ARTICLE IN PRESS

Building and Environment 41 (2006) 1905–1912

www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

The natural environment control system of Korean traditional

architecture: Comparison with Korean contemporary architecture
Do-Kyoung Kim
Department of Architectural Engineering, Korea University, 5Ga, Anam-Dong, Sungbuk-Gu, Seoul 136-701, Republic of Korea
Received 28 February 2005; received in revised form 15 April 2005; accepted 4 July 2005

Abstract

Modern architecture does not have the capacity to control its environment without resorting to methods involving high energy
consumption, and these have caused many environmental problems. Architecture needs to recover its capacity to control its
environment in an environmentally sustainable manner. Korean architecture has developed systems to control its environment in an
environmentally sustainable manner from longstanding experience. This study examines methods used to control the architectural
environment in Korean traditional architecture and compares them with Korean contemporary architecture.
r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Natural environment control system; Korean traditional architecture; Natural ventilation; Natural lighting

1. Introduction cannot be the basic method for solving architectural

Nowadays, there is a ‘‘well-being’’ fashion in Korea,
where Koreans seek healthy food and homes [1]. During
the latter part of 2003, many broadcasts and press
notices expressed concern that some buildings have a
negative effect on the human body. In particular, many
people were shocked by a report about children’s atopic
disease. Consequently, demand for healthy dwellings
has increased. This concern must not be allowed to pass
like other fashions.
It appears that architecture has been losing its ability
to coexist with nature. Contemporary architecture seems
to have lost the capacity to control the architectural
environment itself. Control of the architectural environ-
ment tends to be reliant on scientific technology and a
human being’s overconfidence in technology. Buildings
have been filled with many types of equipment.
However, technological methods to resolve environ-
mental issues have caused other problems. Technology
Tel.: +82 2 921 5920; fax: +82 2 923 4229.
E-mail address: kdokyung@korea.ac.kr.
problems associated with the environment.
By the end of the 20th century, a pro-environmental
or ecological architectural trend began to appear.
Global environmental disruption has continued since
the industrial revolution in the 18th century, and finally
human beings have encountered serious difficulties.
Consequently, global concern has led to efforts to
protect the environment. A new trend toward environ-
mental protection has emerged in the architectural field.
However, the method of approach needs to be changed.
It is essential that architecture recovers its close
connection with nature and retains its capacity to
control its own environment without resorting to
energy-consuming methods. Nature should not be
considered as a challenge to be overcome. Architecture
needs to be harmonized with nature. Methods to
improve coexistence between nature, architecture, and
human beings need to be determined.
From this point of view, there is a need to examine
early architecture. In particular, Korean traditional
architecture, in its approach to ‘‘harmony with nature,’’
has formed a unique architectural culture. Korean
traditional architecture has a diverse capacity to control

0360-1323/$ - see front matter r 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.07.007
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1906 D.-K. Kim / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 1905–1912

the architectural environment in harmony with nature.
This capacity of Korean traditional architecture can be
called a ‘‘natural environment control system.’’
This paper first examines the natural environment
control system of Korean architecture in the 17th
through 19th centuries. It then compares the traditional
system with the environment control system used in
Korean contemporary architecture. From this compar-
ison, the problems of contemporary architecture from
the viewpoint of the environment control system are
identified. Application of a traditional environment
control system to contemporary architecture is then
discussed.
2. Environment of humanity and nature in Korean
architecture
‘‘Architecture is harmonized with nature.’’ That is one
of the most general representations of the character of
Korean, as well as of Chinese and Japanese traditional
architecture. As an example, Feng Shui, which is the
Asian theory of geomancy, explains these concepts very
well [3]. It originated as a theory in the Tang dynasty of
ancient China and spread abroad. Feng Shui has
changed significantly over time and in different regions.
However, the essence of the theory is to understand
nature, harmonize with nature, and extract maximum
profit from nature.
From these thoughts, Korean traditional architecture
was developed to be one with nature. Koreans have
recognized architecture as coexisting and maintaining
harmony with nature.
2.2. Characteristics of the natural environment

Without exception, all architecture is formed under
the influence of many elements. These elements are
largely divided into the human environment and the
physical environment. In addition, elements that com-
plement each other influence the architecture [2].
Korean traditional architecture was formed under the
influence of various environmental factors. These will be
mentioned to assist in understanding the natural
environment control system of Korean traditional
architecture.
2.1. Thoughts about the relationship between architecture
and nature
Traditionally, Koreans have recognized nature, archi-
tecture, and human beings as one. In East Asia,
including Korea, China, and Japan, the universe was
envisioned as being divided into the great, the middle,
and the small one. The great universe represented
nature, the middle universe represented dwelling or
architecture, and the small universe stood for the ‘‘I’’ in
nature and dwelling. This idea has influenced the
formation and development of Korean traditional
architecture.
Because Korea is located in the middle latitudes, it has
four sharply distinguished seasons. In addition, as a
peninsular country, the oceanic climate competes with
the continental climate. In summer, from June to
August, the climate is very damp and hot, characteristic
of an oceanic climate. In winter, from December to
February, the climate is very cold, characteristic of a
continental climate. In spring, from March to May, and
autumn, from September to November, the climate is
mild in both humidity and temperature [4] (Table 1).
The annual temperature range is quite large.
Although the climate differs between regions, in Seoul,
the highest temperature is more than 30 1C and the
lowest is near 15 1C. The annual range of temperature
is approximately 50 1C.
Korea is mountainous, with mountains comprising
more than 75% of the country. As a result, at any given
time of the year, there are large variations in climate
between regions.
The sharply distinguished four seasons and mountai-
nous terrain have influenced Korean traditional archi-
tecture. Architecture has had to cope with extreme hot
and cold climates and has reflected the regional change
in the climate. Korean traditional architecture has coped

Table 1
Climate of Seoul from 1971 to 2000

Season Spring Summer Fall Winter

Month March April May June July August September October November December January February

Temperature (1C)
Mean 5.2 12.1 17.4 21.9 24.9 25.4 20.8 14.4 6.9 2.0 2.5 3.0
Maximum 18.3 25.2 29.4 31.9 33.5 33.9 30.3 25.6 19.2 12.1 8.6 12.1
Minimum 5.7 1.0 7.8 13.1 18.0 17.9 10.6 2.2 6.1 11.6 13.5 11.4
Amount of rainfall (mm)
Monthly normals 45.8 77.0 102.2 133.3 327.9 348.0 137.6 49.3 53.0 24.9 21.6 23.6
Relative humidity (%) 61.2 59.3 64.1 71.0 79.8 77.4 71.0 66.2 64.6 63.8 62.6 61.0
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D.-K. Kim / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 1905–1912 1907

well. In contrast, because modern architecture ignores capacity to control its architectural environment arising
the natural environment, many problems such as from change in climate. As a result, Korean modern
excessive energy consumption and pollution can occur. architecture is forced to control its environment without
considering the configuration of the ground.

3. Use of wind according to seasons

3.2. Creation of wind using natural convection in summer
3.1. Selection and arrangement of sites relying on the
The summer in Korea is very damp and hot. After a
effect of mountains
long spell of wet weather between late June and the
middle of July, the heat begins. The temperature reaches
Korean traditional architecture is usually located at
30–40 1C and windless weather can last for more than 15
the foot of mountains (Fig. 1). Mountains have a great
days. Therefore, it is very important to create a system
effect on the velocity and direction of wind. Wind does
of ventilation.
as much harm as it does good. Through a suitable
Despite the windless summer weather, Korean tradi-
relation with mountains, architecture has been able to
tional architecture generates wind. A madang, the
control the effect of wind. Therefore, architecture can
Korean style court, is located in the front of a building.
reduce the harm and increase the benefits of wind.
A madang is empty space hardened by white clay. There
In mountainous regions, Korean traditional architec-
are no trees, just small flowering plants or a small pond
ture has utilized the effects of mountains and responded
in one corner. The rear of the building is linked to a
to the seasonal climate changes. Buildings were pro-
mountain. This is a rear garden, where trees and flowers
tected from the cold wind in winter. However, a
are planted (Figs. 2 and 3).
moderate wind is necessary because of the damp and
hot weather in summer. Moreover, it is necessary to
protect the buildings from strong winds such as
typhoons. Therefore, Koreans located their buildings
at the foot of mountains.
Selecting the direction of buildings to take full
advantage of natural lighting or to utilize solar energy
in winter has been one of the most important elements in
controlling the architectural environment. Therefore, in
the Northern hemisphere, south-oriented buildings are
better than buildings with other orientations. However,
in Korea, there are many buildings facing north, east, or
west [5]. This arises because the effect of the wind on the
architectural environment can be larger than that of the
sun.
Korean modern architecture ignores the configuration
of the ground. It regards direction as the important Fig. 2. Madang and daecheong of a Korean traditional house (Yun
Jeung’s house in Nonsan, Joseon dynasty).
element. Therefore, modern architecture has a lower

Fig. 1. House at the foot of mountains (head residence of the Uiseong Fig. 3. Rear garden of a Korean traditional house (Yun Jeung’s house
Kim clan in Andong, Joseon dynasty). in Nonsan, Joseon dynasty).
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1908 D.-K. Kim / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 1905–1912

Fig. 4. Concept of ventilation by convection current in summer.

In the glaring sunshine, a temperature differential

develops between the forecourt and the rear garden.
Because it is exposed to the sunlight, the temperature of
the forecourt is higher than that of the rear garden,
which is planted with trees and flowers. A local
convection current results from the difference in the
temperature between the front and the rear of the
building. This is a method utilizing the natural
phenomenon of a convection current, which is being
studied for applications to modern architecture [6].
Despite the windless weather, wind blows from the
mountain at the rear of the building. It is an artificial
wind created by the correct selection of the site and the
composition of the outside space. The building blocks
the flow of wind. The building consists of a daecheong,
which is the main floored room in the centre, and rooms
at both sides. The front of the daecheong is usually open
without walls. However, the back of the daecheong is
always closed with walls. Small windows are installed in
the centre of the walls. The wind velocity developed by
the regional convection current is quite weak. However,
as the building and the small size of the window, which
is the passageway of the wind, block the wind, the
velocity of the wind becomes sufficient to cool the
daecheong when it passes through the window (Fig. 4).
Korean contemporary architecture ignores this meth-
od of natural ventilation. Buildings are closed. Origin-
ally, the building was closed just for the cold winter, but
due to economic growth, many buildings have been
equipped with air-conditioning. Consequently, buildings
are also closed in summer. Air-conditioners are being
operated for the control of the inner environment, not
only in summer but also in spring and fall, instead of
simply opening the windows.
4. Control of the inner environment according to the
seasons
4.1. Variable doors and windows
The windows and doors of Korean traditional
architecture have had a variable and complex function
so that the architectural space might have variability
Fig. 5. Closed bunhap-mun of a Korean traditional house (Haksajae in
Gangwha, 2000).
and adaptability. The spaces room to room, room to
daecheong, room to outside, and daecheong to outside,
could be easily divided as well as combined into one.
This characteristic has made Korean traditional archi-
tecture responsive to each of the four seasons.
A door, called bunhap-mun in Korean, is not only a
door for entering and leaving but is also a wall and a
window in winter. In addition, it can be removed for
summer (Figs. 5 and 6). Bunhap stands for being folded
and divided and mun stands for door. It consists of
three, four, six, or eight pairs according to the bay, the
length between the near columns. Two pairs of doors are
usually used for entering and leaving. Other pairs
become walls or windows. However, all pairs of doors
are often folded, raised, and hung to the ceiling.
Therefore, with the door, the spaces are easily divided
or combined as one. The structure is closed during
winter and opened during summer.
As the windows of rooms are composed of several
folds, the inner environment can be controlled according
to the seasons. In Korean traditional architecture, a
room accommodates everyday life, including sleep. The
windows of the rooms, when they face the outside, are at
least two-folded. The outermost window, known as a
deot-mun, is an opening and shutting type. The inner
window is a sliding window known as a young-chang or
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D.-K. Kim / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 1905–1912
Fig. 6. Opened bunhap-mun of a Korean traditional house (Haksajae
in Gangwha, 2000).
Fig. 7. Three-folded window of a Korean traditional house (Haksajae
in Gangwha, 2000).
Fig. 8. Plan of a three-folded window.
a changhoji-chang. A deot-mun is kept open except
during sleep or in a very cold winter. A young-chang is
used to control the inner environment according to the
weather [7].
In high-quality architecture, the window of a room
consists of three folds (Figs. 7 and 8). An additional
window is placed between the deot-mun and the young-
chang or the inner of the young-chang. In winter, hanji,
which is Korean paper hand-made from mulberry trees,
1909
is stuck on both the inner and outer sides. This window
is called a gap-chang, and is used as protection against
the wind. However, in spring, the hanji is replaced with
loose silk. This window is known as sa-chang, which
stands for a window stuck with silk. It protects against
insects.
In Korean contemporary houses, the windows facing
the outside always consist of two folds according to
tradition. This is a characteristic of Korean architecture,
which is not present in the architecture of other
countries. However, all contemporary windows are
sliding windows and different from the traditional
windows, which consist of both sliding and shutting
windows. A bunhap-mun is not used. Therefore, there is
less variability and adaptability than in traditional
architecture. Consequently, contemporary architecture
has weakened the capability of a building to adapt to
natural environmental changes.
4.2. Eaves controlling the amount of sunshine
Korean, as well as Chinese and Japanese traditional
architecture has deep eaves, which play an important
role in controlling the amount of sunshine
entering buildings. The depth of eaves in Korean
traditional architecture is greater than in Chinese
architecture but less than in Japanese architecture. The
difference is caused by climate, and demonstrates that
the eaves are used positively to control the inner
environment.
In Korean traditional architecture, the angle between
the vertical line and the one extending from the centre of
the upper part of a base to the end of the eaves is
approximately 301. The angle is closely related to the
highest altitude of the sun according to the seasons. The
highest altitude of the sun, in Seoul, is approximately
761 at the summer solstice and 291 at the winter solstice.
From these relationships between the depth of the eaves
and the highest altitude of the sun, we can see that
Korean traditional architecture blocks the sunshine in
summer but allows a great deal of sunshine to enter a
building in winter. Because the eaves can control the
amount of sunshine flowing into buildings, buildings can
maintain an environment that is suitable for each season
(Fig. 9).
In contrast, in Korean contemporary architecture,
buildings do not have eaves, or the eaves are very short.
Furthermore, the law limits the length of eaves. There-
fore, in summer, sunshine flows deeply into buildings.
The effect is exacerbated in a building with a wall made
from glass because a greenhouse effect occurs, not only
in summer but also in spring and autumn. Therefore,
buildings lose their capacity to control their environ-
ment. In addition, buildings require more energy to
control the inner environment.
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1910 D.-K. Kim / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 1905–1912
Fig. 9. Functions of the eaves in Korean traditional architecture.
5. Natural lighting and ventilation system
5.1. Indirect lighting utilizing madang
Korean traditional architecture has a lighting method
that uses the sunshine reflected on the madang. Conse-
quently, despite the deep eaves, a Korean building can
have bright rooms. The room maintains a sufficient
intensity of illumination without the need for artificial
lighting in the daytime. In order to use the reflected
sunshine, the madang is not planted with any trees or
flowering plants. Therefore, a madang is used for both
lighting and ventilation.
Single-wing houses are more common than houses
with several wings. This also assists in keeping the
rooms bright. In addition, as shown earlier, ventilation
in single-wing houses is more effective.
In the case of a house, the interior is decorated
brightly. The ceiling of a daecheong is exposed with
rafters and the parts between rafters are covered with
plaster. The ceilings and walls of rooms are papered
with hanji. Therefore, a great deal of sunshine reflected
from the madang is reflected on the wall and the ceiling
and the interior is quite bright.
In contrast, Buddhist temples are darker than a
dwelling house. Although the structure of a madang is
the same, because Buddhist buildings are decorated with
a dancheong which is a picture of many colours and
designs, the lighting environment enhances their reli-
gious atmosphere.
The indirect lighting system of Korean traditional
architecture can make a room sufficiently bright without
causing eyestrain associated with direct lighting. How-
ever, in contemporary architecture, sunlight comes
directly into the room and may harm the eyes because
of the extreme contrast.
5.2. Natural ventilation by breathing hanji and the
convection current of ondol
In Korean traditional architecture, a room known as
an ondol-bang is the main space for living. Constant
Fig. 10. Concept of ventilation by ondol and window system.
natural ventilation can purify the inner air as well as
maintain proper humidity. This is because the Korean
floor heating system known as ondol generates a
convection current, and the hanji, which is used for
papering walls, ceiling, windows and doors, is a material
that can breathe.
Ondol is a unique floor heating system that originated
in Korea [8]. It conducts the difference in temperature
between the floor in a room [9]. In the room, the
nearest side to a fireplace is warmer compared with the
opposite side. The difference in temperature causes a
convection current in the inner air. Incidentally,
according to traditional oriental medicine, it is very
healthy to keep the head cool but the feet warm.
Koreans lay their feet towards the warmer side
of a fireplace in a Korean traditional living form
(Fig. 10).
Both the walls and floors of ondol-equipped rooms are
made of clay. Clay, as a natural material, absorbs the
surrounding moisture in high-humidity conditions and
discharges the moisture in low humidity conditions.
In addition, its capacity for insulation is comparatively
high. Therefore, the room’s environment is con-
trolled according to the change in the surrounding
environment.
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D.-K. Kim / Building and Environment 41 (2006) 1905–1912
All walls and floors made of clay are papered with
hanji (Figs. 11 and 12). The ceilings are also decorated
with hanji, and the windows and doors are stuck with
hanji. Hanji has a very high insulating effect in
comparison to other materials of similar thickness and
quality [10]. Above all, hanji, which is made of a fibroid
material, has many minute gaps that allow air circula-
tion. Therefore, hanji does not obstruct humidity control
by the clay. Despite the windows and doors being
closed, the inner air can be ventilated continuously
through the hanji.
Therefore, Korean traditional rooms can purify their
air and retain an agreeable level of humidity with the
ondol and the window stuck with hanji. In Korean
modern architecture, the inner air is excluded from the
outer air and materials such as concrete, wallpaper, and
glues emit toxic substances. These problems arise
because of controlling the environment with energy-
consuming equipment.
Fig. 11. Wall being made with clay (Haksajae in Gangwha, 2000).
Fig. 12. Floor being decorated with hanji (Haksajae in Gangwha,
2000).
1911
6. Conclusions
This study examines the natural environment
control system of Korean traditional architecture.
Problems with Korean contemporary architecture are
illustrated by comparing the environmental control of
Korean contemporary architecture with Korean tradi-
tional architecture. The results of the study are as
follows.
Korean traditional architecture has been based on the
vision that it should coexist with nature. Natural
phenomena were accepted and used. Therefore, the
architectural environment could be controlled to man-
age the extreme differences in climate of the four seasons
and mountainous ground. In contrast, Korean con-
temporary architecture ignores the natural surroundings
and relies solely on contemporary technology, which
consumes a great deal of energy. Consequently, con-
temporary architecture has lost its ability to control its
environment, and its environment is not necessarily
better. On the contrary, environmental problems are
increased with increasing energy consumption. This
problem of contemporary architecture is not limited to
Korea.
Therefore, there is need for another direction for
architecture. Architecture should coexist with nature.
This does not mean that contemporary conveniences
should be abandoned, but that they need to coexist with
nature. For this purpose, there is a need to make
architecture control its environment according to the
natural environment. This would minimize the number
of problems caused by new technologies as well
as reduce energy consumption and environmental
pollution.
Korean traditional architecture and its architectural
environment control system can be applied to contem-
porary architecture. It is hoped that this paper will be
useful to architects whose aim is to improve the
architectural environment.
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