Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

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Engineering Failure Analysis

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engfailanal

Mechanical behavior of austenitic stainless-steel welds with

variable content of δ-ferrite in the heat-affected zone
V. García-García a, b, *, F. Reyes-Calderón a, O.D. Frasco-García a,
N. Alcantar-Modragón a
a
Departamento de Metal Mecánica, Posgrado en Metalurgia/Doctorado en Ciencias en Ingeniería-Tecnológico Nacional de México, Instituto
Tecnológico de Morelia, Av. Tecnológico 1500, 58120 Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico
b ́
Departamento de Metal Mećanica, Ingenieŕıa Mećanica. Tecnologico ́
Nacional de Mé xico/Instituto Tecnologico ́
de Morelia, Av. Tecnologico 1500,
58120 Morelia, Michoaćan, Mexico

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: δ-ferrite solidified in the fusion zone (FZ) mitigates the microfissuring susceptibility in multi-pass
FE welded joints performed on austenitic stainless steel (ASS). The herein investigation studied
SS 304L welded joints between two 304L grade ASS with different chemical compositions, which varied
δ-ferrite
δ-ferrite content in the heat-affected zone (HAZ). The pulsed-current gas tungsten arc welding
Microfissuring
GTAW-P
(GTAW-P) process was used along with filler metals ER 308L and ER309L. Additionally, an
autogenous joint was made with stainless steel (SS) of high δ-ferrite content (10%). A thermo-
mechanical finite element (FE) model was applied to estimate the thermal history, residual
stress (RS) and distortion distributions on SS joints. Then, numerical results were correlated with
the fracture analysis. The tensile test corroborated the increment in ductility due to δ-ferrite
content increasing in the HAZ. The enhancement of mechanical strength observed in the autog­
enous welded joint was associated with the pinning effect produced by δ-ferrite stringers formed
in the HAZ, which inhibited grain growth. Despite the high joint efficiency of SS 304L weldments,
the FZ was fractured due to the microfissuring and precipitated particles. The FZ rupture starts in
the FZ-HAZ interface of the first weld bead related to the ductility loss with the heat input.
Microfissures found in the FZ of all weldments were related to the tensile stress concentration
caused by the uneven distortion distribution and the ductility increment (up to 39%) provided by
the high δ-ferrite content. Some chromium carbides in the FZ acted as stress raisers.

1. Introduction

Austenitic stainless steels (ASS) are used in a variety of applications such as reactor fabrication, piping systems, storage tanks,
automobile industry due to their good mechanical properties [1] and high pitting corrosion resistance in different environments [2].
Also, ASS is characterized by good weldability under different welding processes [3], demonstrating a good affinity to be joined with
other steels (dissimilar welded joints) such as duplex steel [4], carbon steel [5] and other SS [6].
For the energetic industry, one of the most critical issues is the dissimilar joining between components fabricated with ASS and

* Corresponding author at: Departamento de Metal Mecánica, Posgrado en Metalurgia/Doctorado en Ciencias en Ingeniería-Tecnológico Nacional
de México, Instituto Tecnológico de Morelia, Av. Tecnológico 1500, 58120 Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico.
E-mail address: vgarciag@itmorelia.edu.mx (V. García-García).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2022.106618
Received 12 July 2021; Received in revised form 26 June 2022; Accepted 8 July 2022
Available online 12 July 2022
1350-6307/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
V. García-García et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

ferritic/martensitic stainless steels (grades P91 and P92) [7], such as supercritical boilers tubes and superheaters [8]. The dissimilar
welded joints ASS-P91/P92 exhibit different problems like hot cracking, carbon migration and the formation of intermetallic com­
pounds (M23C6 carbides and carbonitrides) and δ-ferrite in the fusion zone (FZ) [8]. For instance, Thakare et al. [9] and Pandey [10]
detected the formation of different precipitates, which produced microstructural heterogeneity in dissimilar autogenous welded joints
between ASS grade SS 304L and P91 and P92 steels. These investigations reported a decrease in both hardness and toughness due to the
formation of skeletal and lathy δ-ferrite morphologies in the FZ and heat-affected zone (HAZ). However, the δ-ferrite content in the SS
304L before and after welding was not informed.
Regardless of the type of welded joint (similar or dissimilar) fabricated using ASS, one major concern to overcome is the hot
cracking associated with the full austenitic solidification mode [11]. It is known that δ-ferrite contributes to mitigate hot cracking in
the FZ of ASS weldments [3]. A wide range of ASS filler metals promotes the formation of a δ-ferrite percentage (3–4%) into the weld
metal. Additionally, Zhang et al. [12] reported that δ-ferrite has a pinning effect that reduces grain growth and increases mechanical
strength. Also, δ-ferrite (between 5.75 and 8.48% wt.) formed in the FZ-HAZ interface tends to produce compressive residual stresses in
the FZ, increasing corrosion resistance, as informed by Kessal et al. [13].
On the other hand, high δ-ferrite content in the FZ of ASS weldments is not desirable. In some corrosive media, δ-ferrite can reduce
the corrosion resistance of the weld metal due to the selective attack on this phase [14]. Also, δ-ferrite increases the ASS hydrogen
embrittlement susceptibility, which induces brittle fracture during the vending and tensile tests [15]. Furthermore, δ-ferrite transforms
into the sigma phase producing the ASS weldment embrittlement due to the high heat input, cooling rate and high operating tem­
perature in service (350–900 ◦ C) [16]. ASS weldment in cryogenic applications needs a limited δ-ferrite content (up to 6%) to avoid
ductility and strength loss [17]. Additionally, no detailed study has been performed on the influence of base material (BM) δ-ferrite
content on the ASS welded joints tensile fracture mode.
This research work investigated the δ-ferrite effect on the ductility and yield strength (Sy ) of ASS joints and the occurrence of
microfissures in the FZ and HAZ due to multiple heating cycles. The ferritic phase ductile nature can contribute to increase the HAZ
elongation to rupture at higher contents in the BM. Therefore, three butt welded joints in two ASS grade AISI 304L with δ-ferrite
variable content (4.5% and 10%, as-received condition) were free of surface cracks. During the ASS processing (as cast slabs and rolled
plates), δ-ferrite tends to form interfaces with the austenitic phase giving rise to the formation and propagation of surface cracks in hot
rolled plates [18].
Additionally, the ferritic phase can soften in critical weld regions (FZ and HAZ), reducing mechanical strength [19]. The literature
establishes that the ferritic-austenitic (FA) solidification mode is more helpful in reducing hot cracking than δ-ferrite content [20]. In
addition, the application of multiple welding passes tends to produce microfissures in the HAZ of ASS due to grain growth and the
propagation of sulfur and phosphorus-enriched liquid films generated by the multiple heating cycles [21]. Also, the heat input of
multiple weld passes causes a ductility loss, converting the FZ into an initial occurrence region for microfissuring [22].
In order to evaluate the effect of multiple heating cycles on the ASS with δ-ferrite variable content (in BM), welded joints through
two weld passes were carried out using the gas tungsten arc welding process in the pulsed-current mode (GTAW-P process). Welded
joints were made in autogenous mode. The austenitic filler metals ER308L and ER309L were used. A thermo-mechanical finite element
(FE) model was applied to estimate temperature, residual stress (RS) and distortion distributions and then correlated with the tensile
fracture mode. After tensile tests were performed on transverse weld samples, the failure analysis on fracture regions was carried out
using fractography. The correlation of metallographic characterization results (quantification of δ-ferrite content after welding) with
numerical ones helped clarify the causes of failure and the δ-ferrite effect on mechanical properties of the SS 304L weldments.

2. Theory and calculation

2.1. Thermal model

The transient temperature field of weld assemblies as a function of time (t) and the spatial coordinates (x, y, z) was estimated by the
FE numerical solution of the non-linear heat diffusion equation:
∂T
ρCp = ∇ ⋅ (k∇T) + q̇ (1)
∂t

where q̇ is the heat generation rate per unit volume, ρ, Cp and k are density, specific heat and conductivity, respectively. The double-
ellipsoidal heat source model proposed by Goldak et al. [23] (Eqs. (2) and (3)) was introduced as the source term (q̇) in Eq. (1).
Where Q is the energy input given by the product of current intensity (I), voltage (V) and arc efficiency (η = 0.7). While ff (0.4) and
fr (1.6) are heat fractions. The ellipsoid shape factors a, b and c, were set to 3 mm, 9 mm and 3 mm, respectively (Eqs. (2) and (3)).
√̅̅̅
6 3ff Q
q˙f = √̅̅̅ exp(− 3(x2 /a2 + y2 /b2 + z2 /c2f )) (2)
abcf π π
√̅̅̅
6 3fr Q
q˙r = √̅̅̅ exp(− 3(x2 /a2 + y2 /b2 + z2 /c2r )) (3)
abcr π π
The thermal boundary conditions considered that the outer surfaces of the butt weld joints were exposed to both radiation and
convection. A convection coefficient of 15 W/m2 ℃ [24] and emissivity of 0.3 [25] were used in the FE model. The environment

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V. García-García et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

temperature was set to be 25℃. The full Newton–Raphson method was employed in each time step for the heat balance iteration. It is
worth mention that the thermal calculation at a given time was independent of the structural results, i.e., the thermal and the me­
chanical analyses were uncoupled. The effect of phase changes was neither considered in the simulation of the welding thermal field.
Thermophysical properties (ρ, Cp and k) were temperature-dependent. Often, some simulation software is used to predict different
sorts of properties based on the chemical composition. In this case, the butt welds considered the joint of two ASS with different
chemical compositions. According to different standards (ASTM, EN, AISI), AISI 304L grade ASS has a relatively wide range of
chemical compositions. Particularly, the carbon (≤ 0.07%wt.), chromium (17.5–20% wt.) and nickel (8–11% wt.) contents vary
significantly. Therefore, it can be inferred that thermophysical properties variation can affect numerical estimations. This paper
evaluated the change of thermal FE numerical estimations with thermophysical properties reported in the literature [19–28] for three
ASS 304L with different chemical compositions. Table 1 provides the temperature-dependent properties (ρ, Cp and k) of these steels.
Also, the thermophysical properties (temperature-dependent) predicted by thermodynamic JMatPro® 9.1.2 software taking into ac­
count the chemical composition of one studied SS 304L, are given in Table 1.

2.2. Mechanical model

A FE numerical analysis was developed to predict RS and post-weld distortion correlated with the thermal cycle and joint constraint
level. In the mechanical analysis, the temperature history obtained from the thermal analysis was used as input data (thermal loading).
The thermal strains and stresses were calculated at each time increment. Then, RS from each temperature increment was added at the
nodal location to calculate the model displacement before the next temperature increment.
Two basic sets of equations relating to the mechanical model were solved numerically, the equilibrium equation (Eq. (4)) and a
stress-strain relationship (Eq. (5)).
σij + ρbi = 0 (4)

where σij is the stress tensor and bi is the body force. It was considered that the thermal elasto-plastic material model followed the
Von Mises yield criterion [29–30]. The inelastic incompatibility produced during the welding thermal cycle was modeled through the
isotropic hardening model [29–30], which requires the tangent modulus as input data (Table 2). The stress-strain relationship can be
written as follows:
EH’ EH’ 1 dE E dSy EH’ c ˙
Δσ = Δε − { (α − 2 σ) − }ΔT − ε Δt (5)
E + H’ E + H’ E dT E + H’ dT E + H’
where H′ and α are the temperature-hardening and thermal expansion coefficients, respectively. Meanwhile, Sy represents the SS
304L temperature-dependent yield strength. The total welding strain (εtotal ) was calculated as the sum of thermal (εT ), elastic (εe ) and
plastic (εp ) strains [31].
A suitable Dirichlet boundary condition was applied on the model longitudinal sides of the top surface. The Dirichlet condition was
introduced as prescribed displacement (→ u = 0), representing the constraint method applied to the weld assembly. Furthermore, the
creep deformation and phase transformation at high temperatures were not considered due to the austenitic phase stability in the SS
304L [32]. The FE mechanical simulation did not consider the δ-ferrite content despite this being high in one studied SS 304L. Pre­
viously, Kessal et al. [13] corroborated experimentally that δ-ferrite content in the HAZ did not affect the magnitude and nature of
residual stresses. The same Young modulus (E), Poisson ratio (v), and temperature-dependent thermal expansion coefficient (α) were
used for the two SS 304L with different chemical compositions. The mechanical properties of the SS 304L are given in Fig. 1. Only half
of the welded joints were modeled due to the symmetry condition imposed, simplifying the FE model and saving computation time.
Finally, the temperature before the first weld pass was the environment temperature (T∞ ). Meanwhile, the second weld pass was
carried out until the weld assembly reached the thermal equilibrium with the environment.

3. Materials and methods

The base materials used in the present investigation were two ASS grade AISI 304L with different chemical compositions in the as-

Table 1
Temperature-dependent thermophysical properties for different chemical compositions of SS 304L.
Temperature (◦ C) Density (Kg/m3) Thermal conductivity (W/m ◦ C) Specific heat (J/Kg ◦ C)

[26] [27] [28] SS304L-1 [26] [27] [28] SS304L-1 [26] [27] [28] SS304L-1

25 7837 7920 7900 7932 15.97 15.9 14.6 15.4 522.4 510.7 462 451.8
200 7736 7840 7830 7857 16.89 17.21 16.1 17.58 540.3 523.3 512 495
400 7612 7750 7750 7770 20.7 20.11 18 20 561.2 540 540 530.2
600 7488 7660 7660 7680 23.6 23.84 20.8 22.6 586.8 569.4 577 564.1
800 7426 7560 7560 7587 27.8 26.74 23.9 25.1 591.4 586.1 604 599.4
1000 7372 7460 7465 7491 27.9 28 28 27.6 592.4 598.7 640 639.9
1200 – 7310 7370 7392 – 32.35 32.2 30.1 – 611.2 676 679.2
1600 – 7210 7320 6921 – 36.37 120 33.2 – 619.6 700 848

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V. García-García et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

Table 2
Chemical compositions of studied SS 304L and filler metals (wt. %).
Materials Cr Ni C Si Mn P S N Fe

SS 304L-1 18.29 8.32 0.0345 0.622 1.096 0.02 0.016 0.04 Bal.
SS 304L-2 19 9.35 0.018 0.54 1.6 0.04 0.02 0.02 Bal.
ER308L 21.15 10.04 0.03 0.85 1.62 0.01 0.01 – Bal.
ER309L 23.5 13.7 0.03 0.9 2 – – – Bal.

Fig. 1. Temperature-dependent mechanical properties estimated for the SS 304L-1 [30].

rolled and annealed condition. El Nayal and Beech [33] stated that calculating the ratio chromium equivalent to nickel equivalent
(Creq/Nieq) based on the chemical composition is the key parameter determining the quantity of δ-ferrite formed in a SS 304L. In this
study, one SS 304L had a Creq/Nieq ratio of 2.04, named SS 304L-1, while the second one had a Creq/Nieq ratio of 1.78 (SS 304L-2), both
calculated with equations provided by [34]. The Creq/Nieq ratio variation generated different contents of δ-ferrite between both SS
304L in as-received condition. δ-ferrite percentages of 10% and 4.5% were quantified through Image-J® software in the SS 304L-1 and
2, respectively. The chemical compositions of the base plates (AISI 304L) and filler electrodes (ER308L and ER309L) are given in
Table 2.
Weld samples of sizes 40 mm (length), 40 mm (width) and 6.3 mm (thickness) were machined. A double V-groove design was used
to complete the welding process in two welding passes and ensure full penetration (Fig. 2a). The double V-groove preparation was used
to avoid an excessive underfilling in the autogenous weld as informed in [35]. Welding was performed using the pulse current GTAW

Fig. 2. a) Joint preparation and clamping method applied to weld assemblies of SS 304L, b) Set-up of K-type thermocouples and microhardness
measurement line.

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V. García-García et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

(GTAW-P) process. Two weldments used SS 304L-1 and SS 304L-2 as base materials and filler metals ER308L (weld 1) and ER309L
(weld 2). Meanwhile, weld 3 employed only the SS 304L-1 as the base metal. The welding parameters of the GTAW-P process for three
weld samples are given in Table 3. The proper alignment of the plates was maintained using a suitable clamping arrangement (two C
clamps) that helped minimize distortional effects (Fig. 2a). In addition, the two weld seams were applied in opposite directions to
control the weld distortion. Before performing the second pass, the weld assembly reached the thermal equilibrium with the envi­
ronment. No preheat or post heat-treatments were given to the weld samples.
The welding temperature history was measured through a linear K-type thermocouple arrangement and a data acquisition module
(DAQ). Thermocouples were set in the rear face of the weld sample, as shown in Fig. 2b. After welding, the radiographic testing of
welded joints was made. The testing was conducted on the surface of each welded joint, longitudinally and perpendicularly to the weld
seam, including FZ and HAZ. Also, post-welding distortion was measured using a dial indicator after each welding pass.
Then, welded joints cross-section was prepared for microstructural analysis using a light optical microscope (LOM) and a scanning
electron microscope (SEM). A conventional etching by immersion using aqua regia (1 ml distilled water, 1.5 ml HNO3, 4 ml de HCl) for
40 s at room temperature was applied to reveal the austenite and ferrite phases of both base materials and welded joints. Meanwhile,
the etching time to reveal δ-ferrite in BM and welded joints varied between 120 and 180 s.
The δ-ferrite content in the cross-section of BM and weld samples (HAZ) were determined by quantitative metallography using
Image J® software. For this purpose, only δ-ferrite was revealed by means of the chemical etching. Then, the thresholding technique
was applied to quantify the ferritic phase. Fifteen LOM micrographs were processed through the image tool.
The Vickers microhardness was measured with Mitutoyo® MVK-HVL microdurometer coupled with the VL-101 µm across the
critical weld regions following ASTM E384 standard. Microhardness measurements were taken following the middle line indicated in
Fig. 2b. The indentations were performed at 100 gf load for a dwell time of 15 s.
The welded joints were machined into the required dimensions to obtain tensile subsize-specimens (transverse to the weld line), 25
mm in gauge length, 6 mm in thickness and 6 mm in radii of the fillet. Tensile tests were performed at room temperature using a 0.25
mm/min crosshead rate. Later, tensile results were processed by means of the Merlin® software to obtain the engineering stress-strain
curves. Finally, the fractured morphology of the tensile specimens was analyzed through SEM. An energy-dispersive X-ray spec­
trometer (EDX) system attached to the SEM was used to characterize the precipitated particles in fracture surfaces.

4. Results

4.1. Thermomechanical simulation

Fig. 3 shows the weld seams (FZ and HAZ) and cross-section macrographs for the three ASS weldments. The HAZ extension was also
indicated for each joint (Fig. 3a, 3c and 3e).
Numerical estimations of welding thermal field considering the variation of thermophysical properties (Table 1) are shown in
Fig. 4. The thermal simulations were done applying the same welding parameters (I = 77.5 A, V = 12 V and v = 0.71 mm/s). Thermal
histories were estimated numerically in positions L/4, L/2 and 3L/4 for a node located on the top surface of the weld sample at a
distance of 5 mm to the fusion line.
The discrepancies between temperatures estimated numerically are negligible regardless of the variation of thermophysical
properties, as seen in Fig. 4a-c. Thus, the symmetry supposition applied to the thermal phenomenon was adequate. Moreover, the
application of the same thermophysical properties in both ASS did not significantly alter the FE thermal estimations despite their
different chemical compositions (Table 2).
The thermal history measured experimentally was used to validate the FE estimations, as indicated in Fig. 5. Peak temperatures
were used as comparison criteria because these are related to microstructural changes, mechanical properties and welding defects. The
maximum variation between experimental results and numerically estimated temperatures was 9%. This variation was produced on
the closest thermocouple to the FZ. Other investigations have reported variations of 8% [36] and 10% [37] between experimental and

Table 3
Operating parameters of the GTAW-P process used in autogenous and filler metal SS 304L
welded joints.
Parameter Magnitude

Base Current (A) 40

Pulse current (A) 115
Voltage (V) 12
Mean current (A) 77.5
Frequency (Hz) 450
Welding speed (mm/s) 0.71
Stick-out (mm) 1.5
Root gap (mm) 1.2
Joint preparation Double V groove (bevel 12.5◦ )
Electrode EWTh-2
Electrode diameter 3.2
Gas protection volumetric flow (Lt/min) 25
Heat input per weld pass (J/mm) 787

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V. García-García et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

Fig. 3. Weld seams (upper face) and macrographs of: a-b) Weld 1, c-d) Weld 2 and e-f) Weld 3.

Fig. 4. Temperature distribution estimated in: a) L/4, b) L/2 and c) 3L/4.

numerical results (peak temperature).

Higher peak temperatures were recorded on the SS304L-1 side in welds 1 (840.9 ◦ C) and 2 (857.78 ◦ C), as illustrated in Fig. 5a and
5c. However, temperatures measured in faraway points from the FZ (thermocouples 2 and 3, Fig. 2b) were higher on the SS 304L-2 side
(Fig. 5a and 5c). The higher heat dissipation towards the SS304L-2 side was associated with the grain size in the HAZ. Besides, the use
of filler metal in welds 1 (ER308L) and 2 (ER309L) represented an increase of 15% for the SS 304L-1 peak temperature (thermocouple
1) in comparison with the autogenous weld.
Fig. 6 shows the RS estimated by the mechanical FE model after the weld assembly reached the thermal equilibrium with the
environment (first and second weld pass). The RS estimations obtained for the three welded joins were compared with experimental
measurements realized in previous research works [30,38,39] to validate the mechanical field results. These research works applied
heat inputs similar to the GTAW-P process (Table 3).
The maximum tensile residual stresses were estimated in the FZ of each welded joint (Fig. 6) due to the shrinkage of weld metal and
adjacent material (FZ-HAZ interface). The peak tensile stress was proportional to the heat input, i.e., welds performed with filler metal
exhibited a higher RS (Fig. 6a-b). However, the compressive and tensile residual stresses were maintained lower than the SS 304L yield
strength (415 MPa). In the HAZ of all weldments, the estimated residual stresses were compressive due to the constraint imposed on the
thermal expansion by the surrounded base material.
The validation of the welding mechanical field (Fig. 7) indicated similar trends between the numerical estimations and RS
experimental measurements for SS 304L welded joints obtained through the GTAW [30,39] and GTAW-P [38] processes. The higher
variation percentage (54%, tensile stress) was produced with the RS measurements reported by Balram et al. [38], which can be
associated with the constraint level. Weld 2 was constrained, as indicated in Fig. 2a. Meanwhile, the RS values informed in [38]
indicated that the weld was not constrained. The average variations between the tensile RS estimations and experimental measure­
ments reported in [30] and [39] were 22% and 40% (heat input almost twice), respectively. These variations were related to the heat

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V. García-García et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

Fig. 5. Comparison of thermal histories measures experimentally vs FE numerical estimations for: a-b) Weld 1, c-d) Weld 2 and e-f) Weld 3.

input differences.
The distortion was measured experimentally in all welded joints, as shown in Fig. 8a-f. The FE estimations of distortion also were
added in Fig. 8a-f (validation). Despite the variation of peak temperatures measured in welds 1 and 2 was low (6.5%, Fig. 5), the
distortion measured on each side of the weldment exhibited significant differences. On the SS304L-1 side, the distortion was twice that
on the SS304L-2 side (Fig. 8a-d). Distortion estimations varied up to 63% compared to the experimental measurements performed on
welds 1 (Fig. 8a-b) and 2 (Fig. 8c-d). The distortion level was related to each weldment thermal history estimated numerically. Fig. 9
displays the temperature distribution estimated numerically in the SS 304L-1 side of each weldment. Since the SS 304L-1 side exhibited
the higher distortion due to the heat accumulation as indicated in Figs. #7a-b. Lower temperatures were predicted in weld 3 (Fig. 9c),
producing a more uniform distortion distribution (Fig. 8e-f).

4.2. Microstructural analysis

The three welded joints were sound; even the underfilling on the weld bead surface of weld 3 (autogenous weld) was negligible. The
radiographic test corroborated that the three weldments did not present any indication associated with internal defects such as hot
cracking, porosities, or lack of fusion. Fig. 10 shows the radiograms taken from the upper face of weld samples.
The microstructural characterization of the FZ through LOM revealed that the microstructure to be consisting of ferrite and
austenite with the FA solidification mode in all welded joints (Fig. 11). The primary ferritic dendrites (dark phase) and interdendritic
austenite (light phase) were observed in the weld metal, as depicted in Fig. 11. In weld 1 and weld 2 were observed differences in the FZ
of each SS304L side. The SS304L-1 exhibited a mix of skeletal and lathy δ-ferrites (Fig. 11a and 11c). Meanwhile, the lathy δ-ferrite
content diminished significantly (qualitatively) on the SS304L-2 side (Fig. 11b and 11d). On the other hand, skeletal δ-ferrite was
predominant. A combination of skeletal and lathy δ-ferrites was also formed in the FZ of weld 3 (Fig. 11e).
The HAZ of welds 1 and 2 exhibited significant differences between δ-ferrite content and grain growth, as depicted in Fig. 12. A
great amount of δ-ferrite intergranular stringers was extended from the FZ towards the HAZ of the SS304L-1 side (Fig. 12c, 12f, 12g

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V. García-García et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

Fig. 6. RE estimated numerically after the weld assembly reached the thermal equilibrium (first and second weld passes): a) Weld 1, b) Weld 2c)
Weld 3.

Fig. 7. Comparison of RS estimated numerically for SS 304L welded joints (after the second weld pass) with experimental measurements reported in
[30,38,39]. Critical weld regions were marked (dotted lines) according experimental results of Fig. 3.

and 12h). Conversely, the HAZ of the SS304L-2 side was maintained δ-ferrite free (Fig. 12a and 12d). Grain growth was observed in
the HAZ of the SS304L-2 (Fig. 12b and 12e). However, the HAZ of the SS304L-1 did not exhibit it (Fig. 12c and 12f). Grain size
measurements in the HAZ were carried out using the intercept method. Table 4 summarizes the average grain sizes measured in each
weldment. The HAZ of weld 3 kept the same microstructural features as the SS304L-1 side of welds 1 and 2, i.e., a high concentration of
δ-ferrite intergranular stringers (Fig. 12g-h) and almost negligible grain growth (Table 4).
The image processing in Image J® software helped quantify the δ-ferrite percentage in the HAZ. Fig. 13a and 13b show micro­
graphs obtained after the selective etching applied to the BM and HAZ, respectively, to reveal δ-ferrite in the SS304L-1 side. Then, the

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Fig. 8. Comparison of post-welding distortion measured experimentally vs. FE numerical estimations for: a-b) Weld 1, c-d) Weld 2, e-f) Weld 3.

Fig. 9. Temperature distribution estimated in the FZ and HAZ of: a) weld 1, b) weld 2 and c) weld 3.

image processing was applied (Fig. 13c). The graph of Fig. 13d displays the percentage of δ-ferrite measured in each weldment BM,
HAZ and FZ. As can be seen, the δ-ferrite percentage decreased in all weldments with regard to the BM (Fig. 13d). The δ-ferrite
percentage decreased with the heat input (peak temperatures) due to the resolidification produced in the FZ-HAZ interface (Fig. 12c,
12f and 12 g-h).
The high temperature in the partial melting zone (PMZ) between 1600 ◦ C and 1300 ◦ C (Fig. 7a-c) promoted the appearance of
δ-ferrite with polygonal morphology in welds 1 and 2 (Fig. 11a and 11d). δ-ferrite with polygonal morphology was not formed in the
PMZ of weld 3 due to the lower temperature (low heat input), as shown in Fig. 11e.

4.3. Analysis of weldment mechanical properties

Microhardness measurements carried out in the weld bead center (cross-section) are shown in Fig. 14. As was expected, the HAZ
microhardness decreased (SS304L-2 side) in welds 1 and 2 due to grain growth (Table 4). Meanwhile, the average HAZ microhardness
(SS304L-1 side, 187 ± 15HV and 183 ± 15HV) was as higher as the FZ (191 ± 10HV and 198 ± 10HV) in welds 1 and 2 (Fig. 14a-b).
Also, the HAZ in weld 3 was the region with the higher microhardness (235 ± 11HV). Highlights the microhardness increase in the FZ

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V. García-García et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

Fig. 10. Radiogram of welded joints: a) Weld 1, b) Weld 2 and c) Weld 3.

Fig. 11. LOM micrographs taken from the FZ of: weld 1, a) SS304L-1 side, b) SS304L-2 side, weld 2, c) SS304L-1 side, d) SS304L-2 side and weld 3
e) SS304L-1.

(weld 3) due to the formation of a larger number of precipitated particles (chromium carbides).
Engineering stress-strain curves depicted in Fig. 15 were obtained through tensile tests performed on the three weldments. Weld 3
showed the higher mechanical properties (Sy , Sut and ductility) as summarized in Table 5. Meanwhile, weld 1 exhibited lower me­
chanical strength and elongation to fracture (Fig. 15). Weld 2 can be considered an intermediate condition between welds 1 and 3,
considering its mechanical properties (Table 5). Additionally, Table 6 compares mechanical properties measured in previously studied
SS 304L weldments with the studied weldments. The comparison includes the heat input rate and rupture zone reported.
Fig. 16 shows fractured samples of each weldment. In welds 1 and 2, the SS304L-2 side was deformed by the tensile load up to reach
the lengths indicated in Fig. 16a, 16c and 16e. Note that the fixed SS304L-1 side suffered a higher elongation in weld 3 (Fig. 16e) than
welds 1 and 2 (Fig. 16a and 16c). The fracture was produced in the FZ of three weldments. In welds 2 and 3, the formed fracture at 45◦
indicated the FZ ductile behavior (Fig. 16d and 16f). Even though the fracture was not formed at 45◦ in the FZ of weld 1 (Fig. 16b), an
irregular surface consisting of different size dimples was observed as evidence of the typical ductile behavior.

4.4. Fractography

Fractures in weld samples were analyzed using SEM. Figs. 17-19 show the SEM micrographs obtained from the fracture surface.
Different shape and size dimples were observed in all fracture surfaces, confirming the ductile fracture in all weldments.

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V. García-García et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

Fig. 12. LOM micrographs taken from the HAZ of weld 1: a) SS304L-2, b) Grain growth in the HAZ (SS304L-2 side), c) SS304L-1 side, weld 2: d)
SS304L-2, e) grain growth in the HAZ (SS304L-2 side), f) SS304L-1 side, weld 3: g-h) SS304L-1 side.

Table 4
Grain size measurements performed on the HAZ of
all weldments.
Sample HAZ grain size

BM 94 ± 15 μm
Weld 1 114.9 ± 18 μm
Weld 2 134.6 ± 20 μm
Weld 3 100.7 ± 15 μm

Fig. 17a and 18a depict the fracture surfaces of welds 1 and 2, respectively. Energy-dispersive (EDS) spectrums indicated a uniform
chemical composition (C, Fe, Cr and Ni) in the fracture zone (Fig. 17b and 18b). Fig. 19a-b showed that the fracture surface of weld 3
exhibited a larger number of small and shallow dimples indicating a high mechanical strength (Table 5) and ductility (Fig. 16e-f).
Meanwhile, dimples in weld 1 were coarser (Fig. 17c-d). Again, weld 2 exhibited an intermediate condition between welds 1 and 3, i.
e., dimples were finer than weld 1 but coarser than weld 3 (Fig. 16c-d). Also, some tearing ridges were observed in all weldments,
indicating a high load resistance capability. Micro-voids detected in weld 1 were related to the low mechanical strength (Fig. 17d).
Additionally, some microfissures were observed in the fracture surfaces of all weldments. The microfissure detected in weld 1
(Fig. 17e) was larger and deeper (qualitatively). In weld 2, several microfissures were formed, as indicated in Fig. 18e. Close to the
microfissures were detected some larger precipitated particles, a combination of C, Cr and Ni, according to the chemical microanalysis
(Fig. 18e-i). The microfissure observed in weld 3 was short and shallow (Fig. 19c). This microfissure was formed near the FZ-HAZ
interface. In various dimples were found precipitated particles as displayed in Fig. 17f, 18d and 19d. The chemical microanalysis
revealed that these particles were chromium carbides (MX carbides, Fig. 19e). A larger number of MX carbides was produced in weld 3
(Fig. 19d).

5. Discussion

The thermal history measured experimentally in the three SS 304L weldments shows discrepancies between peak temperatures
measured in the HAZ of both SS (Fig. 5). However, the analysis of numerical results indicated that the chemical composition variation
(Table 2) had a negligible effect on the magnitude of the estimated temperature (Fig. 4) since existing a low variation between the
thermophysical properties, as shown in Table 1. Even the high thermal conductivity values at elevated temperatures proposed by [28]

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V. García-García et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

Fig. 13. Selective etching with aqua regia applied in: a) BM and b) HAZ (weld 2), c) Image processing performed on LOM micrographs (threshold
tool), d) δ-ferrite percentage measured in the BM and SS304L weldments.

(Table 1) showed a low variation. Therefore, the experimental discrepancies observed in the thermal field of welds 1 and 2 (Fig. 5)
were related to the HAZ grain size and δ-ferrite content.
The use of filler metal increases the heat input generating higher temperatures in the FZ and HAZ, besides a low cooling rate [42].
These conditions resulted favorably in promoting the austenitic grain growth in the HAZ. Nevertheless, the average grain growth
(100.7 ± 15μm) measured in the HAZ of the SS304L-1 side was negligible in the three weldments. Meanwhile, the grain growth
percentage in the HAZ of SS 304L-2 for welds 1 (22.3%) and 2 (43.2%) was considerable in comparison with the BM (94 ± 15 μm).
The Zenner pinning effect that counteracts the motion of grain boundaries through a pinning pressure exerted by precipitate
particles [43] was observed in the HAZ of the SS304L-1 side (Fig. 12b and 12e), where a high δ-ferrite content was produced. Pre­
viously, Zhang et al. [12] informed that δ-ferrite precipitation along the grain boundaries promotes the pinning effect, inhibiting
austenitic grain growth. The HAZ of the SS304L-1 side did not exhibit δ-ferrite precipitation, only resolidification in the FZ-HAZ
interface, as shown in Fig. 12c, 12f and 12g-h. Intergranular δ-ferrite stringers observed in the HAZ were extended on those closer
grains to the FZ (Fig. 12c). These stringers kept the grain size constant on the SS304L-1 side. In the faraway regions to the FZ, δ-ferrite
stringers were granular. On the other hand, δ-ferrite was scarce in the HAZ of the SS 304L-2 side (Fig. 12a and 12d), accompanied by a
considerable grain growth in some closer grains to the FZ (Fig. 12b and 12e).
Coarse grains observed in the HAZ of the SS304L-2 contributed to the high heat dissipation from the FZ, considering that grain
boundaries can act as contact thermal resistances [25]. Thus, the peak temperature measured in the HAZ of the SS304L-2 was 7%
higher than in the SS304L-1 (Fig. 5a and 5c). Other evidence of the higher heat dissipation from the SS304L-2 side was the δ-ferrite
morphology and its distribution in the FZ. The interdendritic space was larger in the FZ of the SS304L-2 side (Fig. 11b and 11d),
indicating a higher cooling rate. While the interdendritic space was reduced on the SS304L-1 side (Fig. 11a and 11c), giving rise to
lower heat dissipation.
Unnikrishnan et al. [42] also reported the variation of dendritic space caused by the heat input and cooling rate in SS304L
weldments. Besides, Kumar et al. [1] informed that skeletal ferrite was formed preferentially in high heat input weldments (low
cooling rate) while lathy ferrite was formed in low heat input welds (high cooling rate). Skeletal δ-ferrite was preferentially formed in
the SS304L-2 side (Fig. 11b-11d). Meanwhile, a combination of skeletal and lathy (major proportion) ferrite morphologies was

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V. García-García et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

Fig. 14. Microhardness profiles measured in a) weld 1, b) weld 2 and c) weld 3.

Fig. 15. Engineering stress-strain curves obtained during tensile tests of SS 304L weldments.

detected in the SS304L-1 side, as shown in Fig. 11a, 11c and 11e. Skeletal and lathy δ-ferrite morphologies also were observed in the
HAZ of all weldments, preferentially on the SS304L-1 side (Fig. 12c, 12f and 1g-h). The mean difference between these morphologies
(skeletal and lathy) is the partitioning grade produced during the cooling stage since Cr and Ni content are the same [44]. Low
temperatures and cooling rates produce skeletal morphology [45] as in weld 3 (Fig. 11e and 12g-h). Meanwhile, higher temperatures
in the FZ and HAZ (weld 1 and 2) contributed to the formation of a high proportion of lathy δ-ferrite (Fig. 11a, 11c, 12c and 12f).
The higher temperatures were produced in FZ and HAZ of weld 2 (Fig. 9b). Meanwhile, the lowest temperatures were estimated in

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V. García-García et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

Table 5
Tensile behavior of the weldments along with base metal.
Material condition Yield tensile strength, Sy (MPa) Ultimate tensile strength, Sut (MPa) % Elongation Joint efficiency (%)

BM 360 690 – –
Weld 1 315 620 50.8 89.8
Weld 2 320 630 62 91.3
Weld 3 380 710 78 102.9

Table 6
Mechanical properties obtained experimentally (weldments SS 304L) in previous research works.
Mechanical properties Weld 1 Weld 2 Weld 3 Kumar et al. [19] Sabooni et al. [40] Liu et al. [41]

Sy (MPa) 315 320 380 – 340 320

Sut (MPa) 620 630 710 622–657 707 700
Elongation (%) 50.8 62 78 21.4–24.2 64.7 36.5
Heat input (J/mm) 787 1280–1520 – 902–929
Rupture zone FZ FZ BM FZ HAZ

Fig. 16. Elongation suffered by the tensile samples (schematic representation) and region of fracture observed in: a-b) Weld 1, c-d) Weld 2 and e-f)
Weld 3.

the autogenous weld (Fig. 9c) due to the lower total heat provided to the weld pool (no filler metal droplets). Distortion in SS304L
weldments was sensible to the heat input due to the high thermal expansion coefficient (Fig. 1) and the constraint level (Fig. 2a). The
elevated peak temperatures produced a higher distortion in the SS304L-1 side than on the SS304L-2 side (Fig. 8a-d). In welds 1 and 2,
the higher temperatures (Fig. 9a-b) promoted a higher distortion affecting the symmetry condition of the mechanical field (Fig. 8a-d).
On the other hand, the uniform heat distribution and lower temperatures in weld 3 (Fig. 9c) brought about a uniform distortion, which
was accurately predicted (Fig. 8e-f).
The uneven distortion measured in welds 1 and 2 (Fig. 8a-b and 8c-d) can modify the RS magnitudes in critical weld regions as
occurred in dissimilar welded joints. For instance, Eisazadeh et al. [46] reported a significant stress reduction on the 1018 steel side in
a dissimilar weld with an AISI 304L steel. They associated the stress reduction with the larger AISI 304L thermal expansion coefficient,
producing a tensile load on the 1018 steel side and a general compressive state. FE thermal estimations in the HAZ of weldments SS
304L (Fig. 8g-i) indicated that temperature ranges between 700 ◦ C and 1450 ◦ C. The average thermal expansion coefficient in the HAZ
was 22.56 × 10− 6◦ C− 1 (Table 1). Hence, an increase of 16% (Fig. 5c-d and 5e-f) in the temperature range of the HAZ (weld 2)
produced a transverse linear expansion increment of 22% (αεΔT). Taking into account the movement restriction imposed by the
clamping method (C-press, Fig. 2a), this explains the distortion increase (more than twice) in the SS 304L-1, where the heat accu­
mulation occurs (Fig. 5a and 5c). This FZ distortion increment was responsible for increasing tensile RS [36].

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V. García-García et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

Fig. 17. a) Fracture surface of weld 1, b) EDS scanning of fracture surface (weld 1), c-d) SEM micrographs of the fracture surface obtained from the
tensile tested weld 1, e) Microfissures detected in the FZ, f) Precipitated particle of chromium carbide.

In general, the RS in SS 304L weldments affects brittle and fatigue resistances [42] as well as corrosion performance [13]. Spe­
cifically, the tensile RS harms corrosion resistance [13]. According to the FE mechanical model, the maximum tensile and compressive
RS were lower than the yield strength of both SS304L (Fig. 6). Tensile stresses were estimated in the FZ. Meanwhile, the HAZ exhibited
compressive stresses, which agrees with previous studies [47–48]. The validation of RS estimations through comparison with
experimental results indicated that variations between experimental and numerical results were associated with the welding sequence
(opposite weld seams) and constraint level. Mousavi and Miresmaeili [30] reported higher RS in one-pass weld than in multiple-pass
weldments (2 and 3 passes) due to the steep thermal gradient. However, residual stresses directly correlated with the heat input in the
studied SS304L weldments. In this case, the maximum tensile RS was produced in weldments with higher peak temperatures (weld 2,
Fig. 9b).
The ductility and mechanical strength (Sy and SUT ) were improved during tensile tests thanks to the high δ-ferrite content in the
SS304L-1 side (Fig. 10d). The elongation increased twice (weld 3) compared with SS 304L weldments reported in [19,41] (Table 6).
The yield strength was relatively higher (315–380 MPa) than other welded joints [40–41]. The ductility improvement of SS304L
weldments with high δ-ferrite content in the HAZ can attract the automotive industry interest. Mainly, ASS has been considered in the
fabrication of impact components like bumpers cars where the chosen material should have a high yield strength and elongation to
fracture [49].
The main difference in the mechanical performance of weldments outlined in Table 5 was the location of the fracture region. The
three studied SS304L weldments failed in the FZ (Fig. 16b, 16d and 16f). Welds 1 and 2 had efficiencies (Sut,weld/SutBM*100) of 89.8%
and 91.3%, respectively. Therefore, the weld metal had a lower mechanical strength than the BM. However, efficiency of 102.9% was
obtained for weld 3. It denoted a contrary behavior, i.e., a higher mechanical strength in the weld metal. The high mechanical strength
measured in weld 3 was associated with the negligible grain growth in the HAZ caused by the pinning effect (Fig. 12g-h). Also, the low
distortion measured in the FZ contributed to obtain lower tensile RS, as informed by [24,29].

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V. García-García et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

Fig. 18. a) Fracture surface of weld 2, b) EDS scanning of fracture surface (weld 2), c-d) SEM micrographs of the fracture surface obtained from the
tensile tested weld 2, f) Microfissures detected in the FZ, g-i) Precipitated particle of chromium carbide.

The radiographic test indicated that all SS304L weldments were sound and free of indications or defects (Fig. 10). In this case, the
FA solidification mode exhibited by the three welded joints prevents the formation of hot cracks, as reported by Shankar et al. [11]
and Luppo et al. [15]. Liquation cracks were not found in the HAZ of all weldments (Fig. 12).
Nonetheless, the fractography analysis reveals microfissures in the rupture region (Fig. 17e, 18e and 19c), which explains the FZ
failure. The fracture started near the FZ-HAZ interface of the first weld bead in all weldments (Fig. 16b, 16d and 16f), which was in
good agreement with previous results reported by Gooch and Honeycomb [50]. They indicated that microfissures in multi-pass
welding of ASS occur in the first weld beads. Specifically, microfissures are generated in grain boundaries of the HAZ near the FZ
due to the ductility loss produced by the thermal cycles [50].
The fracture surface of all weldments showed the presence of cleavage facets and ductile dimples (Fig. 17d, 18d and 19b). In
addition, microfissures found in all welded joints (Fig. 17e, 18e and 19c) indicated a mixed mode of the fracture with a higher number
of dimples (shallow and coarser) and a river pattern (Fig. 17c, 18a and 19a) that confirms the ductile fracture.
The high post-welding distortion increased tensile RS in the FZ (welds 1 and 2). Similarly, dissimilar welded joints exhibited an RS
concentration caused by the uneven distortion distribution driven by the difference in thermal expansion coefficients [6,51]. The heat
accumulation in the SS304L-1 produced a thermal expansion coefficient increment of 22% compared to the SS304L-2. Hence, the
global elongation increments in welds 1 and 2 brought about a higher tensile stress concentration (RS + tensile load) in the weld metal,
causing the rupture.
The formation of short microfissures in the FZ of weld 3 (Fig. 19c) was related to the tensile stresses and the MX carbides (Fig. 19d-
e). As aforementioned, the negligible grain growth in the HAZ diminished the heat dissipation. Therefore, the heat accumulation
occurred in the FZ, generating a high distortion (Fig. 8e-f) and elevated tensile RS (Fig. 6e). The chemical microanalysis performed on
the fracture region revealed many MX carbides formed through the high C content (δ-ferrite) of the SS 304L-1. MX carbides had sizes in
the range between 1.4μm and 25μm, as depicted in Fig. 19d.
It is known that MX carbides produce sensitization [52] and decrease fracture strength. According to Rathod et al. [53],
precipitated particles act as stress raisers and help to initiate crack and subsequent fracture, thereby reducing the strength of the weld
metal during the transverse tensile test. Thus, the formation of microfissures in the FZ (weld 3) was associated with the high ductility

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V. García-García et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

Fig. 19. a-b) SEM micrographs of the fracture surface obtained from the tensile tested weld 3, c) Microfissures detected in the FZ, d-e) Precipitated
particles of chromium carbide.

exhibited by the weldment (Table 5), the MX carbides acting as stress raisers (Fig. 19d) and the tensile RS (Fig. 6f).
Tearing ridges observed in the fracture region (Figs. 17-19) reflected the material capability to resist loading after the micro-voids
coalescence started, as informed by Mahoney et al. [54]. In weld 1, dimples and micro-voids were coarser (Fig. 17c-d) than ones in
welds 2 and 3 (Fig. 18c-d and 19a-b) as evidence of low both tensile strength and elongation to fracture [55]. Moreover, the ductility
of welds 1 and 2 was affected by the high heat input [22] and microfissures formation (Fig. 17e and 18e).
The large elongation was related to the δ-ferrite content in the SS304L-1 (HAZ + BM), which was corroborated experimentally
through tensile tests. The elongation in the SS304L-2 (loaded side, Fig. 16a and 16c) was lower than in the SS304L-1 (Fig. 16e).
δ-ferrite did not generate a softening in all weldments (SS 304L-1) HAZ (Fig. 14). On the contrary, the HAZ and FZ microhardness
was almost the same (Fig. 14) because the grain size remained constant in the HAZ (Table 4). Moreover, the microhardness reduction
in the FZ (Fig. 14) was confined to the FZ-HAZ interface, where ferritic transformation was produced (Fig. 12). The formation of
shallow ferrite strings (mainly skeletal) in weld 3 produced a higher microhardness than welds 1 and 2, where ferrite strings were
coarser (lathy and skeletal morphologies Fig. 12c and 12f). Peaks observed in the microhardness profile of weld 3 (Fig. 14c) were
produced by many MX carbides found in the FZ (Fig. 19d-e). The precipitated carbides increased the average microhardness globally
(Fig. 14c).

6. Conclusions

The present study investigated the effect of δ-ferrite content on the ductility and yield strength of SS304L weldments and the
occurrence of microfissures in critical weld regions (FZ and HAZ) due to multiple heating cycles. Based on numerical and experimental
results, we have drawn the following conclusions:

1.- δ-ferrite detected in the HAZ of the SS304L-1 side inhibited grain growth through the Zenner pinning effect (welds 1 and 2). The
larger stringers of skeletal δ-ferrite found in weld 3 promoted a lower microhardness loss in the HAZ. While the stringers of
skeletal and lathy δ-ferrite detected in welds 2 and 3 produced lower microhardness in the HAZ (SS 304L-1 side). The formation
of skeletal and lathy δ-ferrite morphologies was related to each weldment’s peak temperatures and cooling rates.
2.- The uneven distortion distribution in welds 1 and 2 was due to the heat accumulation. The thermal expansion coefficient
increased up to 22% on the SS 304L-1 side, affecting the RS distribution. High deviations were obtained between numerical
estimations and experimental measurements for post-welding distortion.
3.- An increment of δ-ferrite content in the HAZ (up to 6.6%) increased the elongation to rupture (39%, average) without a me­
chanical strength (Sy and Sut ) loss. δ-ferrite content in the HAZ did not alter the compressive nature of RS in the HAZ, which was
corroborated by means of the distortion measurements.
4.- Microfissures formed in the FZ were related to the tensile stress concentration caused by the uneven distortion distribution and
the ductility increment provided by the SS 304L-1. Ductile behavior of SS 304L was not altered since joint efficiencies remained
high in welds 1 (89.8%), 2 (91.3%) and 3 (102.9%). In weld 3, RS and stress raisers (massive precipitated chromium carbides)
promoted the formation of short and shallow microfissures.

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V. García-García et al. Engineering Failure Analysis 140 (2022) 106618

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank the National Council on Science and Technology (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología-
México) and the Tecnológico Nacional de México/Instituto Tecnológico de Morelia for support during the project. Víctor García and O.
D Frasco-Garcíá s studies were sponsored by the National Council on Science and Technology (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tec­
nología-México) (N.B. 2019-000006-01NACV-00236 and 1008031).

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