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Load Flow Studies 131

28. What is slack bus?

Ans: A slack bus or swing bus or reference bus is one at which the magnitude and phase angle of voltages
are specified.
29. What is the need of slack bus?
Ans: In a load flow solution active and reactive powers can not be fixed apriori at all the buses as the net
complex power flow into the network is not known in advance, the system power loss being unknown
till the load flow solution is completed. It is therefore necessary to have one bus i.e., slack bus at
which complex power is unspecified so that it supplies the difference in the total system load plus
losses and the sum of the complex powers specified at the remaining buses.
30. What are the operating constraints imposed in the load flow solution?
Ans: The operating constraints imposed on the load flow solution are load node voltage and reactive power
generation of the generators.
31. What is meant by a flat voltage profile?
Ans: In iterative methods of load flow solution, the initial voltages of all buses except slack bus are 1 + j0
per unit. This is referred as flat voltage profile.
32. What are the advantages of Gauss-Seidel method?
Ans: The advantages are:
™ It requires the fewest number of arithmetic operations to complete iteration and requires less time
per iteration.
™ It requires less memory space.
33. What are the disadvantages of Gauss-Seidel method?
Ans: The disadvantages are:
™ It requires more number of iterations to obtain the solution.
™ The convergence is affected for the selection of slack bus.
™ The rate of convergence is slow.
™ It is not suitable for large system.
34. What is Jacobean matrix? How the elements of Jacobean matrix are determined?
Ans: The matrix formed from the first order derivatives of load flow equations is called Jacobean matrix [J].
The elements of Jacobean matrix will change in every iteration. In each iteration the elements of this
matrix are obtained by partial differentiating the load flow equations with respect to an unknown
variable and then calculating the first derivatives using the solution of precious iteration.
35. What are the disadvantages of N-R method?
Ans: The disadvantages are:
™ It requires time per iteration is more.
™ It requires more memory space.
™ It requires more number of calculations, so programming is complex.
36. Why of Ybus used in load flow solution instead of Z bus?
Ans: Ybus is sparsity matrix i.e., number of non-zero elements are less compared zero elements. Hence, for
formation of Ybus, it needs less memory.
37. When Ybus used in load solution, how many termed to be stored for an ‘n’ bus system?
applicable copyright law.

Ans: The total number of terms to be stored is =

b
n n 1 g
.
2

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132 Electrical Power System Analysis

38. How the convergence of N-R method is speeded up?

Ans: The convergence of N-R method is speeded up using fast decoupled load flow (FDLF) method. In
FDLF, the weak coupling between P-V and Q-G are decoupled and the equations are further simplified
using the practical operating conditions of the power system.
39. What are the main steps required for the load flow solutions of power system?
Ans: The main steps are:
1. Formation of the network equations.
2. Suitable mathematical techniques for the solution of the equations.
40. What are the advantages decoupled method over N-R method?
Ans: The advantages of decoupled method are:
1. This method is simple and computationally efficient than the N-R method.
2. It requires less memory compared to N-R method.
41. What is the disadvantage of decoupled load flow method?
Ans: The main disadvantage of decoupled load flow method is that it requires more number of iterations for
accurate solution because of the approximations.
42. Why Bbus matrix used in Decoupled load flow solution instead of Ybus matrix?
Ans: The Bbus matrix is used in DLFS instead of Ybus matrix, because the susceptance of the transmission
lines is very much greater than the conductance.
43. What are the advantages of DLFS over N-R method?
Ans: ™ The DLFS is superior than N-R method from the point of view of speed and storage.
™ The convergence of this method is Geometric.
™ Storage required around 60% of the formal N-R method.
44. What is bus admittance matrix?
Ans: The bus admittance matrix consists of the self and mutual admittances of the power system network.
This matrix is symmetrical.
45. What are the assumptions made for FDLF?
Ans: The following assumptions made for FDLF
cos Gpq = 1, Gpq sin Gpq … Bpq
and Qp … Bpp V2p

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Tapping of a transformer is provided
(a) At the phase end of the LV side (b) At the phase end of the HV side
(c) At the neutral end of the HV side d At the middle of the HV side
(d)
2. A tap changer is used on a transformer for adjusting the _____ voltage
(a) primary b secondary
(b) (c) both (a) and (b) d none
(d)
3. Tapping are usually provided on the HV winding of a transformer because it
(a) is easily accessible physically
(b) has to handle low currents
applicable copyright law.

(c) has large number of turns which allows smoother variation of voltage
(d) all the above

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Load Flow Studies 133

4. For off load tap changing the best method is to use tap changers
(a) outside the tank with no selector switches.
(b) outside the tank operated by selector switches.
(c) inside the tank operated by external selector switches.
(d) inside the tank with no selector switches.
5. For on load tap changing the best method is to use tap changers
(a) outside the tank with no selector switches.
(b) outside the tank operated by selector switches.
(c) inside the tank operated by external selector switches.
(d) inside the tank with no selector switches.
6. Booster transformer secondary should never be
(a) opened (b) closed (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None
7. Tapping is provided on transformer for varying the ____ voltage.
(a) input (b) output (c) Both (d) None
8. In N-R method, the non-linear equations are approximated using
(a) Taylor’s Series expansion (b) Baylor’s Series expansion
(c) Jailor’s Series expansion (d) None
9. In_______ method the convergence is not affected by choice of slack bus.
(a) N-R b G-S
(b) (c) Both (d) None
10. The N-R method has _______ convergence characteristics.
(a) Quadratic (b) Linear (c) Non-linear (d) None
11. The elements of ______ are first derivative of load flow equations.
(a) Jacobean matrix (b) Square matrix (c) Both (d) None
12. The voltage variation in a bus is directly related to _________ power.
(a) active (b) apparent (c) reactive (d) real
13. A bus is called ______ if its voltage remains constant at any situation.
(a) finite bus (b) swing bus (c) infinite bus d load bus
(d)
14. In N-R method calculation is
(a) simple (b) difficult (c) more accurate (d) none
15. In N-R method memory requirement is
(a) more (b) less
(c) cannot be determined (d) None
16. N-R requires _____ number of iterations.
(a) 3 to 5 (b) 5 to 7 (c) indefinable (d) None
17. Which one of the following is the fastest method ?
(a) N-R (b) G-S
(c) decoupled load flow (d) None
18. The flat voltage profile is
(a) 1+j0 (b) – 1 – j0 (c) 1 – j0 (d) –1 + j0
applicable copyright law.

19. The acceleration factor does not reduce the number of iterations.
(a) True (b) False

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134 Electrical Power System Analysis

20. The elements in Jacobean matrix will change in every iteration.

(a) True (b) False
21. In N-R method the convergence is not effected by the choice of
(a) Load bus (b) Generator bus (c) Slack bus (d) None
22. The equation for real and reactive power injected to the bus is used in
(a) Load flow studies (b) Fault calculation (c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None
23. The convergence can be speeded up in N-R method to get exact solution
(a) Result of first iteration of G-S (b) Relaxation method
(c) Fast decoupled (d) None
24. The disadvantage of large memory requirement can be overcome by decoupling the weak coupling
between
(a) P-G and Q-V (b) P-G or Q-V (c) P-V and Q-G (d) None

ANSWERS
1. d
(d) 2. (b) 3. d
(d) 4. (c) 5. (b) 6. (a)
7. b
(b) 8. (a) 9. (a) 10. (a) 11. (a) 12. (c)
13. b
(b) 14. (c) 15. (a) 16. (a) 17. (c) 18. (a)
19. b
(b) 20. (a) 21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (a) 24. (c)

EXERCISE
1. Derive the power balance equation in a power system and explain the N-R method of load flow
analysis.
2. Draw the flow chart for the following methods:
(a) N-R method in rectangular form
b
(b) N-R method in polar form
(c) Decoupled method
d
(d) Fast decoupled method
3. Write the algorithm and draw the flow chart for G-S method.
4. What are the advantages of acceleration factor ?
5. Write comparisons and differences between G-S and N-R method.
6. Derive formula for power flow in power system network.
7. How can you calculate the line losses in power system ?
8. What are the assumptions taking in decoupled form of N-R method?
9. Write down the comparison of decoupled and fast decoupled form of N-R methods.
10. The power system network shown in Fig. 2.21. Bus 1 is considered as a slack bus of voltage is
1.0 ²0° p.u. The line impedance are indicated in the same figure on 100 MVA base value and
neglecting the line shunt charging admittance. Determine (a) voltage and phase angle at bus 2 and 3
using G-S method after first iteration.
applicable copyright law.

(b) Slack bus power

(c) Directions of line flows and
d Line losses
(d)

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Load Flow Studies 135

Slack bus (100 + j50) MVA

(120 + j30) MVA
1 2
0.02 + j0.04

0.02 + j0.04 0.02 + j0.04

3
(130 + j50) MVA

Fig. 2.21

11. The power system network shown in Fig. 2.21. Bus 1 is a slack with V1 = 1.04 ²0° p.u. The line
series impedance is 0.1 + j0.15 p.u. and line shunt charging admittance is j0.05 p.u. on the base of
100 MVA. Calculate the bus voltage magnitude and phase angle of bus 2, using Gauss-Seidel method
without and with acceleration factor of 1.6.
1 2

0.1 + j0.15

1.04Ð0°
Slack bus

(120 + j60) MVA

Fig. 2.22
12. The power system network shown in Fig. 2.23 with bus 1 is a slack bus. Obtain the load flows by using
following methods. The line data is also shown in figure :
(a) N-R method using polar coordinates
(b) Decoupled
(c) Fast decoupled
1 2
j0.15

j0.3 j0.25

Fig. 2.23
applicable copyright law.

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136 Electrical Power System Analysis

Table 2.6 Bus data

Bus No. Type Generation Load Voltage Reactive power

|V|

P Q P Q Qmin Qmax
1 Slack — — — — 1.0 — —
2 P—V 1.0 — 0.5 — 1.04 0.1 2
3 P—Q — — 2.0 0.6 — — —

13. Determine the complex bus bar voltage at bus 2 at the end of first iteration by using decouple method
for the power system shown in Fig. 2.24.

Fig. 2.24
V1 = 1.0 ²0° p.u.
P2 + jQ2 = (– 5.75 + j1.5) p.u.
V3 = 1.02 p.u, P3 = 2.0 p.u.
14. For the network shown in Fig. 2.25. Determine the load flows after first iteration by using fast
decoupled method. The limits of generator 2 are Q minn = 0, Qmax = 5.0. p.u.

Fig. 2.25

Bus 1 : Slack bus, Vspec = 1.05 ²0° p.u.

Bus 2 : PV bus, Vspec = 1.0 p.u., PG 2 = 3 p.u.
Bus 3 : PQ bus, PD3 = 4.0 p.u., Q D3 = 2.0 p.u.
15. For the network shown in Fig. 2.26. Take bus 1 as slack bus, obtain the bus voltages at the end of first
iteration by using N-R method.
Ë   j    j     j  Û
Ì Ü
applicable copyright law.

YBus = Ì    j    j    j Ü

ÌÍ    j     j   j  ÜÝ

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Load Flow Studies 137

Bus Number Generation Load Bus voltages

P(MW) Q(MVAR) P(MW) Q(MVAR) p.u.
1 0 0 0 0 1.04 + j0.0
2 0 0 250 150 1.0 + j0.0
3 100 70 50 20 1.0 + j0.0

2 3
LOAD GENERATION

Fig. 2.26
applicable copyright law.

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