Fish is one of the most consumed seafood and it is a highly perishable food product.

Fish and
fish products are widely consumed as it is a good nutrition source due to their high protein
content, unsaturated fatty acids, especially omega-3 fatty acids. The biological and chemical
nature of fish leads to its deterioration after it is caught. The spoilage process (Rigor mortis)
will start within 12 h. The deterioration occurs very quickly due to the metabolic activity of
microorganisms, endogenous enzymatic activity (autolysis), and the chemical oxidation of
lipids. Fish It contains water (75–85%) and has a high water activity (0.98–0.99) which
makes it prone to microbial growth.

According to Gram and Dalgaard (2002), there are three modes of fish spoilage: Oxidation,
Enzymatic and Microbial spoilage. This essay is aimed at giving an account toward the
qualitative and quantitative microbial contamination of fish, describing the mechanism of fish
and shellfish spoilage and to further comprehend fish and shellfish diseases mostly in
Eswatini.

Microbial contamination of fish

Fish flesh is composed of protein, fats, carbohydrates, water, and amino acid compounds
such as trimethylamine oxide, urea, taurine, creatine, free amino acids, and trace glucose. The
internal tissue of fish is generally considered sterile. Bacteria are present on the slime layer of
the skin, gill surfaces, and the intestine. The microbial growth and metabolism in fish is the
main cause of fish spoilage and produces amines, biogenic amines, organic acids, alcohols,
aldehydes, and ketones with unpleasant and off-flavours (Dalgaard et al., 2006; Emborg et
al., 2005; Gram & Dalgaard, 2002). The high water activity, low acidity (pH > 6) of fish
result in the fast growth of microorganisms that leads to undesirable changes in appearance,
texture, flavour, and odour, reducing its quality. Composition of the micro flora on newly
caught fish depends on the microbial contents of the water in which the fish live.

Freshly caught fish will be almost free from bacteria but the surface slime, gills and intestine
may contain considerable load of bacteria. When the fish is dead, these bacteria start
attacking the flesh causing spoilage and produce undesirable compounds. The nature and type
of bacteria present in a fish depends upon the water from where it is caught and methods used
for handling of the fish after its catch. The important changes brought out by the action of the
bacteria in fish are as follows.
 Reduction of trimethylamineoxida (TMAO) to trimethylamine (TMA)

Marine fish contains a small percentage of odourless TMAO which is reduced to an offensive
smelling TMA by the action of bacteria.

 Breakdown of Amino Acids and formation of Primary Amines

The bacterial action of amino acids present in the fish muscle leads to formation of primary
amines. Examples are formation of histamine from histidine, arginine from glutamic acid etc.
This bacterial action may cause food poisoning in extreme cases.

 Breakdown in Urea

The high concentration of urea in the flesh of some fishes is degraded to ammonia by the
microorganisms. The formation of ammonia is accompanied by an offensive odour.

In a study carried by Dalgaard (1995), whereby the importance of the different groups of
microorganisms were evaluated by comparison of microbial spoilage activity determined in
model substrates and in product experiments. The yield factor for production of
trimethylamine (YTMA/CFU) and the cell concentration determined at the time of off-odour
detection were used as quantitative measurements of microbial spoilage activity. On average
cells of P. phosphoreum produced 30 times more TMA than cells of S. putrefaciens,
YTMA/CFU of the two organisms were 10(-8.0) mg-N TMA/cfu and 10(-9.5) mg-N
TMA/cfu, respectively. With these yield factors the level of TMA found in spoiled packed
cod (30 mg-N TMA/100g) corresponds to about 10(7) cfu/g of P. phosphoreum and to 10(8)-
10(9) cfu/g of S. putrefaciens. 10(7) cfu/g of P. phosphoreum were actually found in spoiled
packed cod suggesting this organism could be responsible for spoilage. High cell
concentrations of more than 10(8) cfu/g of S. putrefaciens were required for production of
detectable off-odours and is was concluded that this organism is without importance for
spoilage of packed cod.

Gram and Huss (1996), stated that, Shewanella putrefaciens and Pseudomonas spp. are the
specific spoilage bacteria of iced fresh fish regardless of the origin of the fish. Modified
atmosphere stored marine fish from temperate waters are spoiled by the CO2 resistant
Photobacterium phosphoreum whereas Gram-positive bacteria are likely spoilers of CO2
packed fish from fresh or tropical waters. Fish products with high salt contents may spoil due
to growth of halophilic bacteria (salted fish) or growth of anaerobic bacteria and yeasts
(barrel salted fish). Whilst the spoilage of fresh and highly salted fish is well understood,
much less is known about spoilage of lightly preserved fish products. It is concluded that the
spoilage is probably caused by lactic acid bacteria, certain psychotrophic Enterobacteriaceae
and Photobacterium phosphoreum.

However Gram and Dalgaard (2002), also stated that the other modes of Fish and shellfish
spoilage also includes; Oxidative and Enzymatic spoilages.
Oxidative spoilage
Lipid oxidation is a major cause of deterioration and spoilage of fish that contain high oil/fat
content stored fat in their flesh. Oxidation typically involves the reaction of oxygen with the
double bonds of fatty acids. In fish, lipid oxidation can occur enzymatically or non-
enzymatically. Lipid oxidation promotes protein denaturation, modification of the protein,
electrophoretic profiles, nutritional losses, and endogenous antioxidant systems losses. Lipid
hydrolysis and oxidation cause “belly burst” in fish in which the enzymes and
microorganisms of the digestive tract cause massive gas development.
Enzymatic spoilage
After capture, biological and chemical changes take place in dead fish due to the action of
various enzymes found in fish. The digestive enzymes cause extensive autolysis which results
in fish muscle softening, rupture of the belly wall, and drain out of the blood. Several
proteolytic enzymes are found in fish that contribute to degradation in fish muscle and fish
products during storage and processing. Proteolysis is responsible for the degradation of
proteins which leads to fish spoilage by microbial growth.

At room temperature, Bacillus, Clostridium, Escherichia, Micrococcus, Proteus,

Sarcina, and Serratia may predominate (Gram & Huss, 2000). For unpreserved fish, spoilage
is caused by Gram-negative, fermentative bacteria (such as Vibrionaceae), whereas
psychrotolerant Gram-negative bacteria (such as Pseudomonas spp. and Shewanella spp.)
tend to spoil chilled fish. The fish spoilage is also caused by psychrotrophic, aerobic, or
facultative anaerobic Gram-negative bacteria such as Pseudomonas,
Moraxella, Acinetobacter, Shewanella putrifaciens, Vibrio, Flavobacterium, Photobacterium,
and Aeromonas. Gram-positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus spp., Micrococcus, Bacillus,
Clostridium, Corynebacterium, Brochothric thermosphacta, and Streptococcus are found in
fish. (Gram and Huss, 2000). It is, therefore, important to distinguish non spoilage microflora
from spoilage bacteria as many of the bacteria present do not actually contribute to spoilage
(Huss, 1995).
Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) can predominate in fish storage under vacuum or carbon
dioxide storage. Some parasites can also be transmitted by fish, including tapeworm
(Diphyllobothrium latum), nematodes (Anisakis simplex and Capillaria philippinensis), and
trematodes (Opisthorchis and Paragonimus). Spoilage compounds are produced by
microorganisms during the storage of fresh fish. Liston (1980) stated that proteins are
degraded by the proteases into peptides and amino acids, whereas lipids are degraded by
lipases into fatty acids, glycerol and other compounds.

According to Novotny, Dvorska, Lorencova, Beren and Pavlik (2004), Shellfish have been
identified as reservoirs for; Viral Diseases, Helminthic Diseases, Bacterial Diseases, Parasitic
Diseases, Fungal Diseases.

Viral Diseases

Of the known reported virus infections of oysters, "Ovacystis" infection is the most common,
but it is probably of little economic importance. It can be detected histologically as
hypertrophy of the ovarian follicles. The effect of this virus upon reproductive. Performance
has not been evaluated. . A herpes virus infection has been described by Austin Farley (1972)
in oysters. Apparently, expression of the disease was temperature dependent and was found
in oysters’ cultivated in the heated effluent of a power plant. When pathogen that produces
serious economic losses in adult shellfish in warm climates. Sirolpidium sp. is a common
infection of hatchery-reared larval shellfish.

Helminthic Diseases

Among the helminth parasites of shellfish, trematode, cestode, and nematode parasites may
be found. Larval forms of trematodes (especially Bucephalus sp.) and cestodes (especially
Tylocephalum sp.) are of economic importance as shellfish pathogens that often produce
sterility in affected shellfish. Most of the larval forms mature in fish which serve as definitive
hosts. Some are of public health significance

Bacterial Diseases

The outbreak of cholera have been related to the consumption of shellfish in Africa.

Parasitic Diseases

Protozoans Shellfish protozoan infections are very common. This is especially true of the
ciliates that are common inhabitants of shellfish tissues. They become especially active when
other pathogens such as bacterial agents are present. Hexamita sp. and the amoeboid protozoa
are pathogenic. When shellfish are maintained under adverse conditions, such as extreme
temperatures, protozoa may actively invade shellfish tissues and produce deterioration or
spoilage.

Fungal Diseases

Dermocystidium (Labyrinthomyxa) marinum is a very important shellfishn pathogen that

produces serious economic losses in adult shellfish in warm climates. Sirolpidium sp. is a
common infection of hatchery-reared larval shellfish.
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