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“UDAAN” - Quick and Comprehensive Revision Series ART AND CULTURE

INDEX

1. VISUAL ARTS:
1.1 INDIAN SCULPTURE ............................................................................................................................................................. 3
SCULPTURES OF INDUS CIVILIZATION: ............................................................................................................................................3
MAURYAN SCULPTURE: ..................................................................................................................................................................4
POST -MAURYAN SCULPTURES: ......................................................................................................................................................4
GUPTA SCULPTURE: ........................................................................................................................................................................4
SCULPTURE OF SOUTH INDIA: .........................................................................................................................................................5
MODERN INDIAN SCULPTURE: ........................................................................................................................................................5
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE: ..............................................................................................................6
1.2 INDIAN ARCHITECTURE ....................................................................................................................................................... 6
ARCHITECTURE IN HARRAPAN CIVILIZATION: .................................................................................................................................6
MAURYAN ARCHITECTURE..............................................................................................................................................................7
POST MAURYAN ARCHITECTURE ....................................................................................................................................................8
GUPTA ARCHITECTURE ...................................................................................................................................................................9
INDO ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE ......................................................................................................................................................10
DELHI SULTANATE PERIOD (1206-1526 AD) ..................................................................................................................................10
MUGHAL PERIOD ARCHITECTURE .................................................................................................................................................12
MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE STYLES (OTHER THAN INDO-ISLAMIC) ................................................................................................13
1.3 TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE .................................................................................................................................................... 15
NAGARA STYLE ..............................................................................................................................................................................16
DRAVIDA STYLE .............................................................................................................................................................................18
VESARA STYLE ...............................................................................................................................................................................19
HOYSALA STYLE .............................................................................................................................................................................19
VIJAYANAGARA STYLE ...................................................................................................................................................................20
NAYAKA STYLE...............................................................................................................................................................................20
PALA & SENA STYLE .......................................................................................................................................................................20
1.4 INDIAN PAINTING ............................................................................................................................................................. 21
PREHISTORIC PAINTINGS ..............................................................................................................................................................21
ANCIENT PAINTINGS .....................................................................................................................................................................21
BUDDHIST CAVE PAINTING ...........................................................................................................................................................22
OTHER PAINTINGS ........................................................................................................................................................................22
MINIATURE PAINTINGS/ MEDIEVAL PAINTINGS ...........................................................................................................................22
SOUTH INDIAN PAINTINGS ............................................................................................................................................................23
COMPANY STYLE ...........................................................................................................................................................................24
BENGAL SCHOOL OF ART...............................................................................................................................................................24
FOLK PAINTINGS ...........................................................................................................................................................................24

2. PERFORMING ART
2.1 INDIAN MUSIC .................................................................................................................................................................. 26
HISTORY OF INDIAN MUSIC ...........................................................................................................................................................26
INDIAN CLASSICAL MUSIC .............................................................................................................................................................26
HINDUSTANI CLASSICAL MUSIC ....................................................................................................................................................26
SEMI-CLASSICAL STYLES OF HINDUSTANI MUSIC ..........................................................................................................................27
CARNATIC CLASSICAL MUSIC ........................................................................................................................................................28
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HINDUSTANI AND CARNATIC MUSIC........................................................................................................29
CATEGORIES OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS .....................................................................................................................................29
REGIONAL MUSIC ..........................................................................................................................................................................29
2.2 INDIAN DANCE FORMS...................................................................................................................................................... 31
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ASPECTS OF DANCE .......................................................................................................................................................................31
INDIAN CLASSICAL DANCES ...........................................................................................................................................................31
FOLK DANCES OF INDIA .................................................................................................................................................................34
OTHER FOLK DANCES ....................................................................................................................................................................34
2.3 INDIAN THEATRE............................................................................................................................................................... 35
2.4 INDIAN PUPPETRY............................................................................................................................................................. 35
STRING PUPPET .............................................................................................................................................................................36
SHADOW PUPPET..........................................................................................................................................................................36
ROD PUPPET..................................................................................................................................................................................37
GLOVE PUPPET ..............................................................................................................................................................................37
2.5 MARTIAL ARTS IN INDIA .................................................................................................................................................... 38

3. CULTURE IN INDIA
3.1 NATIONAL SYMBOLS OF INDIA .......................................................................................................................................... 39
3.2 CLASSICAL LANGUAGE ...................................................................................................................................................... 39
3.3 IMPORTANT ANCIENT UNIVERSITIES ................................................................................................................................. 40
3.4 PROMINENT FOREIGN TRAVELLERS TO INDIA IN ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL PERIOD ........................................................... 40
3.5 PRINTING/WEAVING/SAREES/EMBROIDERY STYLES IN INDIA ........................................................................................... 41
3.6 WORLD HERITAGE SITE IN INDIA ....................................................................................................................................... 42
3.7 INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA...................................................................................................................... 43
3.8 CALENDERS: ...................................................................................................................................................................... 43
3.9 FAIRS AND FESTIVALS OF INDIA ........................................................................................................................................ 44
3.10 AWARDS AND HONORS .................................................................................................................................................. 46
BHARAT RATNA .............................................................................................................................................................................46
PADMA AWARDS ..........................................................................................................................................................................46
SAHITYA AKADEMI AWARD ...........................................................................................................................................................46
BHASHA SAMMAN ........................................................................................................................................................................47
JNANPITH AWARD ........................................................................................................................................................................47
DADA SAHEB PHALKE AWARD.......................................................................................................................................................47
3.11 CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA .................................................................................................................................. 47
THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA (ASI).............................................................................................................................47
NATIONAL MISSION FOR MANUSCRIPTS ......................................................................................................................................47
SAHITYA ACADEMY .......................................................................................................................................................................48
SANGEET NATAK ACADEMI ...........................................................................................................................................................48
LALIT KALA ACADEMY ...................................................................................................................................................................48

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1. VISUAL ARTS

1.1 INDIAN SCULPTURE

The first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus Valley civilization.
SCULPTURES OF INDUS CIVILIZATION:

• Sculpture of IVC was made up of Bronze, Stone, terracotta, Clay etc.
• Bronze casting was widely practiced & they used “lost wax technique” or “Cire Perdue” for it.

STONE A male torso of polished red lime stone from Harappa. Bearded high priest made from
Steatite found in Mohenjo-Daro bears a close resemblance to a similar figure discovered
in the Sumerian sites of Ur and Susa.
BRONZE The bronze dancing girl in Tribhanga posture discovered at Mohenjo-Daro. She wears a
large number of bangles, probably made of bone or ivory on her left arm together with a
couple of pairs on her right arm. Other ex- Bull found in Kalibangan.
TERRACOTTA Large sized mother goddess is one of the best preserved and comes from Mohenjo-Daro.
They used pinching method for making terracotta sculpture. other Examples –
bearded man, toys, Bull etc.
SEALS A large number of seals made of steatite discovered. Seals are of various shapes and sizes
but mostly are in square. Most of seals have an inscription in pictographic script (yet to
be deciphered) & they were used for educational & commercial purpose. Pasupathi
seal (surrounded by four animals - a rhino, a buffalo, an elephant and a tiger) made from
steatite found in Mohenjo-Daro is famous one.
ORNAMENTS IVC people were fashion conscious they used different ornaments. ornaments like
necklaces, fillets, armlets and finger rings wore by both men and women. Girdles, earrings
and anklets were worn only by women.


POTTERY Two types- Plain and painted pottery. Plain pottery is more common. Under red and black
pottery, red colour was used to paint the background and black colour to draw designs of
trees birds, animals, human figures and geometrical pattern.
Uses: Household (Storage of water, food grains etc.) For decoration. Used as perforated
pottery (with large hole in the bottom and small holes across sides)- might have been used
for straining liquor.
MAURYAN SCULPTURE:
• Indian sculpture considerably progressed during the Mauryan period & it was largely influenced by
Buddhism.
• This period marked the appearance of Indian stone sculpture.
• Sculptures were used primarily for the decoration of stupas, in the torana and medhi and as the form of
religious expression.
• Two of the famous sculptures of the Mauryan period are those of Yaksha and Yakshi. They were objects of
worship related to all three religions.
POST -MAURYAN SCULPTURES:

GANDHARA SCHOOL OF ART MATHURA SCHOOL OF ART AMRAVATI SCHOOL OF ART
• Developed in North west • Mathura, Sonkh and Kankalitila • Krishna- Godavari lower
frontier valley.
• Influence of Greek or • Indigenous • Indigenous
Hellenistic influence (Indo
Greek art)
• Earlier period - Bluish green • Spotted red sandstone • White marbles
sandstone used. later period-
use of mud and stucco.
• Mainly influence of Buddhist • Influence of Buddhism, Jainism & • Buddhist influence
Hinduism
• Promoted by Kushana • Kushana rulers • Satvahana rulers
Dynasty
• Features: • Buddha • Reflects
Spiritual shown in narrative art,
Buddha delighted less
with heavy mood emphasis on
hairs, with a the
wearing smiling individual
less face, head features of Buddha.
ornaments, and face shaven, Muscularity, • It depicts jataka stories-
large forehead, Buddha seated tight dress, energetic body, theme based on life of
in position of yogi, large years, Buddha’s face reflects grace, previous birth of Buddha both
eyes half closed protuberance seated in padmasan, right hand in in human as well as animal
on his head. abhay mudra (indicate devotee form.
not to be afraid), protuberance
on head.
GUPTA SCULPTURE:
• Hindu, Buddhist, Jain sculptures were developed as a result of proliferation of these religions. Images of god
Goddess appeared.
• The traditional main centre of sculpture was Mathura, which continued to flourish, along with the art
of Gandhara, the centre of Greco-Buddhist art.
• Sarnath school of sculpture developed during the Gupta period. Mathura and Sarnath exported sculpture
to other parts of northern India.


• Features - cream colored sandstone, use of metal, dressed sculptures, Decorated halo around the head of
Buddha.
• Example: Sultanganj Buddha (Bihar) - It is a copper sculpture.
• The stone carving from the temples at Deogarh and those from the temples of Udayagiri and Ajanta are
excellent specimens of figure sculpture in their decorative setting. Example- Vishnu Anantasheshashayee,
Vishnu Temple, Deogarh, Uttar Pradesh.
SCULPTURE OF SOUTH INDIA:

• Sculptures on the walls of temple is the important feature of Chola temples.
• An artistic movement of great importance flourished under the aegis of the Pallava rulers of Kanchi and they
are credited with having built the seven monolithic pagodas, the rathas, in Mahabalipuram.
• The Descent of the Ganges at Mahabalipuram, is "the largest and most elaborate sculptural composition
in India”.
• Some of the outstanding sculptures that are credited to their patronage are the Mahishasuramardini in relief,
Girigovardhana panel, Arjuna's penance or the Descent of the Ganga, Trivikrama Vishnu, Gajalakshmi and
Anatasayanam.
• In the middle of the 8th century the Rashtrakutas wrested power from the Chalukyas. They created the
greatest wonder of medieval Indian art in their Kailasa temple at Ellora. The beautiful architectural rock
sculpture from Cave No.29 at Ellora shows the marriage of Siva and Parvati.
• Magnificent sculpture at Ellora is a panel depicting Ravana shaking mount Kailasa.
• The cave-shrine at Elephanta is another great monument of the Rashtrakutas, which contains the famous
Mahishamurti. The three heads emanating from one and the same body represent three different aspects of
Lord Shiva
• Sculptures of Brihadesvara temple at Tanjavur which is the most mature and majestic of the Chola temples.
Sculpture of Nataraja in the Tandava dance posture is notable and famous.
• A good example of Chola craftsmanship in the 11th century is the relief carving of Siva as Gajsurasamahara
murti.
• Orissan temple has representations of young and charming creatures with a seductive smile, luxurious hair
full of jewellery, they are, called Nayikas.
• The famous temple at Konark, was built by Narasimha Varman in the middle of the 12th century and
dedicated to Surya or the sun-god. It has been conceived as a huge stone chariot on immense wheels, dragged
by seven rearing horses.

A splendid example of the Hoysala sculptural art is portrayed in the carving showing Lord Krishna holding aloft
the mountain Goverdhana to save the inhabitants of Gokul from the wrath of Indra Vijaynagar empire,
Krishnadevraya one of the Gopuras at Chidambaram.

FEATURES OF THE NATARAJA SCULPTURE:
• The upper right hand holds the drum - Signifies the sound of creation. All
creations spring from the great sound of the damru.
• The upper left hand holds the eternal fire - Represents destruction.
• The lower right hand - Gesture of abhaya mudra
• The lower left hand - Points towards the upraised foot and indicates the path
of salvation.
• Ardhanarishwar - one ear of Shiva has a male earring while the other has
female which represents the fusion of male and female and is referred as
ardhanarishwar.
• A snake is twisted around the arm of Shiva symbolizes the kundalini power,
which resides in the human spine in dormant stage.
MODERN INDIAN SCULPTURE:

• The basic characteristics and problems of contemporary Indian Sculpture are very similar to those of
contemporary painting.


• Examples are: Painting: 'Woman plucking flowers' by Gagendranath Tagore, Pujarins' by
Jamini Roy, 'June 70' by Biren De , 'Cock Seller' by K.G. Subramanyam
• Sculpture: "Triumph of labour' by D.P. Roy Chowdhury, Delhi.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE:

PARAMETER ARCHITECTURE SCULPTURE
Size and scope Architecture refers to the design and Sculptures are relatively smaller 3-
construction of buildings dimensional works of art.
Material used Architecture generally uses a mixture of A single piece of sculpture is usually made of
various type of materials like stone, wood, a single type of material.
glass, metal, sand, etc.
Principle Architecture generally uses a mixture of A single piece of sculpture is usually made of
various type of materials like stone, wood, a single type of material.
glass, metal, sand, etc.
Example Taj Mahal, Red fort, etc. Nataraj’s Image, Dancing Girl, etc.
1.2 INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

• Indian architecture, which has evolved through centuries, is the result of socio-economic and geographical
conditions.
• Indian architecture, belonging to different periods of history, bears the stamp of respective periods.

ARCHITECTURE IN HARRAPAN CIVILIZATION:
• Town planning is remarkable feature of Indus Valley civilization.
• The towns were in a rectangular grid pattern with roads at right angles.
• Used burnt mud bricks joined with gypsum mortar (contemporary Egypt dried bricks were used).
• The city was divided in two parts, the city on raised platform, Known as Upper citadel & the lower town
known as lower citadel (working class quarters).
• Upraised Citadel was used for constructing large buildings - granaries, administrative buildings, pillared halls
and courtyard.


• Upper citadel had residence of the rulers and aristocrats while working-class lived-in lowers part of
the city.
• Do not have large monumental structures such as temples or palaces for rulers unlike Egyptian and
Mesopotamian Civilisation.
• They had advanced drainage system. Mostly buildings have private wells and properly ventilated
bathrooms.
• The street drains were equipped with manholes.
• Public bath is also important feature of IVC.
• The Great Bath found at Mohenjo-Daro is most famous. It served ritual bathing.
MAURYAN ARCHITECTURE
• Mauryan architecture was influenced by Buddhism & Jainism.
• It can be divided into:
1. Court art: Court art developed under the patronage of the State and it includes Palaces, Pillars, Stupa
etc.
2. Popular art: Popular developed by individual initiative. ex- Sculpture, pottery and caves etc.
1. COURT ART:

• Palaces at Kumrahar, Patliptura (capital of Maurya).
• The palace of Chandragupta Maurya was inspired by the Achaemenid palaces at
Palaces Persepolis in Iran.
• Ashoka’s Palace had a high central pillar and was a three-storey wooden structure
• The walls of palaces were decorated with carvings and sculptures. Wood was
predominantly used in construction of palaces.
• Chunar sandstone was used.
• Mauryan pillars mainly comprise of four parts:
1. Shaft: A long shaft formed the base and was made up of a single piece of stone or
monolith.
2. Capital: On top of shaft lay the capital, which was either lotus-shaped or bell-shaped.
3. Abacus: Above the capital, there was a circular or rectangular base known as the
abacus.
Pillars 4. Capital Figure: All the capital figures (usually animals like a bull, lion, elephant, etc)
are vigorous and carved standing on a square or circular abacus.
• Examples - Lauria Nandangarh Pillar (Champaran), Sarnath Pillar near Varanasi.
• Sarnath Lion Capital:
Ø It was built by Ashoka in commemoration of Dhammachakra pravartana or the
first sermon of Buddha.
Ø The abacus and the animal part of the Sarnath pillar forms the official national emblem
of India. The words “Satyameva Jayate” taken from Mundaka Upanishad.
Ø In the abacus of the Sarnath pillar, four animals are shown representing four
directions – a horse (west), an elephant (east), a bull (south) and a lion (north).

SIMILARITIES WITH PERSIAN (ACHAEMENIAN) PILLARS:
• Both used polished stones and have certain common sculpture motifs such as the lotus.
• Maurya’s idea inscribing proclamations (related to Buddhist teachings and court orders) on pillars has its
origin in Persian pillars.

DIFFERENCES:



DIFFERENCES ASHOKAN PILLARS ARCHIMEDEAN PILLARS
Shaft • Monolithic • Have joints
• Tapers from bottom to top • Cylindrical
• Smooth • Grooves
Support base • No support base • A support base.
Bell shaped part • At the top • At bottom.
Purpose • Independently erected • Part of the palace
Capitals • Have capitals have sculptures of lions, • No capitals only images of humans
elephants and bulls. are engraved on shafts

STUPA ARCHITECTURE:
• It is a Buddhist monument which is a hemi spherical dome with
Buddha’s relics & ashes inside.
• Stupas were burial mounds prevalent in India from the Vedic
period but they were popularised by the Buddhists.
• Stupas consist of a cylindrical drum with a circular anda and a
harmika and a chhatra on the top.
• The stupa originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth,
later called anda. Gradually, it evolved into a more complex
structure, balancing round and square shapes.
• Above the anda was the harmika, a balcony like structure that represented the abode of the gods.
• Arising from the harmika was a mast called the yashti, often surmounted by a chhatri or umbrella. Around
the mound was a railing, separating the sacred space from the secular world.
• Examples:
1. Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh is the most famous of the Ashokan stupas.
2. Piprahwa Stupa in Uttar Pradesh is the oldest one.
3. Stupas built after the death of Buddha: Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama,
Vethapida, Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalivana.

2. POPULAR ART:

• Mauryan period witnessed emergence of rock-cut cave architectures. These
caves were commonly used as viharas (living Places), by the Jain and Buddhist
monks.
Cave • The caves during the Mauryan period were marked by a highly polished finish of
Architecture the interior walls and decorative gateways.
• Example - Barabar Caves and Nagaragunja Caves in Bihar were carved during the
time of Ashoka and Dasharath, grandson of Ashoka in 3rd century BC. Nasik caves
belongs to both Hinayana and Mahayana sects.
• Pottery of the Mauryan period is generally referred to as Northern Black Polished
Ware (NBPW).
Pottery • Mauryan pottery was characterized by black paint and highly lustrous finish and
was generally used as luxury items.
• Kosambi and Patliputra were the centers of NBPW pottery.
POST MAURYAN ARCHITECTURE

CAVES:
• Post- Mauryan period saw the development of two types of rock caves – Chaitya and Viharas.
• Viharas were developed during the Mauryan period whereas Chaitya halls were developed during
Post-Mauryan time period.
• Chaitya was a rectangular prayer hall with a stupa placed in the centre, for the purpose of prayer and
Viharas were used as the residences of the monks.


• Examples:
Ø Karle Chaitya Hall, Ajanta Caves
Ø Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves (Odisha) were patronized by the Kalinga king Kharavela. They are
known for the Hathigumpha inscription (in Brahmi script).
• During Satavahana time, caves got royal patronage and became more elaborate and ornamented. A variety
of mithun couples were carved on the gates. Multi-storied caves came up. Double storied viharas came up at
Karle and triple storied at Ajanta.

Differences between Buddhist Caves and Jain Caves:

JAIN CAVES BUDDHIST CAVES
• Jaina caves were cut in sandstone (easy to cut but • Buddhist caves were cut into hard rocks (better
not good for sculpting). for sculpting).
• The Jaina caves had no congregation halls or • The Buddhist caves had clear halls and the
rock cut shrines. shrine area.
• The Jaina cave cells were cut wherever the rock • The Buddhist cave structure was well laid out.
permitted, there was no planning.
• The Jaina caves were simple and reflected the • The Buddhist caves were an elaborate and
asceticism of Jaina monks. spacious.
• Similarities - sculptures use similar motifs like animals, plants. The honeysuckle style is also similar in
both. Examples - Khandgiri and Udaigiri in Puri.

STUPAS:
• Post Mauryan period stupas became larger and more decorative and wood and brickwork were
replaced by stone.
• Torans: The Shunga dynasty introduced the idea of torans (Torans reflect the Hellenistic influence) which
were beautifully decorated gateways to the stupas.
• Examples- Bharhut stupa in Madhya Pradesh.
GUPTA ARCHITECTURE
• The Gupta period was poor in architecture. Cave architecture continued in this period and use of mural
paintings on the walls of the caves became an added feature.
• Dhamek Stupa at Sarnath near Varanasi is famous stupa developed during this period. However, Stupa
construction declined during the Gupta period.
• Temple construction (Shikhara) picked up:
1. Dashavatar Temple, Jhansi, U.P.
2. Bhitargav Temple (Brick) Kanpur, U.P.
3. Parvati Temple, Nachnakuthara, M.P.
4. Vishnu Temple, Jabalpur, M.P.
• Both the Nagara and Dravidian styles of art evolved during this period. But most of the architecture of
this period had been lost due to foreign invasions like that of Huns.
• The Buddha statue unearthed at Sarnath was unique piece of Gupta art. The Bhitari monolithic pillar of
Skandagupta is also remarkable.

IMPORTANT CAVES:

Mandapeshwar Caves In Maharashtra; Brahmanical caves, later converted into Jain caves.
Junagadh Caves Buddhist cave; in Gujrat; Presence of a 30-50 ft high citadel known as “Upar Kot” in
front of the prayer hall is unique feature.
Udayagiri caves In Madhya Pradesh; - Patronage of Chandragupta II. The sculpture of Varaha or Boar
incarnation of the Vishnu is famous one.


Bagh Caves In Madhya Pradesh; Buddhist caves. similarity with the Ajanta caves but Paintings
are more materialistic rather than spiritualistic.
Ajanta caves In Maharashtra; Buddhist caves; fresco painting technique used for paintings.
Absence of blue colour is important feature of paintings.
Ellora Caves In Maharashtra; diversity in themes & architectural style. Hindu and Buddhist Caves
constructed by Rashtrakutas and Jain Caves by Yadava dynasty.
INDO ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

• Indo-Islamic architecture is a mixture of Indian, Persian, Arab and Turkish.
• Islamic style incorporated many elements from the traditional Indian style viz Decorative brackets, Balconies,
Pendentive decorations etc.
• Distinguishing features of Indo-Islamic architecture:
1. kiosks (chhatris)
2. Tall towers (minars)
3. Half-domed structure
4. Jali work, calligraphy, Pietra dura

FEATURES OF INDO ISLAMIC MEDIEVAL ART:
• Arch & Dome method.
• Presence of Minar.
• Use of mortar as cementing agent.
• Avoided representation of Human being.
• Avoided Spaciousness, massiveness & Breadth.
• Generally decorated richly in geometrical & arabesque methods.
• Use of figures & animals discouraged.
• Use of geometry in terms of Symmetry & for drawing geometrical pattern.
• Use of gates in the premises in the form of courtyard pools & fountains.
• Charbagh style.
• Pietra dura technique - inlay of precious-coloured stones and gems into the walls for decoration.
• Foresightening technique - inscriptions appear to be closer than they really are.
• Use of water in the premises of construction
• Arcuate’ style of architecture replaced the Trabeate style of architecture.

Arabesque Designs
• Arabesque, style of decoration characterized by intertwining plants and abstract curvilinear motifs.
• It is characterized by continuous stem which splits regularly producing a series of counter poised, leafy
secondary stems Secondary stems split again into tertiary stems to be reintegrated into the main stem.

DELHI SULTANATE PERIOD (1206-1526 AD)
Two broad categories architecture:
1. Imperial Style - Patronised by the rulers of Delhi.
2. Provincial Style - Patronised by local rulers and fiefs.

1. IMPERIAL STYLE

• Architecture style developed by them is called as Mamluk Style.
Slave dynasty • The construction of Qutub Minar was started by Qutub-ud-din Aibak (1199)
(1206-1290) and completed by his successor IItutmish (1210-35). fifth storey was added by
Feroze Shah Tughlaq.


• The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque was constructed by Aibak around 1192 AD by using
the demolished material of Hindu and Jain temples
• Another example of this style is Arhai -din-ka-Jhonpra at Ajmer.
• The architecture Style developed by them is called as Seljuk style.
• Prominent features –
o The true arch in the form of a pointed horseshoe.
Khilji Dynasty o Broad dome, recessed arches under the squinch.
(1290-1320) o Perforated windows, inscriptional bands.
o Use of red sandstone, use of mortar as cementing agent in all constructions.
• Allaudin Khilji built Alahi Darwaja (a gateway) to the enclosure of Quwwat-ul-
Islam mosque. He also built Siri fort.
• Focused more on strength of building as compared to the decoration.
• Used grey sandstone, red sandstone etc
• Tughlaqs introduced the concept of slopping walls known as “Battar” to give
more strength to the building.
Tughlaqs • Combined both arch and lintel method of entrance design.
(1320-1413) • Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325 AD) built Tughlaqabad, the 3rd historical city
of Delhi.
• Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, built of red sandstone, is an irregular pentagon in
its exterior plan & is of the pointed or “Tartar” shape, crowned by a finial.
• Examples – Cities of Jahanpanah, Ferozabad etc.
• The Sayyid period was too short to evolve elaborate buildings, but the octagonal
tombs of the time possess a distinct architectural character.
Sayyid Period • The decorative features of these tombs consist of the use of blue enamelled tiles
(1414-1451) enhancing the color effect.
• The Lotus motif crowning the tomb and free use of Guldasta’s used in this period
considerably influenced the style of subsequent period.
• Only tombs were commissioned during this period.
• Introduction of double Domes was the important feature.
• The tomb architecture of this period is of two types, though both have grey granite
Lodi’s Style walls.
(1451-1526) • One is octagonal in design having a verandah; the other is square in plan, having
no verandah.
• Tombs built during Lodi’s period were hard and bare and lavish decorations
were absent.
• Sikander Lodhi established the city of Agra and made it as his capital. He also
repaired Qutub- Minar. Another example is Lodi Gardens.

Seven cities of Delhi:
1. Qila Rai Pithora by Rajput king
2. Siri by Alauddin Khilji
3. Tughlaqabad by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
4. Jahanpanah by Mohammad-bin-Tughlaq (14th century).
5. Firozabad by Feroz shah Tughlaq.
6. Delhi Sher shahi/ Shergad by Sher shah Suri
7. Shahjanabad by Shahjahan.

2. PROVINCIAL STYLE:

1. Bengal School of • Use of bricks and black marble was distinct feature of this architectural style.
Architecture



• The so-called “Bengal” roof with sloping cornices, which originated from the
bamboo construction, was adopted by the Muslims and later it spread widely, even
in other regions.
• Ex: - kadam Rasul mosque in gaur, Bengal & Adina Masjid at Pandna, Bengal.
• Use of different colored stones and marbles, absence of minars were unique
feature.
2. Malwa School of • It is also known as the Pathan School of Architecture.
Architecture (MP & • European influence can be noticed.
Rajasthan) • Environmental adaptation - large windows, baulis, Local materials, batter
system etc.
• Ex: - Rani Rupmati pavilion, Ashrafi Mahal, Hindola Mahal & Jahaz Mahal.
3. Jaunpur School • Patronised by the Sharqi rulers hence known as Sharqi style.
(1394–1479 AD) • It avoided the use of minars.
• Example: Atala Mosque, Jaunpur.
MUGHAL PERIOD ARCHITECTURE

• Indo-Muslim architecture got striking improvement with the arrival of Mughals, as had been declined
significantly during the Lodi’s period.
• Unlike Delhi Sultanate Sultans, Mughals mixed and mingled with the local population & Rajput provinces.

BABAR
• For 4 years he ruled in India most of his time was spent in war.
• However, he was fond of formal gardens and a couple of gardens are ascribed to him.
• Ascribed to him are mosque of Kabuli Bagh at Panipat and Jami Masjid at Sambhal near Delhi.

Tomb Architecture
• The general pattern of the tomb architecture is consisted of:
1. a domed chamber (hujra)
2. a cenotaph in its centre with a mehrab on the western wall
3. the real grave in the underground chamber
• To this general tomb architecture, the Mughals added a new dimension by introducing
• gardens all around the tomb.
• The Mughals also introduced the double dome system of dome architecture and the Pietra-dura style of
inlay decorations.

HUMAYUN & SUR INTERREGNUM
• Could not focus on architecture due to constant conflict with Sher Shah Suri.
• He led the foundation of a city named Dinpanah. Persian style became prominent in the architecture of this
period.
• Humayun’s tomb - The first distinct example of proper Mughal architecture is the tomb of Humayun, in
Delhi, built by his widow, Begha Begum.

SHER SHAH SURI
• Suri period marked the transition from Lodi style to Mughal style of architecture.
• Buildings built by him - Qila-e-Quhunah /Mosque of the Old Fort mosque (Delhi), Rohtas Fort (Pakistan).
• Re-constructed and extended old Mauryan route and renamed it as Sadak-e- Azam (Great Road). It was later
known as Grand Trunk Road.
• Suri’s tomb (red sandstone) was constructed at his birthplace Sasaram.

AKBAR
• Akbar’s made Agra his seat of power. His architecture reflects a blend of the Hindu and Islamic creation.


• The use of red sandstone was principal feature of the constructions during Akbar’s reign. He also introduced
the use of ‘Tudor arch’ (four centred arch).
• Akbar also built a temple of Govind Dev in Vrindavan.

• Construction started during the reign of Akbar but most of the structures present inside
the fort were done during the reign of Shah Jahan.
Agra Fort • Important Buildings built by Shahjahan - Moti Masjid, Diwan-i-aam, Diwan-i-khas,
Jahangiri Mahal.
• Charbagh style garden noticeable here.
Prominent buildings in the city:
• Buland Darwaza - Red sandstone structure - built in 1576 AD, to commemorate
Akbar’s victory over Gujarat. It is the highest gateway of the world.
Fatehpur • Panch Mahal - five-storied structure made of columns and is inspired by the concept of
Sikri: New • Ibadat Khana: Akbar used to meet the leaders of different religions to have discussion.
capital of • Hiran Minar - was built in memory of Akbar’s favourite elephant, named Hiran. It also
Akbar served as lighthouse for travellers.
• Salim Chishti’s tomb - built in 1581 AD., later further decorated by Jahangir in 1606
AD.
• Jodha Bai’s Palace.

JAHANGIR
• Focused more on the paintings.
• Introduced ‘Pietra Dura’ (decorating the walls with floral designs made of semi-precious stones started)
was started in his reign only.
• Built Shalimar Bagh in Kashmir and Moti Masjid at Lahore.
• Built Akbar’s Tomb at Sikandra near Agra, which was completed in 1613.
• His wife constructed tomb of Itmad-ud-daulah (her father) and its first Mughal work made completely of
white marble.

SHAHJAHAN
• Erected the most romantic building, Taj Mahal, the tomb of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal.
• All features of Mughal architecture are present in Taj Mahal.
• Shahjahan also constructed Red Fort and Jama Masjid in Delhi, Shalimar Bagh in Lahore, City of
Shahjahanabad.
• Construction of Peacock Throne belong to his reign.
• Tomb of Jahangir was constructed by his son Shah Jahan at Lahore.

AURANGZEB
• Mughal architecture declined during his reign.
• Built Bibi-ki-Maqbara (tomb of his wife Begum Rabia Durani) → a poor replica of the Taj Mahal
MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE STYLES (OTHER THAN INDO-ISLAMIC)

• Influenced by Mughal architecture.
• Important feature - hanging balcony (jharokha)
• Rajput palaces - Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Udaipur and Kota Palaces
Rajput • Man Mandir - The largest palace in Gwalior, was built by Raja Man Singh Tomar (1486-
Architecture 1516)
Style • Jaipur built by Jai Singh, represents a synthesis of Rajput and Mughal architectural
styles. The city is enclosed by a wall and has bastions and towers at regular intervals.
• Prominent structures at Jaipur - Hawa Mahal (1799), Jantar Mantar, the largest of five
observatories built by Jai Singh II in the early 18thcentury, others being Ujjain, Mathura,
Varanasi & New Delhi.


• Developed around Awadh area under the patronage of Nawabs of Awadh.
Avadh • Bara Imambara → Built by the Nawab in 1784. Absence of pillars in the main hall (Simple
Architecture & symmetrical in design)
Style • Chattar Manzil → Main attractions are the underground rooms and a beautiful dome
surrounded by a gilt umbrella
• Rumi Darwaza - Lucknow – Built in 1784.
• Typified by use of woodwork.
• Kashmiri architecture developed under 2 phases early medieval Hindu phase and 14th
century onwards Muslim rule.
• Imp features of temple architecture – Trefoil arches (Gandhara
influence), Cellular layout and enclosed courtyard, Straight-edged
pyramidal roof, Column walls & Triangular pediments (Greek influence).
Hindu • Martand Sun Temple – Constructed under Karkota dynasty and Utpala
phase dynasty. Influenced by Gandhara, Chinese and Gupta school of
Kashmir architecture.
Style • Other temples – Temples at Awantipora, Pandrethan Temple (dedicated
to Vishnu), Mamleshwar Shiva temple etc.
Islamic • Log construction using deodar trees for the construction of wooden
phase bridges called kadals or the wooden shrines called ziarats.
• Mosque of Shah Hamdan in Srinagar and the Jami Masjid at Srinagar built
by Sikandar Butshikan (1400 AD) – examples of the wooden architecture.
• Gardens – Features – Char Bagh style. Water streams, fountains and trees.
Shalimar Bagh (built by Jahangir in 1619 AD), Nishat Bagh, Badamwari
Garden (Srinagar).
• Pari Mahal was built by Mughal prince Dara Shikoh in mid-17th century.
Sikh • Influenced by Mughal style and Rajput style of architecture.
Architecture • Features → multiplicity of Chattris /kiosks, fluted dome generally covered with copper
Style or brass gilt and enrichment of arches by numerous foliations
• Notable example → Golden Temple at Amritsar (16-17 century)
• Architectural development started in 1347 when Allauddin Bahman Shah constructed the
Gulbarga Fort & the Jama Masjid at Gulbarga.
• Second phase is represented by the Ahmed Shah (1422-1436), which includes the Bidar
Fort, Mahmud Gawan’s Madrassa and the Ali Barid’s Tomb.
• Developed during the reign of Adilshah → most important example is Gol
Deccan Style Gumbaz
Architecture • Gol Gumbaz of Bijapur is the mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah
Bijapur (1627).
School • It is the largest dome cubicle in the world. Its underground vaults
(Karnataka) consist of a square grave chamber and a large single square chamber
above the ground
• Prominent feature → Large hemispherical dome surmounting it & seven
storied octagonal towers on its corners.

COLONIAL ARCHITECTURE – MODERN INDIA

• They adapted to India the climatically appropriate Iberian galleried patio house &
the Baroque churches of Goa.
Portuguese style • Portuguese used bricks as the main building material along with wooden roofs &
stairs.
• Examples - Basilica of Bom Jesus & Sé Cathedral in Goa, Castella de Aguada in Mumbai,
St. Paul’s Church, Diu.
French style • Gave a distinct urban design to its settlement in Pondicherry by applying the
Cartesian grid plans & classical architectural patterns.

Abhijeet Pratap Singh Avi

• Examples - Church of Sacred Heart of Jesus (Puducherry) & the Sacred Heart Church
of Chandannagar.
• British followed various architectural styles – Gothic, Imperial, Christian, English
Renaissance & Victorian being the essentials.
• Britishers used Red sandstone & coarse limestone as the main building material.
• Church of St. John at Calcutta (1787), St. Mary’s Church in Fort St. George in Chennai,
Law Courts, Presidency College and Senate House of Chennai, New Delhi –
systematically planned city after made capital in 1911.
Victoria • Designed by William Emerson in late 19th century
Memorial Hall, • To perpetuate the memory of Queen Victoria in India
Kolkata • Drew elements from the indigenous & Indo-Islamic architecture
combined with the Gothic revival & Neo-Classical styles.
British style Revival of Delhi • Transfer of capital from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911.
• Sir Edward Lutyens was made responsible for the overall plan
of Delhi.
• He constructed India Gate & Rashtrapati Bhawan.
• Vice regal palace appeared with a huge dome on the lines of a
Buddhist stupa,
• Represent some elements of Hindu ornamentation & Islamic
symmetry
• Herbert Baker added South Block and North Block, which flank
the Rashtrapati Bhawan.
• Englishman Robert Tor Tussell built the Connaught Place.
• Also known as Indo sarsenic style.
• Hybrid of of Indian, Persian and Gothic styles of architecture.
Indo gothic style • Ex: - St. Paul’s cathedral at Kolkata, Victoria memorial (Kolkata), & Gateway of India
(Mumbai)
• Features – Elaborate & large construction, Thinner walls, Pointed arches, Large
windows, Crucified ground plan of churches.
• Post-1911 constructions of British
Neo Roman style • Also known as Neo classical style.
• Architect - Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker
• Ex: - Rastrapathi bhavan, Parliament, Supreme Court.

Le-Corbusier - He was a French Architect. He designed the city of Chandigarh on the pattern of well-ordered
matrix
1.3 TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

• The first Hindu temples were built from rock-cut caves. Then, with the arrival of Gupta architecture, the first
free-standing Hindu temples were constructed and then gradual progression from flat roofed, monolithic
temple to sculptured ‘Shikhara’ in later years.

Progression can be classified into five stages which are:

STAGE CHARACTERISTICS
First • Flat Roof Temple; Mostly Square in Shape; developed on shallow pillar and entire structure is
on low platform; Ex: 17 number temples at Sanchi
Second • Comparative to previous one on higher platform; Passage way ‘Pradakshinapatha’ around
‘Garbhagriha’ (Sanctum); Instances of two storied temple; Ex: Parvati Temple at Nachna
Kuthara, MP


Third • Emergence of Shikharas; Quite low and almost Square; Panchayatan Style of temple introduced
(Four subsidiary shrine along with principal deity); Ground plan of crucified Shape; Ex:
Dashavtar temple, Deograh UP.
Fourth • Main Shrine became more rectangular rest is almost similar to previous type. Ex: Ter Temple
at Sholapur.
Fifth • Introduction of circular temple with shallow rectangular projection rest is almost similar to
previous type; Ex: Maniyar Math, Rajgir.

Few other types of Temples are:
• Sandhara: Temple without Pradakshinapatha.
• Nirandhara: Temple with Pradakshinapatha.
• Sarvatobhadra: Temple accessed from all sides.

BASIC ELEMENTS OF HINDU TEMPLES ARE:
• Kalasha: It is the top most part of the temple. Mainly seen in north Indian styles.
• Amalaka: Stone-like disc seen at the top of the temple. Mostly in north Indian temples.
• Shikhara/Vimana: Noticed from the 5th century CE. It is a mountain-like spire on top. In north India, it is
called Shikhara and is curving in shape. In the south, it is like a pyramidal tower and is called Vimana.
• Garbhagriha: Literally means womb-house. It is a cave-like sanctum which houses the main icon of the
temple. In earlier times, it was a small cubicle with one entrance. In later periods, it grew into a larger
chamber.
• Antarala: It is a vestibule between the Garbhagriha and the Mandapa.
• Mandapa: The entrance to the temple. It could be a portico or a collonaded hall where worshippers stand.
• Jagati: This is common in north Indian temples and is a raised platform where devotees can sit and pray.
• Vahana: It is the vehicle of the main deity which along with the standard pillar or Dhvaj which are placed
axialy.

TYPES INDIAN TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE:
NAGARA STYLE


• 5th century onwards + Temples are of Panchayatan Style + Presence
of assembly halls- Mandapa + Garbhgriha houses principal deity +
River Goddesse Ganga & Yamuna outside Garbhgriha are seen + No
Water Tanks like Dravidian style + No elaborate boundary walls or
Gopuram (gateway) around temples + Presence of Amalak &
Kalasha + Porticos had pillared approach + Pradakshina path
around Grabhgriha + Shikhara of 3 types: Rekhaprasadam
(Latina), Phamsana, Vallabhi + Inside walls are divided into Ratha
(Triratha, Panchratha, Saptratha).
• Nagara style has several sub styles such as: North & Central India
(Khajuraho), Western India (Solanki Style), East India (Odisha-Assam Style) and Hill Style.

NORTH & CENTRAL INDIA:
Most are made up of Sand Stone (Few exceptions like Bhitargaon Temple in UP is made of Bricks)
1. Dashavtar Temple: Deograh, UP + 6th Century BC + Gupta Era + Panchayatan Style temple + Dedicated to
lord Vishnu + different form of Vishnu can be seen on walls like Sheshnarayan, Naranarayan,
Gajendramoksha.
2. Khajuraho Group of Temples: MP + By Chandela Rulers + Panchayatan Style + Made of Sand Stone +
Interior and Exterior walls are lavishly decorated + known for their extensive erotic sculptures + Temples of
Hindu & Jain god both + others are Lakshmana Temple, Kandariya Mahadeo, Chausath Yogini Temple
(between 7th to 10th century, Famous for erotic sculpture and Parliament building).
3. Lakshamana Temple: 954 A.D + By Yashovarman (Chandela King) + dedicated to Lord Vishnu +
Panchayatan Style + Consist of Mahamandapa, Mandapa & Ardhmandapa + Garbhgriha with tallest Shikhara
+ decorated with sculptures.

WEST INDIA (SOLANKI STYLE):
• Made of Sand Stone, Black Basalt, Grey Basalt and after 11th Century of white
soft marble.
• Sun Temple: Modhera, Gujarat + 11th Century + By Bhimdev-I Solanki +
Unique feature is presence of step tank, which is full of small temples +
somewhere wooden carving can be seen + on equinox sub rays directly falls
on central shrine.

EAST INDIA (ODISHA STYLE):
• It is also known as Kalinga or Puri Style + Here Shikhara is called ‘deul’ + three types are Rekhadeul,
Pindhadeul and Khakharadeul + Mandapa is called Jagmohan + Temple have boundary walls like Dravidian
style + Exterior wallsare lavishly decorated whereas interior is plain + Ex: Jagannath Puri.
• Sun Temple: Konark, Odisha + 1240 A.D + By Narsimhadev-I of Ganga dynasty + Twelve pairs of wheels with
spokes and hubs representing chariot of sun god + It is also known as black pagoda.



• Lingraj Temple: Bhubneshar + 11th Century + By Somvanshi King Yayati-I + Dedicated to lord Shiva + Made
of Red stone + around 150 subsidiary shrines.

EAST INDIA (ASSAM STYLE):
• Terracotta used for Construction + 6th century door frame - Da Parvatia here
we can see the influence of Guptas but later by 12th to 14th century regional
style ‘Ahom’ is developed due to Tais from upper Burma is mixed with Pala
style of Bengal.
• Kamakhya Temple: Guwahati, Assam + 17th Century + Shakti Peeth,
dedicated to goddess Kamakhya + destination for tantric worshippers +
Famous for Ambubachi Mela (celebration of yearly menstruation of goddess).

HILL STYLE TEMPLE:
• Unique form of architecture developed in the hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and Kashmir + Initial
influence of Gandhara style is seen later mixed with Gupta & post Gupta tradition + Buddhist and Hindu
Temples are found + own tradition of wooden building with pitched roofs + main Garbhagriha & Shikhara
are in rekhaprasada style and Mandapa has wooden architecture+ Krakatoa period is most significant + Use
of copper and zinc in Image.
• Pandrethan Temple: 8-9th Century + dedicated to Lord Shiva + Water tank near shrine is found + Wooden
Building + Roof Peaked & Slowly outward slanting + Moderately ornamented + moving away from post
Guptas’ heavy carving.

DRAVIDA STYLE
• 7th century onwards temple building in south started under Pallava but reached its zenith under Cholas +
Panchayatan style but subsidiary shrines may not be in single complex + Assembly hall (Mandapa) connected
to Garbhgriha by ‘Antrala’ + Entrance of Garbhagriha generally finds sculpture of ‘Dvarapalas’ (Mithun and
Yakshas) + Large water reservoir within complex + High boundary walls around temple with gateways called
‘Gopuram’ + Amalak + Kalash became Shikhara + Shikhara of Nagara style became Vimana + Sometimes main
shrine has smallest Vimana + Sometimes only one Vimana on main shrine + Role of temple was not limited
to religious matter it became rich administrative center.
• Temples are of Five different shape: Square called ‘Kuta’ or ‘Chatusara’ + Rectangle called ‘Shala’ or
‘Ayatasra’ + Elliptical called ‘Gajaprishta’ or ‘Vrittayata’+ Circular called ‘Uritta’ + Octagonal called
‘Ashtasra’.

1. PALLAVA STYLE TEMPLE:
• Between 7th to 8th Century + Built many inscriptions in stone and monuments + Most temples are Shaivite
+ Influenced by Buddhist history of Deccan + Mandapa divided in rathas (Biggest- Dharmaraja Ratha) +
Pallavas temple can be classified in 4 stage (Earlier temple rock cut to structural temples in later era).
o Mahendravarman I - Rock cut temples.
o Narsimhavarman I - Rock cut temples decorated by intricate sculpture.


o Narsimhavaram II – Starting of real structural temple instead of rock cut temple.
o Nandivarman – Smaller in Size.
• Architecture at Mahabalipuram: 7th – 8th Century + Coastal town + also known as Mamllapuram founded
by Narsimhavarman I, who was known as ‘Mamalla’ means ‘Great Warrior’ + UNESCO WHS.
1. Shore Temple: 3 Shrines- 2 of Shiva and 1 of Vishnu + Structure Temple + Made of Granite + Earliest
example of Gopuram + Five storied.
2. Ratha Temple or Panch Ratha: Earliest rock cut Temple.
3. Open Air Rock Relief: Structural panel + Largest and oldest of world + story of descent of Ganges from
heaven to earth or story of arjuna’s penance or ‘Parashasti’ to praise Pallava king.

2. CHOLA STYLE TEMPLE:
• Between 9th to 13th Century + Bigger in scale than their
predecessors (Pallavas, Chalukyas or Pandyas).
• Shiva Temple: Thanjavur + 11th Century+ also known as
Rajarajesara or Brihadeshwara Temple + By Rajaraj Chola +
Largest and Tallest of all Indian Temples + It has multi storied
Vimana + Two storied Garbhgriha + Principal deity is Shiva in
Lingram form+ 1st time gopuram has been seen here + It has
Monolithic Shikhra + Garbhgriha walls has painted murals and
sculptures of mythological narrative.
VESARA STYLE
• Also known as Karnataka School + Mid 7th Century A.D + Started by
Chalukya rules and flourished during Rashtrakutas + Hybrid Style it
has features of both the Nagara and Dravidian style + Important
feature is that they have Nagara Style of Shikhara and Square base and
the Mandapa and Intricate carving on pillar are features taken from
Dravidian Style + Shikhara and Mandap are joined by Antarala. So, the
temples do not have ambulatory pathways or open pathway around
Sanctum Sanctorum.
• Ladkhan Temple: Aihole, Karnataka + Inspired by the wooden
roofed temples of the hills but it is constructed out of stone.
HOYSALA STYLE
• Around the region of Mysore, Karnataka+ Between 11th – 13th century AD + Multiple Shrine around Central
Hall + Famous for ‘Stellate Plan’ – Shrines in led in shape of Star + Made of soft soap stone + Built on upraised
platform called ‘Jagati’ + Decoration through sculpture and interior and exterior walls are carved intricately.
• Hoysaleshavara Temple: Halebid, Karnataka + 1150 AD + Made of dark schist stone + Dedicated to Shiva as
Nataraja + Temple is a double building with a large hall for the mandapa to facilitate music and dance.


VIJAYANAGARA STYLE
• Vijayanagara Founded in 1336 AD + Temples has combined features of Chola, Hoysala, Pandyas and
Chalukyas + Influenced by Indo-Islamic Style of Bijapur + Like Dravidian style temples are enclosed by
boundaries + Walls are highly decorated + Temple has gopuram on all the sides + Monolithic rock pillars +
More than one mandapa and central Mandapa is known as ‘Kalyan Mandapa’ + Introduced concept of
Secular buildings + Ex: Vittalswami Temple, Lotus Mahal, Virupaksha Temple at Hampi.

NAYAKA STYLE
It is also known as Madurai School + Between 16th to 18th AD + Similar to
Dravidian Style + Influenced by Islamic architecture+ Presence of Parakarms or
huge Corridors+ Art of Gopuram reached its climax in Nayaka style, one of the
tallest gopuram build under Nayaka Style at Meenakshi Temple, Madurai +
Intricate carving on temple structure.

PALA & SENA STYLE

• Pala Style Temple: Between 9th to 11th Century + Primarily Budddhist Monastry Sites (Mahayana Tradition)
+ Known to express local Vanga Style.
• Siddheshwara Temple: Barakar, WB + 9th Century + dedicated to Lord Shiva + Tall curving Shikhara
crowned by a large Amalaka.

• Sena Style Temple: Mid 11th to Mid-13th Century + building had Curve or slopping roof known as ‘Bangla
roof’ + Terracotta Brick were used + Sculptures are of stone and metals + Highly lustrous finish + Ex:
Dhakeshawari Temple, Bangladesh.



1.4 INDIAN PAINTING
• Painting is among the 64 Arts enumerated by Vatsyayana in his Kama Sutra and he mentioned six limbs of
Painting (shadangas).

SHADANGAS FEATURES
Rupabheda The knowledge of appearances.
Pramanam Correct perception, measure and structure
Bhava Action of feelings on forms.
Lavanya Yojanam Infusion of grace, artistic representation
Sadrisyam Similitude
Varnikabhanga Artistic manner of using the brush and colors
Varnikabhanga Artistic manner of using the brush and colors
PREHISTORIC PAINTINGS
• Earliest record of paintings belongs to prehistoric time i.e., rock paintings.
• Petroglyphs means Paintings created by engraving rock.
• Colors used - black, red, yellow & white.
• Most dominant scenes: Hunting, depiction of human figures with bows and arrows.
• Important sites – Jogimara (Chhattisgarh), Lakhudiyar (Uttarakhand), Mirzapur (UP), Kollagela Gundu
(Telengana).

Bhimbetka Paintings
• One of the oldest paintings in India and the world.
• Upper Paleolithic - Linear representations of animals and stick-like human figures.
• Mesolithic period - depicted Hunting animals and family life.
• Chalcolithic Period - association of cave-dwellers with the agricultural communities.

MURALS Murals are large works executed on the walls of solid structures.
Fresco is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly laid lime plaster. It is done
FRESCO on wet plaster and that is why it is more durable work than Mural. Murals are painted on
already dried surfaces.
ANCIENT PAINTINGS
Indus Valley Paintings:
• Created on ornamental terracotta utensils, decorated with human figures, birds and animals and geometrical
pattern.
• These terra cotta utensils are smooth and shining.
• The base is generally red with decorative lines in black.



BUDDHIST CAVE PAINTING
PAINTING/ SPECIAL FEAUTURE COLOUR AND THEME PATRON
MURAL
• Mural & Fresco paintings. • Colors- Yellow & Red • Satvahana
• Used Different hairstyles for every from ochre, black from • Vakataka
Ajanta & Ellora female emotion. lamp soot, lime from • Shunga
(5th and 6th • Ellora paintings showed diversity white. lapis lazuli for blue
century) and had Buddhist, Brahminical and which came from
Maharashtra Jain paintings too. Afghanistan.
• Both declared UNESCOs world • Themes – Buddhism.
heritage site in 1983.
• Represent “golden age” of Indian • Walls and ceilings were • Satvahana
BAGH (MP) classical art. covered with a thick mud,
• Bagh paintings were simllar to this is also known as
Ajanta & are more secular than tempera technique.
Ajanta.
OTHER PAINTINGS
Painting Virupaksha Sittannavasal Kanchipuram Badami Armamalai
Region Hampi Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu Karnataka Tamil Nadu
Period 15th century 9th century/ 7th century/ Caves at vatapi 8th century
Brihadeshwara kailasanatha
temple temple
Patron Vijaynagar empire Rajaraja chola Pallava Chalukya

Feature Stories of god Paintings of king Wall paintings Decorated Petroglyphs
and guru murals and rock art
Color & Epic theme of Guru is given Shiva and Parvati Shiva parvati/ Stories of
Theme procession of sage importance and Jain tirthankara Jainism
vidyaranya king is shown Adinatha
standing behind him
MINIATURE PAINTINGS/ MEDIEVAL PAINTINGS

• Miniature paintings are executed on a very small scale for books or albums.
• Buddhist text, Prajnaparamita, is the earliest known example of this.

PALA SCHOOL
• Paintings are in the form of a large number of manuscripts on palm-leaf related to the Buddhist themes
(Vajrayana)
• Example - Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita
• Paintings are characterized by sinuous line and subdued tones of color.
• Imp painters - Dhimman & Vitapala.
• Spread to Sri Lanka, Nepal, Burma, Tibet, and South-East Asian countries.

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WESTERN JAIN/ APABHRAMSA SCHOOL
• The Maru-Gurjar painting is one term which collectively denotes all the paintings in Rajasthan.
• The earliest painting - 8th century.
• Mewar Jain painting style developed in the form of small illustrations of the Jain Tirthankaras and some
themes from the Kalpasutras.

MUGHAL SCHOOL
• Synthesis of indigenous Indian style of painting & Safavid school of Persian painting.
• Themes - Nature, court, hunting scenes etc
• Fine and delicate drawing along with
• calligraphic text descriptions, generally on border.
• Primarily aristocratic & Mostly Secular.
• Miniature paintings reached its zenith during Jahangir reign.
• Under Shahjahan architecture got more imp than Paintings. Painting gained technical perfection but became
stereotype, static & less lively. Used charcoal, pencil to draw paintings and importance was given to
portraiture.
• During the rule of later Mughals quality of the Mughal painting declined.

RAJASTHANI PAINTINGS
• Also known as Rajput style of paintings & are broadly of two type viz. Courtly
and Literary.
• Origin – sultanate period- early 16th century.
• Themes – Sanskrit & folk literature, Vaishnavism & Jainism, Ragmala , court
scenes, Gita Govinda by Jayadeva and Bhagavat Purana.
• Created on – Tadapatra (Palm leaves) and paper
• Used mostly natural colors.
• Marwar paintings have more Mughal features & kishangarh, Bikaner, Bundi,
Nagaur, are sub schools of it.

SOUTH INDIAN PAINTINGS

Mysore school of painting by Wodeyar Dynasty Tanjore school of painting by Nayaka rulers and
Maratha Rulers.
Gesso work is Low in relief & intricate Thick gold relief and background colour always
green or red.
Gesso is prepared by mixing white lead powder, Raw lime powder is used along with a paste made of
gamboges and glue. powdered tamarind seed for Gesso work
Base is Paper on Cloth and wood Cloth with wood as base [PALAGI PADAM]
Lighter in weight Heavier in weight
Emphasis is on fine lines and delicate detail Lesser emphasis


Has no gem settings and glass embellishments Has gem settings and glass Embellishments

DECCAN SCHOOL
• The turbulent medieval times saw an exodus of artists to the South. These artists were patronized by the
Deccani Kingdoms – Bijapur, Ahmednagar & Golconda.
• The school preferred dense composition and attempted to create an aura of romance, which invariably
expressed itself in an idiom that was eloquently natural and vivid.
• Ex - “Lady with the Myna bird”, the “Lady smoking Hooka” & “princes in the company of maids”.
COMPANY STYLE
• A synthetic style was born in which the Indian artists imitated the English style of paintings.
• Subjects Landscapes and views of nature, Monuments – The Delhi paintings specially had Mughal monuments
as subject matter, Indian People, dancers, fairs and festivals and costumes
• Techniques varied but mostly was drawn upon western water colour technique, from which “transparency
of texture, soft tones and modelling in broad strokes” were borrowed from west.
• Paper was mostly used for these paintings. Ivory was also used.
• The most important early production center was Calcutta.
• Important artist; Sewak Ram (c. 1770-c. 1830), Ghulam Ali Khan.

Paintings of Raja Ravi Varma
• He was a famous Oleography painter. It is a method of reproducing an oil painting on paper in a way that
exact color and texture recorded. Also called stone or litho printing.
• Subject - Indian mythology, epics and puranas.
• He tried to re-establish the Indian art through western styles and technique.
• famous paintings were; DUSHYANTA AND SHAKUNTALA, and NALA AND DAMAYANT.

BENGAL SCHOOL OF ART
• Rejected the art of Raja Ravi Varma as imitative and westernized.
• They broke away from the tradition of oil painting and the realistic style of Raja Ravi Varma and company
artists and focused on traditional style.
• The turned to the inspiration to medieval Indian traditions of the miniature paintings and ancient art of
mural paintings in Ajanta Caves.

ABAINDRANATH TAGORE
• Traits/ features: spiritual values in the art.
• Famous paintings: Arabian Nights series (1930), Bharat Mata, The Passing of Shah Jahan
• Along with his disciples Pre Raphaelites of Bengal.

FOLK PAINTINGS
STATE FOLK PAINTING
Andhra • Kalamkari
Maharashtra • Warli
Bihar • Madhubani or Mithila
• Manjusha (Bhagalpur)
Jharkhand • Paitkar painting
Odisha • Pattachitra
• Saura
West Bengal • Patua Art
• Kalighat Painting
Sikkim • Thangka


Telangana • Cheriyal Scroll Paintings
Madhya Pradesh • Pithora painting

STUDENT NOTES:



2. PERFORMING ARTS
2.1 INDIAN MUSIC
HISTORY OF INDIAN MUSIC

• To begin the history of Indian music with the melodic patterns of Vedic chanting. The oldest music, which
possessed a grammar was the Vedic.
• The Rig-Veda is said to be the oldest: nearly 5000 years old. The origin of Indian Music can be traced from
Sam veda and its upveda- Gandhravaveda.
• All the seven notes of the raga Kharaharapriya mentioned in Sama Veda.
• The parts of the instrument Veena are mentioned in Aitareya Aranyaka.
• The Jaiminiya Brahmana speaks collectively of dance and music.
• The psalms of the Rig-Veda were called the richas.
• There were non-Aryan people with their own art. Like Santhal music from the Eastern region of India.
• Natyashastra of Bharata gives information on scales, melodic forms, tala and musical instruments.
THE EARLIEST TREATISE ON MUSIC:

Texts Writer
Natya Shastra • Bharata (2nd century B.C. and the 2nd century A.D)
Brihaddesi • Matanga (6th-8th century)
Sangeeta Ratnakara • Sharangadeva (13th century)
Sangeet Sudhakara • Haripala (14th century A.D)
Swaramela kalanidhi • Ramamatya (16th century)
Chaturdandi- • Venkatamakhin (17th century)
prakashika
INDIAN CLASSICAL MUSIC

Raga, tala and swara are basic elements of Indian Classical music.
• Swara means tone or pitch. In total there are 7 swara: Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni. together they are called Saptak
or Sargam.
• Raga: Forms the basis of melody. 3 ragas are:
1. Odava raga: 5 notes
2. Shadava raga: 6 notes
3. Sampurna raga:7 notes
• Taal: Cyclic arrangement of time units. It is basis of rhythm and ranges from 3 to 108 beats. Most popular
being ‘Teental’ has 16 beats. The basic units of time division are laghu, guru, and pluta. These are actually
derived from poetic prosody. Laghu comprises one syllable, guru two, and pluta three.
• Murchhana: refers to shifting of the tone from one note to another.
• Thaat: It’s a system of classification of ragas in different groups. 10-Thaat classification is been adopted in
Hindustani classical music. these are - Bilawal, Khamaj, Kafi, Asavari, Bhairavi, Bhairav, Kalyan, Marwa,
Poorvi and Todi.

CLASSIFICATION:
1. Hindustani classical music
2. Carnatic classical music
HINDUSTANI CLASSICAL MUSIC

• It focus more on the musical structure & scope of improvisation in it.
• Hindustani classical music a scale of Shudha Swara Saptaka.


• A theka characteristic of Hindustani music. It is a tala by the stroke of a tabla.
• Types - ‘Dhrupad’, ‘Dhamar’, ‘Hori’, ‘Khayal’, ‘Tappa’, ‘Chaturang’, ‘Ragasagar’, ‘Tarana’, ‘Sargam’ and ‘Thumri’.
SUBSTYLES OF HINDUSTANI CLASSICAL MUSIC:

• Its oldest and mother of all styles. It’s mentioned in
Bharta’s Natyashastra.
• In structure dhrupad has two parts,
the anibaddha section and the
sanchari dhrupad proper. The first is free alap. The
dhrupad proper is a song in four parts: the asthayee,
the antara, the Sanchari and the abhoga.
• The essential quality of the dhrupadic approach is its sombre atmosphere and emphasis
Dhrupad on rhythm.
• Dhrupad starts with Alap which is sung without words. Then after some time, Dhrupad
begins and Pakhawaj is played.
• Dhrupad consolidated its position as a classical form of music in the 13th century.
• Musical masters such as Baba Gopal Das, Swami Haridas and Tansen lived in the court
of Akbar.
• Raja Man Singh also popularized it.
• Pakhawaj and Tanpura are main musical instruments.
• Famous Gharanas include Darbhanga (Bihar), Betiyahh (Bihar), Talwandi (Punjab),
and Dagar (Rajasthan) gharana.
• It was Started by Amir Khusro.
• Means idea, thought and imagination, they have two sections - the asthayee and
the antara.
• The vilambit is sung in slow tempo and the drut at a faster speed. In technique the
exposition is less grave than the dhrupad.
• Alap is given much less room in the Khyal music as compared to Dhrupad.
• frequent use of taans in the composition is the unique feature of Khayal style.
Khayal • Khyal composition is also referred to as a ‘Bandish’.
• Themes include Romantic separation of lover, pranks of Lord Krishna.
• Imp Gharanas & popular expounders of this Gharana:
1. Gwalior Gharana - Nathu Khan and Vishnu Palushkar.
2. Kirana Gharana - Nayak Gopal, Pandit Bhimsen Joshi (Bharatratna in 2008) and
Gangubai Hangal.
3. Agra Gharana - Faiyyaz Khan, Mohsin Khan Niazi and Vijay Kichlu.
4. Patiala Gharana- Bade Fateh Ali Khan and Ali Baksh Khan, Bade Ghulam Ali Khan
Sahab.
• It is a type of composition in Hindustani classical vocal music in which certain words and
syllables based on Persian and Arabic phonemes are rendered at a medium
Tarana (madhyalaya) or fast (drutlaya).
• Tarana style was invented again by Amir Khusro in 13th-14th century and was also
used by 10th Sikh Guru – Guru Gobind Singh in his compositions.
SEMI-CLASSICAL STYLES OF HINDUSTANI MUSIC

• It is also based on swara (note) but they slightly deviate from the standard structure of the raga.
• Lighter version of ragas like Bhoopali or Malkaush and lighter version of tala are used.
• Use madhyam or dhrut laya, i.e., they are faster in tempo.
• Emphasise more on bhava and lyrics than alap-jor-jhala.

Thumri • Very lyrical in its structure and presentation. Thumri is a love song and hence the textual
beauty is very important.


• Compositions are also devotional in nature due to influence of Bhakti movement.
• Compositions are in Hindi in Braj Bhasha dialect and usually sung in a female voice.
• Provides greater flexibility with the use of raga, thus scope for the singer to improvise
during the performance.
• Thumri is usually set to ragas like Khamaj, Kaphi, Bhairavi and so on and the musical
grammar is not strictly adhered to.
• Thumri is linked to classical dance Kathak.
• Main Gharanas - Varanasi and Lucknow.
• Imp singers - Begum Akhtar, Girija Devi
• Consists of the song uttered in fast note patterns. It is a difficult composition and needs
much practice.
Tappa • Initially sung by camel drivers of north western parts of India like Rajasthan.
• Later gained legitimacy as a semi-classical with its introduction in the Mughal court of
emperor Muhammad Shah.
CARNATIC CLASSICAL MUSIC

• The music is kriti based & emphasis more on the lyric quality of the musical piece.
• The Kriti is a highly evolved musical song set to a certain raga and fixed tala or rhythmic cycle.
• Every composition has several parts to it –
1. Pallavi - The first / second thematic lines of the composition are referred to as ‘Pallavi’. This is
considered as the best part of the Carnatic composition called ‘Ragam Thanam’
2. Anu Pallavi - Two lines after the Pallavi. Sung in the beginning and sometimes towards the end of the
song. Not necessary to repeat it after every stanza or Charanam.
3. Charana - final & longest verse which concludes the song.
• In Haripala's "Sangeeta Sudhakara", written in the 14th century A.D., the terms Carnatic and Hindustani are
found for the first time.
• South Indian Music, as known today, flourished in Deogiri the capital city of the Yadavas in the middle ages,
and that after the invasion and plunder of the city by the Muslims, the entire cultural life of the city took
shelter in the Carnatic Empire of Vijayanagar under the reign of Krishnadevaraya.

EARLY PROPONENTS OF CARNATIC MUSIC:
• Tallapaka Annamacharya (1408-1503) - Popularly known as Annamayya. He is earliest known composer
of Carnatic Music. He composed Sankirtana in praise of Lord Venkateshwara.
• Purandara Dasa (1484-1564) – He was one of the founding proponents of Carnatic music. He is referred to
an “Pitamah or father of Carnatic Music”. Dasa Sahithya is his famous composition.
• Kshetrayya (1600-1680) - Telugu poet and composer of Carnatic music. He composed several Padams and
Keertanas. His compositions are in praise of Lord Krishna.
• Trinity of Carnakatik music – all born at Tiruvarur
1. Syama Sastri (1762-1827) - Composed mainly in Telugu in praise of Goddess Kamakshi.
2. Tyagaraja (1767-1847) - Most compositions in Telugu and few in Sanskrit and in praise of Lord Rama.
3. Muthuswami Dikshitar (1775-1835) - Most compositions in Sanskrit and in praise of Hindu gods.
• Sangeeta Sampradaya Pradarsini, written by Subbarama Dikshithar in the year 1904, serves as an authority
for information regarding the music, musicians and composers of the previous centuries.

DIFFERENT MUSICAL FORMS OF CARNATIC MUSIC:
• GITAM - It is the simplest type of composition. Taught to beginners of music.
• SULADI - similar to gitam in musical structure and arrangement but are of a higher standard than the gitam.
• SVARAJATI - Learnt after a course in gitams. More complicated than the gitams. Svarajati paves the way for
the learning of the Varnams.
• JATISVARAM - Similar to the svarajati in musical structure, this form- Jatisvaram-has no sahitya or words.
• VARNAM - Musical forms like the Kirtana, Kriti, Javali, Tillana, etc. have their similar counterparts in
Hindustani Music, however the Varnam does not find a counterpart.
• KIRTANAM - It is valued for the devotional content of the sahitya. The kirtanam abounds in Bhakti bhava.


• KRITI -The Kriti is a development from the Kirtana. It has many features in common with the Dhrupad of
Hindustani music. Muthuswamy Dikshitar has composed many kritis in the Dhrupad style.
• PADA: Padas are scholarly compositions in Telegu and Tamil. Though they are composed mainly as dance
forms, they are also sung in concerts.
• JAVALI - Sung both in concert programmes and dance concerts & popular because of the attractive melodies
in which they are composed. In contrast to the padas which portray divine love, javalis are songs which are
sensuous in concept and spirit.
• TILLANA - The Tillana, corresponding to the Tarana of Hindustani music, is a short and crisp form. It is
mainly a dance form but sometimes finds a place in music concerts as a conclusion piece
• TANAM : This is a branch of raga alapana. It is raga alapana in Madhyamakala or medium speed. There is
perceptible rhythm in this.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HINDUSTANI AND CARNATIC MUSIC

HINDUSTANI CLASSICAL MUSIC (NORTH INDIA) CARNATIC CLASSICAL MUSIC (SOUTH INDIA)
• Influence from Arab, Persian and Afghan. • Totally indigenous in origin
• Improvisation allowed • No scope for Improvisation
• Instrument and vocal music both play important • More emphasis on vocal music
role
• 6 principal ragas • 72 ragas
• Mainly based on Raga • Mainly based on Tala
• Adhere to time • Doesn’t adhere to time
• Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar and santoor are commonly • Veena, Mridangam Mandolin.
used instrument.
• Several sub-styles & Different Gharanas • Only one particular prescribed style of singing,
hence no Gharana system
• Flute and violin are common in both Hindustani and Carnatic Music.
CATEGORIES OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

Sushira Vadya • Sound is produced by blowing air into a hollow column.
• Ex - saxophone, whistle, pungi, flutes, Shehnai.
• Sound is produced by the vibration of a string or chord.
Tata Vadya • Divided into two broad categories-the plucked and the bowed.
• Ex- Violin, Sitar, Guitar, Veena, Harmonium, Kamaicha, etc.
Avanaddha • Sound is produced by striking the animal skin which has been stretched across an
Vadya earthen or metal pot or a wooden barrel or frame.
• Example – Tabla, Drum, Dhol, Congo, Mridangam, etc.
• The earliest instruments invented by man are said to be the Ghana Vadya.
Ghana Vadya • Solid instruments which do not require tuning.
• Example- Ghungru, Dandiya, Matki etc.
REGIONAL MUSIC
Rasiya Geet, Uttar ‘Rasiya’ word is derived from the word rasa (emotion) because rasiya means
Pradesh that which is filled with rasa or emotion.
Pankhida, Rajasthan Sung by the peasants of Rajasthan while doing work in the fields.
Lotia, Rajasthan ‘Lotia’ is sung in the chaitra month during the festival - ‘Lotia’. Women
bring lotas (a vessel to fill water) and kalash (a vessel considered to be
auspicious to fill water during worship) filled with water from ponds and wells.
Pandavani, Chhattisgarh In Pandavani, tales from Mahabharata are sung as a ballad and one or two
episodes are chosen for the night’s performance.


Shakunakhar - Numberless songs are sung on auspicious occasions in the foothills of Himalaya.
Mangalgeet, Kumaon Shakunakhar are sung during religious ceremonies of baby-shower, child-birth,
Chhati (a ritual done on the sixth day from the birth of a child) Ganesh pooja etc.
Barhamasa, Kumaon This regional music from Kumaon is describing the twelve months of a year,
each with its specific qualities.
Mando, Goa The finest creation of Goan song is a slow verse and refrain composition dealing
with love, tragedy and both social injustice and political resistance during
Portuguese presence in Goa.
Alha, Uttar Pradesh Typical ballad of Bundelkhand narrates the heroic deeds of Alha and Udal, the
two warrior brothers who served Raja Parmal of Majoba.
Hori, Uttar Pradesh It is based on the love pranks of ‘Radha-Krishna’.
Sohar, Uttar Pradesh North India has a strong tradition of singing ‘Sohar’ songs when a son is born in
a family.
Chhakri, Kashmir It is sung to the accompaniment of the noot (earthen pot) rababs,
sarangi and tumbaknari (an earthen pot with high neck)
Laman, Himachal In Laman a group of girls sing a stanza and a group of boys give reply in the song.
Pradesh
Kajri, Uttar Kajri is a folk song sung by women, from Uttar Pradesh and adjacent region,
Pradesh/Bihar during rainy season.
Qawwali Originally, Qawwalis were sung in praise of God. In India Qawwali was brought
from Persia around thirteenth century and Sufis enlisted its services to spread
their message. Amir Khusro (1254-1325) a Sufi and an innovator contributed to
the evolution of Qawwali.
Powada, Maharashtra The word Powada itself means “the narration of a story in glorious terms”. The
narratives are always odes in praise of an individual hero or an incident or place.
Teej Songs, Rajasthan Celebrated with great involvement by women of Rajasthan. This is a festival
celebrated on the third day after the new moon
or amavasya of shraavana month.
Bhakha, Jammu and It is sung by the villagers when harvesting is done.
Kashmir
Bhuta song, Kerala The basis of Bhuta song is rooted in superstitions. Some communities of Kerala
do Bhuta rituals to send away the evil ghost and spirits.
Daskathia, Odisha Form of ballad singing prevalent in Odisha. Daskathia is a name derived from a
unique musical instrument called “Kathi” or “Ram Tali”, wooden clappers used
during the presentation.
Sana Lamok, Manipur Sana Lamok is sung at the time of coronation ceremony by the Maaiba (priest).
It may also be sung to welcome the king.
SaikutiZai (songs of Mizo is traditionally known as a ‘singing tribe’ Saikuti, a poetess of Mizoram
Saikuti), Mizoram composed songs in praise of warriors, brave hunters, young men aspiring to be
great warriors and hunters etc.
Chai hia (songs of the As per Mizo custom during the ChapcharKut festival not only singing, dance
Chai Dance), Mizoram should also continue throughout the festival. Special occasion for singing and
dancing is called ‘chai’ and songs are known as ‘chai hia’ (chai songs)
Basanti/ Basant Geet, Basant or spring season is welcomed in a unique manner in Garhwal. Land is
Garhwal filled with different colourful flowers. On Basant Panchmi floor designs are
made with the rice flour and the green oats bundles are used to put impressions
with cow dung.
Ghasiyari Geet, Garhwal Young women of mountains have to go in far off forests to get grass for their
cattle. They go to the forest dancing and singing in groups.
SukarkeBiah, Bhojpuri Village folks have their own interpretations of nature, planets and
Song constellations. The story of Shukra and Brihaspat is sung even today.


VilluPattu, “Bow Song”, The lead singer plays the role of the main performer. He also handles the
Tamil Nadu dominating instrument which is bow shaped. The songs revolve around
theological themes and the conquest of good over evil is emphasised.
Ammanaivari, Tamil Ammanaivari are songs sung in praise of Chola monarch. Ammanai is a wooden
Nadu ball and the women folk sing appropriate songs while playing the ball.
2.2 INDIAN DANCE FORMS

• The earliest treatise on dance available to us is Bharat Muni's Natyashastra (2nd century B.C.E- 2nd century
C.E.). The Natyashastra is also known as the fifth veda.
• This Veda has evolved by taking words from the Rigveda, music from the Samaveda, gestures from
the Yajurveda and emotions from the Atharvaveda.
ASPECTS OF DANCE
• Tandava and Lasya are two basic aspects of dance as per the Natyashastra:
1. Tandava - The masculine, is heroic bold and vigorous.
2. Lasya - The feminine is soft, lyrical and graceful.
• Abhinaya, broadly means expression. This is achieved through angika, the body and limbs, vachika song and
speech and aharya, costume and adornment; and satvika, moods and emotions.
• As per Nandikeshwara’s Abhinaya Darpan (5th–4th century BC), there are 3 basic elements of dance:
1. Natya - highlights the dramatic element,
2. Nrityais essentially expressional, performed specifically to convey the meaning of a theme or idea.
3. Nritta , is pure dance where body movements do not express any mood (bhava), nor do they convey any
meaning
• To present nritya and natya effectively, a dancer should be trained to communicate the navarasas. These are:
love (shringaara), mirth (haasya), compassion (karuna), valour (veera), anger (roudra), fear (bhayanak),
disgust (bibhatsa), wonder (adbhuta) and peace (shaanta).
INDIAN CLASSICAL DANCES

• ‘Guru-shishya parampara’ forms the core of Indian classical art form. There are eight classical dance forms
in India as per Sangeet Natak Akademi.
1. BHARATNATYAM (OFTEN REFERRED AS FIRE DANCE): TAMILNADU

• Oldest classical dance. over 2000 years old, known to be ekaharya, where one
dancer takes on many roles in a single performance.
• Origin is traced to the performance of temple dancers or devadasis, thus also
known as Dashiattam.
• Performance follows a regular pattern, which includes invocation song, alarippu
(adorn with flowers), Jatiswaram (pure dance), Abhinaya (mime aspect of dance),
Shabdam, varnam (nritta) and (nritya), tillana, the performance ends with
a mangalam invoking the blessings of the Gods.
• The accompanying orchestra consists of a vocalist, a mridangam player, violinist or
veena player, a flautist and a cymbal player.
• The person who conducts the dance recitation is the Nattuvanar.
• Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikesvara is one of the main sources for the study of
this dance.
• Famous proponents: Yamini Krishnamurthy, Lakshmi Viswanathan, Padma Subramaniam, Mrinalini
Sarabhai, Mallika Sarabhai, etc.
2. KATHAKALI (SYMBOLISES ELEMENT OF SKY OR ETHER): KERALA

• Comparatively recent origin, Chakiarkoothu, Koodiyattam, Krishnattam and Ramanattam are few of the
ritual performing arts of Kerala which have had a direct influence on Kathakali.


• Kathakali is a blend of dance, music and acting and dramatizes stories, which are mostly adapted from
the Indian epics.
• It is a stylised art form, the four aspects of
abhinaya- angika, aharya,vachika, satvika and
the nritta, nritya and natya aspects are combined perfectly.
• The dancer expresses himself through codified hastamudras and
facial expressions, closely following the verses (padams) that are
sung.
• The attakkathasor stories are selected from the epics and myths and
the language used for Kathakali songs is Manipravalam.
• A mixture of rice pastes and lime is applied to make the chutti on the face which highlights the facial
make-up.
• Different colours have different significance: Green (nobility, divinity), Red patches beside nose(royalty),
completely red painted face(evil), Black (evil and wickedness), yellow (saints and women), white beard
(higher consciousness).
• Kathakali dance is chiefly interpretative. The characters in a Kathakali performance are broadly divided
into satvika, rajasika and tamasika types.
• Satvika characters are noble, heroic, generous and refined. In pacha, green colour dominates
and kirita (headgear) is worn by all. Krishna and Rama wear special crowns decorated with peacock
feathers.
• The kathi type depict anti-heroes. Though they are of the rajasika category, they are sometimes great
warriors and scholars such as Ravana, Kamsa and Sisupala to name a few.
• A Kathakali performance begins with the kelikottu. then followed by todayam, Kelikottu, purappadu.
• Ilakiattam is that part of the performance when the characters get an opportunity to demonstrate their
excellence in abhinaya.
• Kalasams are pure dance sequences where the actor is at great liberty to express himself and display his
skills.

3. KATHAK: UTTAR PRADESH
• Traces its origin from emergence of Raslila, mainly in the Braj region (Mathura in
Western U.P.) derived from the word Katha which means a story. Kathakars or
story-tellers.
• There are different Gharanas associated with it: Lucknow, Jaipur, Raigarh,
Banaras.
• The technique is built by the use of an intricate system of foot-work. Pure
dance (nritta) is all important where complex rhythmic patterns are created
through the use of the flat feet and the control of sound of the ankle bells worn by
the dancer.
• Jugalbandi is the main attraction of Kathak which shows a competitive play
between dancer and tabla player.
• Generally associated with Dhrupad music but other forms of music like Taranas, thumris and ghazals are also
associated with it.
• It is the only classical dance of India having links with Muslim culture; it represents a unique synthesis
of Hindu and Muslim genius in art.
• Kathak is the only form of classical dance wedded to Hindustani or the North Indian music.
4. MANIPURI: MANIPUR
• Traces its emergence from the festival of Lai Haraoba (merrymaking
of the gods) is the earliest form of dan ce which forms the basis of all
stylised dances in Manipur.
• Manipur dance has a large repertoire, the most popular forms are
the Ras, the Sankirtana and the Thang-Ta.


• In Manipuri Ras, the main characters are Radha, Krishna and the gopis. Manipuri dance incorporates both
the tandava and lasya and ranges from the most vigorous masculine to the subdued and graceful feminine.
• The Manipuri classical style of singing is called Nat - different from both north and south Indian music.
• The main musical instrument is the Pung or the Manipuri classical drum. There are also many other kinds of
drums used in Manipuri dance and music.
• The Pena, a stringed instrument is used in Lai Haraoba and Pena singing.

5. ODDISSI: ODISHA
• Odissi (symbolises elements of water): Archaeological evidence of this dance form
dating back to the 2nd century B.C. is found in the caves of Udayagiri and
Khandagiri near Bhubaneshwar.
• For centuries maharis were the chief repositories of this dance. The maharis, who
were originally temple dancers came to be employed in royal courts which
resulted in the degeneration of the art form.
• A class of boys called gotipuas were trained in the art, they danced in the temples
and also for general entertainment.
• The techniques of movement are built around the two basic postures of the Chowk
and the Tribhanga.
Ø The Chowk is a position imitating a square - a very masculine stance with the
weight of the body equally balanced. (pic 1)
Ø The tribhanga is a very feminine stance where the body is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees.
(Pic 2)
• The dancers create intricate geometrical shapes and patterns with the body.
Hence, it is known as ‘mobile sculpture’.
• The torso movement is very important and is an unique feature of the Odissi style.
• An Odissi orchestra essentially consists of a pakhawaj player (usually the Guru
himself), a singer, a flutist, a sitar or violin player and a manjira player.
• Odissi dance is accompanied by Hindustani classical music and The lyrics of Gita
Govinda, written by Jayadeva, are used.
• The opening item is Mangalacharan where the dancer slowly enters the stage
with flowers in her hands and makes an offering to mother earth.
• Other elements - Batu nritya, Pallavi, Tharijham and Trikhanda majura.
6. KUCHIPUDI: ANDHRA PRADESH

• Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the Krishna district of Andhra
Pradesh.
• In 17th century Kuchipudi style of Yakshagaana was conceived by
Siddhendra Yogi a talented Vaishnava poet and visionary.
• Story of Bhagvat purana became central theme and the dancers were
known as Bhagavathalus.
• Elements of Kuchipudi includes: Manduk shabdam (story of frog),
Tarangam (dancer performs with his/her feet on the edges of a brass
plate, balancing water pot on head, Jala chitra Nrityam (dancer draws pictures on the floor with his or her
toes).
• It is accompanied with Carnatic music, Voilin and Mridgangam.
7. SATTRIYA: ASSAM
• Introduced in the 15th century A.D by the great Vaishnava saint and
reformer of Assam, Mahapurusha Sankaradeva as a powerful medium
for propagation of the Vaishnava faith.
• It is nurtured and preserved with great commitment by the Sattras i.e.
Vaishnava maths or monasteries. Sattriya dance tradition is governed by


strictly laid down principles in respect of hastamudras, footworks, aharyas, music etc.
• Dance is generally performed by male monks known as 'Bhokots'. Khol(drum), Cymbals (Manjira) and flute
are major instruments.
• Ankia Naat: a type of Sattriya involves play or musical drama. Originally written in Assamese Maithili mix
(Brajavali).
• Bhaona is also a type of Sattriya and it is based on stories of Lord Krishna.

8. MOHINIYATTAM (ELEMENT OF AIR): KERALA
• It is the classical solo dance form of Kerala. The delicate body movements and
subtle facial expressions are more feminine in nature and therefore are ideally
suited for performance by women.
• References of Mohiniyattam can be found in the texts Vyavaharamala written in
1709 by Mazhamagalam Narayanan Namputiri.
• Mohiniyattam is characterized by graceful, swaying body movements with no
abrupt jerks. The foot work is not terse and is rendered softly. leaps.
• It lays emphasis on acting. The dancer identifies herself with the character and
sentiments existing in the compositions like the Padams and Pada Varnams which
give ample opportunity for facial expressions.
• Movements have been borrowed from Nangiar Koothu and female folk dances
Kaikottikali and the Tiruvatirakali.
• Dasiyattam dance during chera period related to this dance form.
• Mohiniattam generally narrates the story of the feminine dance of Vishnu. Lasya aspect (beauty and grace)
of dance is dominant.
FOLK DANCES OF INDIA

Chhau Form of mask dance performed in Bengal, Orissa, Jharkhand. Styles of Chhau dance –
Saraikella Chhau (Jharkhand), Mayurbhanj Chhau (Odisha) - artists do not wear masks
& Purulia Chhau (West Bengal). UNESCO included in Representative List of Intangible
Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2010.
Garba Gujarat. Held at the time of Navratra.
Tarangamel Goa. Celebrates the youthfulness of the region. It is performed during Dussehra and
Holi.
Ghoomar Traditional folk dance performed by the women of the Bhil tribe in Rajasthan.
Kalbelia Performed by the women of the Kalbelia Community of Rajasthan. The costumes and
dance movement are similar to that of the serpents. Representative List of the
Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2010.
Charba Folk dance of Himachal Pradesh, performed during the Dussehra festivities.
Dadra Semi-classical form of dance performed in Uttar Pradesh.
Bhangra Folk dance of Punjab. Giddha is the female counterpart of the male Bhangra.
Jawara Harvest dance. Bundelkhand region of Madhya Pradesh.
Matki Performed by the women of Malwa region on the occasions of wedding and other
festivities. It is mainly performed solo.
Paika Martial folk dance performed in the Southern parts of Odisha.
Biraha Bihar. It is a portrayal of the pain of the women, whose partners are away from home.
Alkap Rajmahal hills of Jharkhand and Murshidabad and Malda regions of West Bengal.
Performed in group.
Gaur Muria Ritualistic dance form of the Muria tribes (Bastar region of Chhattisgarh).
Thang Ta Martial dance form of Manipur.
OTHER FOLK DANCES

• Bagurumba Bagurumba – Assam
• Jat-Jatin - Bihar
• Jhumair Jhumair - harvest dance - Jharkhand and Odisha.


• Danda-Jatra – Odisha
• Bihu – Assam
• Kummi – Tamil Nadu & Kerala
• Rangma is the war dance of the Nagas.
• Singhi Chham - Popular mask dance of Sikkim
• Padayani - Martial dance performed in the Bhagavati temples of Southern Kerala.
• Cheraw – Mizoram
• Dalkhai – Odisha
• Hulivesha – Karnataka
• Tera Tali – Rajasthan
• Garadi – Puducherry
• Tippani – Gujarat
• Hojagiri - Tripura
• Dumhal – Jammu & Kashmir
• Dalkhai - Odisha
2.3 INDIAN THEATRE

• The earliest form of Indian theatre was the Sanskrit theatre.
• It emerged sometime between the 15th century BC and the 1st century and flourished between the 1st
century and the 10th, which was a period of relative peace in the history of India during which hundreds of
plays were written.
• Vedic text such as Rigveda provides evidences of drama plays being enacted during Yajna ceremonies.

SOME CLASSICAL SANSKRIT DRAMA:

Name Written By
Sariputraprakarana Ashvaghosh
Svapnavāsavadattā (“The Dream of Vāsavadattā”) Bhasa
Mircchakatika Sudraka
Malavikagnimitra, Vikramorvashi and Shakuntalam Kalidas
Utttaramacharita and Mahaviracharitra Bhavabhuti
Mudarakshasa Visakhadutta
Ratnavali Harshavardhan
2.4 INDIAN PUPPETRY

• The root of Puppet is derived from the latin word ‘Pupa’ meaning a doll.
• Ancient Hindu philosophers have paid the greatest tribute to puppeteers. They have likened God Almighty to
a puppeteer and the entire universe to a puppet stage.
• Srimad Bhagavata, the great epic depicting the story of Lord Krishna in his childhood say that with three
strings- Satta, Raja and Tama, the God manipulates each object in the universe as a marionette.
• The earliest reference to the art of puppetry is found in Tamil classic ‘Silappadikaaram’ written around
the 1st or 2nd century B.C
• Natyashastra, written during 2nd century BC to 2nd century AD., does not refer to the art of puppetry but
the producer-cum-director of the human theatre which has been termed as ‘Sutradhar’ meaning the holder
of strings.

Marionette - A marionette is a puppet controlled from above using wires or strings depending on regional
variations. A marionette's puppeteer is called a marionettes.



STRING PUPPET
India has a rich and ancient tradition of string puppets or marionettes. Marionettes having jointed limbs
controlled by strings allow far greater flexibility and are, therefore, the most articulate of the puppets. Rajasthan,
Orissa, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu are some of the regions where this form of puppetry has flourished.

Kathputli - • Carved from a single piece of wood
Rajasthan • Large dolls – colorfully dressed.
• Costumes and headgears are designed in the medieval Rajasthani style of dress,
which is prevalent even today.
• Accompanied by a highly ramatized version of the regional music.
• Oval faces, large eyes, arched eyebrows and large lips and distinct facial features.
• Wear long trailing skirts and do not have legs.
• Puppeteers manipulate them with two to five strings which are normally tied to their
fingers and not to a prop or a support.
Kundhei - Odisha • Made of light wood.
• Have no legs but wear long flowing skirts.
• Have more joints and are, therefore, more versatile, articulate and easy to
manipulate.
• Use a triangle shape wooden prop, to which strings are attached for manipulation.
• Costumes resemble those worn by actors of the Jatra traditional theatre.
• Music - regional music & Odissi dance's music.
Gombeyatta- • Puppets are styled and designed like the characters of Yakshagana
Karnataka • It is highly stylized and have joints at the legs, shoulders, elbows, hips and knees.
• Manipulated by five to seven strings tied to a prop.
• Complicated movements are manipulated by two to three puppeteers at a time.
• Music - beautifully blends folk and classical elements.
Bomalattam- • Combine the techniques of both rod and string puppets.
Tamil-Nadu • Made of wood and the strings for manipulation are tied to an iron ring which the
puppeteer wears like a crown on his head.
• Few puppets have jointed arms and hands, which are manipulated by rods.
• These puppets are the largest, heaviest and the most articulate of all traditional
Indian marionettes.
• Bommalattam theatre has elaborate preliminaries which are divided into four parts
- Vinayak Puja, Komali, Amanattam and Pusenkanattam.
SHADOW PUPPET
• Shadow puppets are flat figures.
• This category of puppets is cut out of leather, which has been treated to make it translucent.
• The puppets are pressed against the screen with a strong source of light behind it.
• Manipulation between the light and the screen make silhouettes or colourful shadows
• Found in Orissa, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
Tholu • Puppets are large in size and have jointed waist, shoulders, elbows and knees.
Bommalata - • Coloured on both sides, throwing coloured shadows on the screen.
Andhra Pradesh • Music - influenced by the classical regional music
• Theme are drawn from the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Puranas.
Togalu • Puppets are mostly small in size.
Gombeyatta - • Puppets however differ in size according to their social status, for instance, large size
Karnataka for kings and religious characters and smaller size for common people or servants.

Ravanchhaya - • Puppets are in one piece and have no joints.
Odisha • Not coloured, hence throw opaque shadows on the screen.


• Manipulation requires great dexterity, since there are no joints.
• Puppets are made of deer skin and are conceived in bold dramatic poses. .
• Apart from human and animal characters, many props such as trees, mountains,
chariots, etc. are also used.
• Puppets are smaller in size.
• Create very sensitive and lyrical shadows.
ROD PUPPET
• An extension of glove-puppets, but often much larger and supported and manipulated by rods from below.
• Found mostly in West Bengal and Orissa.
• Carved from wood.

• Costumed like the actors of Jatra, a traditional theatre
• Puppets have mostly three joints.
• Heads, supported by the main rod, is joined at the neck and both hands attached to
rods are joined at the shoulders.
• Bamboo-made hub is tied firmly to the waist of the puppeteer on which the rod
Puthul Naach - holding the puppet is placed.
West Bengal • Puppeteers each holding one puppet, stand behind a head-high curtain and while
manipulating the rods also move and dance imparting corresponding movements to
the puppets.
• Puppeteers themselves sing and deliver the stylized prose dialogues & a group of
musicians provide the accompanying music with a drum, harmonium and cymbals.
• Music and verbal text have close similarity with the Jatra theatre.
• Mostly three joints, but the hands are tied to strings instead of rods.
• Elements of rod and string puppets are combined in this form of puppetry.
• The technique of manipulation is somewhat different. The Orissa rod-puppeteers
Orissa Rod squat on the ground behind a screen and manipulate.
Puppet - Odisha • Most of the dialogues are sung.
• Music blends folk tunes with classical Odissi tunes.
• Puppets of Orissa are smaller than those from Bengal or Andhra Pradesh.
• More operatic and prose dialogues are seldom used.
Yampuri - Bihar • Made of wood.
• Puppets are in one piece and have no joints.
• Requires greater dexterity.
GLOVE PUPPET
• Also known as sleeve, hand or palm puppets.
• Head is made of either cloth or wood.
• Hands emerges from just below the neck.
• Rest of the figure consists of a long flowing skirt.
• Controlled by the human hand - first finger inserted in the head and middle finger and thumb are the
two arms of the puppet
• Found mostly in Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Kerala and West Bengal.
• It came into existence during the 18th century due to the influence of Kathakali, the
famous classical dance-drama of Kerala, on puppet performances.
• The height of a puppet varies from one foot to two feet
Povakotthu - • Head and the arms are carved of wood and joined together with thick cloth, cut and
Kerala stitched into a small bag.
• Face of the puppets are decorated with paints, small and thin pieces of gilded tin, the
feathers of the peacock, etc.


• Manipulator puts his hand into the bag and moves the hands and head of the puppet.
• The musical instruments used during the performance are Chenda, Chengiloa,
Ilathalam and Shankha the conch.
• Theme - based on the episodes from either the Ramayana or the Mahabharata.
2.5 MARTIAL ARTS IN INDIA

• Dhanurveda derives from the words for bow (dhanushya) and knowledge (veda), the “science of
archery” in Puranic literature, later applied to martial arts in general.
• The Vishnu Purana text describes dhanuveda as one of the traditional eighteen branches of “applied
knowledge” or upaveda, along with shastrashastra or military science.
• A later term, yuddha kala, comes from the words yuddha meaning fight or combat and kala meaning art or
skill. The related term sastra kala (lit. weapon art) usually refers specifically to armed disciplines.

MARTIAL ART DESCRIPTION
Sliambam Tamil Nadu, Swift movements of the foot, use of thrust, cut, chop, sweep to achieve
mastery & development of force, momentum & precision at different levels of the
body, snake hits, monkey hits, hawk hits.
Kalaripayattu Kerala in 4th century A.D. includes mock duels (armed and unarmed combat) and
physical exercises not accompanied by any drumming or song.
Gatka Performed by Sikhs of Punjab. Uses weapons like Kirpan, Talwar and kartaar
Thoda Himachal Pradesh, Wooden bows, arrows are used. there are two groups of 500
people each, most of them act as cheerleaders for the players. The two groups are
called Saathi and Pashi, who are believed to be descendants of the Pandavas.
Musti Yuddha Varanasi, Kicks, punches, knee and elbow strikes are the techniques. Unarmed martial
art form which resembles boxing.
Inbuan Wrestling Mizoram, involves very strict rules prohibiting kicking, stepping out of the circle and
even bending of the knees, catch-hold belt worn by the wrestlers around the waist. It
has to remain tight all through the match.
KuttuVarsai: Tamil Nadu, First mentioned in Sangam literature, KuttuVarsai translates too ‘empty
hand combat’, it is also popular in Srilanka and Malaysia. It is considered as unarmed
component of silambam.
Mardani Khel Maharashtra (Kolhapur). Use of swords, corded lance and swift movements.
Lathi Traditional Bengali martial art a kind of stick fighting practised India and Bangladesh.
A practitioner is known as a lathial.

Pari-Khanda Bihar, Created by Rajputs.’ Pari’ means Shield and ‘Kandha’ means Sword.
Thang-ta Created by the Meitei people of Manipur. Thang refers to a ‘sword’ while Ta refers to
(HuyenLallong) and a ‘spear’ and is an armed martial art whereas Sarit Sarak is an unarmed art form that
Sarit Sarak uses hand to hand combat

STUDENT NOTES:



3. CULTURE OF INDIA
3.1 NATIONAL SYMBOLS OF INDIA

National Flag of • It is a horizontal tricolor of deep saffron (kesaria) at the top, white in the middle and
India dark green at the bottom in equal proportion.
• The ratio of width of the flag to its length is two to three. In the centre of the white band
is a navy-blue wheel which represents the chakra taken from the Sarnath Lion Capital
of Ashoka. It has 24 spokes.
National • The song Jana-gana-mana, composed originally in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore,
Anthem was adopted in its Hindi version as the National Anthem of India on January 24, 1950.
• It was first sung on December 27, 1911 at the Kolkata Session of the Indian National
Congress.
National • It is an adaptation from the Sarnath Lion Capitol of Ashoka. Carved out of a single block
Emblem of polished sandstone, the Capitol is crowned by the Wheel of the Law (Dharma
Chakra).
• The words Satyameva Jayate from Mundaka Upanishad, meaning ‘Truth Alone
Triumphs’, are inscribed below the abacus in Devanagari script.
National Song • The National song of India is Vande Mataram. It was composed by the famous poet,
Bankim Chandra Chaterjee in the year 1875.
National • The National Calendar is based on the Saka Era, with Chitra as its first month.
Calendar
National Flower • Lotus
National Fruit • Mango
National River • Ganga
National Tree • Indian banayan
National • Royal Bengal Tiger
Animal
National • River dolphin
Aquatic animal
National Bird • Indian peacock
3.2 CLASSICAL LANGUAGE

Since 2004, the Government of India declares a ‘’Classical Language of India” that meet following criteria -
• High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period of 1500- 2000 years;
• A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a valuable heritage by generations of speakers;
• The literary tradition be original and not borrowed from another speech community;
• The classical language and literature being distinct from modern, there may also be a discontinuity between
the classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.

CLASSICAL LANGUAGES:
1. Tamil in the year 2004
2. Telugu in the year 2008
3. Malayalam in the year 2013
4. Sanskrit in the year 2005
5. Kannada in the year 2008
6. Odia in the year 2014 (latest)

BENEFITS OF CLASSICAL LANGUAGE STATUS:


1. Two major annual international awards for scholars of eminence in classical Indian languages
2. A Centre of Excellence for studies in Classical Languages is set up
3. The University Grants Commission is requested to create, to start with at least in the Central Universities, a
certain number of Professional Chairs for the Classical Languages so declared.”
3.3 IMPORTANT ANCIENT UNIVERSITIES

Taxila Rawalpindi District of Punjab, Pakistan
Nalanda Near Patna, Bihar
Vikramshila District Bhagalpur, Bihar
Pushpagiri University Jajpur district, Odisha
Valabhi University Saurashtra, Gujarat
3.4 PROMINENT FOREIGN TRAVELLERS TO INDIA IN ANCIENT AND MEDIEVAL PERIOD

NAME COUNTRY AND CONTEMPORARY DETAILS
TIMELINE TO
Megasthenes Greece; 302–298 BC Chandragupta Ambassador of Seleucus Nikator of Syria and
Maurya visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya. He
wrote a book Indica which explains the reign of
Chandragupta Maurya. He was the first foreign
envoy.
Deimachus Greece; 300–273 BC Bindusara Apparently wrote extensively on India and is
quoted as a reference in geographical matters.
Fa-hien China; 405–411 AD Chandragupta II First Chinese pilgrim to visit India. He compiled
a travelogue “Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms”.
Hieun Tsang China; 630–645 AD Harshavardhana He wrote his experiences in his book Si-yu-ki or
(originally the ‘Records of Western World.
known as
Xuanzang)
I-Tsing China; 671–695 AD -- He translated a large number of Buddhist texts
(originally from Sanskrit into Chinese. He studied in
known as Nalanda for 10 years.
Yijing)
Al-Masudi Arab; 957 AD -- Explained about India in his book Muruj-ul-
Zehab.
Al-Biruni Persia; 1024– 1030 Came to India His book was ‘Tahqiq-i-Hind’ which is an
AD along with encyclopedic work on India and deals with
Mahmud of Ghazni various aspects of Indian life aspect of Indian
life including religion, history, geography,
geology, science and mathematics. He also
wrote Kitab-ul- Hind.
Marco Polo Italy; 1254– 1324 AD Rudramadevi Visited Kakatiya Kingdom under Rudramadevi.
(Kakatiya Wrote his experiences in the book ‘The Book of
Dynasty) Sir Marco Polo’ which explains the economic
history of India.
Ibn Batuta Morocco; 1333– Muhammad- bin- He wrote the book ‘Rehla’.
1347 AD Tughlaq explained dynasty Muhammad-bin- Tughlaq
and also the economical, social and
geographical status of his time.
Nicolo Conti Italy; 1420– 1421 AD Devaraya I of He referred Telugu language as ‘Italian of the
Vijayanagara East’.
empire


Abdur Persia; 1443– 1444 Devaraya II of Ambassador of Shahrukh of Timurid Dynasty,
Razzaq AD Vijayanagara he stayed at the court of the Zamorin at Calicut.
empire He gave a clear account of the Vijayanagara
empire in his book.
William Britain; 1608– 1611 Jahangir Ambassador of British King James-I and was
Hawkins AD sent to court of Jahangir.
Sir Thomas Britain; 1615– 1619 Jahangir Ambassador of British King James-I and was
Roe AD sent to court of Jahangir.
Peter Mundy Italy; 1630– 1634 AD Shah Jahan He gave account of the living conditions of the
people in Mughal Empire.
3.5 PRINTING/WEAVING/SAREES/EMBROIDERY STYLES IN INDIA

Printing, Weaving and Embroidery Styles in India:

PRINTING, WEAVING AND EMBROIDERY STYLES CITY/REGION
Phulkari Punjab
Baluchari Murshidabad (West Bengal)
Kantha Embroidery West Bengal and Bihar
Block Printing Rajasthan and Gujarat
Resist Printing Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu
Bandhni Gujarat
Bhandej Rajasthan
Pochampalli Andhra Pradesh
Kota Rajasthan
Zardozi Varanasi, Lucknow, Surat, Ajmer, Bhopal and
Hyderabad
Chikankari Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh)
Jamdani Tanda (Uttar Pradesh)
Ikat Andhra Pradesh and Orissa
Kasuti Karnataka
Kashmiri or Kashida Jammu and Kashmir
Shamilami Manipur

Traditional Regional Sarees of India:

NAME PRODUCED MAINLY IN DETAILS
Pochampalli Andhra Pradesh Silk and cotton saree with intricate motifs and geometric
ikat style of dyeing. Air India airlines crew wears this saree.
Patola Patan, Gujarat Rich handloom sarees
Baluchari Murshidabad, West Bengal Depicts ancient stories on its border and pallu. Silk threads
are extensively used.
Jamdani West Bengal Finest muslin with opaque patterns woven on a transparent
background.
Tanchoi Varanasi Akind of banarasi saree where weaving technique involves
Brocades a single or double warp and two to five colors on the weft
on Silk fabric.
Chanderi Madhya Pradesh Silk, zari and cotton woven together to make a fabric that is
lighter than a feather. It is a see-through saree.
Ilkal Karnataka Use of kasuti embroidery with chariot and elephant as
common motifs.
Tant West Bengal Crisp cotton, printed saree.


Nauvari Maharashtra A single nine-yard sari also known as Kasta saree.
Bomkai Odisha Silk and cotton saree with ikat, embroidery and intricate
thread work.
Konrad Tamil Nadu Fabric usually has either stripes or checks and a wide
border and with motifs of animals and natural elements. It
is also called a temple saree.
Kosa Chhattisgarh A silk saree
Paithani Maharashtra Silk saree embroidered with gold colour thread and use of
parrot as motif.
Kalamkari Andhra Pradesh Use of pen for painting designs.
Kasavu Kerala Saree characterized by thick golden border.
Dabu Chittorgarh, Rajasthan Dabu is an ancient mud resist hand block printing technique
used on cotton fabric.
3.6 WORLD HERITAGE SITE IN INDIA

• The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Sites
are important places of cultural or natural heritage as described in the UNESCO World Heritage Convention,
established in 1972.
• There are 38 World Heritage Sites located in India. These include 30 cultural sites, 7 natural sites and 1
mixed-criteria site. India has the sixth largest number of sites in the world.

Cultural (30)
• Agra Fort (1983)
• Ajanta Caves (1983)
• Archaeological Site of Nalanda Mahavihara at Nalanda, Bihar (2016)
• Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi (1989)
• Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park (2004)
• Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (formerly Victoria Terminus) (2004)
• Churches and Convents of Goa (1986)
• Elephanta Caves (1987)
• Ellora Caves (1983)
• Fatehpur Sikri (1986)
• Great Living Chola Temples (1987,2004)
• Group of Monuments at Hampi (1986)
• Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (1984)
• Group of Monuments at Pattadakal (1987)
• Hill Forts of Rajasthan (2013)
• Historic City of Ahmadabad (2017)
• Humayun's Tomb, Delhi (1993)
• Khajuraho Group of Monuments (1986)
• Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodh Gaya (2002)
• Mountain Railways of India (1999,2005,2008)
• Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi (1993)
• Rani-ki-Vav (the Queen’s Stepwell) at Patan, Gujarat (2014)
• Red Fort Complex (2007)
• Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (2003)
• Sun Temple, Konârak (1984)
• Taj Mahal (1983)
• The Architectural Work of Le Corbusier, an Outstanding Contribution to the Modern Movement (2016)
• The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur (2010)
• Victorian Gothic and Art Deco Ensembles of Mumbai (2018)


• Jaipur City, Rajasthan (2019)
Natural (7)
• Great Himalayan National Park Conservation Area (2014)
• Kaziranga National Park (1985)
• Keoladeo National Park (1985)
• Manas Wildlife Sanctuary (1985)
• Nanda Devi and Valley of Flowers National Parks (1988,2005)
• Sundarbans National Park (1987)
• Western Ghats (2012)

Mixed (1)
• Khangchendzonga National Park (2016)
3.7 INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDIA

• UNESCO established its Lists of Intangible Cultural Heritage with the aim of ensuring better protection
of important intangible cultural heritages worldwide and the awareness of their significance
• The list was established in 2008 when the 2003 Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural
Heritage took effect.
• The five domains are:
1. Oral traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible cultural heritage.
2. Performing arts.
3. Social practices, rituals and festive events.
4. Knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe.
5. Traditional craftsmanship.

Intangible cultural heritage of India:
• Tradition of Vedic chanting, 2008
• Ramlila, the traditional performance of the Ramayana, 2008
• Kutiyattam, Sanskrit theatre, 2008
• Ramman, religious festival and ritual theatre of the Garhwal Himalayas, India, 2009
• Mudiyettu, ritual theatre and dance drama of Kerala, 2010
• Kalbelia folk songs and dances of Rajasthan, 2010
• Chhau dance, 2010
• Buddhist chanting of Ladakh: recitation of sacred Buddhist texts in the trans-Himalayan Ladakh region,
Jammu and Kashmir, 2012
• Sankirtana, ritual singing, drumming and dancing of Manipur, 2013
• Traditional brass and copper craft of utensil making among the Thatheras of Jandiala Guru, Punjab, 2014
• Yoga, 2016
• Nawrouz, 2016
• Kumbh Mela, 2017
3.8 CALENDERS:
In India four types of calendar followed:
1. Vikram Samvat (Hindu)
2. Saka Samvat (Hindu)
3. Hijri Calendar (Islam)
4. Georgian Calendar (Scientific Universal)



Vikram samvat: Lunar calendar. Date backs to 57 B.C by king Vikram Aditya to mark the victory
over Saka ruler. Zero year 57 B.C. It is divided into 2 phases Shuklapaksha and
Krishnapaksha.
Saka Samvat: Zero year 78 A.D. The saka calendar is both Solar and lunar. Saka Calendar begins
on 22nd March every year except in gregorian leap years when it starts on 21st
March. Adopted by GOI as official calender in 1957.
Gregorian Calendar: Based on the birthday of the founder of Christianity, Jesus Christ. It consists of
365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 46 seconds.
Hijri: Lunar calendar, Zero-year 622 AD. Initially started in Saudi Arabia. 1st Month
Moharram, 9th month Ramzan
3.9 FAIRS AND FESTIVALS OF INDIA

• Pongal: Main harvest festival of Tamilnadu
• Makar Sankranti: Hindu Festival, celebrated throughout India when farmers bring home their harvest.
• Ganga Sagar Mela: Most important fair celebrated in West Bengal.
• Vasanth Panchmi: In west Bengal, ‘Saraswati’ Goddess of learning is worshipped.
• Gangaur: The most important local festival in Rajasthan, Gangaur, it is dedicated to Gauri a manifestation of
Parvati.
• Teppam: Celebrated every year in Tamil Nadu.
• Desert festival: Celebrated in golden city of Jaisalmer. The festivals become lively with legions of puppeteers,
acrobats and folk dancers. Camel races are of great significance.
• Easter: it is a celebration of Christ’s resurrection from the dead.
• Vishu: New Year’s Day for the Keralites.
• Nau Roz: Navroz is a 3,000-year-old Zoroastrian tradition, a ritual celebration that signals the start of Spring
and the Persian new year.
• Goru Bihu: Cattle festival celebrated on the Hindu New Year’s Day that is April or May.
• Naba Barsha: New Year’s Day of the Bengalis. Alpana are made on the floor by the house wife.
• Gudi Padva: Widely celebrated in Maharashtra.
• Ugadi: It is the New Year's Day for the States of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and Karnataka in India. It is
festively observed in these regions on the first day of the Hindu lunisolar calendar month of Chaitra.
• Puthandu: It is celebrated as the Tamil New Year’s Day.
• Cheti Chand: Sindhi New Year. celebrated in honour of the birth of Jhulela
• Buddha Purnima: the birth anniversary of Lord Buddha. He was born on a full moon day in the month of
Vaisakh in 563 B.C.
• Baisakhi: Vaisakhi, also pronounced as Baisakhi marks the beginning of solar New year. Vaisakhi marks the
first day of the month of Vaisakha and is usually celebrated on 13 or 14 April every year.
• KaragaNaba: it begins from Dharmaraja temple in Bangalore.
• Meenakshi Lalaynam (Chitra Festival): takes place in Madurai, to celebrate the mythical marriage between
Siva and Meenakshi.
• Dhungri forest festival: celebrated at the Hadimba or Dhungiri temple in Manali, it is located in Dhungri
van vihar forest.
• Rath Yatra: A chariot festival is held at the famous Jagannath Temple at Puri. Images of Lord Jagannath, his
sister Subhadra and brother Balbhadra are taken out in procession in three immense chariots.
• Mela Hemis Gompa: A big fair is held at Hemis Gompa about 50 kilometers from Leh, to celebrate the
birthday of Padmasambhava, the founder of Lamaism.
• Kumbh Mela or Kumbha Mela is a major pilgrimage and festival in Hinduism. It is celebrated in a cycle of
approximately 12 years at four river-bank pilgrimage sites: the Allahabad (Prayag) (Ganges-
Yamuna Sarasvati rivers confluence), Haridwar (Ganges), Nashik (Godavari), and Ujjain (Shipra).
• Pushkar fair - Rajsthan : The Pushkar Fair, also called the Pushkar Camel Fair or locally as Kartik Mela or
Pushkar ka Mela is an annual multi-day livestock fair and cultural fête held in the town of Pushkar.


• Gurupurab: Gurpurab, also known as Guru Nanak's Prakash Utsav and Guru Nanak Dev Ji Jayanti, celebrates
the birth of the first Sikh guru, Guru Nanak.
• Bathukamma: is floral festival celebrated predominantly in Telangana and some parts of Andhra Pradesh.
• Muharram: Muḥarram is the first month of the Islamic calendar. It is one of the four sacred months of the
year when warfare is forbidden. It is held to be the second holiest month, after Ramaḍan.
• Sarhul: It is beginning of the New Year for the tribals of Jharkhand, Odisha and West Bengal.
• Pohela Boishakh: Bengali New Year

FESTIVALS IN NORTH EAST INDIA:
• Hornbill Festival, Nagaland: Named after the state’s most admired bird, the festival showcases the heritage
of 16 tribes there.
• Aoleang Monyu Festival, Mon, Nagaland: The Konyaks are one of the major tribes of Nagaland who
basically belong to Mon district. It is the main festival of Konyaks.
• Sekrenyi festival: Nagaland: Celebrated by Angami tribe of Nagaland. Also called as ‘Phousanyi’ by the
Angamis.
• Ka Pomblang Nongkrem, Meghalaya: It is one of the most significant festival of Khasi community of
Meghalaya.
• Mopin, Arunachal Pradesh: Most important festival of Gallong community of Adi tribes of Arunachal
Pradesh.
• Solung, Arunachal Pradesh: it is socio-religious festival of Adi communities of Arunachal Pradesh.
• Myoko festival, Arunachal Pradesh: generally celebrated in the month of March, one of the main festivals
of the Aptani community.
• Buddha Mahotsava, Arunachal Pradesh: celebrated in Tawang in order to preserve the Buddhist culture
heritage and encourage Buddhist Tourism.
• Bihu Festival, Assam: It is three cultural festivals a year, all known as Bihu, that mark a particular period on
the agriculture calendar. The biggest and most colourful of the three is Bohaag Bihu (also known as Rongali
Bihu). Kaati Bihu at the completion of paddy transplanting. The end of the harvest season is marked by
Maagh Bihu (also known as Bhogali Bihu)
• DehingPatkai Festival, Assam: Annual festival. Named after Dehing river and Patkai range in eastern
Assam.
• Torgya Monastery Festival, Arunachal Pradesh: annual festival that is exclusively held in
Tawang Monastery, Arunachal Pradesh.
• Nongkrem Dance Festival, Meghalaya: The annual Nongkrehm Dance festival is five-day harvest
thanksgiving festival of Khasi tribe. It is performed to appease the Goddess Ka Blei Synshar for a rich bumper
harvest and prosperity of the people.
• Wangela Festival, Meghalaya: Harvest festival celebrated by Garo Tribe. It indicates the beginning of
winter.
• Chapchar Kut, Mizoram: Named after bamboo that has been cut and is drying is an agricultural festival
celebrated before planting begins. The Bamboo dance, called Cheraw is a big part of the festival.
• Kang Chingba, Manipur: It is a 10 days long festival that is celebrated in the month of July every year & It is
similar to the ‘Jagannath Puri Rath Yatra’.
• Kharchi Puja, Tripura: Began as a festival of the royal family of Tripura, currently even the common
households celebrate this festival
• Behdienkhlam, Meghalaya: the most important dance festival of the Jaintia tribes.
• Ambubachi mela, Guwahati, Assam: It is held at Kamakhya Temple & also referred as ‘Mahakumbh of the
East’. It is the celebration of the yearly menstruation course of goddess Kamakhya.
• Losoong Festival: Losoong is the Sikkimese New year.
• Saga Dawa: Celebrated by Buddhist communities living in the State of Sikkim.
• Yemshe Festival: Harvest festival celebrated by Pochuri tribe in Nagaland.
• Cheiraoba Festival: New Year festival of Manipuri tribes.
• Lui-Ngai-Ni Festival: festival of Naga tribes in Nagaland.


3.10 AWARDS AND HONORS
BHARAT RATNA
• The title Bharat Ratna literally means ‘Jewel of India’ and it is the highest Civilian award bestowed by the
Republic of India.
• Bharat Ratna is awarded to exceptional individuals who have performed in the highest order. It was first
given in 1954.
• In December 2011, the criteria was expanded to include ‘any field of human endeavour’.
• The Prime Minister of India makes the recommendations to the President of India who chooses not more
than three people in a particular year for the award. Although no money is given to the awardees, those
who are chosen are given a peepal-leaf shaped medal and a certificate (sanad).
• According to the Indian Order of Precedence, those who are given Bharat Ratna are ranked seventh. The
award cannot be used as a prefix or suffix to the recipients name, in terms of Article 18(1) of the
Constitution.

Year Name of awardee Area/domain
First Awardees (1954) C. Rajagopalachari Freedom fighter and last Governor-General
of India
Dr. C.V Raman Physicist
Dr. S. Radhakrishnan Philosopher as well as first Vice President
and second President of India.
PADMA AWARDS
• These awards were introduced in 1954 and are being given to deserving individuals for their exceptional
services in their chosen fields like Sports, Art, Social work, Civil Service, Literature and Education, Public
Affairs, Science and Technology, Trade and industry, etc.
• The names of the awardees are announced every year on Republic Day.
• The Padma Awards have been given every year expect three times: In the year 1977, 1980, 1993-1997.
• Government servants including those working in PSUs, except doctors and scientists, are not eligible for
these awards.
• According to the Government of India, the awards are of three categories:

• For exceptional and distinguished service.
• It is the second highest civilian award given on the Republic of India.
Padma Vibhushan • Those privileged to get the award are given a citation certificate and a medal,
which has a lotus flower in the middle and the words ‘Desh Seva’, embossed on
the obverse.
• For distinguished service of a high order.
• It is the third highest civilian award given by the government of India for
Padma Bhushan those who have contributed to India’s reputation in the global scenario.
• The President of India confers the award in an elaborate ceremony held at the
Rashtrapati Bhawan in March or April.
• For distinguished service.
• It is the fourth highest civilian award in the Republic of India and is given by the
Government of India for distinguished contribution to various subjects like arts,
Padma Shri literature, sports, politics, industry, medicine, social service, etc.
• The awardee is not given cash but is given a certificate and a medallion with
a three-leafed flower on one side and on the obverse Padma (lotus) and Shri
(Mr. or Ms.) is written in Devanagiri script.
SAHITYA AKADEMI AWARD

• This is an honour given to those who achieve brilliance in literature.


• This award was instituted in 1954 and is given by the ‘Sahitya Akademi’ that is the National Academy of
Letters of our country.
• It is given annually to those who have achieved literary merit and created new trends by publishing their
works, prose or poetry, in any of the 24 major languages recognised by the Akademi.
• Besides the 22 languages enumerated in the Constitution of India, Sahitya Academi has recognised
English and Rajasthani as languages in which programmes can be implemented and hence can be
considered for the award.
• The award comprises a cash prize of 1 lakh rupees and a plaque which says ‘Sahitya’ in the Devanagiri
script.
BHASHA SAMMAN
• These awards are also given by the Sahitya Akademi.
• Every year the Akademi chooses writers who have made significant contribution to Indian languages
other than the 24 major languages covered by the Sahitya Akademi award, and also for contribution to
classical and medieval literature.
• The Bhasha Samman comprises a plaque and a cash prize of one lakh twenty thousand rupees.
JNANPITH AWARD
• It is also known as the Gyanpeeth Award (Seat of Knowledge) and is given for outstanding literary
achievement.
• It was instituted in 1961 by the Bharitya Jnanpith, a trust run by the Jain family famous for founding the
newspaper The Times of India.
• It is given to those Indian citizens who compose literature in one of the 22 languages listed in the
Schedule VIII of the Indian Constitution and English.
• Apart from a plaque and a cash prize of 11 lakh rupees, the winner is also given a bronze statue of Goddess
Saraswati.
• This award is not given posthumously. Hence, there are 23 languages in which Jnanpith Award is given.
DADA SAHEB PHALKE AWARD

• Introduced in 1969, the Dada Saheb Phalke Award is India’s highest award in cinema to commemorate
Dada Saheb Phalke (1870–1944), the legendary film-maker who made India’s first full-length feature film,
Raja Harishchandra (1913).
• It is awarded by the Directorate of Film Festivals, an organization set up by the Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting.
• It is given for outstanding contribution to the growth and development of Indian cinema and is selected
by a committee consisting of eminent personalities from the Indian film industry.
3.11 CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS IN INDIA
THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA (ASI)

• ASI is the successor of The Asiatic Society of India. It was founded in its current form in 1861 by Sir
Alexander Cunningham with the help of the then Viceroy Canning.
• The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is directly under the aegis of the Ministry of Culture and it is the
foremost institution for conducting archaeological researches across india.
• It has been charged with preservation of the cultural heritage of our nation. Its focus is on the preservation
of physical and tangible heritage that is accumulated in the ancient monuments and archaeological sites.
• It regulates all the archaeological activities in the country as per the provisions of the Ancient Monuments
and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958 and the Antiquities and Art Treasure Act, 1972.
NATIONAL MISSION FOR MANUSCRIPTS


• The Archaeological Survey of India and the National Archives of India had encountered a large number of
manuscripts that are the repositories of the ancient and medieval heritage of India.
• It is on their recommendation that the Government of India has ordered for the establishment of the National
Mission for Manuscripts (NMM). The foremost task of the NMM was to create the ‘National Electronic
Database’.
• This database has about one million manuscripts, which makes it the largest database of Indian manuscripts
in the world.
SAHITYA ACADEMY
• The Government of India established the “National Academy of Letters” or the Sahitya Academi in 1954.
• The primary function of this organisation was to work as a national organisation to promote literary culture
in India, to foster and co-ordinate literature in all the Indian languages and to overall promote the national
unity of the country.
• It is an autonomous organisation, which undertakes literary activities in over 24 Indian languages.
• Apart from the 22 languages that are mentioned in the Constitution of India, the Sahitya Academi gives
recognition to two more languages: English and Rajasthani.
SANGEET NATAK ACADEMI

• The Sangeet Natak Academi was the first national academy set up for the Arts by the Government of
India in 1952.
• The first President of India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, inaugurated it. The major focus of the academy was to
create a set-up for music, drama and dances of India.
• It was supposed to be the primary body for showcasing the performing arts in the country.
• They also had the ardent task of promoting the enormous intangible heritage of India as demonstrated
through the forms of music, dance and drama.
• They also collaborate with international organizations like UNESCO to save the cultural heritage of India.
LALIT KALA ACADEMY

• The National Academy of Art or the Lalit Kala Academy was set up by the Government of India in 1954
with the sole object to promote fine arts in India.
• The academy is an autonomous body that is funded by the Ministry of Culture.
• They focus on the encouragement and understanding of fine arts. Although they deal with national and
international art, their focus is on the promotion and preservation of Indian art.

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1.1 INDIAN SCULPTURE

SCULPTURES OF INDUS CIVILIZATION:

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POST -MAURYAN SCULPTURES:

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SCULPTURE OF SOUTH INDIA:

MODERN INDIAN SCULPTURE:

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE:

1.2 INDIAN ARCHITECTURE

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POST MAURYAN ARCHITECTURE

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INDO ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

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MUGHAL PERIOD ARCHITECTURE

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MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTURE STYLES (OTHER THAN INDO-ISLAMIC)

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1.3 TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

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