experiences in our environment influence whether and how
particular traits are expressed, and at the same time, our genes influence how
we interact with our environment (Diamond, 2009; Lobo, 2008). There is a
reciprocal interaction between nature and nurture as they both shape who we
become, but the debate continues as to the relative contributions of each.
3. Early Experience vs. Later Experience
A third important consideration in developmental psychology involves the

relative importance of early experiences versus those that occur later in life.
Are we more affected by events that occur in early childhood, or do later
events play an equally important role?
Psychoanalytic theorists tend to focus on events that occur in early childhood.

According to Freud, much of a child's personality is completely established by

34
the age of five. If this is indeed the case, those who have experienced
deprived or abusive childhoods might never adjust or develop normally.
In contrast to this view, researchers have found that the influence of

childhood events does not necessarily have a dominating effect over behavior
throughout life, however there is evidence that childhood adversity may
correlate to greater levels of stress in adulthood. Many people with less-than-
perfect childhoods go on to develop normally into well-adjusted adults.
ABSTRACTION:
Development is not all nature or all nurture, not all continuity or discontinuity,
early experience or later experience. These are all characterize by life-span
development. The key to development is the interaction of nature and nurture
rather than either factor alone (Rutter, 2001 as quoted by Santrock, 2002). In
other words, it is a matter of “both- and” not “either-or.”
To summarize, both genes and environment are necessary for a person even
to exist. Without genes, there is no person; without environment, there is no
person (Scarr and Weinberg, 1980, quoted by Santrock, 2002). Heredity and
environment operate together- or cooperate and interact- to produce a
person’s intelligence, temperament, height, weight… ability to read and so on.
If heredity and environment interact, which one has a greater influence or
contribution, heredity or environment? The relative influence or contributions
of heredity and environment are not additive. So, we can’t say 50% is a
contribution of heredity and 50% of environment. Neither is it correct to say
that full genetic expression happens once, around conception or birth, after
which we take our genetic legacy into the world to see how far it gets us.
Genes produce proteins throughout the life span, in many different
environments. Or they don’t produce these proteins, depending on how harsh
or nourishing those environments are. (Santrock, 2002).
APPLICATION:
How the First Nine Months Shape the Rest of Your Life
What makes us the way we are? Why are some people predisposed to
be anxious, overweight or asthmatic? How is it that some of us are prone to
heart attack, diabetes or high blood pressure?
There’s a list of conventional answer to these questions. We are the
way we are because it’s in our genes. We turn out the way we do because of
our childhood experiences. Or our health and well-being stem from the
lifestyle choices we make us adults.
But there’s another powerful source of influence you may not have
considered: your life as a fetus. The nutrition you receive in the womb; the
pollutants, drugs and infections you were exposed to during gestation; your
mother’s health and state of mind while she was pregnant with you
-all these factor shaped you as a baby and continue to affect you this day.
This is provocative contention of a field known as fetal origins, whose
pioneers assert that the nine months of gestation constitute the most

35
consequential period of our lives, PERMANENTLY (Underscoring, mine)
influencing the wiring of the brain and the functioning of organs such as the
heart, liver and pancreas. In the literature on the subject, which has exploded
over the past 10 years, you can find references to the fetal origins of cancer,
cardiovascular disease, allergies, asthma, hypertension, diabetes, obesity,
mental illness. At the farthest edge of fetal origins research, scientists are
exploring the possibility that intrauterine conditions influence not only our
physical health but also our intelligence, temperament, even our sanity.
As a journalist who covers science, I was intrigued when I first heard
about fetal origins. But two years ago, when I began to delve more deeply into
the field, I had a more personal motivation: I was newly pregnant. If it was
true that my actions over the next nine months would affect my offspring for
the rest of my life, I needed to know more.
Of course, no woman who is pregnant today can escape hearing the
message that was she does affects her fetus. She hears it at doctor’s
appointments, sees it in the pregnancy guidebooks: Do eat this, don’t drink
that, be vigilant but never stressed. Expectant mothers could be forgiven for
feeling that pregnancy is just a nine-month slog, full of guilt and devoid of
pleasure, and this research threatened to add to the burden.
But the scientist I met weren’t full of dire warnings but of the excitement
of discovery – and the hope that their discoveries would make a positive
difference. Research on fetal origins is prompting a revolutionary shift in
thinking about where human qualities come from and when they begin to
develop. It’s turning pregnancy into a scientific frontier: The National Institutes
of Health embarked last year on a multidecade study that will examine its
subjects before they’re born. And it makes the womb a promising target for
prevention, raising hopes of conquering public-health scourge like obesity and
heart disease through interventions before birth.
Time Magazine, October 4, 2010
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING:

From the article that you have just read: Analyze and answer the following
questions:
1. Does the article agree that heredity, environment and individual’s
choice are the factors that contribute to what a person may
become?
2. Focus your attention to the word PERMANENTLY. Relate this to the

issue on early experience vs. later experience. Does the word
permanently convince you that we are what our first experiences
have made of us? Explain your answer.
36
REFLECTION:
Relate what you learned here to your personal development. Reflect on your
own personal development. What has helped you become the person that
you are now? Is what you have become a product of the mere interaction of
heredity and environment? Or is what you have become a product of both
heredity and environment interacting and what you have decided or
determined yourself to become?

37
REFERENCES:

38
Module IV
Research in Child and Adolescent
Development

39
Module IV
Research in Child and Adolescent Development
“Research is to see what everybody else has seen and to think what nobody else thought.”
-Albert Szent – Gyorgi, Hungarian Biochemist
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this Module, you should be able to:
 explain the basic principles of research
 demonstrate appreciation of the role of teachers as consumers and
producers of developmental research.
 Read researches on child and adolescent development and
make simple research abstracts out of researches.
INTRODUCTION:
You may have a separate 3-unit course on research. This module is
not intended to be substitute for that three-unit course. It is simply meant to
supplement what you got or will still get in the Research course.
As you may have noticed, most if not all of what is presented about the
development of the child and the adolescent are products of research. It might
interest you to know how these concepts/theories were arrived at. Or after
having been exposed to a number of researches cited in this course,
hopefully, you may be so inspired that you, too, would like to start conducting
researches on your own or join a group for research.
ACTIVITY:
Read each statement below. Do you agree/disagree with each statement?
Put a check mark (/) to indicate your answer.
Statement Yes No
1.Research is only for those who plan to take master’s degree or doctorate
degree.
2.research is easy to do.
3.Research is all about giving questionnaires and tallying the responses.
4.Research with one or two respondents is not a valid research.
5.Teachers, because they are busy in their classrooms, are expected to
use existing research rather than conduct their own research in the
classroom.
6.There is no need to go into research because a lot of researches have
already been conducted.
7.Students are mere users of knowledge arrived at by research. It is not
their task to conduct research.
8.Students do not possess the qualifications to conduct research.
9.It is not worth conducting research considering the time and money it
requires.

40
ANALYSIS:
Study your answers in the following statements. You can share your
answer via chat or video call with your classmates.
ABSTRACTION:
Your answers to the short questionnaire indicate your basic attitude
about research. As a pre-service teacher, it is important to have a positive
regard for research. Best practices in education are usually borne out of
research. Research informs practice.
All of the topics discussed in this book are, in one way another, a
product of research. Research is a very reliable means for teachers to learn
about child adolescent development. When conducted in an appropriate and
accurate manner, it becomes strong basic for making decisions about the
things you will do as an effective teacher.
Teacher as Consumers/End Users of Research

Research gives teachers and also policy-makers important knowledge
to use in decision-making for the benefit of learners of their families. Well-
informed teachers are able to use and integrate the most authoritative
research findings. Research enables teachers to come up with informed
decisions on what to teach and how to teach. This involves decisions related
to educational policies, and even those involving research, too. It can help us,
teachers, to be more knowledgeable about how to fit our teaching with the
developmental levels of our learners.
Teachers as Researchers
The conduct of research does not only belong to thesis and
dissertation writers. It is for students and teachers, too. Let us learn how to
conduct research by finding out the different research principles and the
research methods and designs with focus on child and adolescence
development.
The Scientific Method

One important principle in research is adherence to the scientific
method, since research is systematic and logical process. As such,
researches basically follow the scientific method. Dewey gave us 5 steps of
the scientific method. They are the follows:
1. Identify and define the problem
2. Determine the hypothesis
3. Collect and analyze data
4. Formulate conclusions
5. Apply conclusions to the original hypothesis
Simply explained, identifying the research problem is the first step. This is
followed by stating a tentative answer to research problem called hypothesis.
The hypothesis is also referred to as an “educated guess”. How correct is
your “educated guess” or “hypothesis?” if your research problem is
concerned with determining the cause of an effect or a phenomenon you
have to gather and analyze data derived from an experiment. This is true with
experimental research. However, if your research problem is concerned with
describing

41
data and characteristics about the subjects or phenomenon you are studying,
you do not need perform an experiment. This is descripted research. After
analyzing the data, you formulate your conclusions.
Compare your conclusions to your original hypothesis to find out if your
original hypothesis is correct or not. If your original hypothesis jibes with your
finding and conclusion, affirm your hypothesis. If your original hypothesis
does not jibe with your finding and conclusions, reject your original
hypothesis.
Research Designs
Researches that are done with high level of equality and integrity
provide us with valuable information about child and adolescence
development. To be able to conduct quality research, it is Important that you
know various research designs and different data-gathering techniques
used by developmental researches. Some ae given and described below:
Research Description Strengths Weaknesses

Design
1. Case Study An in-depth look It provides Need to exercise
at an individual information about caution when
an individual’s generalizing from
fears, hopes, the information;
fantasies, the subject of a
traumatic case study is
experiences, unique, with a
upbringing, genetic make-up
family and experiences
relationships, no one else
health, and shares; involves
anything that judgements of
helps a unknown
psychologist reliability in that
understand that usually no check
person’s is made to see if
development other
(Santrock, 2002) psychologists
agree with other
observations
(Santrock, 2002)
2. Correlational A research Useful because Because
Study design that the more strongly correctional
determines two events are research does
associations correlated, the not involve the
more we can manipulation of
predict one form factors, it is not a
the other dependable way
to isolate cause
(Kantowitz, et al,
2001 cited by
Santrock, 2002)
42
3. Experimental A research The only true Experimental
design that reliable method research is
determines of establishing limited to what is
cause-and-effect cause and effect observable,
relationships. testable and
The manipulable.
experimental Failure to
method involves achieve
manipulating one randomization
variable to may limit the
determine if extent to which
changes in one the study sample
variable cause is representative
changes in of the parent
another variable. population and,
This method with it,
relies on generalizability of
controlled the findings of
methods, the study.
random
assignment and Experimentation
the manipulation with humans is
of variables to subject to a
test a number of
hypothesis. external
influences that
may dilute the
study results
(Donnan, 2000).
A further
limitation of
experimental
research is that
subjects may
change their
behavior or
respond in a
specific manner
simply because
of awareness of
being observed
-Hawthorne
effect (Haughey,
1994; Clifford,
1997)
4. Naturalistic A research One of the The

Observation design that advantages of disadvantages of
focuses on this type of naturalistic
children’s research is that it observation
43
experiences in allows the include the fact
natural settings. researcher to that it can be
directly observe difficult to
This does not the subject in a determine the
involve any natural setting. exact cause of a
intervention or behavior and
manipulation on the experimenter
the part of the cannot control
researcher. This outside
technique variables.
involves
observing
subjects in their
natural
environment.
This type
research is often
utilized in
situations where
conducting lab
research is
unrealistic, cost-
prohibitive or
would unduly
affect the
subject’s
behavior.
5. Longitudinal The research Allows them to They are
design studies record and expensive and
and follows monitor time-consuming.
through a single developmental
group over a trends The longer the
period of time. study lasts, the
The same more subjects
individuals are drop out - they
studied over a move, get sick,
period of time, lose interest, etc.
usually several Subjects can
years or more. bias the
outcome of a
study, because
those who
remain may be
dissimilar to
those who drop
out.
6. Cross- A research Allows them to It dives no
sectional strategy in which record and information about
individuals of monitor how individuals
different ages developmental change or about
trends. The the stability of
44
are compared at researcher does their
one time. not have to wait characteristics
for individuals to (Santrock, 2002).
grow up or
become older.
7. Sequential This is the Allows them to It is complex,
combined cross- record and expensive, and
sectional and monitor time-consuming.
longitudinal developmental
approaches to trends. It
learn about life- provides
span information that
development is impossible to
(Schaie, 1993 obtain from
cited by Satrock, cross-sectional
2002). This starts or longitudinal
with a cross- approaches
sectional study alone (Santrock,
that includes 2002).
individuals of
different ages. A
number of
months or years
after the initial
assessment, the
same individuals,
are tested again-
this is the
longitudinal
aspect of the
design. At this
later time, a new
group of subjects
is assessed at
each grade level.
Action Research Action research Appropriate in a Typically takes
is a reflective particular setting place in one
process of when the organization only
progressive purpose of study at a particular
problem-solving is to “to create only at a
led by individuals changes and particular time
working with gain information and could not be
others in teams on processes interpreted within
or as part of a and outcome of different
“community of the strategies organizations in
practice” to used” the same way.
improve the way (Hunt 1987). Therefore,
they address Uses different research findings
issues and solve methods, can get are hard
problems the best out of
45
(Wikipedia, the the different (impossible) to
free methods generalize.
encyclopedia). employed, if If research
In the context of done well. participants do
teaching, action Stakeholders are not feel they
researches of included understand and
teachers stem throughout and ‘own’ the
from their own so researches research project,
questions about are more likely to this could lead to
and reflections make a potential
on their everyday “differences”. conflict of
classroom interest between
practice. the researcher
and those
participating in
the organization,
but also
between the
researcher with
some
participants, on
the one hand
and other
members of the
organization, on
the other.
Data-Gathering Techniques
Data-Gathering Definition/Description
Technique
1. Observation Observation can be made in either laboratories or
natural settings. In naturalistic observation,
behavior is observed in the real world like
classrooms, home in neighborhood.
2. Physiological Certain indicators of children’s development such
Measures as, among others, heart rate, hormonal levels, bone
growth, body weight, and brain activity are
measured.
3. Standardized These are prepared tests that assess individuals’
performance in different domains. These tests are
administered in a consistent manner.
4. Interviews and Involve asking the participants to provide
Questionnaires information about themselves based on the
interview or questionnaire given by the researcher.
Gathering of data may be conducted through a
printed questionnaire, over the telephone, by mail,
in person, or on-line.
Information is obtained by utilizing standardized
procedures so that every participant is asked the
same questions in the same manner. It entails
46
asking participants for information in some
structured format.
5. Life-History These are records of information about a lifetime
Records chronology of events and activities. They often
involve combination of data records on education,
work, family, and residence. These include public
records or historical documents or interviews with
respondent.
Ethical Principles
To serve the genuine purposes of research, teacher researches are
subject to ethical principles. Just as we have the Code of Ethics that governs
the behavior of teachers, there are also exist ethical standards that guide the
conduct of research. These ethical standards serve as reminders that as
researchers, we should to strive to protect the subject of our study and to
maintain the integrity of our research. Details of these ethical principles are
found in documents such as the following:
1. Ethical standards of the American Educational Research Association
http://www.aera.net/uploadedFiles/About_AERA/Ethical_Standards/Et
hicalStandards.pdf
2. Ethical Standards for Research with Children – Society for Research in
Child Development (USA) http://www.srcd.org/index.php?
option=com_content&task=view&id=68 &Itemid=110
3. Standards of the American Psychological Association Concerning
Research http://www.lcsc.edu/policy/Policy/1.112a.PDF
We invite you to read and reflect on them.
Common among the three standards given above are the following
considerations for researchers conducted with young children and other
vulnerable population which are enumerated by the National Association for
the Education of Young Children (NAEYC).
Some key points are:
1. Research procedures must never harm children, physically
or psychologically.
2. Children and their families have the right to full information about
the research in which they may participate, including possible risks
and benefits. Their decision to participate must be based on what
is called “informed consent”. There must be informed consent
procedures with research participants.
3. Children’s questions about the research should be answered in
a truthful manner and in ways that children can understand.
Researchers must be honest and clear in their communication.
4. There should be respect for privacy. Information obtained
through research with children should remain confidential.
Researches should not disclose personal information or the
identity or participants in written or oral reports and discussions.
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The Data Privacy Act of 2012 (R.A. 10173)
This law was passed in the Philippines in 2012 “to protect in the
fundamental human right of privacy of communication while ensuring free flow
of information to promote innovation and growth”.
The law of states that the collection of personal data “must be a
declared, specified, and legitimate purpose and that… consent is required
prior to the collection of all personal data.”
For more details, read RA 10173.
Impact of Teachers’ Research Involvement on Teachers

Research itself has proven that teachers have everything to gain and
nothing to lose when they get involved in the research process. Evidence
suggest that:
1. Teachers who have been involved in research may become more
reflective, more critical and analytical in their teaching and more open
and committed to professional development (Oja & Pine 1989;
Henson 1996; Keyes 2000; Rust 2007).
2. Participating in teacher research also helps teachers become
more deliberate in their decision-making and actions in the
classroom.
3. Teacher research develops professional dispositions of lifelong
learning, reflective and mindful teaching, and self-transformation
(Mills 2000; stringer 2007).
4. Engaging in teacher research at any level may lead to rethinking and
reconstructing what it means to be a teacher or teacher educator
and, consequently, the way teachers relate to children and students.
5. Teacher research has the potential to demonstrate to teachers and
prospective teachers that learning to teach is inherently connected
to learning to inquire (Borko, Liston, & Whitcomb 2007).
Teacher involvement in the conduct of teacher research shows a shift from

thinking about teacher research as something done to teachers to
something done by teachers (Zeincher 1999; Lampert 2000).
APPLICATION:
1.Study two researches in the internet or research papers in the magazines or

books related to Child and Adolescent Development. Identify the following:
Title of the Statement of Page Research Data
Research Research Design Used Gathering
Finding Techniques
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2.A Research Abstract- A research abstract is a brief summary that
appears at the beginning of the article. It has the following parts: Identify
the following:
Title:
Researcher/s:
Date of Research:
Introduction:
Methods:
Findings/Results of the Study:
Conclusions and Recommendations:
References:
The first three (3) are self- explanatory and so need no further
explanation. The introduction, as the title implies, introduces the problem or
issue that is being studied. It includes a concise review of research relevant to
the topic, theoretical ties and one or more hypotheses to be tested. The
method section consists of a clear description of the subjects evaluated in the
study, the measures used and the procedures that were followed. The results
section reports the analysis of the data collected. The conclusions and
recommendations state the author’s answers to the specific problems of the
study and suggestions on next steps based on the findings and conclusions of
the study. Methods, Findings/ results of the Study and Conclusions and
Recommendations constitute the Body of the Abstract. The last part of the
Abstract is the references. These include the bibliographic information for
each source cited in the research report.
REFLECTION:
Write something about your reactions, ideas or views to the research that you
came across in your readings. As a future teacher, what can you do to help
the present situations in the issues on child and adolescent development?
49
50
UNIT II- ASSESSMENT
CHECK-UP TIME:
Name: Year and Section:
Test I. True or False
Direction: Write (/) if the statement is TRUE and (X) if the statement is wrong.
1.Development, whether continuous or discontinuous
demonstrate changes that is both gradual and sudden.
2.Childhood adversity correlate to greater levels of stress in adulthood.
3. One factor alone has greater effect to an individual inorder to
develop normally.
4. Nature without the interplay of nurture can still result to a
positive personality traits.
5. The nutrition you receive in the womb influences much in the
later years of life.
6. When heredity and environment interact, heredity has the
greater contribution.
7. Is it true that intrauterine conditions influence our physical
health, intelligence and temperament.
8. Pregnancy is a nine-month slog, full of guilt and devoid of pleasure.
9. Experimental research is an in- depth look at an individual.
10. Action research is a reflective process of progressive
problem- solving
11. Naturalistic observation is a research design that focuses
on children’s experiences.
12. Longitudinal research is similar to sequential research.
13. Correlational study is a research design that
determines associations.
14. Only action research can be performed by teachers.
15. In an observation technique, test is administered to respondents.
16. Lifetime chronology of events is used in physiological measures.
17. Researchers do not need research anymore because they knew
a lot already.
18. Teachers are the most qualified to conduct research.
19. Students are still studying, they are not qualified to
conduct research.
20. Research could make teachers to come up with informed
decision on what to teach and how to teach.
II. Enumeration
Directions: List down what is being asked of you.
1. Dewey’s 5 steps scientific method
2. Give 5 research designs
3. Give 5 data- gathering technique.
4. Give 15 reasons why teachers need to get involved in research.

51
REFERENCES:

52
Module V
DEVELOPMENT THEORIES AND

OTHER RELEVANT THEORIES

53
Module V
DEVELOPMENT THEORIES AND OTHER RELEVANT
THEORIES FREUD’S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY
Let us examine Freud’s views about human development and how it relates to education. His theory remains to be one of the most
OBJECTIVES: At the end of the module, you must have:

1. Explained Freud’s views about child and adolescent development;
2. Compared the Psychosexual stages of development to your
own experiences as a child;
3. Drawn implications of Freud’s theory to education.
INTRODUCTION:
Famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud said that children go through a
series of psychosexual stages that lead to the development of the adult
personality. His theory described how personality developed over the course
of childhood. While Freud's theory of personality development is well-known in
psychology, it has always been quite controversial, both during Freud's time
and in modern psychology.
One important thing to note is that contemporary psychoanalytic
theories of personality development have incorporated and emphasized ideas
about internalized relationships and interactions and the complex ways in
which we maintain our sense of self into the models that began with Freud.
ACTIVITY: Before reading through the various nursery rhymes, please

read and familiarize yourself with the chart below.
Stage Description Effect on Personality
Oral (0-18 Infants derive pleasure oral fixations (smoking, over
months) through oral drinking, biting fingernails,
exploration, and excessive talking, chewing gum,
weaning can be overeating)
difficult activity levels (excessive or
deficient), dependence on others
(independent or over dependent),
gullibility or cynicism
Anal
Anal (18- Toddlers derive Control of possessions and
36months) pleasure from orderliness: Anal retentive (rule
elimination (bowel and abiding, obsessed with
bladder function) and cleanliness, perfection and

54
struggle with self- control) or anal expulsive (messy,
control careless, and disorganized)
Phallic (3-6 Kids derive pleasure Adults sexual responses
years) from their sexual are exaggerated
organs and struggle (oversexualized or under)
with gender identity
and sexuality
Latency (6- There is no pleasure
puberty) zone; sexual feelings
are dormant
Genital Pleasure is derived Freud believed most would not be

(puberty- from the development able to experience mature
onward) of sexual interests sexuality because of prior stage
fixations; lack of intimacy
Directions: Read through the various Nursery Rhymes and determine

which fixation the character is stuck on from a previous Psychosexual
Stages of Development.
a. Jack and Jill Jack and Jill went up the hill
Jack in Jill went up the hill, to fetch a pail of water.
Jack fell down and broke his crown, And Jill came tumbling after.
Which stage of psychosexual development did Jack and Jill likely develop a
fixation?
Explain your answer.
b. There was an old woman who lived in a shoe.

There was an old woman who lived in a shoe. She had so many
children, she didn't know what to do; She gave them some broth
without any bread; Then whipped them all soundly and put them to
bed.
Which stage of psychosexual development did the old woman likely develop a
fixation?
55
c. Three Blind Mice Three blind mice.
Three blind mice. See how they run. See how they run. They all ran
after the farmer’s wife, who cut off their tails with a carving knife, Did
you ever see such a sight in your life, As three blind mice?
Which stage of psychosexual development did the three blind mice likely
develop a fixation?
ABSTRACTION/
Welcome to Freud’s world! Be ready to see what he

sees in a person. Take time to read his interesting
theories and ponder its implications to education.
Freud believed that personality developed through a series of

childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become
focused on certain erogenous areas. An erogenous zone is characterized as
an area of the body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation. This may be
the mouth, anus and the genitals. During the five psychosexual stages, which
are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital stages, the erogenous zone
associated with each stage serves as a source of pleasure.
The psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force

behind behavior. Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly
established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in
personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life. Each
stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or stifle
development, depending upon how they are resolved. If these psychosexual
stages are completed successfully, a healthy personality is the result. If
certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur.
A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until

this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A
person who is fixated at the oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent
on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.
Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development

1. Oral Stage (0 to 18 months). The erogenous zone is the mouth.
During the oral stage, the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking).
Too much or too little satisfaction can lead to an Oral Fixation or Oral
Personality which is shown in an increased focus on oral activities. This
type of personality may be oral receptive, that is, have a stronger
tendency to smoke, drink alcohol, overeat or oral aggressive, that is,
with a tendency to bite his or her nails, or use curse words or even
gossip. As a result, these persons may be become too dependent on
others, easily fooled and lack leadership traits. On the other hand, they
may also fight these
56
tendencies and become pessimistic and aggressive in relating with
people.
2. Anal Stage (18 months to 3 years). During the anal stage, Freud
believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder
and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training
— the child has to learn to control their bodily needs. Developing this
control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.
According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in
which parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and
rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive
outcomes and help children feel capable and productive. Fixation
during this stage can result in being anal retentive, an obsession with
cleanliness, perfection and control; or anal expulsive where the person
may become messy and disorganized.
3. Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years old). The pleasure or erogenous zone is
the genitals. Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers
as a rival for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus complex describes
these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to
replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished
by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of
feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls
instead experience penis envy. A fixation at this stage could result in
sexual deviances (both overindulging and avoidance) and weak and
confused sexual identity according to psychoanalysis.
4. Latency stage (6 to puberty). During this stage, the superego
continues to develop while the id's energies are suppressed. Children
develop social skills, values and relationships with peers and adults
outside of the family. The development of
the ego and superego contribute to this period of calm. The stage
begins around the time that children enter into school and become
more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an inability to form
fulfilling relationships as an adult.
5. Genital Stage (puberty onwards). During the final stage of
psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual
interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but
last throughout the rest of a person's life.
Freud Personality Components

1. The Id is present at birth and represents everything that we inherit from
our parents. It comprises our needs that require constant fulfillment
and operates on the pleasure principle, as well as the need for
immediate gratification, without regard for consequences or realities.
For example, a baby is hungry. Its id wants food or milk… so the baby
will cry. Nothing else matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own
needs.
2. The Ego develops as a result of our attempts to satisfy our needs
through interactions with our physical and social environment. In other
words, it arises from the Id. The Ego attempts to fulfill the Id’s desire
by serving as a negotiator that strives for a compromise between what
the
57
Id wants and what the outside world can grant it. The Ego is also a
decision-maker that operates on the reality principle, evaluating
conditions of the real world which may or may not satisfy the Id’s
demands and seeking acceptable methods of fulfilling the Id’s
wishes.
3. The Superego arises from the Ego and develops as an internal
representation of the moral values of the environment. The
Superego judges what we should morally do or not do, and guides
us about the should and should nots of our lives. It rewards us with
pride and positive feelings upon doing good, and punishes us with
feelings of guilt, shame or fear for not abiding by values that we have
set for ourselves.
Freud said that a well- adjusted individual is one who has a strong
ego, who can help satisfy the needs of the id without going against the
superego while maintaining the person’s sense of what is logical, practical
and real. If the id exerts too much power over the ego, the person
becomes too impulsive and pleasure- seeking behavior takes over one’s
life. On the other hand, if the superego is so strong that the ego is
overpowered. The person becomes so harsh and judgmental to himself
and other’s actions.
The ability of a learner to be well- adjusted is largely influenced by
how the learner was brought up. His experiences about how his parents
met his needs, the extent to which he was allowed to do the things he
wanted to do and also how he was taught about right and wrong, all
figures to the type of personality and consequent adjustment that a
person will make.
Freud believe that the personality of an individual is formed early during
the childhood years.
Topographical Model
The Unconscious. Freud said that most what we go through in our
lives, emotions, feelings, and impulses deep within are not available to us
at a conscious level. He believed that most of what influence us is our
unconscious. The Oedipus and Electra Complex mentioned earlier were
both buried down into the unconscious, out of our awareness due to the
extreme anxiety they caused. While these complexes are in our
unconscious, they still influence our thinking feeling and doing in perhaps
dramatic ways.
The Conscious. Freud also said that all that we are aware of is stored
in our conscious mind. Our conscious mind only comprises a very small
part of who we are so that, in our everyday life, we are only aware of a
very small part of what makes up our personality; most of what are is
hidden and out of reach.
The Subconscious. The last part is the preconscious or
subconscious. This is the part of us that we can reach if prompted, but is
not in our active conscious. It is right below the surface, but still “hidden”
somewhat unless we search for it. Information such as our telephone
number, some childhood memories, or the name of your best childhood
friend is stored in the preconscious.
58
SUMMING UP:
From the Module on Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory, I learned
that…. (use separate sheets for your summary).
APPLICATION:
1. From the concepts of Freud regarding Psychosexual Stages of
Development, as a future teacher and parent how will you train
your child not to be fixated on any of the stages of development?

59
2. Balance in the id, ego and superego is one of the important factors
in the personality to be well-adjusted. What do you think are the role
of parents in the development of children’s personality?
3. The big part which is hidden is the unconscious- all that we are not
aware of. Why do you think it occupies a huge part in the personality
make-up of the individual? State your answer.

60
Module VI
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT

61
Module VI
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
1. Described Piaget’s stages of Cognitive Development;
2. Matched learning activities to the learners’ cognitive stage.
INTRODUCTION:
Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child
constructs a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that
intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a
process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the
environment. Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic
study of cognitive development. His contributions include a stage theory of
child cognitive development, detailed observational studies of cognition in
children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive
abilities.
ABSTRACTION:
The Piaget stages of development is a blueprint that describes the
stages of normal intellectual development, from infancy through adulthood.
This includes thought, judgment, and knowledge. The stages were
named after psychologist and developmental biologist Jean Piaget, who
recorded the intellectual development and abilities of infants, children, and
teens. Piaget acknowledged that some children may pass through the stages
at different ages than the averages noted above and that some children may
show characteristics of more than one stage at a given time. But he insisted
that cognitive development always follows this sequence, that stages cannot
be skipped, and that each stage is marked by new intellectual abilities and a
more complex understanding of the world.
For sixty years, Jean Piaget conducted research on cognitive
development. His research method involved observing a small number of
individuals as they responded to cognitive tasks that he designed. These
tasks were later known as Piagetian tasks. Piaget called his general
theoretical framework “genetic epistemology” because he was interested in
how knowledge developed in human organisms. Piaget was initially into
biology and he also had a background in philosophy. Knowledge from both
these disciplines influenced his theories and research of child development.
Out of his researches, Piaget came up with the stages of cognitive
development.
PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

1. Sensori- motor Stage- Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
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 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as
sucking, grasping, looking, and listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot
be seen (object permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the
world around them
During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers

acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A
child's entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through
basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses. It is during the sensorimotor
stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning. As
kids interact with their environment, they are continually making new
discoveries about how the world works.
2. Pre- Operational Stage- Ages: 2 to 7 Years
 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words

and pictures to represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to
see things from the perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they
still tend to think about things in very concrete terms.
The foundations of language development may have been laid during

the previous stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of the
major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development. Children
become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development,
yet continue to think very concretely about the world around them. At this
stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking
the point of view of other people.
Symbolic Function. This is the ability to represent objects and events. A
symbol is a thing that represents something else. Example, a drawing, a
written word, or a spoken word comes to be understood as representing a
real object like a real MRT train.
Egocentrism. This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view
and to assume that everyone also has his same point of view.
Centration. This refers to the tendency of a child to only focus on one aspect
of a thing or event and exclude other aspects. For example, when a child is
presented with two identical glasses with same amount of water, the child will
say they have the same amount of water. However, once water from one of
the glasses is transferred to an obviously taller but narrower glass, the child
might say that there is more water in the taller glass.
Irreversibility. Pre- operational children still have the inability to reverse their
thinking. They can understand that 2+3 is 5, but cannot understand that 5-3 is
2.

63
Animism. This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or
characteristics to inanimate objects.
Transductive Reasoning. This refers to the preoperational child’s type of
reasoning that is neither inductive nor deductive.
3. The Concrete Operational Stage- Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
 During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete

events
 They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the
amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny
glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still
very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from
specific information to a general principle
While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point
in development, they become much more adept at using logic. The
egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better
at thinking about how other people might view a situation. While thinking
becomes much more logical during the concrete operational stage, it can also
be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract
and hypothetical concepts. During this stage, children also become less
egocentric and begin to think about how other people might think and feel.
Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different
features of objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to
one aspect or dimension.
Reversibility. The child can now follow that certain operations can be done
in reverse. For example, they can already comprehend the commutative
property of addition and that subtraction is the reverse of addition.
Conservation. This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like
number, mass, volume or area do not change even if there is a change in
appearance.
Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based
on one dimension such as weight, volume or size.
4. The Formal Operational Stage- Ages: 12 and Up
 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think

abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical,
social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract
reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle
to specific information

64
The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability
to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. At this
point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to
problems and think more scientifically about the world around them. The
ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the
formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to
systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical situations are
also critical abilities that emerge during this stage.
Hypothetical Reasoning. This is the ability to come up with different
hypothesis about a problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a
final decision or judgment.
Analogical Reasoning. This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one
instance and then use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in
another similar situation or problem. The individual can now understand
relationships and do analogical reasoning.
Deductive Reasoning. This is the ability to think logically by applying a
general rule to a particular instance or situation. For example, all countries
near the north pole have cold temperatures. Greenland is near the North pole.
Therefore, Greenland has cold temperature.
BASIC COGNITIVE CONCEPTS

Schema- a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component
actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning. For
example, if a child sees a dog for the first time, he creates his own schema
of what a dog is. It has four legs and a tail. It barks. It’s furry. The child then
“puts this description of a dog ‘on file” in his mind. When he sees another
similar dog, he “pulls” out the file (his schema of a dog) in his mind, looks at
the animal and says, “four legs, tail, barks, furry... “That’s a dog!”
Assimilation – Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object
or situation. For example, If the child sees another dog, this time a little
smaller one, he would make sense of what he is seeing by adding this new
information into his schema of a dog.
Accommodation – This happens when the existing schema (knowledge)
does not work, and needs to be changed to deal with a new object or
situation. For example, If the child now sees another animal that looks like a
bit like a dog, but somehow different. He might say, look mommy, what a
funny looking dog. Its bark is funny too, the mommy explains. That’s not a
funny looking dog, that’s a goat. With mommy’s further descriptions, the child
will now create a new schema, that of a goat. He now adds a new file in his
filing cabinet.
Equilibration– Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as
we do not like to be frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering
the new challenge (accommodation). Once the new information is acquired
the process of assimilation with the new schema will continue until the next
time we need to make an adjustment to it.

65
From Piaget’s findings and comprehensive theory, we can derive the
following principles:
1. Children will provide different explanations of reality at different
stages of cognitive development.
2. Cognitive development is facilitated by providing activities or
situations that engage learners and require adaptation (i.e.,
assimilation and accommodation).
3. Learning materials and activities should involve the appropriate
level of motor or mental operations for a child of a given age;
avoid asking students to perform tasks that are beyond their
current cognitive capabilities.
4. Use teaching methods that actively involve students and present
challenges.
SUMMING-UP:
Now that you are done reading Piaget’s Cognitive Development
Theory, I want you to summarize your learning by writing not
less than 80 words. (Use separate sheets for your summary).
APPLICATION:
Since you are staying at home, this activity focuses on a story involving the
interactions of family members. Choose a story you want to use for this activity. It can
be a story from your own family, or a story that you have just read or a movie that you
watched.
Use the matrix below to relate the character to Piaget’s stages of cognitive
development.
Title of a story:
Brief Summary of the Story

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REFERENCES:
https://www.verywellmind.com/piagets-stages-of-cognitive-development-
2795457
https://www.simplypsychology.org/piaget.html#stages
https://classroom.synonym.com/piagets-stages- cognitive-development-
7907807.html
https://www.webmd.com/children/piaget-stages-of-development#1

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Module
ERIKSON’S PSYCHOSOCIAL
THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT

68
Module VII
ERIKSON’S PSCHOSOCIAL THEORY OF
DEVELOPMENT
“Healthy children will not fear life if their elders
have integrity enough not to fear death”.
Erik Erikson
1. Explained the 8 stages of life to someone you care about;
2. Suggested at least 6 ways on how Erikson’s theory can be
useful for you as a future teacher.
INTRODUCTION:
Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s
controversial theory of psychosexual development and modified it as a
psychosocial theory. Erikson emphasized that the ego makes positive
contributions to development by mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at each
stage of development. This mastery helps children grow into successful,
contributing members of society. During each of Erikson’s eight stages, there
is a psychological conflict that must be successfully overcome in order for a
child to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted adult.
ACTIVITY:
Examples of Erikson’s Stages of Development.
Choose a couple of characters from television and discuss whether
their behavior seems to fit into Erikson’s stages of development based on the
character’s approximate age- why and why not. This will allow you to apply
your knowledge of the different stages to something that has meaning to you.
Choose your favorite characters/artists from shows you spend a lot of
time watching, so that you could be able to discuss their behavior in great
detail. (Write it in a piece of paper).

69
ABSTRACTION:
Take time to read Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development
and take note of the stage where you are in. Be able to
relate this concepts to your life.
STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are based
on (and expand upon) Freud’s psychosexual theory. Erikson proposed that
we are motivated by the need to achieve competence in certain areas of
our
lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of
development over our lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At
each stage there is a crisis or task that we need to resolve. Successful
completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence
and a healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings
of inadequacy. Erikson also added to Freud’s stages by discussing the
cultural implications of development; certain cultures may need to resolve
the stages in different ways based upon their cultural and survival needs.
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be
trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival.
Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are
responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop a
sense of trust; their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place.
Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their baby’s needs can engender
feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as
unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met
appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the
world.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt

As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that
they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results. They
begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment, such
as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the
issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish
independence. This is the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe a
budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to choose her
clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the
situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of
independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she may
begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings
of shame.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt

Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are
capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through
social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool children must
resolve the
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task of initiative vs. guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while
interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a
sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to
explore within limits and then support the child’s choice. These children will
develop self- confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are
unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-
controlling parents—may develop feelings of guilt.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority

During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task
of industry vs. inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their
peers to see how they measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and
accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or
they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don’t measure
up. If children do not learn to get along with others or have negative
experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might develop into
adolescence and adulthood.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion

In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role
confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a
sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and
“What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on
many different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and
ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their “adult” selves. Adolescents who
are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to
remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other
people’s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a
conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents’
ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of self and experience
role confusion. They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the
future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle to
“find” themselves as adults.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned
with intimacy vs. isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in
adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if other
stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble
developing and maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said
that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful
intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in
adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle
adulthood, which extends to the mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood
is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves finding your life’s work and
contributing to the development of others through activities such as
volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged

71
adults begin contributing to the next generation, often through childbirth and
caring for others; they also engage in meaningful and productive work which
contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task may
experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the
world in a meaningful way; they may have little connection with others and
little interest in productivity and self-improvement.
8. Integrity vs. Despair

From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development
known as late adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs.
despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel
either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of
their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on
their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at this
stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would
have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives
with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.:
Write your own life story using the stages of psychosocial development
as framework. Go through each of the stages that apply to you (most
probably, stages 1-5 or 6). Ask information from your parents and other
significant persons in your life. Look at old baby books and photo albums.
REFERENCES:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/eriksons-
stages-of-psychosocial-development/ https://www.personalitypedagogy.net/?
page_id=351

72
Module VIII
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL

DEVELOPMENT

73
Module VIII
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
“The individual makes a clear effort to define moral values and principles that have
validity and application apart from the authority of the groups of persons holding
them and apart from the
individual’s own identification with the group”.
-Lawrence Kohlberg
Introducing the stages of Moral Development of Lawrence

Kohlberg. Indeed, our morals are the backbone of our
character. Let us strengthen our moral reasoning by examining
his theory.

1. Explained the stages of moral development;
2. Analyzed a person’s level of moral reasoning based on
his responses to moral dilemmas.
3. Cited how the theory of moral Development can be applied to
your work as teacher later on.
INTRODUCTION:
Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist
Jean Piaget to explain the moral development of children. Kohlberg believed
that moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of
stages. He used the idea of moral dilemmas—stories that present conflicting
ideas about two moral values—to teach 10 to 16 year-old boys about morality
and values. The best known moral dilemma created by Kohlberg is the
“Heinz” dilemma, which discusses the idea of obeying the law versus saving a
life. Kohlberg emphasized that it is the way an individual reasons about a
dilemma that determines positive moral development.
ACTIVITY: Read the selection and answer the analysis based on

your moral reasoning.
In Europe, a woman was near death from cancer. One drug might
save her, a form of radium that a druggist in the same town had recently
discovered. The druggist was charging $2,000, ten times what the drug cost
him to make. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew
to borrow the money, but he could only get together about half of what it cost.
He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked him to sell it cheaper or
let him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist said, “No.” The
husband got desperate and broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his
wife. Should the husband have done that? Why?
74
ANALYSIS:
1. Should Heinz steal the drug? Why or why not?
2. If Heinz doesn’t love his wife, should he steal the drug for her? Why
or why not?
3. Suppose the person dying is not his wife but a stranger. Should
Heinz steal the drug for a stranger? Why or why not?
4. Suppose it is a pet animal he loves. Should Heinz steal to save the

pet animal? Why or why not?
5. Why should people do everything they can to save another’s life?
_
6. It is against the law for Heinz to steal? Does that make it
morally wrong? Why? Or why not?
7. Why should people generally do everything they can avoid

breaking the law? How does this relate to Heinz case?

75
In order for you to understand how moral reasoning develop,
ABSTRACTION: please take time to read. After reading, answer the questions
to check your understanding about the theories and
concepts of Kohlberg on moral development.
KOHLBERG STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional,

conventional, and post-conventional. Each level is associated with
increasingly complex stages of moral development.
Level I-Pre-conventional
Throughout the pre conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is
externally controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority
figures, such as parents and teachers. A child with pre-conventional morality
has not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions regarding what is
right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that
certain actions may bring.
Stage 1- Obedience and Punishment Orientation
Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being
punished. For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong
because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment for the
act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.
Stage 2- Instrumental Orientation
Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right
behavior is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their
best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs
of others, only to the point where it might further the individual’s own
interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty
or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my back, and I’ll scratch
yours” mentality. An example would be when a child is asked by his
parents to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?” and the
parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.
Level II- Conventional

Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to
personal and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of
authority figures, but this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to
ensure positive relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and
conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s
appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.

76
Stage 3- Nice Girl, Good Boy Orientation
In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to
avoid disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people
being “nice” to others.
Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation
In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of
their importance in maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as
being the same for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is
“supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important. Moral reasoning in
stage four is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in stage
three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus
there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most active
members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still
predominantly dictated by an outside force.
Level 3: Post conventional

Throughout the post conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is
defined in terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe
that some laws are unjust and should be changed or eliminated. This level is
marked by a growing realization that individuals are separate entities from
society and that individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own
principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical principles—
principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and
justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than
absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-
conventional individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over
social conventions, their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be
confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have
speculated that many people may never reach this level of abstract moral
reasoning.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and
values. Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to
each person or community. Laws are regarded as social contracts
rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the general welfare
should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the
greatest number of people. This is achieved through majority decision
and inevitable compromise. Democratic government is theoretically
based on stage five reasoning.
Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation
In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using
universal ethical principles. Generally, the chosen principles are
abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as equality,
dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in
justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to
disobey unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to
follow, and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this way,
the individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not because
he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is

77
expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg
insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals
who consistently operated at that level.
SUMMING-UP:
Now that you are done reading, I want you to make a
summary of what you have learned in this module.
Summarize your learning in not more than 50 words.
APPLICATION:
I. Identify the stage of moral development shown in the following:
1. Joy allows her classmate to copy her homework so that they
will think she is kind and will like her to be their friend.
2. James does everything to get passing grades because his
mom will take his play station away if he gets bad grades.
3. A civic action group protests the use of pills for family planning,
saying that although the government allows this, it is actually murder
because the pills are abortifacient (cause abortion).
4. Jolina lets Claudine copy during their Math test because
Claudine agreed to let her copy during their Sibika test.
5. Ella decides to return the wallet she found in the canteen so
that people will praise her honesty and think she’s such a nice girl.
6. Edwin decides to return the wallet he found in the
canteen because he believes it’s the right thing to do.
7. Rhuann wears her ID inside the campus because she likes
to follow the school rules and regulations.
8. A jeepney driver looks if there’s a policeman around before he
U- turns in a no u- turn spot.
9. Scarlet volunteers to tutor children at-risk children in her
community for free so they will learn to love school and stay in
school.
10. Little Thony behaves so well to get a star stamp from her teacher.
78
REFERENCES:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/kohlbergs-
stages-of-moral-development/
https://www.iccb.org/iccb/wp-
content/pdfs/adulted/healthcare_curriculum/curriculum&resources/context_so
cial_studies/F.%20HC%20Context%20

79
Module IX
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-
CULTURAL
THEORY

80
Module IX
VYGOTSKY’S SOCIO-CULTURAL THEORY
“By giving our students practice in talking with others, we give them frames for
thinking on their own”.
-Lev Vygotsky
Welcome to another school of thought of Education! You

will learn here that there is a special person in your life who
taught you to become what and who you are now. That’s
exactly the theory of Vygotsky. Read on!

1. Explained why Vygotsky’s theory is called “Socio-
cultural” theory;
2. Differentiated Piaget and Vygotsky’s views on
cognitive development;
3. Explained how scaffolding is useful in teaching a skill.
INTRODUCTION:
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who argued
that culture has a major impact on a child’s cognitive development. Piaget and
Gesell believed development stemmed directly from the child, and although
Vygotsky acknowledged intrinsic development, he argued that it is the
language, writings, and concepts arising from the culture that elicit the highest
level of cognitive thinking (Crain, 2005). He believed that the social
interactions with adults and more learned peers can facilitate a child’s
potential for learning. Without this interpersonal instruction, he believed
children’s minds would not advance very far as their knowledge would be
based only on their own discoveries.
ACTIVITY:
1. As a child, recall a skill that you wanted to learn and eventually
learned well, through the help of another person. (like swimming,
riding a bike, playing the guitar, skating, singing, dancing, etc.)

81
2. What made you interested to learn the skill?
3. Who taught or assisted you?
4. Describe how you went about learning the skill. Describe what steps
or actions the person did in order to help you learn.
ANALYSIS:
1. How did you feel now that you have mastered the skill that you want
to learn?
2. What factors in the environment influenced you to learn the skill?
3. Did the person who taught or assisted you make use of scaffolding?
If yes, How?
ABSTRACTION:
Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding: Vygotsky’s best
known concept is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Vygotsky
stated that children should be taught in the ZPD, which occurs when they can
almost perform a task, but not quite on their own without assistance. With the
right kind of teaching, however, they can accomplish it successfully. A good
teacher identifies a child’s ZPD and helps the child stretch beyond it. Then
the adult
82
(teacher) gradually withdraws support until the child can then perform the task
unaided. Researchers have applied the metaphor of scaffolds (the temporary
platforms on which construction workers stand) to this way of
teaching. Scaffolding is the temporary support that parents or teachers give
a child to do a task.
More Knowledgeable Other

The more knowledgeable other (MKO) is somewhat self-explanatory; it
refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level
than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.
Although the implication is that the MKO is a teacher or an older adult, this is
not necessarily the case. Many times, a child's peers or an adult's children
may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience.
Social Interaction
According to Vygotsky (1978), much important learning by the child
occurs through social interaction with a skillful tutor. The tutor may model
behaviors and/or provide verbal instructions for the child. Vygotsky refers to
this as cooperative or collaborative dialogue.
The child seeks to understand the actions or instructions provided by the tutor
(often the parent or teacher) then internalizes the information, using it to guide
or regulate their own performance.
Cultural factors
Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on the
cognitive development of children. Piaget believe that as the child develops
and matures, he goes through universal stages of cognitive development that
allows him to move from simple explorations with senses and muscles to
complex reasoning. Vygotsky, on the other hand, look into the wide range of
experiences that a culture would give to a child. For instance, one’s culture
view education, how children are trained early in life all can contribute the
cognitive development of the child.

83
Language
Language opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others
already have. Learners can use language to know and understand the world
and solve problems. Language serve a social function but it also has an
important individual function. It helps the learner regulate and reflect on his
own thinking. Children talk to themselves. Observe preschoolers play and you
may hear, Gagawin koi tong airplane (holding a rectangular block), tapos ito
ang airport (holding two long blocks).” For Vygotsky, this “talking-to-oneself” is
an indication of the thinking that goes on in the mind of the child. This will
eventually lead to private speech. Private speech is a form of self-talk that
guides the child’s thinking and action.
An exercise in scaffolding:
1. Choose a skill you are good in.
2. Identify an individual to whom you can teach this skill. Somebody who
will benefit from scaffolding.
3. Break down the steps you will take in teaching the skill.
4. Determine how you will use scaffolding. Describe the specific actions
you will do to scaffold.
5. Teach the skill to the individual.
6. Describe how the learning activity went.
Vygotsky always emphasize the role of cultural factors in cognitive

development. He also identified intellectual tools of adaption which enable
individuals to acquire cognitive skills depending on what tools their culture has
made available for them. Read more about this and write a reaction paper.
RESEARCH CONNECTION
Read and research that is related to Vygotsky’s Theory. Fill out the
matrix below.

84
Problem Research Methodology
Source: (bibliography entry

format)
Findings Conclusions
How are the findings of the research useful to teacher?
REFERENCES:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-
lifespandevelopment/chapter/vygotskys-sociocultural-theory-of-cognitive-
development/
https://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html

85
Module X
BRONFENBRENNER’S
ECOLOGICAL THEORY
86
Module X
BRONFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL
THEORY
“Every child needs at least one adult who is irrationally crazy about him or her”.
-Urie Bronfrenbrenner

1. Described each of the layers of Bronfrenbrenner’s Biological Model.
2. Identified factors in one’s own life that exerted influence on
one’s development.
3. Used the biological theory as a framework to describe the factors
that affect a child and adolescent development.
INTRODUCTION:
American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological
Systems Theory to explain how the inherent qualities of children and their
environments interact to influence how they grow and develop. The
Bronfenbrenner theory emphasizes the importance of studying children in
multiple environments, also known as ecological systems, in the attempt to
understand their development.
According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory, children typically
find themselves enmeshed in various ecosystems, from the most intimate
home ecological system to the larger school system, and then to the most
expansive system which includes society and culture. Each of these
ecological systems inevitably interact with and influence each other in all
aspects of the children’s lives.
ACTIVITY:
“Looking Back”
Read the following questions. Recall your childhood experiences. You
may also ask your parents for some information. Write your answers on the
graphic organizer below.
Answer the following sentence completion items.
1. When I was 5 years old, my parents
2. As a child, my unforgettable playmates were
3. when I was in elementary, I regularly watched the television show
4. When I was growing up, we went to church in

87
5. I cannot forget my teacher who
6. When I was growing up, I was away from
7. When I was in High School, I was close to
8. As a child, I can recall this big news about
9. The most serious challenge our family experienced was
10. The most important thing that I learned from my elementary school
was
ANALYSIS:
Write each answer you gave in the Activity on the circle where it
belongs.
culture sub
culture social class
extended family
family, church,
school
Me!

88
ABSTRACTION:
Bronfenbrenner’s model also known as the Bioecological Systems
theory presents child development within the context of relationship systems
that comprise the child’s environment. It describes multipart layers of
environment that has an effect on the development of the child. Each layer is
further made up of different structures. The term “bioecological” points out
that the child’s own biological make-up impacts as a key factor in one’s
development.
Through the child’s growing and developing body and the interplay
between his immediate family/community environment, and the societal
landscape fuels and steers his development. Changes or conflict in any one
layer will ripple throughout other layers. To study a child’s development then,
we must look not only at the child and her immediate environment, but also at
the interaction of the larger environment as well.
Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Model: Structure of
Environment The Microsystem

We will begin with the first level of Bronfenbrenner's theory:
the microsystem. The microsystem is the system closest to the person and
the one in which they have direct contact. Some examples would be home,
school, daycare, or work. A microsystem typically includes family, peers, or
caregivers. Relationships in a microsystem are bi-directional. In other words,
your reactions to the people in your microsystem will affect how they treat you
in return. This is the most influential level of the ecological systems theory.
Let's look at the microsystem Alex lives in. The first part of his
microsystem is his home environment. This includes his interactions with his
parents and little sister. Alex's school is also part of his microsystem. His
regular school interactions are with his kindergarten teacher and the other
children in his class.
The Mesosystem
The next level of ecological systems theory is the mesosystem. The
mesosystem consists of the interactions between the different parts of a
person's microsystem. The mesosystem is where a person's individual
microsystems do not function independently, but are interconnected and
assert influence upon one another. These interactions have an indirect impact
on the individual.
One aspect of Alex's mesosystem would be the relationship between
his parents and his teacher. His parents take an active role in his school, such
as attending parent/teacher conferences and volunteering in his classroom.
This has a positive impact on his development because the different elements
of his microsystem are working together. Alex's development could be
affected in a negative way if the different elements of his microsystem were
working against one another.

89
The Exosystem
The exosystem is the next level we will examine. The exosystem refers
to a setting that does not involve the person as an active participant, but still
affects them. This includes decisions that have bearing on the person, but in
which they have no participation in the decision-making process. An example
would be a child being affected by a parent receiving a promotion at work or
losing their job.
One part of Alex's exosystem would be his father's workplace. Alex's
father is in the Navy. This often takes him away from the family, and Alex
sometimes does not see his father for months at a time. This situation impacts
Alex, and he becomes anxious when his father leaves. Alex's anxiety has an
effect on his development in other areas, even though he has no interaction
with his father's work or say in the decision-making process.
The Macrosystem
The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people
and places to the children that still have significant influences on them.
This ecological system is composed of the children's cultural patterns and
values, specifically their dominant beliefs and ideas, as well as political and
economic systems.
The Chronosystem
The overarching chronosystem represents the temporal changes of
a child, his or her experiences, and his or her environments.
The chronosystem, representing dynamic environmental transitions such as
milestones and turning points, produces new conditions
that affect the development of the child.
The Role of Schools and Teachers

Bronfenbrenner co-founded Head start, the publicity-funded early
childhood program in the US. He concluded that “the instability and
unpredictability of family life is the most destructive force to a child’s
development.” Researches tell us that absence or lack of children’s constant
mutual interaction with important adults has negative effects on their
development. According to the biological theory, “if the relationships in the
immediate microsystem break down, the child will not have the tools to
explore other parts of his environment. Children looking for the affirmations
that should be present in the child/parent (or child/other important adult)
relationship look for attention in inappropriate places. These deficiencies
show themselves especially in adolescence as anti-social behavior, lack of
self- discipline, and inability to provide self-direction.
Bronfenbrenner’s theory reminds the school and the teachers of their
very important role. If there is a lack of support, care and affection from the
home, if there is a serious breakdown of the basic relationship in a child’s life,
what can the school, teachers in particular do? This theory helps teacher look
into every child’s environmental systems in order to understand more about
the characteristics and needs of each child, each learner. The schools and
the teachers can contribute stability and long-term relationships, but only to
support and not replace the relationships in the home Bronfenbrenner
believes that, “the primary relationship needs to be with someone who can

90
provide a sense of caring that is meant to last a lifetime. This relationship
must be fostered by a person or people within the immediate sphere of the
child’s influence.
Schools and teacher’s crucial role is not to replace the lack in the
home if such exists, but to work so that the school becomes an environment
that welcomes and nurtures families. Bronfenbrenner also stressed that
society should value work done on behalf of children at all levels, and
consequently value parents, teachers, extended family, mentors, work
supervisors, legislators.
APPLICATION:
Looking at your answers in the activity phase of this Module,
describe how these people or circumstances have influenced your attitudes,
behavior and habits.
From the graphic organizer that you filled out it is clear that there were
people, situations and circumstances that shape who you are now. Even the
things happening in the government or even in America like the 9-11 terrorist
attack could have influenced your own circumstances and therefore your
own development as a unique person. As a future teacher we can see our
students from this perspective in mind. Every child had different people,
different situations and circumstances that influenced his/her growth and
development.

91
UNIT III ASSESSMENT
CHECK-UP TIME:
Name: Year /Section: Score:
TEST 1: MODIFIED TRUE or FALSE. Write TRUE if the statement is True

and False if the statement is False then change the underlined word to make
the statement True.
1. During the latency stage the sexual urges are repressed.

2. For every developmental stage, there is an expected developmental task.
3. Traditional approach to development believes that even in
adulthood developmental change takes place as it does during
childhood.
4. The id operates on the pleasure principle which focus on the
immediate gratification/ satisfaction of needs.
5. A research design which is an in- depth look at an individual is
a correlational study.
6. The ability to represent objects and events is referred to as symbolic
function.
7. Generativity is an extension of love into the future.
8. The exosystem is the layer that serves a connection between the
structures of the child’s microsystem.
9. The schools and teachers can contribute stability and long-term
relationships by replacing the relationships in the home according
to Brofenbrenner.
10. Public speech is the term Vygotsky used as an indication of the
thinking that goes in the mind of the child.
11. Longitudinal research design studies and follows through a single
group over a period of time.
12. Development takes place overnight.
13. Human development (Santrock, 2002) is the pattern of movement
or change that begins at conception and continues through the life
span.
14. The ability of the child to know that an object still exists even when out
of sight is egocentrism.
15. Piaget used the term Piagetian tasks to refer to the cognitive structures
by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their environment.
16. The feeling of fear of punishment by the father that boys experience
or castration anxiety is what Freud call the Electra Complex.
92
TEST II. IDENTIFICATION: Identify the concept, principle, theory or person
referred to in the following from the list provided below:
seriation reality assimilation

Urie Brofenbrenner Animism Ego identity
conventional centration Zone of actual
development
Preconscious Initiative Scaffolding
mutuality Lev Vygotsky
17. Is the temporary support that parents or teachers give a child to do a task.
18. The process of fitting a new experience into an existing or
previously created cognitive structure.
19. The tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or
event and exclude other aspects.
20. Refers to the ability to order or arrange things in series based on
one dimension such as weight, volume or size.
21. Moral reasoning is based on the conventions or norms of society.
22. His theory became known as the Socio –Cultural Theory of development.
23. “Children need people in order to become human.”
24. It is located between conscious and unconscious. Information can
be recalled easily.
25. A child may perform at a certain level of competency alone.
26. Knowing who you are and how you fit in to the rest of
society. 27 The principle that operates in the ego.
28. A sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents allow a
child to explore.
29. This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits
or characteristics to inanimate objects.
30. Reflects the effect of generations on each other especially among
families and particularly between parents and children and grandchildren.
TEST III: List what is being asked for in the following:
31-33 Three components of the personality structure described by Freud.

34-36 Basic Cognitive Concepts in the theory of Piaget
37-44 Psychosocial Stages of Development of Erikson
45-49 Structure of the environment in Brofenbrenner’s bio-ecological model
50-53 Stages of Cognitive development of Piaget
54- 59 Stages of Moral Development of Kohlberg
60 Theory of Vygotsky

93
REFERENCES:
https://study.com/academy/lesson/bronfenbrenners-ecological-systems-
theory-of-development-definition- examples.html#:~:text=Bronfenbrenner
%20believed%20that%20a%20person' s,the%20macrosystem%2C%20and
%20the%20chronosystem

94

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INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN EDUC.

To become a premier academic institution in Southeast Asia

To upgrade quality education, generate jobs, and alleviate poverty

Fortitude, Integrity, Scholarship, Humanity, Excellence, Service

a. Produce quality graduates who will contribute to the advancement

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN EDUC. I

The Iloilo State College of Fisheries, School of Education

II. Program Objectives:

III. Program Outcomes of Bachelor of

Based on CHED Memorandum No. 30,s. 2004 on revised policies

a. Have the basic and higher level literacy, communication,

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN EDUC. I

This is to certify that the module on

This is to certify further that this module is approved for reproduction

Signed this day of , .

Evaluation Committee Member Evaluation Committee Member

Evaluation Committee Chairperson

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN EDUC. I

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN EDUC. I

Unit 1 – Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development

Unit II – Development Theories and other Relevant Theories

Module 11 – Pre-natal Development

Unit 2 – Infancy and Toddlerhood

Module 12 – Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers

Unit 3 – Early Childhood (The Preschooler)

Unit 4 – Middle Childhood (The Primary Schooler)

Unit 5 – Late Childhood (The Intermediate Schooler)

Final Grade = Midterm grade + Tentative Final Grade

 Further Instructions will be given online.

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN EDUC. I

Unit I – Basic Concepts and Issues on Human Development ………

Module 1 – Human Development: Meaning, Concepts and Approaches … 11

Unit 2 – Development Theories and other Relevant Theories ………………

Module 5 – Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory........................................................48

Unit 1 – Pre-natal Period ………………………………………………

Module 11 – Pre-natal Development …………………………………………

Module 12 – Physical Development of Infants and Toddlers ………………

Unit 3 – Early Childhood (The Preschooler) …………………………………

Module 15 – Preschoolers’ Physical Development ………………………

Unit 4 – Middle Childhood (The Primary Schooler) ………………………

Module 18 – Physical Development of Primary Schoolers …………………

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN EDUC. I

Unit 6 – Adolescence (The High School Learner) …………………………

Part III – Revisiting the 14-Learner-Centered Psychological Principles in

Unit 1 – Pre-natal Period, Infancy and Toddlerhood …………………

Module 27 – Synthesis of the Physical, Cognitive and Socio-emotional

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN EDUC. I

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN EDUC. I

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: MEANING, CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES

“All Human Development, as an approach, is concerned with what I take to be the

OBJECTIVES: At the end of this module you must have:

ACTIVITY: Observe the Child

If you have a younger sister or brother, niece or nephew at home,

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS IN EDUC. I

2. Will there be anything common in the pattern of development

3. Will there be differences in his/her development, e.g. pace or rate

Domains in Human development

Types of Change in Development