Lesson #1

The Nature of statistics

By: Arlene M. Leron

 Objectives
1. Use a variety of statistical tools to
process and manage numerical data;
and
2. Advocate the use of statistical data in
making important decisions.
 DATA MANAGEMENT
It is development, execution, and supervision of
plans, policies, programs, and practices that
control, protect, deliver, and enhance the value of
data and information assets.

It is administrative process by which the required

data is acquired, validated, stored, protected, and
processed, and by which its accessibility,
reliability and timeliness is ensured to satisfy the
needs of the data users.
 statistics
- The word statistics originated from the word
“status” meaning “state”.

- It is the science that deals with the collection,

classification, analysis, and interpretation of
numerical facts or data, in such a way that valid
conclusions and meaningful predictions can be
drawn from them.
General purposes of statistics

1. Statistics are used to organize and

summarize the information so that
the researcher can see what
happened in the research study and
can communicate the results to
others.
General purposes of statistics

2. Statistics help the researcher to

answer the questions that initiated the
research by determining exactly what
general conclusions are justified based
on the specific results that were
obtained.
METHODS OF Data Gathering
1. Direct or interview method

2. Indirect or questionnaire method

3. Registration method

4. Observation method

5. Experimental method
 Direct or interview
It is a
person-to-person
encounter between
the source of
information, the
interviewee, and the
one who gathers
information, the
 Indirect or questionnaire

It is the technique in which a

questionnaire is used to elicit the
information or data needed.
registration
It obtains data from the
records of government
agency authorized by law
to keep such data or
information and made
these available to
researchers.
registration
Examples:
• Registration of birth
• Registration of
marriage
• Registration of death
 observation
It is the technique in
which data
particularly those
pertaining to the
behaviors of
individuals or group of
individuals during the
given situation.
 observation
To notice using a full
range of appropriate
senses. To see, hear,
feel, taste, and smell.

This is also used

when the
respondents cannot
 Experimental
It is a system used to gather data from
the results of performed series of
experiments on some controlled and
experimental variables. This is
commonly used in scientific inquiries.
Independent variable (IV) The independent
variable in an experiment is the variable that is
systematically manipulated by the investigator.

Dependent variable (DV) The dependent

variable in an experiment is the variable that the
investigator measures to determine the effect of
the independent variable.
 Scientific method
The data from the experiment force a conclusion
consonant with reality. Thus, scientific methodology has
a built-in safeguard for ensuring that truth assertions of
any sort about reality must conform to what is
demonstrated to be objectively true about the
phenomena before the assertions are given the status of
scientific truth.
 Descriptive statistics
- involves the collection and classification
of data.

INferential statistics
- involves the analysis and interpretation
of data.
 Descriptive statistics
• A bowler wants to find his
bowling average for the past 10
games.
• A teacher wishes to determine
the percentage of studens who
passed the examination.
 INFERENTIAL statistics
• A manager would like to predict based on
previous years’ sales, the sales
performnce of a company for the next five
years.
• A politician would like to estimate, based
on an opinion poll, his chance for winning
in the upcoming senatorial election.
Points of discussion:

Explain whether the

figure is an example
of descriptive
statistics or inferential
statistics.
Points of discussion:

How did they come up

with this kind of
information?
 Population
A population is the set of measurements
corresponding to the entire collection of
units about which the information is
sought. It is the group of objects/subjects
about which conclusions are to be drawn .
 Example:
a. The scores of entire students of
Senior High School in EAC-Cavite.
b. All children of any age who have
older or younger siblings in Barangay
Lucsuhin.
 sample
A sample is a set of individuals selected
from a population, usually intended to
represent the population in a research
study.
 sample
Example:
a. The scores of 50 students of Senior
High School in EAC-Cavite.
b. The 40 children who actually
participated in one specific study about
siblings in Barangay Lucsuhin.
Example: Identify the population and
the sample.

In a recent survey, 614 small business

owners in the National Capital Region
were asked whether they thought their
company’s Facebook presence was
valuable.
Answer:

Population: The set of all business

owners in the National Capital Region.

Sample: The participating 614 business

owners in the National Capital Region.
SAMPLE SIZE
Population &
sample
 data
Data are measurements or
observations. A data set is a collection
of measurements or observations.
A datum is a single measurement or
observation and is commonly called a
score or raw score.
The measurements that are made on the
subjects of an experiment are also called
data.
Usually data consist of the measurements of
the dependent variable or of other subject
characteristics, such as age, gender, number
of subjects, and so on. The data as originally
measured are often referred to as raw or
original scores.
 PARAMETER
Parameter is a value, usually a numerical
value that describes a population.
A parameter is usually derived from
measurements of the individuals in the
population.
 PARAMETER
In the National Achievement Test of High
School in SY 2011-2012, the mean
percentage score in Mathematics is
46.37.
(Source: https://www.philippinesbasiceducation.us/2013/07/the-national-achievement-test-in.html)
 STATISTIC
A statistic is a value, usually a numerical
value that describes a sample.
A statistic is usually derived from
measurements of the individuals in the
sample.
 STATISTIC
A recent survey of approximately 400,000
employers reported that the average
starting salary for marketing majors is
Php23,000.
Points of discussion:

Last year, a company with 65 employees

spent a total of Php5,150,694 on employees’
salaries.

a. Determine whether the amount spent is

from a population or a sample.
b. Specify whether the amount spent is a
parameter or a statistic.
 Sampling error
Sampling error is naturally occurring
discrepancy, or error, that exists between a
sample statistic and the corresponding
population parameter.
 Variable

- It is any property or characteristic of some

event, object, or person that may have
different values at different times
depending on the conditions.
 Qualitative Variable
- A qualitative variable describes an
object or individual by placing the
object or individual into a category or
group. Examples are gender,
nationality, color, types of personality,
and product brand.
 Quantitative Variable
- A quantitative variable has a value or
numerical measurement for which
operation can be applied.
- For example, age, height, and weight are
quantitative.
Classification of Quantitative Variables
Continuous Variables
It can assume any of an infinite number of values
and can be associated with points on a continuous
line interval.
Example: Height, weight, volume
Discrete Variables
It results from either a finite number of possible
values or a countable number of possible values.
Example: number of students, number of books,
and number of patients.
Types of Variables

Variable

Qualitative Quantitative
(Categorical) (numerical)

Discrete Continuous
LEVELS of Measurements

- Nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio (Interval

and ratio are sometimes called continuous
or scale).
 NOMINAL
-At this level of measurement, the
numbers in the variable are used only to
classify the data. Words, letters, and
alpha-numeric symbols can be used.
-Examples: Religious affiliation, School
type, or Course.
 ORDINAL
-At this level of measurement, the numbers
indicate an order.
-Examples: in a marathon (1st, 2nd, 3rd)
-Survey about consumer product satisfaction
(very satisfied, somewhat satisfied,
somewhat dissatisfied, very dissatisfied)
Points of discussion:
Two data sets are shown. Which data set
consists of data at the nominal level? Which
data set consists of data at the ordinal level?
Explain your reasoning
 INTERVAL
-At this level of measurement, the numbers tell
the distances between the measurements in
addition to the classification and ordering.
-Examples: temperature, the distance between
380C is and 400C is the same as the distance
between 330C and 350C.
-00C does not mean there is no temperature, it
is just a freezing point.
 Ratio
- Has an absolute zero that is meaningful
-Examples:
-Can construct a meaningful ratio (fraction), for
example, number of clients in past six months
The Hierarchy of Levels

Ratio Absolute zero

Interval Distance is meaningful

Ordinal Attributes can be ordered

Nominal Attributes are only named; weakest

Classification of Numerical Data

Numerical
Data

Qualitative Quantitative

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

 Frequency
Distribution &
Graphs
Frequency Distribution
A frequency distribution presents the
score values and their frequency of
occurrence. When presented in a
table, the score values are listed in
rank order, with the lowest score
value usually at the bottom of the
table.
 Constructing a Frequency
Distribution of Grouped Scores
The steps for constructing a frequency
distribution of grouped scores are as
follows:
1. Find the range of the scores.
Range = Highest Score – Lowest Score
 Constructing a Frequency
Distribution of Grouped Scores
2. Determine the tentative number of
classes (K).

3. Determine the width of each class

interval (i).
 Constructing a Frequency
Distribution of Grouped Scores
4. List the interval, placing the interval
containing the lowest score value at the
bottom.
5. Tally the raw scores into the appropriate
class intervals.
6. Add the tallies for each interval to obtain
the interval frequency.
Example:
Construct a frequency distribution of the
scores of forty students in their Math Prelim
Exam. The scores are as follows:
25 25 25 25 29 29 29 29
29 29 35 36 42 42 43 44
44 44 44 48 48 48 51 52
53 53 53 53 54 54 55 55
56 56 56 56 57 57 57 58.
Solutions:
1. Find the range of the scores.
R = 58 – 25 = 33
2. Determine the tentative number of
classes (K).
K = 1 + [3.332 (log 40)]
K = 1 + [3.332 (1.6021)]
K = 1 + 5.322
K = 6.322 ≈ 7
3. Determine the width of each class
interval (i ).

4. List the interval, placing the interval

containing the lowest score value at the
bottom.
5. Tally the raw scores into the appropriate
class intervals.
Classes Tally
55 – 59 llll – llll
50 – 54 llll – lll
45 – 49 lll
40 – 44 llll – ll
35 – 39 ll
30 – 34
25 - 29 llll - llll
6. Add the tallies for each interval to obtain
the interval frequency.
Classes Tally Frequency
(f)
55 – 59 llll – llll 10
50 – 54 llll – lll 8
45 – 49 lll 3
40 – 44 llll – ll 7
35 – 39 ll 2
30 – 34 0
25 - 29 llll - llll 10
n = 40
Classes Tally Frequenc Relative
y (f) frequency
55 – 59 llll – llll 10 25%
50 – 54 llll – lll 8 20%
45 – 49 lll 3 7.5%
40 – 44 llll – ll 7 17.5%
35 – 39 ll 2 5%
30 – 34 0 0
25 - 29 llll - llll 10 25%
n = 40
 INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Classes Frequenc Relative What is the most
y (f) frequency
55 – 59 10 25% frequent scores
50 – 54 8 20% of students in
45 – 49 3 7.5% Math Prelim
40 – 44 7 17.5% Exam?
35 – 39 2 5%
30 – 34 0 0
25 - 29 10 25%
n = 40
 INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Classes Frequenc Relative How many
y (f) frequency
55 – 59 10 25% students who got
50 – 54 8 20% a score between
45 – 49 3 7.5% 40 to 44?
40 – 44 7 17.5%
35 – 39 2 5%
30 – 34 0 0
25 - 29 10 25%
n = 40
 INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Classes Frequenc Relative What is the
y (f) frequency
55 – 59 10 25% percentage of
50 – 54 8 20% students who got
45 – 49 3 7.5% 30 to 34?
40 – 44 7 17.5%
35 – 39 2 5%
30 – 34 0 0
25 - 29 10 25%
n = 40
 INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Classes Frequenc Relative What is the
y (f) frequency
55 – 59 10 25% percentage of
50 – 54 8 20% students who got
45 – 49 3 7.5% 45 and above?
40 – 44 7 17.5%
35 – 39 2 5%
30 – 34 0 0
25 - 29 10 25%
n = 40
 INTERPRETATION OF DATA
Classes Frequenc Relative How many
y (f) frequency
55 – 59 10 25% students who got
50 – 54 8 20% 35 and below?
45 – 49 3 7.5%
40 – 44 7 17.5%
35 – 39 2 5%
30 – 34 0 0
25 - 29 10 25%
n = 40
Graph
 Bar Graph
Displays data by
using bars of
equal width on a
grid. The bars
may be vertical
or horizontal. Bar
graphs are used
for comparisons.
 Bar Graph
Displays a bar
for each
category with
the length of
each bar
representing
the frequency
of that
category.
 A Pareto Chart

A bar graph
ordered from
highest to
lowest
frequency.
 Circle Graph (Pie Chart)

Displays data using a circle

divided into sectors. We
use a circle graph (also
called a pie chart) to show
how data represent
portions of one whole or
one group.
 Circle Graph (Pie Chart)

Notice that each sector is

represented by %
 Broken Line Graph

A graph showing
data points joined
by line segments to
show trends over
time.
 Continuous Line Graph
A graph in which points
on the line between the
plotted points also have
meaning. Sometimes,
this is a “best fit” graph
where a straight line is
drawn to fit the data
points.
 Continuous Line Graph

Notice that the

independent variable is
on the x-axis, & the
dependent is on the
y-axis.
 Pictograph
Uses pictures and
symbols to display
data; each picture
or symbol can
represent more
than one object; a
key tells what each
picture represents.
 Scatter Plots
A graph of data that is a set of points.
INTERPRETATION OF DATA

From the pie chart,

you can see that
almost one-half
(48.3%) of the
degrees conferred
in 2011 were
bachelor’s degrees.
 INTERPRETATION OF DATA

From the Pareto graph, it is easy to see

that the causes of inventory
shrinkage that should be addressed first
are employees’ theft and shoplifting.
 INTERPRETATION OF DATA

From the scatter plot, you can see that as

the petal length increases, the petal width
also tends to increase.
 References
- Calingasan, R.M. et.al. (2018)
Mathematics in the Modern World
- Sirug, Winston S. (2018) Mathematics in
the Modern World
- Jabilles, A. B. & Cos Jr., F.DC. (2018)
Statistics for Thesis Writers