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2004 Ancient Textiles of the Indus Valley Region, in Tana Bana: The woven soul of
Pakistan, edited by Noorjehan Bilgrami, pp. 18-31. Koel Publications, Karachi.

Ancient Textiles of the Indus Valley Region

By Jonathan Mark Kenoyer
University of Wisconsin, Madison

Introduction
The vast geographical region encompassed by the Indus river and its tributaries has been
the setting for the emergence of many diverse cultural traditions, beginning in the early
Stone Age over 2 million years ago and continuing up to the present. The heart of the
Indus valley is located in the modern country of Pakistan, but its tributaries and adjacent
lands extend to the west and north into Afghanistan and east into peninsular India. The
textile traditions of the Indus Valley region have their roots in the prehistoric
communities of Neolithic farmers and herders who lived and traded along the Indus River
and its tributaries more than 9000 years ago (Figure 1). Over the next several thousand
years, small villages and eventually towns became established in the rich alluvial plains
of the Indus and by 2800 BC, during the Kot Diji Period we see the earliest large towns
with evidence for well a developed textile tradition. From around 2600- to 1900 BC,
during the Harappan Period of the Indus Civilization textiles appear to have become quite
elaborate with many different styles of clothing and also several different types of fibers
being used.
Due to the nature of the archaeological deposits in the Indus region, it is difficult
to recover anything more than fragmentary and often indirect evidence for early textile
production. In fact, most of our evidence for the use of textiles comes from terracotta
figurines or inscribed seals depicting various types of clothing such as skirts, shawls or
turbans. Another category of indirect evidence is seen in the polychrome and bichrome
designs on painted pottery, which provide some insights into the variety of fabric designs.
Fabric impressions on pottery of faience vessels are another form of evidence for the
different types of weaving and spinning. In terms of actual textiles, the most commonly
preserved fragments are those that have been saved from disintegration through contact
with corroding metals such as copper or silver. Occasionally some charred fibres have
been found adhering to pottery and in very rare instances, actual textiles are preserved
under low-fired clay slips.
The most common fibres used in the Indus Valley appear to have been cotton, but
various types of wool and possibly jute or hemp fibres were also used. Most recently, the
discovery of silk thread inside copper beads from the site of Harappa indicates that wild
silk was also known to the ancient inhabitants of the region, though there is no evidence
to suggest that it was woven into fabric. In the following article a brief overview of the
major cultural traditions of the Indus region will be presented along with a discussion of
the current state of research on the most ancient textiles used by ancient peoples of this
region.

Early Origins
During the Palaeolithic or Stone Age period, which dates from over 2 million
years ago to around 12,000 years ago, communities living in the Indus region were
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mobile hunters and gatherers (Kenoyer 1998). These early communities probably used
animal skins for clothing but would nevertheless have been familiar with different types
of plant fibres made from roots, grasses or the inner bark of trees. Such vegetable fibres,
generally referred to as bast, are used even today in many parts of the subcontinent to
produce rope and nets, as well as to manufacture net bags and finger woven belts. The
early hunter-gatherers also may have used the long hair of wild animals such as wild
sheep and goat, to twist into rope, for braiding and netting. It is not unlikely that some
individuals may have begun experimenting with the weaving of fabrics from plant or
animal fibers, but so far no concrete archaeological evidence has been discovered.
At the end of the Palaeolithic, hunting and gathering communities began to settle
down and we see the emergence of small farming and herding communities during the
Early Food Producing Era or Neolithic period (7000-5500 BC) (Jarrige and Meadow
1980). The site of Mehrgarh in Baluchistan is one of the most important settlements
where excavations have revealed various aspects of early village life in South Asia
(Jarrige, C. et al 1995) (Figure 1). Although we have no direct evidence for the weaving
of fabric during the earliest occupations at Mehrgarh, this may be the result of
preservation factors rather than the actual absence of this important technology.
Mehrgarh is located at the foot of the Bolan Pass that leads from the Kachi Plain at the
edge of the Indus Valley to the highland plateaus of Baluchistan. During the early
Neolithic period the inhabitants practiced farming of wheat and barley, herding of sheep-
goat and cattle, supplemented by hunting, fishing and gathering of wild fruits. Although
they had elaborate ornament styles and finely woven baskets, and lived in mud brick
houses, they did not use pottery or make terracotta figurines, and only one copper bead
has been discovered in one of the burials (Samzun and Sellier 1985). As noted above,
most preserved fibres are found on metal or impressed into terracotta, so the apparent
absence of textile evidence is not conclusive. In fact, there is abundant indirect evidence
for spinning of fine threads for stringing beads and some indication that people knew how
to knit and/or weave. Wild or domestic cotton, fine wool or even wild silk may have
been used to make the necklace strings. Many of the micro-beads have been incorporated
into wide bands (Samzun and Sellier 1985) that may have been made on a simple bead
loom or through more complex techniques of beading and looping. Neolithic Mehrgarh
has abundant evidence for expert basket weavers. Various types of coil baskets and
woven baskets, coated with bitumen to make them watertight are found in Neolithic
burials (Samzun and Sellier 1985). All of this indirect evidence and the fact that woven
bast textiles are found in sites of the Near East during this time period (Barber 1991;
Janaway 1995) suggests that future research may reveal the presence of woven textiles
during the Neolithic of the Indus Valley.

Early Regional Cultures

With the growth of agricultural villages and small towns throughout the Indus valley,
many different craft technologies begin to evolve and regional styles of architecture,
pottery making and ornaments become established. It is not unlikely that textile traditions
also became more elaborate with the emergence of different classes of people and also
distinct regional cultures. During the Regionalization Era, from around 5500 to 2600 BC,
textile production can be identified on the basis of numerous different categories of
evidence.
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At the site of Mehrgarh, actual seeds of the cotton plant (Gossypium sp.) along
with some charred wheat and barley have been recovered from a mud brick building
dating to the sixth millennium BC (Costantini 1984). It is not possible to determine if the
seeds derive from wild or domestic cotton, but we know that both Gossypium arborem
(tree cotton) and G. herbaceum (short staple cotton) were eventually used in the region
and still continue to be cultivated in remote areas of the Indus Valley even today
(Janaway 1995:165). Painted pottery from the Kechi Beg phase at Mehrgarh provides
evidence for the types of elaborate designs that may have been present on woven or
embroidered fabrics (Figure 2). Terracotta figurines from the site of Mehrgarh and the
nearby site of Nausharo include female figurines with elaborate headdresses and male
figurines with pantaloons and turbans (Figure 3) (Jarrige, C. 1997). The black painted
designs on some turbans may indicate black goats wool or deep indigo dye was used to
make decorative woven bands (Figure 4). The wide variety of clothing styles and
headdresses suggest that textiles and personal ornamentation were an important part of
everyday life
During this same time period, terracotta spindle whorls become quite common at
sites throughout the Indus valley, and provide indirect evidence for the spinning of yarn.
At the site of Harappa, during the Ravi period occupation (3300-2800 BC) (Kenoyer and
Meadow 2000), many different sizes of spindle whorls have been found that suggest they
may have been used for producing different qualities of threads (Figure 5). Heavier
spindle whorls would have been needed to produce thick woolen yarn, while light spindle
whorls may have been used for producing fine wool or cotton thread. Highly polished
bone tools made from cattle ribs, may have been used in weaving and a rectangular bone
plaque with perforations could have been used in a form of card weaving for making
belts (Figure 6). The most conclusive evidence for textiles are two small terracotta beads
with fabric impression on both faces (Figure 7). The relatively uniform thread size and
the simple weave indicate a well-established textile tradition with highly skilled
craftspeople. Unfortunately is not possible to determine the type of fibre based on the
terracotta impressions.
During the final phase of the Regionalization Era, from 2800 to 2600 BC, the site
of Harappa grew to become a regional urban center (Kenoyer 2001). The city was
divided into two distinct walled sectors, with evidence for well-planned neighborhoods
with mud brick houses oriented in the cardinal directions and north south oriented streets.
Terracotta figurines of this period show women wearing long skirts with black cross
hatched painted designs (Figure 8). The use of alternating colors in both the warp and the
weft is a common technique found in post regions of the world. At Harappa, the early
weavers may have used indigo dyed blue yard alternating with natural brown cotton or
bleached cotton. Similar patterns are still woven in the head covers or shawls of the
Punjab known as khes.
Another important development during this period is the use of sequins as a form
of decoration (Figure 9). Tiny gold sequins and discs found in the street debris may
indicate that some people living in this part of the ancient town were wealthy enough to
have gold sequins sewn onto their clothing. While walking along the street a few sequins
may have broken off and lost in the dust or mud.
Painted terracotta bull figurines from the Kot Diji Period suggest that a great deal
of attention was being paid to the protection and decoration of animals (Figure 10). Cattle
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are often covered with blankets to protect them from the cold or insects and the painted
designs on some of the terracotta figurines suggests that some of these blankets may have
been woven with patterns or embroidered.
Harappan Period Textiles
With the growth of cities during the Harappan Period (2600-1900 BC), many important
craft traditions become highly specialized. Copper working, pottery making, bead making
and probably textile production would have all been important technologies for the
production of utilitarian and status items to meet the demands of the increasingly diverse
communities of the large urban centers. The wide variety of dress depicted on terracotta
figurines and carved onto seals indicates that clothing was an important part of Harappan
cultural identity.
Many of the female figurines are depicted wearing short skirts that may have been
woven on small back strap looms (Figure 11). Other females and some figures in a
procession on a seal (Figure 12) are depicted with long skirts that reach to the middle of
the calf. Wide pieces of cloth could have been made by sewing together narrow widths of
fabric or perhaps they were produced on a larger upright looms. Many examples of what
may be loom weights have been found in the excavations at both Harappa and Mohenjo-
Daro, so it is not unlikely that many different types of looms were being used. Some of
the male figurines are depicted wearing long skirts while other are wearing only narrow
loincloths. Pointed conical headdresses as well as different sizes of turbans are also
depicted on male figurines (Figure 13).
As was the case during the earlier Kot Diji Period, many animal depictions show
the use of coverings that may have been made from textiles or decorated leather. The
famous unicorn figures carved onto seals are depicted with a covering that hangs over the
front legs or whithers (Figure 14) and some depictions show what appears to be a saddle
blanket.
One of the most important discoveries from recent excavations at Harappa is a
small toy bed, with fabric impression made on the entire upper surface, apparently
indicating the use of bed covers or blankets (Figure 15). The fine twist and compact
weave on this example provides incontrovertible evidence for the high quality of
Harappan textiles. As noted above, it is not possible to determine the type of fibre based
solely on the impression.
Numerous examples of preserved fibres have been recovered from the
excavations at Mohenjo-Daro and more recently from the excavations at Harappa
(Meadow and Kenoyer 2001). One of the most well studied fibre samples from Mohenjo-
Daro was discovered against a corroded silver jar (Marshall 1931, Vol. 1:20, 218-219;
Gulati and Turner, 1928). The analysis of this fabric indicated that it was made of cotton
threads with a warp count of 20 threads per inch and a weft count of 60 threads per inch.
Another fabric sample had a warp and weft count of 44/43 threads per square inch, and
the calculated weight of the fabric was around 4 ounces per square yard (Marshall 1931,
Vol. 2:585-586). This is clear evidence for the production of fine fabrics, presumably
made with cotton.
Vats (1940:466) reports that no remnants of textiles were recovered during the
course of his excavations at Harappa, but he does note that textile impressions have been
found on the interior of faience vessels. This results from the practice of making faience
vessels by building up the shape around a core of sand that was covered with textile.
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After the faience paste had hardened, the sand was removed and the textile burned away
during the firing, leaving a very detailed impression. Numerous impressions from similar
faience bottles have been recovered from recent excavations at Harappa (Figure 16).
Although Vats claims that the textile used for this practice was probably cotton, it is not
possible to determine the identity of the fibre on the basis of the weave alone. The
impressions reveal the use of many different qualities of textile for this process,
suggesting that the faience workers used whatever scarps were available to them. Some
of the fabrics were made with fine threads and tight weave, while others had fine thread
and an open weave like gauze. A few examples show large unevenly spun threads and
irregular weave. While the former textiles could represent fine cotton or even wool, the
latter might represent a form of hemp or jute fabric.
One of the most famous examples of a textile from the site of Mohenjo-Daro is
seen on a small stone sculpture with a cloak thrown over the left shoulder. Often referred
to as the “Priest-King” this sculpture shows the use of circular designs comprised of
circles, double circles and trefoils (Figure 17). When the sculpture was first discovered,
the trefoils and circles were filled with red pigment and the background was filled with a
dark pigment that may have originally been green or blue. The white color of the original
stone would have been visible in the form of the circle, resulting in a striking pattern
made of green or blue with red and white designs. This type of patterning, using indigo,
madder and bleached cotton, is still commonly used in the printing of ajrak block prints
in modern Sindh, Gujarat and Rajasthan. Due to the lack of repetition in the design, the
cloak worn by the “priest-King” probably is not a block printed textile, but may have
been made with large embroidered designs or by tie dying.
While cotton may be the most commonly preserved form of textile in the Indus
cities, there is some new evidence for the use of wool. This is seen in the fabric fragments
preserved on corroded copper artifacts from Harappa. Some of the fibres currently being
studied by the author are extremely fine and look very much like pashmina and shatoosh,
which are the highest quality of wool used in the subcontinent today and come from the
northern region of Jammu and Kashmir. Further studies are necessary to confirm this
identification but the discovery of this type of wool would not be surprising since recent
provenience studies of rocks and minerals such as lead indicate Jammu as a possible
resource area (Randall Law Personal Communication). Another possible indicator for the
use of wool is the distinctive curved razors or knives, with handles often wrapped in
fabric or yarn (Figure 18). Although no prehistoric examples of knotted pile carpets have
been recovered from the Indus region, the shape of the blade is very similar to the curved
blades used in carpet making throughout West Asia and South Asia.
Silk is another important fibre that has been reported from Nevasa in India
(second millennium BC) (Gulati 1961), and now there is clear evidence for the use of silk
thread at the site of Harappa in the Indus valley (Irene Good- personal communication).
Two different examples of silk have been recovered from different parts of the site and
dating to around 2450 BC to 2000 BC. One example is preserved inside of a hollow
copper bangle and this may have been some sort of tassel that was threaded through the
hollow ornament. The other example is a twisted thread preserved inside of a long copper
spiral wire necklace (Figure 19). Studies are underway to analyze the fibres to determine
the species of silk moth that they may derive from, but current evidence suggests that the
fibres belong to the wild silk moth (Antheraea sp). Three different species of silk moth
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are currently utilized in the subcontinent, Maga or Munga (Antheraea assamensis),

Tussah (Antheraea mylitta) and Eri (Samia cynthia) (Janaway 1995:166). In China, wild
silk was used to make threads, but the earliest silk fabrics from Yangshao period
settlements dating to around 3300-2250 BC, appear to have been made from
domesticated Bombyx mori. In contrast with the fine, smooth round fibres produced by
the domesticated Chinese silk worms, Bombyx mori, the silk fibres produced from the
wild silk worms are more irregular (Good 1995). Nevertheless, wild silk can be de-
gummed and spun to produce extremely fine strong threads. While there is no direct
evidence for woven silk in the prehistoric period of South Asia, early Sanskrit texts
reveal that silk technology and production was well established in the subcontinent by
around the late first millennium BC, with purely Sanskrit terms used for silk and silk
working (Balkrishna 1925: 44-45). Given the long history of the use of silk for making
thread and the textual evidence, it is not unlikely that the early South Asian silk industry
evolved independently from the silk traditions of China.

Conclusion
Although the evidence for textiles during the prehistoric period is quite limited, this brief
overview has provided evidence for the prehistoric textile traditions of the Indus valley.
The use of cotton, wool and silk fibres and the development of different styles of clothing
in the earliest urban centers became the foundation of later textile traditions of the Indus
Valley and South Asia in general. At the end of the Harappan period, around 1900-1500
BC, there is evidence for the emergence of new cultures and ideologies associated with
Vedic traditions and the Sanskrit language. Sanskrit texts and later sculptures provide
evidence for the use of many different types of textiles, many of which are still in use
today. Most of the garments were made from unstitched cloth as seen in the Indus
figurines and sculptures. The next major phase of urbanism culminates in the Mauryan
Empire (322 -183 BC) during which long distance trade networks are established with
China, Iran, Egypt and the Mediterranean. From this time onwards, the history of textiles
in South Asia becomes extremely complex due to the cross-fertilization of ideas,
technologies and cultural styles (Figure 20). In order to begin sorting out some of the
important developments during the Early Historic period it will be necessary to undertake
careful archaeological studies in combination with critical analysis of the historical
textual information.

Bibliography
Balkrishna
1925 The beginnings of the silk industry in India. Journal of Indian History April: 42-53.
Barber, E. J. W.
1991 Prehistoric Textiles. Princeton, Princeton University Press.
Costantini, L.
1984 The Beginning of Agriculture in the Kachi Plain: The Evidence of Mehrgarh. In
South Asian Archaeology, 1981, edited by B. Allchin, pp. 29-33. Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press.
Good, I.
1995 On the question of silk in pre-Han Eurasia. Antiquity 69: 959-968.
Gulati, A. N. and A. J. Turner
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1928 A note on the early history of cotton. Bulletin 17, Technological Series 12. Bombay,
Indian Central Cotton Committee.
Gulati, A. N.
1961 A note on the early history of silk in India. In Technical Reports on Archaeolgoical
Remains, edited by J. Clutton-Brock, Vishnumittre and A. N. Gulati, pp. 53-59. Pune,
Deccan College.
Janaway, R. C. and R. A. E. Coningham
1995 A Review of Archaeological Textile Evidence from South Asia. South Asian
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Jarrige, C.
1997 The figurines from Nausharo Period I and Their Further Developments. In South
Asian Archaeology 1995, edited by B. Allchin and R. Allchin, pp. 33-43. New Delhi,
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Jarrige, C., J.-F. Jarrige, R. H. Meadow and G. Quivron, Eds.
1995 Mehrgarh Field Reports 1975 to 1985 - From the Neolithic to the Indus
Civilization. Karachi, Dept. of Culture and Tourism, Govt. of Sindh and the French
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Kenoyer, J. M.
1998 Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Karachi, Oxford University Press.
Kenoyer, J. M.
2001 Early Developments of Art, Symbol and Technology in the Indus Valley Tradition.
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2000 The Ravi Phase: A New Cultural Manifestation at Harappa. In South Asian
Archaeology 1997, edited by M. Taddei and G. De Marco, pp. 55-76. Rome/Naples,
Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente/Istituto Universitario Orientale.
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2001 Recent Discoveries and Highlights from Excavations at Harappa: 1998-2000.
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to Ancient Evidence, MA, New York University.
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1938 Further Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro. Vols. 1, 2. New Delhi, Government of
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Mackay, E. J. H.
1943 Chanhu-Daro Excavations 1935-36. New Haven, CN, American Oriental Society.
Marshall, S. J.
1931 Mohenjo-daro and the Indus Civilization. Vol. 1,2,3. London, A. Probsthain.
Samzun, A. and P. Sellier
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Illustrations
Figure 1. Map of the Indus Valley and important sites mentioned in the text.
Figure 2. Polychome painted jar, Mehrgarh, circa 3300 BC, National Museum Karachi.
Courtesy of the French Archaeological Mission to Pakistan.
Figure 3. Terracotta figurines, Nausharo, 2600-2500 BC, Department of Archaeology,
Karachi. Courtesy of the French Archaeological Mission to Pakistan.
Figure 4. Terracotta male figurines, Mehrgarh, circa 2800 BC, Department of
Archaeology Karachi. Courtesy of the French Archaeological Mission to Pakistan.
Figure 5. Terracotta spindle whorls, Ravi Period, circa 3300-2800 BC. Harappa Museum.
Figure 6. Bone tools, Ravi Period, circa 3300-2800 BC. Harappa Museum.
Figure 7. Terracotta bead with fabric impression, Ravi Period, circa 3300-2800 BC.
Harappa Museum.
Figure 8. Painted terracotta female figurine, Kot Diji Period, circa 2800-2600 BC,
Harappa Museum.
Figure 9. Gold sequin and button, Kot Diji Period, circa 2800-2600 BC, Harappa
Museum.
Figure 10. Painted terracotta bull figurine, Kot Diji Period, circa 2800-2600 BC, Harappa
Museum.
Figure 11. Terracotta female figurines with skirts, Harappan Period , 2600-1900 BC,
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa
Figure 12. Steatite seal with figures wearing long skirts, Harappan Period circa 2000 BC,
National Museum Karachi.
Figure 13. Seated male figurine with turban, Harappa, circa 2600-1900 BC, Harappa
Museum.
Figure 14. Unicorn seal depicting decorative cloth covering, Harappa, circa 2000 BC,
Harappa Museum.
Figure 15. Terracotta bed model with fabric impression, Harappa, circa 2600-1900 BC,
Harappa Museum.
Figure 16. Textile impressions from faience vessels, Harappa, circa 2600-1900 BC,
Harappa Museum.
Figure 18. Copper razor or knife wrapped in fabric, Harappa, circa 2600-1900 BC,
Harappa Museum.
Figure 19. Coiled copper sire necklace with silk thread, Harappa, circa 2600-2450 BC,
Harappa Museum.
Figure 20. Gandhara sculpture depicting different textile traditions, Kushana Period circa
2nd century AD, Peshawar University Museum. Courtesy of the Peshawar University
Museum.

Photo Credits: Photographs by J. M. Kenoyer and except where indicated, courtesy of the
Harappa Archaeological Research Project and the Department of Archaeology and
Museums, Government of Pakistan.