IU CalculusI Chap1

Chapter 1: Functions, Limit and Continuity
M
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Duong T. PHAM
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g .T
CALCULUS I
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Duong T. PHAM 1 / 125

Outline
1 Lines
Functions
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2
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3 Limit of functions
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4 Left-hand and right-hand limits
5 Limits at infinity g .T
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6 Continuity
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7 Bounded Functions
8 Parametric Equations and polar coordinates

Lines
v = (a, b) and P0 = P0 (x0 , y0 ). Suppose
−−→ −−→
v P(x, y ) ∈ L. Then P0 P//v . Thus, P0 P = tv ,
where t ∈ R,
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P0 P L

x − x0 a
=t , t ∈ R;
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y − y0 b
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Definition.
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Let L be a line which passes through a point P0 (x0 , y0 ) and parallel to a
vector v = (a, b). Then the parametric equation of L is
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x x0 a
= +t , t ∈ R;
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y y0 b
or (
x = x0 + ta
, t ∈ R.
y = y0 + tb

Lines
Ex.
1 Find a parametric equation of the line L which passes through the
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point P0 (5, 1) and is parallel to vector v = (1, 4),
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2 Find two other points on L.
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Ans.
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1 The parametric equation of L is
x
g

5

1
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= +t , t ∈ R.
y 1 4
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2 Choose t1 = 1, we have P1 (6, 5) ∈ L
Choose t2 = 2, we have P2 (7, 9) ∈ L

Lines
Parametric equation of L
( (
x = x0 + ta x − x0 = ta
⇐⇒
y = y0 + tb y − y0 = tb
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If none of a, b is 0, we obtain
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x − x0 y − y0
=
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a b
It is called symmetric equations of L
g
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If e.g. a = 0, then the equation of L is x = x0 .
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If e.g. b = 0, then the equation of L is y = y0 .

If b 6= 0, the equation of L can be written in the form
y = αx + β
where α is the slope of L.

Lines
y
−→
AB = (xB − xA , yB − yA ) directional
yB L vector of L. The equation of L:
B
y P (
yA
x = xA + t(xB − xA )
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A
y = yA + t(yB − yA )
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0 xA x xB x
If xA 6= xB , the first equation gives
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x − xA
t= . Substitute this into the second equation,
xB − xA g
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yB − yA
y= (x − xA ) + yA
xB − xA
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Remark: The slope of the line connecting two points A(xA , yA ) and
B(xB , yB ) is given by
yB − yA
.
xB − xA
Lines
b L2
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L1
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0 a x
Equation of L1 is: g.T

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x =a
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Equation of L2 is:
y =b

Line Segment
Proposition.
Given two points A(xA , yA ) and B(xB , yB ). The line segment from A to B
is
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x xA x
= (1 − t) +t B 0≤t≤1
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y yA yB
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Proof. −→
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AB = (xB − xA , yB − yA ). Let P(x, y ) ∈
y
−→ −→
line segment AB. Then AP = t AB for
−→
g
0 ≤ t ≤ 1. Here, AP = (x − xA , y − yA ).
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yB
B
y P Thus
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yA
A
x − xA xB − xA
=t
y − yA yB − yA
0 xA x xB x

x xA x
=⇒ = (1 − t) +t B
y yA yB
Circles and Disks
y
P(x, y )
Let C (a, b). Let P(x, y ) belong to
the circle centered at C (a, b) and
r
b
C radius r . Then
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CP 2 = r 2
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⇐⇒ (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2
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0 a x
The equation of the circle with center at C (a, b) and radius r is

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(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2
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The set of all points lie inside a circle is called the interior of the
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circle (an open disk) .

The set of all points inside a circle together with the circle itself is
said to be a closed disk (or a disk) and is represented by
(x − a)2 + (y − b)2 ≤ r 2

Equations of Parabolas
We consider the set of points
that are equidistant from the
y
point F (0, p) and the straight
line y = L.
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If a point P(x, y ) satisfies the
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F (0, p)
P above condition then PF = PH.
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0 x
x 2 + (y − p)2 = (y − L)2
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H y =L x2 p 2 − L2
g ⇐⇒ y = +
2(p − L) 2(p − L)
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Definition.
A parabola is a plane curve whose points are equidistant from a
point F and a straight line L which does not pass the point F .
F is the focus of the parabola. L is the directrix of the parabola.
The line through F and perpendicular to L is the parabola’s axis .
Ellipses
y
minor axis
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major axis a x
0
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Definition. g .T
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If a, b > 0, the equation x2 y2
+ 2 =1
a2
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b
represents a curve (called ellipse ) that lies inside the rectangle
[−a, a] × [−b, b].
The line segments connecting (−a, 0) with (a, 0) and (0, −b) with
(0, b) are called principal axes of the ellipse.
Hyperbolas
y
x
a
+ yb = 0
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−a a
x
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0
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x
a
− yb = 0
Definition. g .T
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If a, b > 0, the equation
x2 y2
− 2 =1
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a2 b
represents a curve (called hyperbola ) that has center at the origin
and passes through (a, 0) and (−a, 0).
x y x y
The two asymptotes have equations a + b = 0 and a − b =0
Functions
Definition.
Let A and B be sets. A function f : A → B is an assignment of exactly
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one element of B to each element of A.
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Ex: Let A = {Tom, Hai, Thao, David, Nam} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. The
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grades of students in A are given by
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Tom 1 The assigment grade of the
g students is a function.
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Hai 2
grade(Tom) = 2;
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Thao 3 grade(Hai) = 2;
grade(Thao) = 4;
David 4
grade(David) = 3;
Nam 5 grade(Nam) = 1.

Domain, Range, Image and Pre-image
Definition.
Let f : A → B be a function. We call f maps A to B and
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The set A is called the domain of f . The set B is called the
codomain
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If f (a) = b, then b is called the image of a and a is called the
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pre–image of b.
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The set f (A) = {f (a)| a ∈ A} is called the range of f .
g
{Tom, Hai, Thao, David, Nam} =
un
grade
Tom 1 domain
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Hai 2 {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = codomain

Thao 3 range(grade) = {grade(Tom), grade(Hai),
David 4 grade(Thao), grade(David), grade(Nam)}
Nam 5 = {2, 2, 4, 3, 1} = {1, 2, 3, 4}
Domain of a function
Remark: If a function is given by a formula and the domain is not stated

explicitly, the convention is that the domain is the set of all numbers for
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which the formula makes sense and defines a real number .
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√
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Ex: Find the domain of the function f (x) = x + 1.
√
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Ans: The formula x + 1 is well-defined when x + 1 ≥ 0, which is
equivalent to x ≥ −1. g
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The domain of the above function is
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D = [−1, +∞)

Example
Ex: We need a rectangular storage container with an open top which has
a volume of 10m3 . The length of its base is required to be twice its width.
Material for the base costs $10/m2 ; material for the sides costs $6/m2 .
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Express the cost of materials as a function of the width of the base.
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g .T
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h
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w
2w

Example
Area of the base = w ∗ (2w ) = 2w 2

⇒ Cost = 10 ∗ (2w 2 ) = 20w 2 $
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Area of the front and back sides
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h = 2 ∗ (2hw ) = 4hw
w
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Area of the left and right sides
2w = 2 ∗ (hw ) = 2hw
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⇒ Area of 4 sides = 6hw ⇒ Cost = 6 ∗ (6hw ) = 36hw $
g
⇒ Total cost = 20w 2 + 36hw ($)
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Volume = 10 ⇒ 2hw 2 = 10 ⇒ h = 5/w 2
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180
⇒ Total cost: C (w ) = 20w 2 + w

The Vertical Line Test
The graph of a function is a curve in xy -plane.
Question : Which curves in the xy -plane are graphs of functions?
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Vertical Line Test: A curve in the xy -plane is the graph of a function of
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x if and only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.
y
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y
g .T b
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a x
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a
x c
f (a) = b or f (a) = c?
Piecewise defined functions
(
1−x if x ≤ 1
Ex: A function f is defined by: f (x) =
x2 if x > 1.
f (−1) = ? 1 − (−1) = 2
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f (2) =? 22 = 4
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f (1) =? 1 − 1 = 0
y
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4
g .T
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2
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−1 1 2 x
Piecewise defined functions
Ex: Sketch the graph of the absolute value function f (x) = |x|
Ans: We have
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(
x if x ≥ 0
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f (x) = |x| =
−x if x < 0
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.T
y
g
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Symmetry: Even Functions
y
4
f (−1) =? (−1)2 = 1;
f (1) =? 12 = 1;
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⇒ f (−1) = f (1)
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f (−2) = (−2)2 = 4 and
f (2) = 22 = 4
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1 ⇒ f (−2) = f (2)
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f (−x) = (−x)2 = x 2
f (x) = x 2 ⇒ f (−x) = f (x)
g
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x
−2 −1 1 2
f is an even function
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Graph of function f (x) = x2
Definition.
A function f : D → R is said to be even if f (−x) = f (x) ∀x ∈ D

Symmetry: Odd Functions
f (x)
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−x
x
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f (−x)
g .T
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f (−x) = −f (x) ∀x ∈ D and f is said to be an odd function
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Definition.
A function f : D → R is said to be odd if f (−x) = −f (x) ∀x ∈ D

Symmetry: Examples
Ex: Determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd, or
neither even nor odd
f (x) = x 3 − x; g (x) = 1 + x 2 ; h(x) = x + 1.
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Ans:
(i) f (−x) = (−x)3 − (−x) = −x 3 + x = −(x 3 − x) = −f (x)
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⇒ f is an odd function.
g .T
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f (x)
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−x
x
f (−x)

Symmetry: Examples
Ans: g (x) = 1 + x 2 ;
g (−x) = 1 + (−x)2 = 1 + x 2 = g (x)
⇒ g is an even function.
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g .T
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g (−x) g (x)
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−x x

Symmetry: Examples
Ans: h(x) = 1 + x;
h(−x) = 1 + (−x) = 1 − x ⇒ h(−x) 6= h(x) and h(−x) 6= −h(x)
⇒ h is NOT either even or odd.
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y
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g.T
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Functions
Definition.
Let f , g : A → R. Then f + g and fg are functions from A to R defined
by
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(f + g )(x)= f (x) + g (x)
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(fg )(x)= f (x)g (x)
are the functions f + g and fg ?

g .T
Ex: Let f , g : R → R be given by f (x) = x 2 and g (x) = x − x 2 . What
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Ans: f + g and fg are functions from R to R and
(f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) = x 2 + (x − x 2 ) = x

(fg )(x) = f (x)g (x) = x 2 (x − x 2 ) = x 3 − x 4 .

Functions
Definition.
Let f : A → B be a function and S ⊂ A. The image of S, f (S), is a
subset of B given by
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f (S) = {f (x)| x ∈ S}
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Ex: Let A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {1, 2, 3, 4} and a function f : A → B
given by
f (a) = 2, g .Tf (b) = 1, f (c) = 4,
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f (d) = 1, f (e) = 1.
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Find the image f (S) of the subset S = {b, c, d}.

Ans:
f (S) = f ({b, c, d}) = {f (b), f (c), f (d)}
= {1, 4, 1} = {1, 4}
Composition
Definition.
Let f : A → B and g : B → C . The composition g ◦ f : A → C is defined
by g ◦ f (a) = g (f (a)) , a ∈ A.
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Ex: Let f : {a, b, c, d, e} → {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} be given by
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f (a) = 4, f (b) = 5, f (c) = 2, f (d) = 1, f (e) = 3,
and g : {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} → {Tom, Jerry, Donald, Hugo} be given by
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g (1) = Tom, g (2) = Hugo, g (3) = Jerry, g (4) = Tom, g (5) = Donald.
g
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Find g ◦ f ? g
f
a
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1 Tom
b 2 Jerry
c 3
Donald
d 4
e 5 Hugo
Composition
f g
a 1 Tom
b 2 Jerry
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c 3
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Donald
d 4
Hugo
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e 5
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The composition g ◦ f : {a, b, c, d, e} → {Tom, Jerry, Donald, Hugo} is
defined by g
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g ◦ f (a) = g f (a) = g 4 = Tom
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g ◦ f (b) = g f (b) = g 5 = Donald

g ◦ f (c) = g f (c) = g 2 = Hugo

g ◦ f (d) = g f (d) = g 1 = Tom

g ◦ f (e) = g f (e) = g 3 = Jerry
Composition
Ex: Let f : R → R and g : R → R be defined by
M
f (x) = 2x + 3 and g (x) = 3x + 2.
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Find g ◦ f and f ◦ g .
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Ans: We have g ◦ f : R → R and
g
g ◦ f (x) = g f (x) = g 2x + 3 = 3 2x + 3 + 2 = 6x + 11.
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The composition f ◦ g : R → R is given by
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f ◦ g (x) = f g (x) = f 3x + 2 = 2 3x + 2 + 3 = 6x + 7.

One–to–one Functions
Definition.
A function f : A → B is said to be one-to-one (or injective) if and only if
f (x) = f (y ) for any x, y ∈ A implies x = y
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Ex: Let f : {a, b, c, d} → {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} be a function given by
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f (a) = 4, f (b) = 5, f (c) = 1, f (d) = 3.
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Determine if f is one-to-one.
Ans:
g
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f
a 1
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2 The function f is one-to-one since there are

b
3 no two different elements in {a, b, c, d} hav-
c ing the same image.
4
d 5
One-to-one functions
a 1
a 1 b 2
b 2 c 3
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c 3 d 4
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d 4
g
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D E
f
D E
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g (b) = g (c)
g
f is one-to-one and g is NOT one-to-one
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Remark: A function f is one-to-one if
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) =⇒ x1 = x2

Horizontal line Test
Ex:
y f is not one-to-one
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y = f (x)
f (x1 )
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||
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f (x2 )
g
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x1 x2 x
Horizontal line test: A function is one-to-one if and only if NO

horizontal line intersects its graph more than once.

Ex: Consider the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = x 2 . Determine if f
is one-to-one.
Ans: The function f is not one-to-one since we have 1 6= −1 but
f (1) = f (−1) = 12 .
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y = x2
AR
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g .T
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Zo
−1 1 x

One-to-one Functions
Ex: Determine whether the function f (x) = x + 1 is one-to-one or not.
Ans: Suppose that x1 , x2 ∈ R satisfy f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). Then we have
f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) ⇐⇒ x1 + 1 = x2 + 1
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=⇒ x1 = x2 .
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Hence, f (x) = x + 1 is one-to-one.
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y =x +1
y
g .T
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Zo

Increasing and decreasing Functions
Definition.
Let A ⊂ R and f : A → R. Then
If ∀x, y ∈ A and x < y , there holds f (x) < f (y ), then f is said to
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be strictly increasing
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If ∀x, y ∈ A and x < y , there holds f (x) > f (y ), then f is said to
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be strictly decreasing
.T
Ex: Consider the function f (x) = x 3 . Prove that f is strictly increasing.
Ans: Let x, y ∈ R and x < y . We have
g
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f (x) − f (y ) = x 3 − y 3 = (x − y )(x 2 + xy + y 2 )
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3y 2

y
= (x − y ) (x + )2 + < 0.
| {z } 2 4
<0 | {z }
>0
Hence, f (x) < f (y ) whenever x < y . The function f (x) = x 3 is

increasing.
Onto Functions (surjective functions)
Definition.
Let f : A → B be a function. If for any b ∈ B, there is an a ∈ A such that
M
f (a) = b, then f is said to be onto (or surjective) . In this case, f is
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called a surjection.
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Remark: f : A → B is surjective iff ∀(b ∈ B) ∃(a ∈ A) (f (a) = b)
Ex:
f .T
g
un
a 1
This function is NOT surjective since there
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b 2
3 is NO element in {a, b, c, d} whose image is
c 2.
4
d 5

Surjective Functions
Ex: Prove that the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = x 3 + 1 is

surjective.
M
√
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Ans: For any y ∈ R, there is x = 3 y − 1 ∈ R satisfying
.P
p
f (x) = f 3 y − 1
.T
p 3
g = 3 y −1 +1
un
=y −1+1
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= y.
Hence, f is surjective.

Bijective functions
Definition.
A function f : A → B is said to be bijective if it is injective and
M
surjective.
AR
.P
Ex:
.T
The function f is injective since for all
f x1 , x2 ∈ {a, b, c, d, e} such that
a 1 g x1 6= x2 , there holds f (x1 ) 6= f (x2 ).
un
b 2
c 3 The function f is surjective since for
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all y ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, there is a

d 4
x ∈ {a, b, c, d, e} such that f (x) = y .
e 5
Hence, f is bijective.

Identity function and Inverse function
Definition.
Let A be a set. The identity function defined on A is given by
M
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iA (x) = x ∀x ∈ A.
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.T
Definition.
Let f : A → B be a bijective function. The inverse function of f ,
g
denoted by f −1 : B → A, is defined by
un
Zo
f −1 (b) := a ∀b ∈ B if f (a) = b
A function f is said to be invertible if it has an inverse

Ex: The bijective function f : {a, b, c, d, e} → {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} given by
f (a) = 4, f (b) = 5, f (c) = 2, f (d) = 1, f (e) = 3.
Find f −1 ?
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Ans: The inverse f −1 : {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} → {a, b, c, d, e} is given by
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f −1 (1) = d, f −1 (2) = c, f −1 (3) = e,
.P
f −1 (4) = a, f −1 (5) = b.
a
f
1
g .T 1
f −1
a
un
b 2 2 b
Zo
c 3 3 c
d 4 4 d
e 5 5 e

Inverse function
Remark: Let f be a bijective function with domain A and range B. Then

its inverse function f −1 has domain B and range A and is defined by
f −1 (y ) = x ⇐⇒ f (x) = y ∀y ∈ B.
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AR
a 1 1 a
.P
b 2 2 b
c 3 3 c
.T
Ex: d 4 4 d
g
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D
f
E E f −1 D
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f −1 ◦ f (a) = ? f −1 (f (a)) = f −1 (1) = a

f ◦ f −1 (3) = ? f (f −1 (3)) = f (c) = 3.

Cancellation equations
Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B.
M
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(f −1 ◦ f )(x) = f −1 (f (x)) = x ∀x ∈ A
−1 −1
.P
(f ◦ f )(y ) = f (f (y )) = y ∀y ∈ B
g .T
un
x f f (x) f −1 x
Zo

Find an inverse
To find the inverse of a one-to-one function f :

Step 1: Write y = f (x)
M
Step 2: Solve this equation for x in terms of y
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Step 3: To obtain f −1 as a function of x, interchange x and y .
The resulting equation is y = f −1 (x).
.P
.T
Ex: Find the inverse of y = 3x 3 + 5
Ans: g
un
y = 3x 3 + 5
Zo
q
y −5
=⇒ 3x 3 = y − 5 =⇒ x = 3
3
q
x−5
y= 3
3 is the inverse of y = 3x 3 + 5.

Graphs
Definition.
Let f : A → B be a function. The graph of f is the set
M
{(a, b)| a ∈ A and b = f (a)}
AR
Ex: Find the graph of the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = 2x + 1.
.P
Ans: The graph of f is {(x, 2x + 1) | x ∈ R}
g .T y
un
Zo
1
-1
x
Graphs
Ex: Find the graph of the following function
M
a 1
AR
b 2
3
.P
c 4
.T
d 5
g
un
Ans: The graph of f is
Zo
{(x, f (x)) | x ∈ {a, b, c, d}} = {(a, f (a)), (b, f (b)), (c, f (c)), (d, f (d))}
= {(a, 4), (b, 5), (c, 1), (d, 3)}

Graphs
Ex: Consider f : Z → Z given by f (x) = x 2 . Find the graph of f .
Ans: The graph of f is
{(x, f (x)) | x ∈ Z} = {(x, x 2 ) | x ∈ Z}
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AR
y
.P
9
g .T
un
Zo
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
Transformation of functions
Vertical and horizontal shifts: Suppose c > 0. To obtain the graph
M
of
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y = f (x) + c, shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units
upward
.P
y = f (x) − c, shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units
.T
downward
y = f (x + c), shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units to
g
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the left
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y = f (x − c), shift the graph of y = f (x) a distance c units to

the right

Vertical and horizontal shifts
y = f (x) + c
M
AR
.P
c y = f (x)
y = f (x + c) y = f (x − c)
.T
c
g c
un
c
Zo
y = f (x) − c

Vertical and horizontal stretching and reflecting
Vertical and horizontal Stretching and Reflecting: Suppose c > 1.

To obtain the graph of
M
y = cf (x), stretch the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a factor of c
AR
y = (1/c)f (x), compress the graph of y = f (x) vertically by a
.P
factor of c
.T
y = f (cx), compress the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a
factor of c g
y = f (x/c), stretch the graph of y = f (x) horizontally by a factor
un
of c
Zo
y = −f (x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the x-axis

y = f (−x), reflect the graph of y = f (x) about the y -axis

Ex:
y y = 2 cos x
M
AR
2 y = cos x
.P
1
y = (0.5) ∗ cos x
.T
1/2
g x
un
Zo

Ex:
y
M
y = cos 12 x
AR
.P
1
g .T x
un
Zo
y = cos x
y = cos 2x

Graphs of inverse functions
y y = f −1 (x)
Suppose f (a) = b ⇒(a, b) ∈
M
graph of f a
AR
⇒f −1 (b) = a ⇒ (b, a) ∈ graph
y = f (x)
of f −1
.P
b
The graph of f −1 is symmetric
.T
to that of f about the main
diagonal. g
un
b a x
Zo
The graph of f −1 is obtained by reflecting the graph of f about the line

y =x

Exercises
M
AR
.P
I.6:
3–12; 15–18; 21–24
.T
g
un
Zo

Floor and ceiling functions
Definition.
The floor function assigns each real number to the largest integer
M
that is smaller than the real number itself.
AR
The ceiling function assigns each real number to the smallest integer
.P
that is larger than the real number itself.
.T
The values of the floor and ceiling functions at x are denoted by bxc
and dxe, resp. g
un
Zo
Ex:
b5.2c = 5, d5.2e = 6,
b−1.2c = −2, d−1.2e = −1.

Floor and ceiling functions
Some properties of floor and ceiling functions (n is integer)

bxc = n iff n ≤ x < n + 1
M
dxe = n iff n − 1 < x ≤ n
AR
bxc = n iff x − 1 < n ≤ x
.P
dxe = n iff x ≤ n < x + 1
.T
x − 1 ≤ bxc ≤ x ≤ dxe < x + 1
g b−xc = −dxe
un
d−xe = −bxc
Zo
bx + nc = bxc + n
dx + ne = dxe + n

Linear Models
Def: A function y = f (x) is linear if its graph is a straight line. The
formula of a linear function has the following formula
y = ax + b,
M
AR
where a is the slope of the line and b is the y -intercept.
.P
Ex: y = − 21 x + 2
.T
y
g
un
2
Zo
0 4 x

Polynomials
Def: A function P is called a polynomial if
P(x) = an x n + an−1 x n−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0
M
where
AR
n: nonnegative integer,
.P
a0 , a1 , . . . , an are coefficients
.T
The domain of P is R = (−∞, ∞). If an 6= 0, the degree of P is n.
Ex:
g
un
A linear function y = ax + b is a polynomial of degree 1,
Zo
A polynomial of degree 2 has the form y = ax 2 + bx + c and is

called a quadratic function,
A polynomial of degree 3 has the form y = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d and
is called a cubic function.
Power Functions
A function of the form y = x α where α is a constant is called a power

function.
M
Remark: Note here that α is a real number.
AR
If α = n where n is a positive integer, then y = x n is a polynomial
.P
of degree n;
The domain of y = x n is R.
.T
If α = 1/n where n is a positive integer, then y = x 1/n is called a
root function. g
√
un
Note: y = n x ⇒ y n = x and
Zo
(
√n
R+ = [0, ∞) if n is even
domain of y = x is
R if n is odd

Power Functions
√
n
y= x
y
y √
y = 3x
M
√
y = x
AR
x
.P
x
y = x −1 = x1 ;
.T
domain is R\{0}
g
un
Zo

Rational Functions
Definition.
A rational function f is a ratio of two polynomials:
M
P(x)
f (x) =
AR
Q(x)
.P
where P and Q are polynomials.
.T
Domain of f is
D = {x ∈ R : Q(x) 6= 0}
g
un
Zo
x
Ex: f (x) = is a rational function and the domain is
x2 − 3x + 2
D = {x ∈ R : x 2 − 3x + 2 6= 0}
= {x ∈ R : x 6= 1 and x 6= 2}

Algebraic Functions
Definition.
A function f is called an algebraic function if it can be constructed
M
using algebraic operations (such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
AR
division, and taking roots) starting with polynomials
.P
.T
Ex:
f (x) = an x n + . . . + a1 x + a0 and g (x) = bm x m + . . . + b1 x + b0 are
g
un
algebraic functions
√
Zo
f + g , f − g , f ∗ g , f /g and k f are algebraic functions

1
h(x) = √
k n
x +1
is an algebraic function

Trigonometric Functions
y = sin x
1
M
AR
−π π 2π
−2π 0
.P
−1
y = cos x
.T
g
un
1
Zo
−π π 2π
−2π 0
−1

Exponential Functions
Definition.
Exponential functions are the functions of the form f (x) = ax where
a > 0.
M
The domain = R
AR
The range = {positive numbers}
.P
y y
g .T
un
Zo
y = 2x y = ( 21 )x
x x
Logarithmic Functions
Definition.
The logarithmic functions f (x) = loga x, where the base a is a positive
constant, are the inverse functions of the exponential functions.
M
Domain = (0, ∞)
AR
Range = (−∞, ∞)
.P
y
g.T
un
y = log2 x
Zo

Transcendental Functions
Definition.
Transcendental functions are functions that are NOT algbraic
functions.
M
AR
Ex:
Trigonometric functions and their inverses are transcendental
.P
functions,
.T
Exponential and logarithmic functions are transcendental functions.
g
un
Ex: Classify the following functions as one of the types of functions that
we have discussed.
Zo
1 3x −→ exponential function,
2 x 5 −→ power function (or polynomial of degree 5)
1+x
3 √
1− x
−→ algebraic function,
4 1 − x − x 4 −→ polynomial of degree 4.
Limit of a function
(
2x − 1 if x 6= 3
Consider f (x) =
6 if x = 3
M
y
x f (x) |5 − f (x)|
AR
2.99 4.98 0.02 5+
.P
5
2.999 4.998 0.002 5−
2.9999 4.9998 0.0002
.T
2.99999 4.99998 0.00002
2.999999 4.999998
g
0.000002
un
2.9999999 4.9999998 0.0000002
Zo
0 3−δ 3 3+δ x
We say: f converges to 5 as x goes to 3, and we write
lim f (x) = 5
x→3

Limit of a function
M
Definition.
AR
Let f be a function defined on some open intervals that contains a, except
.P
possibly at a itself. Then
lim f (x) = L
.T
x→a
if for every > 0, there is a number δ > 0 such that

g
un
if 0 < |x − a| < δ then |f (x) − L| < .
Zo

Limit of a function
Ex: Prove that lim (4x − 5) = 7

x→3
Ans:
Guessing δ: given an arbitrary > 0, we need to find δ > 0 s.t.
M
AR
if 0 < |x − 3| < δ then |(4x − 5) − 7| < .
.P
We have
.T
|(4x − 5) − 7| < ⇔ 4 |x − 3| < .
We choose δ = /4. g
un
Proof: For any > 0, there is δ = /4 satisfying that if
0 < |x − 3| < δ , then
Zo
0 < |x − 3| < /4 ⇔ |(4x − 5) − 7| < .
This conclude that lim (4x − 5) = 7

x→3

Limit of a function
Ex: Prove that lim (x 2 − 1) = 0
x→1
Ans:
Guessing δ: given an arbitrary > 0, we need to find δ > 0 s.t.
M
if 0 < |x − 1| < δ then (x 2 − 1) − 0 < .

AR

We have (x 2 − 1) − 0 = |x − 1| |x + 1| < (we want) .
.P
We may choose δ = min{1/4, /3}.
.T
Proof: For any > 0, there is δ = min{1/4, /3} satisfying that if
0 < |x − 1| < δ , then |x − 1| < δ ≤ 1/4 ⇒ 3/4 < x < 5/4 ⇒
g
7/4 < x + 1 < 9/4 ⇒ 7/4 < |x + 1| < 9/4 .
un
Zo
Hence, if 0 < |x − 1| < δ = min{1/4, /3}, we have
(x − 1) − 0 = |x − 1| |x + 1| < δ |x + 1| < 9 < .

2
34
This conclude that lim (x 2 − 1) = 0
x→1
Limit Laws
Limit Laws: Suppose that lim f (x) and lim g (x) exist and let c ∈ R.
x→a x→a
Then
M
AR
(i) lim [f (x) + g (x)] = lim f (x) + lim g (x)
x→a x→a x→a
.P
(ii) lim [f (x) − g (x)] = lim f (x) − lim g (x)
x→a x→a x→a
.T
(iii) lim [cf (x)] = c lim f (x)
x→a x→a g
un
(iv) lim [f (x)g (x)] = lim f (x) · lim g (x)
x→a x→a x→a
Zo
f (x) lim f (x)

(v) lim = x→a if lim g (x) 6= 0
x→a g (x) lim g (x) x→a
x→a

Limit Laws
Proof:
(i) Denote L := lim f (x) and M := lim g (x).
x→a x→a
Let > 0 be an arbitrarily small positive number .
M
Since L := lim f (x), there is a δ1 > 0 s.t.
AR
x→a
if 0 < |x − a| < δ1 then |f (x) − L| < /2. (1)
.P
Since M := lim g (x), there is a δ2 > 0 s.t.
.T
x→a
if 0 < |x − a| < δ2 then |g (x) − M| < /2.

g (2)
un
We choose δ = min{δ1 , δ2 }. From (1) and (2), there holds:
Zo
if 0 < |x − a| < δ then

|(f (x) + g (x)) − (L + M)| ≤ |f (x) − L| + |g (x) − M|
</2 + /2 = .
Hence, lim [f (x) + g (x)] = L + M.
x→a

Limit Laws
Proof:
(ii) Let > 0 be an arbitrarily small positive number .
x→a
M
if 0 < |x − a| < δ1 then |f (x) − L| < /2. (3)
AR
.P
Since M := lim g (x), there is a δ2 > 0 s.t.
x→a
.T
if 0 < |x − a| < δ2 then |g (x) − M| < /2. (4)
We choose δ = min{δ1 , δ2 }. From (3) and (4), there holds:

g
un
if 0 < |x − a| < δ then
Zo
|(f (x) − g (x)) − (L − M)| ≤ |(f (x) − L) − (g (x) − M)|

≤ |f (x) − L| + |g (x) − M|
</2 + /2 = .
Hence, lim [f (x) − g (x)] = L − M.

x→a

Limit Laws
Proof:
(iii) Recall L := lim f (x). Prove that lim cf (x) = cL.
x→a x→a
M
If c = 0 then it is not hard to prove (iii).
AR
Consider the case c 6= 0. Let > 0 be an arbitrarily small positive number .
.P
x→a
.T
if 0 < |x − a| < δ1 then |f (x) − L| < . (5)
|c|
g
un
We choose δ = δ1 > 0. From (5), there holds: if 0 < |x − a| < δ then
Zo

|cf (x) − cL| = |c| |f (x) − L| < |c| = .
|c|
Hence, lim [cf (x)] = cL.

x→a

Limit Laws
Proof:
(iv) Recall: L := lim f (x) and M := lim g (x).
x→a x→a
M
Then there are δ1 > 0 and δ2 > 0 s.t.
AR
if 0 < |x − a| < δ1 then |f (x) − L| < . (6)
.P
if 0 < |x − a| < δ2 then |g (x) − M| < . (7)
We choose δ = min{δ1 , δ2 }. Suppose that
so that (6) and (7) hold. Then

g .T
0 < |x − a| < δ = min{δ1 , δ2 }
un
|(f (x)g (x)) − (LM)| ≤ |f (x)(g (x) − M) + M(f (x) − L)|
Zo
≤ |f (x)| |g (x) − M| + |M| |f (x) − L|

≤ (|f (x)| + |M|) ≤ (|f (x) − L| + |L| + |M|)
≤ ( + |L| + |M|)≤ (1 + |L| + |M|)
This proves (iv).
Limit Laws
Proof:
(v) Recall: L := lim f (x) and M := lim g (x), and M 6= 0.
x→a x→a
M
Then there are δ1 > 0 and δ2 > 0 s.t.
AR
if 0 < |x − a| < δ1 then |f (x) − L| < . (8)
.P
M
if 0 < |x − a| < δ2 then |g (x) − M| < so that |g (x)| > . (9)
2
.T
Moreover, |M| /2 > 0, there is δ3 > 0 s.t.
g
un
|M|
if 0 < |x − a| < δ3 then |g (x) − M| < . (10)
2
Zo
We choose δ = min{δ1 , δ2 , δ3 }. Suppose that
0 < |x − a| < δ = min{δ1 , δ2 , δ3 }
so that (8), (9) and (10) hold.

Limit Laws
Then

f (x) L |Mf (x) − Lg (x)|
M
−
g (x) M =

|g (x)M|
AR
2
≤ 2 |Mf (x) − Lg (x)|
.P
|M|
2
.T
≤ 2 |M(f (x) − L) + L(M − g (x))|
|M|
g2
≤ 2 (|M| |f (x) − L| + |L| |M − g (x)|)
un
|M|
Zo
2
≤ 2 (|M| + |L|)
|M|
This proves (v).

Some corollaries
In the rest of this course, except when being asked to use the definition of
limit to prove, we can use the six Limit Laws and the following simple
limits without proving:
M
1 lim c = c
AR
x→a
2 lim x = a
.P
x→a
sin x
.T
3 lim =1
x→0 x
4 lim x n = an g
x→a
un
√ √
5 lim n x = n a
Zo
x→a
p q
6 lim n f (x) = n lim f (x) if the second limit exists and if n is even
x→a x→a
we assume further that lim f (x) ≥ 0
x→a
Proof:

Limit Laws
x +1
Ex: Evaluate lim (3x 3 − 2x 2 + 10) and lim
x→2 x→2 x 2 − 2x + 3
Ans:
lim (3x 3 − 2x 2 + 10) = lim (3x 3 ) − lim (2x 2 ) + lim 10
M
x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2
= 3 lim x 3 − 2 lim x 2 + 10
AR
x→2 x→2
3 2
.P
= 3 · 2 − 2 · 2 + 10 = 26
.T
and lim (x + 1)
x +1 x→2
lim g =
x→2 x 2 − 2x + 3 lim (x 2 − 2x + 3)
un
x→2
lim x + lim 1
Zo
x→2 x→2
= 2
lim x − 2 lim x + lim 3
x→2 x→2 x→2
2+1
= 2 =1
2 −2·2+3

Limit Laws
Proposition.
If f (x) = g (x) for all x 6= a, then lim f (x) = lim g (x)
x→a x→a
M
AR
Ex: Find lim f (x) where
x→2
.P
(
x2 + 1
.T
if x 6= 2
f (x) =
g 10 if x = 2
un
Zo
Ans: Since f (x) = x 2 + 1 for all x 6= 2, we have
lim f (x) = lim (x 2 + 1)

x→2 x→2
=5

Limit Laws
(x − 2)2 − 4
M
Ex: Evaluate lim
x→0 x
AR
Ans: We have
.P
(x − 2)2 − 4 (x − 4)x
= = x − 4 ∀x 6= 0.
.T
x x
Hence,
g
un
(x − 2)2 − 4
lim = lim (x − 4) = −4.
Zo
x→0 x x→0

Left-hand and right-hand limits
Definition.
We say that
M
lim f (x) = L
x→a−
AR
if for every > 0, there is a δ > 0 such that
.P
if a−δ <x <a then |f (x) − L| <
Definition. g.T
un
We say that
Zo
lim f (x) = L
x→a+
if for every > 0, there is a δ > 0 such that
if a<x <a+δ then |f (x) − L| <

√
Ex: Prove that lim+ x =0
x→0
Ans:
M
AR
Guessing δ: Given > 0, we need to find a δ > 0 satisfying
√ √
.P
if 0 < x < δ then x − 0 = x < .
.T
We may choose δ = 2 ?
For every > 0, there is δ = 2 > 0 such that if 0 < x < δ = 2 then
g
un
√ √ √ √
x − 0 = x < δ = 2 = .
Zo
√
Hence, lim+ x = 0
x→0

Theorem.

 lim f (x) = L
⇐⇒ x→a−
M
lim f (x) = L
x→a  lim f (x) = L
AR
x→a +
.P
Ex: Prove that lim |x| = 0
x→0
.T
(
x if x ≥ 0
g
Ans: We have |x| =
un
−x if x < 0.
Thus,
Zo

 lim |x| = lim x = 0
+
x→0 + x→0 ⇐⇒ lim |x| = 0
 lim |x| = lim (−x) = 0 x→0
x→0− x→0−

|x|
Ex: Prove that lim does not exist
x→0 x
x
M
|x|  x = 1 if x > 0
AR
Ans: We have = −x
x  = −1 if x < 0
.P
x
Thus,
.T
|x|

lim = lim+ 1 = 1 

x→0+ x
g
x→0

 |x| |x|
un
⇔ lim 6= lim+
|x|  x→0− x x→0 x
Zo

lim = lim (−1) = −1 

x→0− x x→0−
|x|
=⇒ lim does not exist.
x→0 x

Limit of functions
Theorem.
Let a ∈ (b, c). There holds

M
f (x) ≤ g (x) ∀x ∈ (b, c)\{a} 
=⇒ lim f (x) ≤ lim g (x)
AR
lim f (x) and lim g (x) exist  x→a x→a
x→a x→a
.P
.T
Proof: Denote lim f (x) = L and lim g (x) = M. Suppose further that M < L
x→a g x→a
=⇒ 0 := (L − M)/3 > 0.
un
lim f (x)=L ⇒ ∃δ1 > 0 s.t. if 0 < |x − a| < δ1 then |f (x) − L| < 0
Zo
x→a
lim g (x)=M ⇒ ∃δ2 > 0 s.t. if 0 < |x − a| < δ2 then |g (x) − M| < 0
x→a
Choose δ0 = min{δ1 , δ2 }. Then (
|f (x) − L| < 0
if 0 < |x − a| < δ0 then =⇒f (x) > g (x)
|g (x) − M| < 0
Squeeze Theorem
Theorem.
Let a ∈ (b, c). There holds
M

f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h(x) ∀x ∈ (b, c)\{a} 
AR
=⇒ lim g (x) = L
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L  x→a
.P
x→a x→a
.T
1
Ex: Evaluate lim x 2 cos g
x→0 x
un
Ans: We have −1 ≤ cos x1 ≤ 1 =⇒ −x 2 ≤ x 2 cos x1 ≤ x 2 .
Zo
Moreover, lim (−x 2 ) = lim x 2 = 0

x→0 x→0
1
by Squeeze Theorem, lim x 2 cos = 0.
x→0 x
Infinite Limits
Definition.
Let a ∈ (b, c). Then lim f (x) = ∞ means that for arbitrary positive
x→a
number M, there exists δ > 0 satisfying
M
AR
if 0 < |x − a| < δ then f (x) > M
.P
1
Ex: Prove that lim = ∞.
.T
x→0 |x|
Ans: Let M be an arbitrary positive number . We need to find δ > 0 s.t.

g
un
1
if 0 < |x| < δ then >M
|x|
Zo
1 1
But |x| > M ⇐⇒ |x| < 1/M. Therefore, we choose δ = M , then clearly
we have
1 1
if 0 < |x| < δ = then > M,
M |x|
finishing the proof.
Infinite Limits
M
AR
Definition.
.P
Let a ∈ (b, c). Then lim f (x) = −∞ means that for arbitrary negative
x→a
number N, there exists δ > 0 satisfying
g .T
if 0 < |x − a| < δ then f (x) < N
un
Zo

Limits at infinity
y
M
1
?
AR
1 lim =
y= x→∞ x
.P
x
g .T
un
Zo
x
Limit at Infinity
Definition.
Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞). Then
lim f (x) = L
M
x→∞
AR
if for all > 0, there exists a number N such that
.P
if x > N then |f (x) − L| <
Ex: Prove that lim

x→∞ x
1
=0 g .T
un
Ans:
Zo
Let > 0 be an arbitrary positive number.

We choose N = 1 > 0 . Then

1 1 1 1
if x > N = then = < = .
x x x N
Hence, lim 1/x = 0.
x→∞
Limit at Infinity
M
Definition.
AR
Let f be a function defined on some interval (−∞, a). Then
.P
lim f (x) = L
x→−∞
.T
if for all > 0, there exists a number N such that
g
if x < N then |f (x) − L| <
un
Zo

Limit at Infinity
Definition.
M
Let f be a function defined on some interval (a, ∞). Then
AR
lim f (x) = ∞
x→∞
.P
if for all positive number M, there exists a number N such that
.T
if x > N
g then f (x) > M
un
Zo
Remark: Note that similar definitions apply when we replace ∞ by −∞.

Exercises
M
AR
2.3:
1–20; 34–38; 46 – 48;
.P
.T
2.4:
1, 2; 19–25; 36, 37, 44.
g
un
Zo

Continuity
Definition.
Let a ∈ (b, c) and let f be a function defined on (b, c). Function f is
M
continuous at a if
lim f (x) = f (a)
AR
x→a
.P
.T
f (x)
approaches f (a)
g
f (a)
un
Zo
a
As x approaches a

Continuous functions
(
1−x if x ≤ 1
Ex: Given f (x) =
x2 if x > 1.
M
AR
y
.P
4 f (1) = 1 − 1 = 0
lim f (x) = lim+ x 2 = 1
.T
x→1+ x→1
2 g lim f (x) = lim+ (1 − x) = 0
x→1−
un
x→1
=⇒ lim f (x) does not exist
Zo
1 x→1
f is NOT continuous at x = 1
−1 1 2 x

Definition.
M
Let f be a function defined on [a, c). Function f is continuous from
AR
the right at a if
lim+ f (x) = f (a)
.P
x→a
Definition.
g .T
un
Let f be a function defined on (b, a]. Function f is continuous from
Zo
the left at a if
lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a−

(
1−x if x ≤ 1
Ex: Consider again f (x) =
x2 if x > 1.
M
Known: f is NOT continuous at
AR
y x =1
.P
4 lim f (x) = 1; lim f (x) = 0;
x→1+ x→1−
.T
and f (1) = 0
g lim f (x) = f (1)
2 x→1−
un
⇒ f is continuous from the left
Zo
1 at x = 1
lim f (x) 6= f (1)
x→1+
−1 1 2 x
⇒ f is NOT continuous from
the right at x = 1

Theorem.
A function f is continuous at x0 if and only if f is defined in an
M
interval (a, b) containing x0 and for each > 0, there is a δ > 0 such
AR
that
|f (x) − f (x0 )| < whenever |x − x0 | < δ.
.P
A function f is continuous from the right at x0 if and only if f is
.T
defined on an interval [x0 , b) and for each > 0, there is a δ > 0 such
that g
un
|f (x) − f (x0 )| < whenever x0 ≤ x < x0 + δ.
Zo
A function f is continuous from the left at x0 if and only if f is

defined on an interval (a, x0 ] and for each > 0, there is a δ > 0 such
that
|f (x) − f (x0 )| < whenever x0 − δ < x ≤ x0 .

Continuous on intervals
Definition.
A function f is said to be continuous on an open interval (a, b) if it
M
is continuous at any point x ∈ (a, b),
AR
A function f is said to be continuous on an closed interval [a, b] if it
.P
is continuous at any point x ∈ (a, b), and continuous from the right
at a and from the left at b.
g .T
A function f is said to be continuous on a half-open interval [a, b) if
it is continuous at any point x ∈ (a, b), and continuous from the right
un
at a.
Zo
A function f is said to be continuous on a half-open interval (a, b] if

it is continuous at any point x ∈ (a, b), and continuous from the left
at b.

Continuous on intervals
√
Ex: Show that function f (x) = 1 − 1 − x 2 is continuous on [−1, 1].
Ans:
Let −1 < a < 1. Then
M
AR
p q
lim f (x) = lim (1 − 1 − x 2 ) = 1 − 1 − lim x 2
x→a x→a x→a
.P
p
2
= 1 − 1 − a = f (a)
.T
=⇒ f is continuous at a.
Besides,
g
un
p q
lim + f (x) = lim + (1− 1−x 2 ) = 1− 1− lim + x 2 = 1= f (−1)
x→−1 x→−1 x→−1
Zo
p q
lim f (x) = lim (1− 1−x ) = 1− 1− lim x 2 = 1= f (1)
2
x→1− x→1− x→1−
=⇒ f is continuous at −1 from the right and at 1 from the left.

f is continuous on [−1, 1].

Theorem.
If f and g are continuous at x = a. Then the following functions are
continuous at x = a:
M
AR
(i) f +g (iii) fg (v) cf where c is a
f constant
f −g
.P
(ii) (iv) if g (a) 6= 0
g
.T
Proof:
(i) We have g
un
lim (f + g )(x) = lim [f (x) + g (x)]
Zo
x→a x→a
= lim f (x) + lim g (x)
x→a x→a
= f (a) + g (a)
= (f + g )(a).

M
Theorem.
AR
1 Any polynomial f (x) = an x n + . . . + a1 x + a0 is continuous on
.P
(−∞, ∞)
g (x)
.T
2 Any rational function f (x) = , where g and h are polynomials, is
h(x)
continuous at wherever it is defined.
g
un
Zo
Proof:

x 2 + 2x − 3
Ex: Find lim
x→−2 (x − 3)(x + 3)
M
AR
Ans:
x 2 + 2x − 3
.P
Function f (x) = is continuous at any point x 6= −3
(x − 3)(x + 3)
and x 6= 3
x 2 + 2x − 3
g .T
=⇒ It is continuous at x = −2
(−2)2 + 2 · (−2) − 3
un
=⇒ lim = f (−2) =
x→−2 (x − 3)(x + 3) (−2 − 3)(−2 + 3)
Zo
3
=
5

Theorem.
M
The following types of functions are continuous at every number in their
AR
domains:
polynomials
.P
rational functions
.T
root functions
trigonometric functions
g
un
inverse trigonometric functions
Zo
exponential functions
logarithmic functions

Composition of continuous functions
Theorem.
Let f be continuous at a and let g be continuous at f (a). Then, the
composition g ◦ f is continuous at a.
M
AR
Proof: Let > 0 be an arbitrarily small real number. Since g is
continuous at f (a), there is a δ1 > 0 such that
.P
|g (y ) − g [f (a)]|< whenever |y − f (a)| < δ1 . (11)
.T
Since f is continuous at a, there is a δ > 0 such that
g
un
|f (x) − f (a)| < δ1 whenever |x − a| < δ. (12)
Zo
Combining (11) and (12) we derive
g [f (x)] − g [f (a)] < whenever |x − a| < δ.
By Theorem 99, the function g ◦ f is continuous at a.

Bounded Functions
Definition.
A function f is bounded below on a set S if there is a real number m
M
such that
AR
f (x) ≥ m ∀x ∈ S.
.P
In this case, the set V = {f (x) | x ∈ S} has an infimum α and we write
.T
α = inf f (x).
g x∈S
un
If there is a x1 ∈ S such that f (x1 ) = α, then we say that α is the
Zo
minimum of f on S and we write
α = min f (x).
x∈S

Bounded Functions
Definition.
A function f is bounded above on a set S if there is a real number M such that
M
f (x) ≤ M ∀x ∈ S.
AR
In this case, the set V = {f (x) | x ∈ S} has a supremum β and we write
.P
β = sup f (x).
.T
x∈S
g
If there is a x1 ∈ S such that f (x1 ) = β, then we say that β is the maximum of f
un
on S and we write
β = max f (x).
Zo
x∈S
Remark.
If f is bounded above and below on S, f is said to be bounded on S .

Bounded Functions
Theorem.
If f is continuous on a finite closed interval [a, b], then f is bounded on [a, b].
M
Proof. Let t ∈ [a, b]. Since f is continuous at t, there is a δt > 0 such that
AR
|f (x) − f (t)| < 1 whenever x ∈ (t − δt , t + δt ) ∩ [a, b]. (13)
.P
Denote It = (t − δt , t + δt ). Then the collection H = {It | t ∈ [a, b]} is an open
.T
covering of [a, b]. Since [a, b] is compact, Heine–Borel Theorem implies that
there are finitely many points t1 , t2 , . . . , tn such that the intervals It1 , It2 , . . . , Itn
g
cover [a, b]. By (13), if x ∈ Iti then
un
|f (x)| − |f (ti )| ≤ |f (x) − f (ti )| < 1.
Zo
This implies that |f (x)| < 1 + |f (ti )| for all x ∈ Iti and i = 1, . . . , n. Denote
M = 1 + max {|f (ti )| , i = 1, . . . , n}. We then have
|f (x)| ≤ M ∀x ∈ [a, b].

Continuous Functions
Theorem.
Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous on [a, b]. There are x1 , x2 ∈ [a, b] such that
M
f (x1 ) = inf f (x) and f (x2 ) = sup f (x).
x∈[a,b] x∈[a,b]
AR
Proof. We shall prove the existence of x1 (the proof for x2 are left as an exercise).
.P
Denote α = inf x∈[a,b] f (x). Suppose that there is no such x1 . Then
f (x) > α ∀x ∈ [a, b].
g .T
Let t ∈ [a, b]. Then f (t) > α, thus f (t) >
f (t) + α
2
> α. Since f is continuous
un
at t, there is δt > 0 such that
Zo

1 f (t) + α
|f (x) − f (t)| < f (t) − ∀x ∈ (t − δt , t + δt ) ∩ [a, b].
2 2
Denote It = (t − δt , t + δt ). This implies
f (t) + α
f (x) > ∀x ∈ It ∩ [a, b]. (14)
2
Continuous Functions
The collection H = {It | t ∈ [a, b]} is an open covering of [a, b]. Since [a, b] is
compact, Heine–Borel Theorem suggests that there are finitely many
t1 , . . . , tn ∈ [a, b] such that the intervals It1 , . . . , Itn cover [a, b]. Define
M
f (ti ) + α
α1 = min .
AR
i=1,...,n 2
.P
Sn
Since [a, b] ⊂ i=1 Iti , inequality (14) implies that
.T
f (x) > α1 ∀x ∈ [a, b].
Noting that α1 > α, we derive

g
un
Zo
f (x) > α1 > α ∀x ∈ [a, b].
This contradicts the definition of α (α = inf x∈[a,b] f (x)). Hence, there must be
a x1 ∈ [a, b] such that
f (x1 ) = inf f (x).
x∈[a,b]

The Intermediate Value Theorem
Theorem.
Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous on [a, b]. Let µ be any number between
f (a) and f (b), where f (a) 6= f (b). Then, there exists a c ∈ (a, b) such
M
that f (c) = µ .
AR
.P
y = f (x)
.T
f (b)
g
un
µ
Zo
f (a)
a c b

Proof. Assume that f (a) < µ < f (b). The set
S = {x | a ≤ x ≤ b and f (x) ≤ µ}
is bounded and nonempty. Let c = sup S. We will show that f (c) = µ.
M
AR
If f (c) > µ, then c > a. Since f is continuous at c, there is a δ > 0 such
that
.P
f (c) − µ
|f (x) − f (c)| < whenever x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ).
2
.T
This implies that f (x) > µ whenever c − δ < x ≤ c. Thus, c − δ/2 is an
upper bound of S. This contradicts the definition of c.
g
un
If f (c) < µ , then c < b. Since f is continuous at c, there is a δ > 0 such
that
Zo
µ − f (c)
|f (x) − f (c)| < whenever x ∈ (c − δ, c + δ).
2
This implies that f (x) < µ whenever c ≤ x ≤ c + δ. This means that
c + δ/2 ∈ S and thus c is not an upper bound for S. This is also a
contradiction. Therefore, f (c) = µ.

Ex: Prove that the equation x 3 − x + 2 = 0 has a root between −2
M
and 0.
AR
Ans:
.P
The function f (x) = x 3 − x + 2 is continuous on [−2, 0]. Moreover,
f (−2) = −4 and f (0) = 2.
g .T
Number 0 satisfies −2 < 0 < 2. By using Intermediate Value
Theorem, there is a c ∈ (−2, 0) such that f (c) = 0 .
un
In other words, the equation: x 3 − x + 2 = 0 has a solution
Zo
c ∈ (−2, 0).

y = x3 − x + 2
M
AR
−2
.P
0
c
g.T
un
Zo
−4

Exercises
M
AR
2.5:
.P
1–6; 7, 9, 10–12, 15–20, 31–32;
35, 37, 38, 40, 42
47–50; 55, 62, 63 g.T
un
Zo

Horizontal Asymptote
Def: The line y = L is called a horizontal asymptote of the curve y =

f (x) if either
M
lim f (x) = L or lim f (x) = L
x→∞ x→−∞
AR
y
.P
x2 − 1
Ex: Consider y = 2 .
.T
x +1 1
2
x −1
Since lim 2 = g
x→∞ x + 1
un
x2 − 1 x
lim 2 = 1, the
Zo
x→−∞ x + 1
line y = 1 is a horizontal −1
asymptote of the curve.

Vertical Asymptote
Def: The line x = a is called a vertical asymptote of the curve y = f (x)
if either
lim f (x) = ∞ (or − ∞) or lim f (x) = ∞ (or − ∞)
M
x→a− x→a+
AR
y
.P
1
Ex: Consider y = .
.T
x
1 1
Since lim = −∞ and lim+ =
g
x→0− x x→0 x
un
∞, the line x = 0 is a vertical asymp-
Zo
tote of the curve. x

1
Also, lim = ∞, the line y = 0 is
x→∞ x
a horizontal asymptote of the curve.

Exercises
M
AR
2.6:
.P
1, 3, 4, 11, 13, 14
15–30; 37–44
.T
53, 55, 57, 61, 68, 69, 71.
g
un
Zo

Curves defined by parametric equations
Imagine that a particle moves along

the curve C shown in the figure
M
Impossible to describe C by an
AR
equation of the form y = f (x) as C
fails the Vertical Line Test
.P
the x- and y -coordinates of the
.T
particle are functions of time and so
g we can write x = f (t) and y = g (t)
un
Suppose that x and y are both given as functions of a third variable t
Zo
x = f (t), y = g (t) −→ parametric equations
When t varies, the point (x, y ) = (f (t), g (t)) varies and trace out a curve, which
we call a parametric curve

Parametric curves
Ex: Sketch and identify the curve defined by the parametric equations
x = t 2 − 2t, y =t +1
M
Ans.
y
AR
t=4
t x y
t=3
.P
-2 8 -1
-1 3 0 t=2
.T
0 0 1 t=1
1 -1 2 g
2 0 3 t=0
un
8
3 3 4 0 t = -1 x
Zo
4 8 5 −1
t=-2
Is the curve a parabola?
y = t + 1 =⇒ t = y − 1 =⇒ x = (y − 1)2 − 2(y − 1)
=⇒ x = y 2 − 4y + 3 (15)

Parametric curves
In general, the curve with parametric equations
x = f (t), y = g (t), a≤t≤b
M
has initial point (f (a), g (a)) and terminal point (f (b), g (b)).
AR
.P
y t t==π/4
0
xx ==cos
cos0π/4
=1
t = π/2
.T
Ex: What curve is represented by the yy ==sin
sin0π/4
=0
t = π/4
following parametric equations?
g
un
x = cos t, y = sin t, t ∈ [0, 2π]. t =π t=0
x
Zo
t = 2π
Ans.
x 2 + y 2 = cos2 t + sin2 t = 1
−→ It is a CIRCLE
t = 3π/2

Parametric curves
Ex: Consider the circle centered at (a, b) and of radius r .

Ans.
y
Equation: (x − a)2 + (y − b)2 = r 2
M
t = π/2
b+r
Parametric equation:
AR
t = 0,starting point (
t =π r
.P
b x = a + r cos t
t = 2π t ∈ [0, 2π] (16)
y = b + r sin t,
.T
t = 3π/2
g t = 0 −→ x = a + r cos 0 = a + r ,
a a+r x
y = b + r sin 0 = b → (a + r , b)
un
t = π/2 −→ x = a + r cos π/2 = a, b = b + r sin π/2 = b + r
Zo
→ (a, b + r )
Equation (16) represents the circle centered at (a, b) with radius r , following the
counterclockwise direction and the starting point (a + r , b).

Graphing devices
Ex: Use Wolfram Alpha to graph the curve x = y 4 − 3y 2 .
Hint: Denote y = t. Then x = t 4 − 3t 2 . Type
plot(x = t^4-3t^2, y = t, t=[-2.5,2.5])
M
Ex: Graph the curve: x = t + 2 sin 2t, y = t + 2 cos 5t
AR
Hint: Type
plot(x=t+2*sin(2*t), y = t + 2*cos(5*t), t=[-10,10])
.P
Ex: Graph the curve:
.T
x = 16 sin3 t, y = 13 cos t − 5 cos(2t) − 2 cos(3t) − cos(4t)
Hint: Type g
un
plot(x=16(sin(t))^3, y=13cos t - 5cos(2t) - 2cos(3t)-cos(4t),
t=[-5,5])
Zo
Ex: Graph the curve: x = 1.5 cos t − cos 30t, y = 1.5 sin t − sin 30t
Hint: Type
plot( x=1.5*cos(t)-cos(30t), y=1.5*sin(t) - sin(30*t), t=[-10,10])
Ex: Graph the curve: x = sin(t + cos 100t), y = cos(t + sin 100t)
Hint: Type
Exercises
M
AR
.P
Section 10.1 (Page 626)
.T
g
un
Zo

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Chapter 1: Functions, Limit and Continuity

Duong T. PHAM 1 / 125

8 Parametric Equations and polar coordinates

Duong T. PHAM 2 / 125

Duong T. PHAM 3 / 125

2 Choose t1 = 1, we have P1 (6, 5) ∈ L

Choose t2 = 2, we have P2 (7, 9) ∈ L

Duong T. PHAM 4 / 125

If e.g. b = 0, then the equation of L is y = y0 .

where α is the slope of L.

Equation of L1 is: g.T

Duong T. PHAM 7 / 125

The equation of the circle with center at C (a, b) and radius r is

circle (an open disk) .

Duong T. PHAM 9 / 125

Duong T. PHAM 13 / 125

Hai 2 {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = codomain

Remark: If a function is given by a formula and the domain is not stated

Duong T. PHAM 15 / 125

Duong T. PHAM 16 / 125

Area of the base = w ∗ (2w ) = 2w 2

Duong T. PHAM 17 / 125

Question : Which curves in the xy -plane are graphs of functions?

Duong T. PHAM 20 / 125

Graph of function f (x) = x2

Duong T. PHAM 21 / 125

Duong T. PHAM 22 / 125

f (x) = x 3 − x; g (x) = 1 + x 2 ; h(x) = x + 1.

Duong T. PHAM 23 / 125

Duong T. PHAM 24 / 125

Duong T. PHAM 25 / 125

are the functions f + g and fg ?

Ans: f + g and fg are functions from R to R and

(f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x) = x 2 + (x − x 2 ) = x

Duong T. PHAM 26 / 125

Find the image f (S) of the subset S = {b, c, d}.

Ex: Let f : R → R and g : R → R be defined by

Duong T. PHAM 30 / 125

2 The function f is one-to-one since there are

Remark: A function f is one-to-one if

Duong T. PHAM 32 / 125

Horizontal line test: A function is one-to-one if and only if NO

Duong T. PHAM 33 / 125

Duong T. PHAM 34 / 125

Duong T. PHAM 35 / 125

Hence, f (x) < f (y ) whenever x < y . The function f (x) = x 3 is

Duong T. PHAM 37 / 125

Ex: Prove that the function f : R → R defined by f (x) = x 3 + 1 is

Duong T. PHAM 38 / 125

all y ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, there is a

Duong T. PHAM 39 / 125

A function f is said to be invertible if it has an inverse

Duong T. PHAM 40 / 125

f (a) = 4, f (b) = 5, f (c) = 2, f (d) = 1, f (e) = 3.

Duong T. PHAM 41 / 125

Remark: Let f be a bijective function with domain A and range B. Then

f −1 ◦ f (a) = ? f −1 (f (a)) = f −1 (1) = a

Duong T. PHAM 42 / 125

Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and range B.

Duong T. PHAM 43 / 125

To find the inverse of a one-to-one function f :

Duong T. PHAM 44 / 125

Ex: Find the graph of the following function

if for every > 0, there is a number δ > 0 such that

0 < |x − 3| < /4 ⇔ |(4x − 5) − 7| < .

Hence, if 0 < |x − 1| < δ = min{1/4, /3}, we have

(x − 1) − 0 = |x − 1| |x + 1| < δ |x + 1| < 9 < .

if 0 < |x − a| < δ1 then |f (x) − L| < /2. (1)

if 0 < |x − a| < δ2 then |g (x) − M| < /2.

if for every > 0, there is a δ > 0 such that

if a<x <a+δ then |f (x) − L| <