CARREOGRAPH

Reckoner for
Medical Representative
Training

Published by Carreograph Training Desk

 FORWARD

Dear Students,

Here is something which will be your constant companion not only during the
entire period of Training but also for your future use during interviews.

This READY RECKONER contains at a glance, relevant information required

for your interview preparation and also tools to improve your knowledge and
communication.

CARREOGRAPH
This is not only a book, it is also a guide which can enhance your knowledge
and help you to become a confident and successful candidate facing the
interview.

We know that this will be a useful tool and hope that you will be putting it into
use diligently.

FROM CARREOGRAPH
TRAINING DESK
 INDEX

SECTION A: Page No.

1. Rules of Carreograph Training Centre ......................................... 1

2. Guidelines for Lady Candidates ................................................... 2
3. Guidelines to Practice English Communication ........................... 3
4. Sample Biodata ............................................................................ 4
5. Importance of Mobility .................................................................. 5
6. Importance of Two Wheeler ......................................................... 6
7. Sales & Stock Statement Format ................................................. 7

SECTION B :
8. Pronunciation .............................................................................. 8
9. The Human Body ......................................................................... 9
10. Cytology ....................................................................................... 10

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11. Cell Division ................................................................................. 11
12. Musculoskeletal System ............................................................. 12 - 13
13. Note ............................................................................................. 14
14. Digestive System ......................................................................... 15 - 21
15. Note ............................................................................................. 22
16. Metabolism .................................................................................. 23
17. Diabetes ....................................................................................... 24 - 25
18. Expansions of Abbreviation ......................................................... 26 - 27
19. Cardiovascular System ................................................................ 28 - 34
20. Note ............................................................................................. 35
21. Respiratory System ..................................................................... 36 - 38
22. Note ............................................................................................. 39
23. Biological Classification of Pathogenic Micro Organisms ............ 40 -41
24. Classification of Antimicrobial Drugs / Pharmacology .................. 42 - 43
25. Nervous System .......................................................................... 44 - 45
26. Note ............................................................................................. 46
27. Urinary System ............................................................................ 47 - 48
28. Note ............................................................................................. 49
29. Endocrine ..................................................................................... 50 - 52
30. Reproductive System ................................................................... 53 - 54
31. Note ............................................................................................. 55
32. The Skin ..................................................................................... 56 - 59
33. Eye ............................................................................................... 60
34. Teeth ............................................................................................ 61
35. Detailing Story - Memorization ..................................................... 62
36. Ingredients of Ayurvedic Medicines.............................................. 63 - 64
SECTION - A
 1

Rules of CARREOGRAPH Training Centre

1. Students should come in advance of minimum 15 minutes before starting of the
class. They must add extra time for traffic jam, journey hazards etc. while starting
from their residence. Late comers will not be allowed to enter the classroom.

2. Boys should wear formal dress (trousers, shirt, shoes) and cleanly shaved during
training. Girl candidates should be in churidar or western formals (trousers,
ladies shirt, formal shoes) and with minimum jewellery.

3. Students should carry Bio-Data with passport size photograph during training
period everyday while attending classes. Boys must carry one tie, should know
how to knot the tie.

CARREOGRAPH
4. In addition to the campus and other interviews arranged by us, students should
also go through “appointment section” of different newspapers and apply to
pharmaceutical companies wherever eligible after the Mock interview.

5. After giving every interview, students should make a phone call at

CARREOGRAPH immediately to give the feedback.

6. In case of any change in address or telephone number, students should inform

that immediately to CARREOGRAPH.

7. Mobile phones should be switched off inside the training room and interview
campus.

8. Students must maintain silence within the premises.

9. Students should carry CARREOGRAPH bag everyday while attending the

classes and the interviews.

10. Regular attendance is necessary throughout the training and that will be checked
before sending for Co's interview.

11. Students (Kolkata) should not park their bike on the tram track (Restriction from
Kolkata Police).

12. Students should not bring any gifts / flowers / sweets or any food packets, for any
reason to CARREOGRAPH. Your job and career in the pharma industry is
reatest reward for us.
2

GUIDELINES
FOR LADY CANDIDATES

DRESS CODE:

Salwar or churidar atleast knee length (no sleeveless / too short

sleeves / net or transparent sleeves / no strings for decoration / no
deep cut.

To wear single colour Kameez or salwar / churidar with same

colour dupatta.

CARREOGRAPH
Western formals can be worn (trousers, ladies shirt, formal shoes).

Black or dark brown leather shoes.

Hair to be combed and tied properly (no coloured clips or hairbands

to be worn).

No hair colours to be used.

To wear light makeup (no loud colours to be used for lipstick or nail
polish) and minimum jewellery.

INTERVIEW GUIDELINES:

During interview parents should not go inside the interview venue

with the candidate.

If selected in a company, have to go for final interview followed by

training in any location outside West Bengal (to company's head
office) and stay there alone for the training period.
 3

Guidelines to Practice English Communication

(Advice to Students)

1. Take any topic / story / newspaper report and practice these in english before a
mirror repeatedly to improve your english communication.

2. Continue to practice english conversation with friends, parents, relatives, local

students of english medium school etc. to develop confidence.

3. Listen hourly TV news (DD news, NDTV news, Times Now, Republic TV etc.)
in english for correct pronunciation.

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Spend three hours every day for all the above.

Your gradation of english speaking power will be marked and if found

suitable alongwith knowledge of other subjects, your name will be
forwarded for company's interview.

Important event to remember

Saraswati Puja at Carreograph

On the day of Saraswati Puja all present & ex-students are cordially invited at
the institute to attend the Puja.
4

Sample Biodata

BIODATA BIODATA
DEBASISH SEN DEBASISH SEN
A-4/C, BHAWANIPUR, KOLKATA-700065 D.O.B: 02/06/1992
CONTACT NO.: 7456789002 (P) / 8643215670 (R)
EMAIL ID: dsen@gmail.com
PERSONAL DETAILS:
PERSONAL DETAILS: FATHER’S NAME : Mr. Gautam Sen
RESIDENTIAL ADDRESS : A- 4/C, Bhawanipur, Kolkata - 700065.
FATHER’S NAME : Mr. Gautam Sen PHONE NO. : 7456789002 (P) / 8643215670 (R)
DATE OF BIRTH : 02/06/1992 E-MAIL ID : dsen@gmail.com
NATIONALITY : Indian NATIONALITY : Indian
RELIGION : Hinduism RELIGION : Hinduism
MARITAL STATUS : Single MARITAL STATUS : Single
GENDER : Male GENDER : Male

ACADEMIC QUALIFICATION: ACADEMIC QUALIFICATION:

Completed B.A under Calcutta University with 55% in the year 2015.
Passed Higher Secondary Examination under W.B.C.H.S.E with
41% in the year 2012.
Passed Madhyamik Examination under W.B.B.S.E with 49% in
the year 2010.
OTHERS:
Completed B.A under Calcutta University with 55% in the year 2015.
Passed Higher Secondary Examination under W.B.C.H.S.E with
41% in the year 2012.
Passed Madhyamik Examination under W.B.B.S.E with 49% in
the year 2010.
OTHERS:

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EXPERIENCE : Worked with Bhandari Automobiles as EXPERIENCE : Worked with Bhandari Automobiles as
Sales Representative for 2 years Sales Representative for 2 years
EXTRA CURRICULAR ACTIVITY : Played Cricket under C.A.B. EXTRA CURRICULAR ACTIVITY : Played Cricket under C.A.B.
AREAS OF INTEREST : Gardening, Listening to Music AREAS OF INTEREST : Gardening, Listening to Music
LANGUAGES KNOWN : English, Bengali, Hindi LANGUAGES KNOWN : English, Bengali, Hindi

I have a two wheeler & my licence no is I have a two wheeler & my licence no. Is

Date: Date:
Place: (DEBASISH SEN) (DEBASISH SEN)
Place:

BIODATA BIODATA

NAME :
DEBASISH SEN
D.O.B : A-4/C, BHAWANIPUR, KOLKATA-700065
CONTACT NO.: 7456789002 (P) / 8643215670 (R)
PERSONAL DETAILS EMAIL ID: dsen@gmail.com

FATHER’S NAME : MR. PERSONAL INFORMATION:

RESIDENTIAL ADDRESS :
PHONE NO. : FATHER’S NAME : Mr. Gautam Sen
E-MAIL ID : DATE OF BIRTH : 02/06/1992
NATIONALITY : INDIAN NATIONALITY : Indian
RELIGION : RELIGION : Hinduism
MARITAL STATUS : MARITAL STATUS : Single
GENDER : GENDER : Male

ACADEMIC QUALIFICATION
ACADEMIC QUALIFICATION:

NAME OF UNIVERSITY / YEAR OF

% OF MARKS
Completed B.A under Calcutta University with 55% in the year 2015.
EXAMINATION COUNCIL / BOARD PASSING Passed Higher Secondary Examination under W.B.C.H.S.E with
B.SC / B.COM / BA
41% in the year 2012.
Passed Madhyamik Examination under W.B.B.S.E with 49% in the
HIGHER SECONDARY/ WBCHSE / CISCE/ year 2010.
ISC / AISSCE CBSE
MADHYAMIK / WBCHSE / CISCE/ OTHERS:
ICSE / AISSE CBSE
EXPERIENCE : Worked with Bhandari Automobiles as
Sales Representative for 2 years
OTHERS
AREAS OF INTEREST : Playing Cricket, Listening to Music
EXPERIENCE (if any) : LANGUAGES KNOWN : English, Bengali, Hindi
EXTRA CURRICULAR ACTIVITY :
AREAS OF INTEREST :
LANGUAGES KNOWN : I have a two wheeler & my licence no is

To mention about two wheeler & licence.

Date: Date:
Place: (Print own Name in Capital Letter) (DEBASISH SEN)
Place:
 5

IMPORTANCE OF MOBILITY

Dear Student,

Your acceptance of job at least anywhere in West Bengal state will

surely increase your chance of getting the job of a Medical
Representative.

On the other hand, your refusal to go outside your district will

restrict in the process of our selection for interview as well as

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selection by the companies.

Remember, your working experience outside your town / district /

state will count much more as an “experienced” candidate in future
than working within your home town or district.

Therefore, go for your career through professional attitude.

(Training Desk)
6

Importance of Two Wheeler in

Medical Representative's Job

During selection of Medical Representative, candidates having two-wheelers are

preferred. Medical Representatives work in an assigned territory. A Medical
Representative has to travel to different places within the assigned territory to meet
customers. It is very difficult to visit the customers in different locations of the territory
without a two wheeler. A Medical Representative must also maintain a specified call
average for Doctors and Chemists. So time management is a very important part of the
job of a Medical Representative for which two-wheeler is required.

Basic requirements for maintaining a two-wheeler;

CARREOGRAPH
1. Driving license.

2. Smart card, Insurance paper & emission certificate is mandatory.

3. If a candidate's father or any close relative owns a two wheeler, then the candidate
can use the same two- wheeler with an authorization letter from the owner. In such
cases, the candidate has to go to Court & make the authorization letter in stamp paper
by any Notary or government authorized lawyer.

4. If a candidate wants to purchase a second hand two wheeler from anybody, he/ she
has to go to the Regional Transport Office(RTO) with the owner of the two wheeler &
fill in form 29-30 by which he/she can transfer the two-wheeler in his /her name.

5. It is important to note that one can purchase a two-wheeler any time but it is time
consuming to get a Driving license & Smart card. So it is suggested that candidates
who does not have a driving license should immediately apply for the same.
Proper dress code as per motor vehicles act should be maintained while driving a
two-wheeler .Wearing a helmet is mandatory for a safe drive.
 7

SALES AND STOCK STATEMENT

FOR THE MONTH OF .....

Sl. Product Name Opening Purchase Total Sale Closing

Stock Stock
1. TINCLOX 5 80 85 65 20

2. VOXX 10 90 100 70 30

3. FINEE 25 75 100 35 65

4.

5.

6.
CARREOGRAPH
ZIP

CARRESOMEZ

CARREOPRIL
10

15

8
60

100

128
70

115

136
55

40

120
15

75

16
SECTION - B
 8

PRONUNCIATION

1 Pharmacopoeia - Farma - kopia

2 Therapeutics - Thera - pu - tics
3 Intravenous - Intra - ve - nus
4 Swelling - Soel - ling
5 Subcutaneous - Sub kuta - neous
6 Ointment - Oint - ment
7 Coccyx - Kok - cyx
8 Pneumothorax - Neumo - thorax
9 Homogenized - Homo - ge - nized

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10 Sterilized - Ste - ri - lized
11 Bradycardia - Bra - di - kardia
12 Dyspnea - Disp - nea
13 Rhinitis - Ri - ni - tis
14 Osteoporosis - Os - tio - poro - sis
15 Nephrologist - Nef - ro - logist
16 Orthopedics - Ortho - pe - dics
17 Hypothyroidism - Haipo - thai - roi - dism
18 Encephalitis - En - ke - fa - litis
19 Neuropathy - Nuro - pathy
20 Ischaemia - Is - ke - mia
21 Retinoblastoma - Reti - no - blas - toma
22 Urticaria - Arti - ka - ria
23 Tachycardia - Taki - kar - dia
24 Rheumatologist - Ru - ma - to - logist
25 Bacilli - Ba - si - ly
26 Abscess - Ab - sess
27 Hemorrhoid - Hemo - roid
28 Cystoscopy - Cis - tos - copy
29 Peritoneal - Peri - to - nial
30 Gigantism - Jai - gan - tism
9

THE HUMAN BODY

The body as a whole is built up round the bony framework of the skeleton and
consists of three main parts:

1. Head & Neck

Head is separated into two parts:
a) The Cranium or Brain case
b) The Face

2. The Trunk : a) The Chest or Thorax

b) The Abdomen & the Pelvis

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3.The Limbs : a) The Upper Limbs or Arms
b) The Lower Limbs or Legs

There are two pairs of limbs - The Upper Limbs & Lower Limbs:
a) Upper Limb consists of Bones - Humerus, Radius, Ulna,
Carpals, Metacarpals, Phalanges.
B) Lower Limb consists of Bones - Femur, Tibia, Fibula, Tarsals,
Metatarsals, Phalanges.

The chief organs of the body are contained in 4 special cavities:

a) Brain - In the cavity of the cranium (skull)

b) Lungs & Heart - In the cavity of thorax (chest)
c) Digestive system - In the abdominal cavity
d) Contents of the Pelvic Cavity:

i) Lower part of the large intestine

ii) Urinary Bladder
iii) Female Reproductive organs
iv) Male Reproductive organs
 10

CYTOLOGY

Cytology is the branch of biology which deals with the study of structure and function of
cell. Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of living body.
Three main components of cells :
1. Plasma Membrane / Cell Membrane - The semi permeable membrane that
separates the interior of all cells from outside environment and protects
the cell.
2. Nucleus - Controls activities of the cell.
3. Cytoplasm - Surrounds the nucleus and carries out the activities
Determined by the nucleus.
Nucleus and Cytoplasm together is called Protoplasm, the living substance of

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the Cell.
The structure of the cell

CELL MEMBRANE: It is made up of lipids and proteins and gives shape and protection to
the cell and is also selectively permeable.

CYTOPLASM: A jelly like substance that fills up the cell and is surrounded by the cell
membrane.

NUCLEUS: It is the dense portion of the cell housing the genetic material that is
chromosome.

Chromosome: A structure in the nucleus containing a thread of DNA which transmits

genetic information during cell division.

Gene: The hereditary unit of life, it is a unit of DNA located on the chromosome which
passes information from parent to offspring.

Mitochondria: Called the power house of the cell, it is where glucose is brokendown
releasing energy stored in the form of ATP.
11

CELL DIVISION

Function of Cell
Cell membrane is permeable to selective substances.
Gives response to external stimuli.
Has the ability to absorb nutrients and excrete waste products.
Has the capacity for growth and repair.
Has the ability to reproduce in Mitosis and Meiosis way.

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
- 2 identical daughter cell with 46 - Daughter cells with 23 chromosomes
chromosomes are formed develop
- Takes place in all somatic or body cells - Takes place only in Testes In males

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of males and Ovary of females (sperm) and Ovary in females (ovum).
- For growth and repair. - For birth of next generation.

TISSUE: Similar cells put together and performing the same function are called
tissues. There are 5 types of tissues:
EPITHELIAL TISSUE CONNECTIVE TISSUE
MUSCULAR TISSUE NERVOUS TISSUE
AREOLAR TISSUE
A group of tissues that perform a similar function (or functions) is called an
ORGAN. For e.g Heart, Liver, Lungs, Kidney

Organs when put together as they are engaged in the same type of function, form
SYSTEMS.

There are 8 (Eight) major systems in our body. They are:

- MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM - NERVOUS SYSTEM
- DIGESTIVE SYSTEM - URINARY SYSTEM
- CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM - REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
- RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AND
- ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

There are also 5 senses and the organs responsible are:

Touch Sight Hearing Taste Smell
(Skin) (Eye) (Ear) (Tongue) (Nose)
 12

MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

Muscles are responsible for movement and various activities in our body.

There are 3 types of muscles in the human body:

VOLUNTARY OR STRIATED - they function according to our will. E.g.

Muscles of hands and legs like Biceps & Triceps of hands & Hamstring of legs.

INVOLUNTARY OR SMOOTH - they function on their own. E.g. Urinary

Bladder, Stomach, Intestines.

CARDIAC - involuntary in nature and found only in the heart. Cardiac muscles
are controlled by Autonomic Nervous System.

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MANDIBLE

RIBS
HUMERUS
THE SKELETON
SKULL

STERNUM

ULNA
CARPALS
RADIUS
METACARPALS
PHALANGES

FEMUR

TIBIA
TARSALS FIBULA

PHALANGES METATARSALS

There are 206 bones in the adult human body.

13

MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

Classification of Bone according to shape i.e.

1. Long Bone - Femur (Longest Bone), Tibia, Fibula, Humerus etc.
2. Short Bone - Carpal, Tarsal etc.
3. Flat Bone - Scapula, Ilium, Ischium, Pubis etc.
4. Irregular Bone - Vertebrae
5. Sesamoid Bone - Patella

Name of most important bone :

In the Skull in front : Frontal Bone

At the side : Temporal Bone, Parietal Bone
At the rear : Occipital Bone

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The spine has four main section
Cervical Vertebrae (7) in the Neck
Thoracic Vertebrae (12) in the Trunk
Lumber Vertebrae (5) in the Lower Back
Sacrum and Coccyx in the Pelvis
Functions of Bones:
Give support and framework to the body.
Bones are a store-house for minerals like Calcium, Magnesium etc.
Bones protect various organs and also helps to prevent injury (e.g. Skull
protects Brain and Rib Cage protects Heart & Lungs).
Movement in the body occurs with help of bones and muscles.
Bone Marrow helps to produce Blood Cells (RBC & WBC- Granulocytes).

Longest bone in our body is FEMUR and the smallest bone is STAPES in the middle
ear.

There are 12 pairs of Rib Bones originating from Vertebral Column and attached
With the STERNUM in the front, 10 pairs attached and 2 pairs remain hanging and
also called the Floating Ribs.
Some Bone and Joint diseases:

OSTEOPOROSIS - Bones become porous and brittle due to deficiency of

minerals like Calcium and is easily broken during injury.

OSTEOARTHRITIS - Non inflammatory degenarative joint disease marked

By destruction of the articular cartilage accompanied by pain and stiffness.
 14

NOTE
15

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Anatomy along with functions

The digestive tract (G.I. tract) comprises the following structures:

The mouth cavity : Teeth ,hard and soft palate ,Tongue ,salivary glands (one pair each
of parotid, sub maxillary and sub lingual)
Function : The food which is taken into the mouth is chewed with teeth and mixed with
saliva ,secretions of salivary glands to render it into a state suitable for swallowing.
Enzyme Salivary - amylase : Converts cooked starch into Maltose.
Pharynx : Acts only for food passage
Oesophagus : -do-

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Stomach : A muscular bag just below the
diaphragm at the end of Oesophagus which
retains food for several hours. It has got
4 segments Cardiac Orifice, Fundus, Body & Pylorus.

Function : Digestion of protein & fat by gastric

juice Pepsin and Lipase respectively ,Gastric
rennin coagulates milk. The pH of stomach is
in the range of 0.9 to 1.5 which is highly acidic.

Small intestine : Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum.

Function : Final step of digestion of food with

pancreatic juice alkaline in nature and its own secretion
Succus Entericus. Bile helps in Emulsification of fat.

The Small intestine has millions of tiny finger-like projections called Villi. Function of
Villi is to absorb nutrients (simple food) from small intestine into the blood stream.

Large intestine : Caecum , Ascending Colon ,Transverse Colon ,Descending Colon,

Sigmoid Colon, Rectum, Anus.

Function : Mainly water absorption and excretion of waste products faeces or stool.

The function of the entire system is aided by secretions from largest gland liver (bile)
and mixed gland pancreas (pancreatic juice).
 16

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Gall Bladder : Also associated with digestive system is the rear shaped gall bladder,
which is a small hollow organ which lies just beneath the liver. It is how that bile is
stored and concentrated before it is released into the small intestine.

What is digestion?
Digestion is a process where complex food molecules are broken down into simple
forms, which can be absorbed and used by the body.

What are enzymes?

Enzymes are soluble organic catalysts manufactured by living cells.

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What does gastric juice contain?
Gastric juice contains :
1) Pepsinogen Hcl Pepsin (acts on protein to peptones )
2) Rennin(coagulates milk)
3) Small amount of gastric lipase (fat splitting enzyme)

What is liver?
1) Liver is the largest gland in the body
2) Liver is the head quarters of metabolism
3) Liver is the part of digestive system

Where is Liver situated?

It is situated in the upper right region of abdominal cavity beneath the diaphragm.

What are the functions of liver?

The functions of liver are :
1) Production of Bile
2) Storage of Glycogen
3) Formation of Urea
4) Storage of vitamins like A,D,E,K, Folic Acid, B12 and Iron
5) Production of Heparin (anti coagulant)
6) And also prothrombin, fibrinogen to help clotting
7) Detoxification of toxic substances through metabolic process
8) Metabolism of Proteins, Fats and Carbohydrates
17

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

What are the functions of Pancreas?

With its exocrine secretions pouring into Deodenum Endocrine Secretion
1) Trypsin acts on proteins 1) Insulin
2) Amylase acts on carbohydrates 2) Glucagon
3) Lipase acts on fats These two hormones regulate
blood glucose levels

How carbohydrates ,proteins and fats are absorbed in the body ?

They are absorbed in the body through intestinal villi in the form of :
1) Amino acids(from protein)
2) Fatty acids and glycerol(from fat)

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3) Glucose (from Carbohydrate)

What is Metabolism ?
Metabolism involves the biochemical processes through which complex substances are
broken down with liberation of energy(catabolism) and building up of complex
substances from simple ones with the formation of tissue protein (anabolism).
Maintaining the continuing equilibrium (Isobolism).

What is Peristalsis?
Involuntary wave of muscular contraction followed by dilatation starting from
Oesophagus in presence of food effecting easy forward passage of food.

What is Sphinter?
A specialized ring of muscles that surrounds an orifice allowing substance to pass in the
forward direction only.

What is Calorie?
A unit of heat equal to the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gm of
water through 1º C.

Vitamins :
Group of substances essential for body growth. They do not produce calories but act as
catalysts. We require small amounts. They can't be synthesized in the body but available
in the food we take.

They are of two types. The water soluble group includes vitamin B complex and vitamin
C. The fat soluble group includes vitamin A,D,E,K.

Vitamin deficiency cause diseases.

 18

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Minerals:
These are inorganic substances in the diet, required in small amounts, essential for life.
To name major minerals calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, phosphorus, sulphur
etc.

Common diseases of G. I. Tract :

1) Gastritis 2) Ulcers
3) Dysentery 4) Diarrhoea
5) Dyspepsia 6) Flatulence
7) Appendicitis 8) Jaundice
9) Hepatitis 10) Cirrhosis of liver

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Stomach :

1. Cardiac Glands - Nearest to the oesophageal entrance & secrete an Alkaline

Mucus.

2. Glands of Fundus - Contains different types of cells.

a. Peptic Cells - Produce Pepsin

b. Oxyntic Cells - Produce Hcl
c. Mucus Neck Cells - Produce Mucin
d. Chief Cells - Produce Lipase

3. Pyloric Glands - Produce alkaline Mucus.

Pancreas: Three kinds of cells are found -

1. Acinar Cells - All the enzymes are secreted.

2. Ducts Cells - Formation & secretion of Bicarbonate.
Cells produce GLUCAGON
Cells produce INSULIN
Cells produce SOMATOSTATIN
Bile:

Bile is produced in the liver and is stored in the Gall Bladder.

The main pancreatic duct meets the common bile duct, the two ducts join together, dilate
into an ampulla (Vater) and open into the 2nd part of duodenum over the summit of the
major duodenal papillae.
19

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Function of Bile -

1. Bile emulsifies Fat and Lipase converts the fat into Fatty Acid and Glycerol.

2. For proper absorption of digested fat, the presence of bile salts is necessary. They act
by lowering surface tension. Fatty Acid & Glycerol are absorbed into the villi of small
intestine.

Proteolytic / Protein splitting enzymes : (1) Pepsin (2) Trypsin (3) Erepsin
Lipolytic / Fat splitting enzyme : Lipase
Carbohydrate splitting enzymes: (1) Salivary Amylase (2) Pancreatic Amylase

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(3) Sucrase (4) Maltase (5) Lactase

Organ Digestive Reaction Enzyme Action

Fluid
Mouth Saliva Alkaline Salivary Converts cooked starch into Maltose
-amylase
1. Rennin Converts caseinogen into casein
Stomach Gastric Acidic 2. Pepsin Converts proteins into peptones
Juice 3. Gastric Begins the hydrolysis of fat.
Lipsase
Bile Alkaline Emulsifies Fat
Duodenum
Pancreatic Alkaline 1. Trypsin Reduces Proteins & Peptones into
Fluid Polypeptides & Amino Acid

2. Amylase converts all Sugars & Starch into Maltose

3. Lipase Reduces Fat into Fatty acid & glycerol

Small Succus Alkaline 1. Entero

Intestine Entericus Kinase Liberates Trypsin from Pancreatic fluid

2. Erepsin Reduces all proteins into Amino Acid

3. Sucrase Reduces all carbohydrates into

Maltase monosaccharides, Glucose,
Lacase Galactose and Laevulose
etc.

4. Lipase Reduces fat into fatty acid & glycerol.

 20

OESOPHAGUS

STOMACH

PANCREAS

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21

Medical terms in use related to

Digestive System in particular

INFLAMMATION` : It involves pain ,swelling , redness etc. Due to defensive

reaction of tissue caused by infection , chemicals ,
external injury etc.
ANOREXIA : Lack of appetite.
HEPATITIS : Inflammation of liver.
CHOLECYSTITIS : Inflammation of gall bladder.
COLITIS : Inflammation of colonic mucosa.
DYSPHAGIA : Difficulty in swallowing.
PROCTITIS : Inflammation of anus or rectum.

CARREOGRAPH
STOMATITIS : Inflammation of soft tissue of mouth.
PHARYNGITIS : Inflammation of pharynx.
TONSILLITIS : Inflammation of tonsils.
PEPTIC ULCER : Damage in the mucous membrane lining the area of
stomach exposed to acid & pepsin.
HYPERACIDITY : Excessive secretion of hydrochloric acid in stomach.
PERISTALSIS : Wave of contraction & relaxation commonly referred to
the alimentary tract.
SPASM : Sudden violent contraction.
FAECES : Stool, waste product excreted by intestines.
APPENDICITIS : Inflammation of appendix.
DIARRHOEA : Frequently passing of abnormally soft or liquid faeces.
JAUNDICE : Excess of bilirubin in the blood yellowing of the skin or
whites of the eyes.
GASTRITIS : Inflammation in Stomach
DYSPEPSIA : Indigestion
GASTROENTERITIS : Inflammation of stomach & Intestine
IBS : Irritable Bowel Syndrome
PANCREATITIS : Inflammation in Pancreas
 22

NOTE
23

METABOLISM

Digestion involves mechanical breakdown of foods in the mouth (chewing); chemical

breakdown of foods by enzymes, stomach acid and other secretions in the small
intestine and then absorption of nutrients into the blood stream.

Metabolism starts after absorption and is finished when the end products are excreted.
The chemical changes (1) Synthesis known as ANABOLISM, (2) breakdown called
CATABOLISM and (3) maintaining equilibrium called ISOBOLISM, comprises total
Metabolism.

In short: METABOLISM is the term for all the chemical and physical processes required
for life, using absorbed nutrients.

CARREOGRAPH
METABOLISM = ANABOLISM + CATABOLISM + ISOBOLISM

ANABOLISM = When nutrients are used to build compounds and body tissues, this
process is called Anabolism.

CATABOLISM = When compounds and body tissues are broken down, releasing
energy stored as ATP, the process is called Catabolism.

ISOBOLISM = Maintaining the continuing equilibrium.

A. NUTRIENTS are :
CATEGORY I (MACRONUTRIENTS)
CARBOHYDRATES.
PROTEINS.
FATS.
CATEGORY II (MICRONUTRIENTS)
VITAMINS.
MINERALS.
B. The ENERGY produced in the body may be measured and expressed
In units of work (Joules) or units of heat (Kilocalories).

BASAL METABOLIC RATE (BMR) is the rate of metabolism when the person
should be awake & is in complete physical and mental rest and in the normal
environments, using minimum energy just to maintain the essential life processes
(functioning of heart, lungs, nervous system and kidneys). It is measured as per unit
of body surface area (in Sq. Metres) per hour and to be taken 12 hours after a meal.
 24

DIABETES

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a group of metabolic disease characterized by hyperglycaemia

(high blood glucose), Polyuria (increase in frequency of urine), Polydipsia (increase in
thirst), Polyphagia (increase in appetite), etc. resulting from defects in insulin secretion,
or insulin action or both.
CLASSIFICATIONS
A. Most common is Diabetes Mellitus (DM). It is a disorder of Islets of langerhans in
the Pancreas preventing production of hormone called insulin. Thus glucose can not
be used or utilized properly. It causes predominantly insulin resistance or the insulin
become inactive. Both factors are responsible to develop diabetes mellitus.

In our country about 95% of the diabetics are suffering from diabetes mellitus.

CARREOGRAPH
THE OBJECTIVE OF TREATMENT IN DM
(i) To relieve symptoms (ii) To achieve smooth control of blood glucose (to keep fasting
plasma glucose and postprandial plasma glucose in normal ranges and maintain it)
(iii) To keep ideal body weight (iv) To ensure normal growth in children. v) To prevent,
arrest or postpone complications of DM etc.

How to achieve objective?

a. Administration of drug like, oral hypoglycaemic agents (OHA), or insulins.
b. Exercise, yoga, games etc.
c. Effective diet planning
d. Patient education.

CLINICAL CLASSIFICATION OF DIABETES MELLITUS

1. Insulin dependant diabetes mellitus (IDDM) or Type 1

2. Non Insulin dependant diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) or Type 2

B. Diabetes Insipidus (DI) is much rarer. It is due to deficiency of a hormone, ADH

(antidiuretic hormone) secreted by the posterior pituitary gland to regulate the body's
water balance. DI is controlled by hormone therapy.

India is considered as diabetic capital of the world observing the high number of
Diabetic patients in our country.
25

DIABETES

CARREOGRAPH
 26

EXPANSION OF ABBREVIATIONS

AIDS Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome

HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
ATP Adenosine Triphosphate
a.c. Before food
p.c. After food
WBC White Blood Corpuscles
RBC Red Blood Corpuscles
WHO World Health Organization
ENT Ear, Nose and Throat
MBBS Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery

CARREOGRAPH
MD Doctor of Medicine
MS Master of Surgery
GP General Practitioner
Phy Physician
MRCP Member of Royal College of Physicians
FRCS Fellow of Royal College of Surgeons
Gynaecologist Doctor that deals with female disease
Cardiologist Doctor that deals with heart disease
Neurologist Doctor that deals with diseases of nervous system
Dermatologist Doctor that deals with skin disease
Paediatrician Doctor that deals with child disease
Ophthalmologist Doctor that deals with eye disease
Psychiatrist Doctor that deals with mental disease
RTI Respiratory Tract Infection
UTI Urinary Tract Infection
MRP Maximum Retail Price
mcg Microgram
mg Milligram
ml Millilitre
g/gm Gramme
Hb Haemoglobin
DM Doctorate of Medicine
27

EXPANSION OF ABBREVIATIONS

BMR Basal Metabolic Rate

ESR Erythrocyte Sedimentation Rate
SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome
ECG Electrocardiogram
EEG Electroencephalogram
USP United States Pharmacopoeia
BP British Pharmacopoeia
IP Indian Pharmacopoeia
HDL High Density Lipoprotein
LDL Low Density Lipoprotein

CARREOGRAPH
VLDL Very low density lipid
TG Triglyceride
DPCO Drug price control order
Rx Take it ( prescription writing)
o.d Once daily
b.d. or b.i.d. Twice daily
t.d.s. or t.i.d. Thrice daily
q.d. or q.i.d. Four times daily
i.m. Intramuscular
i.v. Intravenous
I.U. International Unit
CSF Cerebrospinal fluid
CNS Central Nervous System
SOS As and when required
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA Ribonucleic acid
Analgesic Medicine that relieves pain
Antipyretic Medicine that relieves body fever
 28

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

What is BLOOD ?
Blood is red and liquid connective tissue of alkaline reaction consisting of cells and
plasma.

BLOOD

PLASMA (55%) BLOOD CELLS (45%)

1. WATER (91 - 92%) 1. ERYTHROCYTES (5 Million /mm3)
2. PLASMA PROTEINS (7 - 8%) 2. LEUCOCYTES (6 - 8 Thousand /mm3)
3. SOLUBLE SUBSTANCES (1 - 2%) 3. THROMBOCYTES (2.5 - 4 Lakhs/mm3)

CARREOGRAPH
What are the main functions of Blood ?
1) To carry Oxygen from lungs to the tissues
& Co2 from tissues to the lungs
2) To carry nutrients to different cells
3) To remove waste products
4) To fight infection with WBC
5) To regulate body temperature
6) To distribute hormones (acts as a vehicle)
(which is secreted by ductless glands)
7) Maintains acid-base equilibrium

What is Haemoglobin ?
Oxygen-rich Blood
Haemoglobin is a red pigment containing iron linked Oxygen-poor Blood

to a protein in RBC
Haem = iron , Globin = Protein

What are the functions of Haemoglobin ?

1) To carry oxygen
2) To transport carbon di oxide
29

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

What are the functions of RBC ?

1) To carry Oxygen and transport carbon di oxide
2) To maintain acid base balance
3) Maintain viscosity of blood

What are the functions of WBC ?

1) Phagocytosis
2) Antibody formation
3) Secretion of Heparin(for preventing intravascular clotting)
4) Act as Anti Histamine

What is ANAEMIA?

CARREOGRAPH
Deficiency of RBC and haemoglobin in the blood is called anaemia.
(Normal haemoglobin in blood is around 14.5 gm%)

What is pH?
pH is a scale used to specify how acidic or basic a water based solution is.

What is the pH of blood?

The pH of blood is 7.4 which is slightly alkaline .

What is the Mechanism of Coagulation of Blood?

When the blood is shed, the platelets, by coming in contact of the rough surface,
disintegrate and liberate Thromboplastin.
Prothrombin & Fibrinogen which are plasma proteins and derived from Liver.
Normally, Prothrombin + Calcium ion + Fibrinogen Nil
After shedding of blood,
1. Thromboplastin + Prothombin + Calcium ion Thrombin
2. Thrombin + Fibrinogen + Vitamin K Fibrin (Clot)

What is artery?
Blood vessels having three layers carrying blood away from the heart. All arteries
except pulmonary artery carry oxygenated blood.

What is vein ?
Blood vessels having three layers less in thickness than artery carrying blood
towards the heart. All veins except pulmonary veins carry deoxygenated blood.
 30

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

How many chambers heart has ?

Four chambered . Upper 2 Auricles or atriums and lower 2 ventricles.

What is the position of heart ?

The heart lies in the thorax between the lungs and behind the sternum, it is situated
more to the left.
Apex of the heart - It is situated in the 5th intercostal space, ½ inch away form the mid-
clavicular line.

From which chamber blood is circulated through out our body ?

From left ventricle through Aorta

What is contraction and relaxation of heart is called ?

CARREOGRAPH
Contraction = Systolic
Relaxation = Diastolic

What is Heart rate?

Heart rate means the number of apex beats of the heart per minute (72 per minute)

What is heart sound ?

There are two sounds Lub & Dup. First sound is produced with the simultaneous
closure of Tricuspid and Bicuspid valves and the second sound is produced due to the
simultaneous closure of Aortic and pulmonary valves.

What is Coronary Circulation?

Blood circulation in the heart is called coronary circulation.

1. The arteries suppling the heart are the right and left coronary arteries start from the
base of the Aorta and they are filled with oxygenated blood during each diastole.
2. Most of the coronary veins are drained by the coronary sinus back into the right
atrium.

What is Blood Pressure?

It is the lateral pressure of blood exerted on the wall of the blood vessel.

What is Systolic Blood Pressure?

Blood pressure during ventricular systole is called systolic blood pressure.

What is Diastolic Blood Pressure?

Blood pressure during ventricular diastole is call diastolic blood pressure.
31

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

What is Normal Pressure ?

Systolic 120
---------- ------- mm of mercury
Diastolic 80

What are the factors Influencing Blood Pressure?

1. Pumping action of the heart.
2. Cardiac Out put.
3. Peripheral Resistance.
4. Elasticity of the blood vessels.
5. Blood volume.

CARREOGRAPH
6. Blood viscosity.

What is Stroke Volume?

The out put of each ventricle per beat is stroke volume.

What is Cardiac Out put?

The out put per ventricle per minute is cardiac out put.
Hence, Cardiac out put = Stroke volume x heart rate.

What is Normal Value?

1. Stroke volume = 70 ml / beat
2. Cardiac out put = 70 ml x 72 = 5040 ml 5-6 liters / minute ie. total blood
volume of the body

What is BradyCardia?
Means low rate of heart beat than normal.

What is Tachycardia ?
Means increase of heart beat than normal.

What is Cardiac Arrhythmia?

Means irregular heart beat

What is Angina Pectoris?

Compressive type of pain in the chest.
 32

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM

What is Atherosclerosis ?
Hardening , narrowing of blood vessels .This is due to deposition of cholesterol and
Other substances with the eventual obstruction of blood flow.

Explain blood circulation through heart:

1) Superior Vena cava carries deoxygenated blood from upper extremities
2) Inferior Vena cava carries deoxygenated blood form lower extremities.
3) They pour blood in the right atrium.
4) Then to right ventricle (through Tricuspid valve)

CARREOGRAPH
5) The blood is sent to the lungs (through pulmonary arteries) for gaseous
Exchange.
6) Then oxygenated blood is poured into left atrium (via pulmonary veins)
7) From where it comes to the left ventricle(through Bicuspid or Mitral valve)
8) From the left ventricle , the blood is supplied to different parts of the body
through Aorta

What are different layers of heart?

The inner layer is called endocardium.
The middle layer is myocardium.
The outer layer is epicardium.
33

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

CARREOGRAPH
 34

Medical terms in use related to

Cardiovascular System in particular

PHAGOCYTOSIS : Engulfment and digestion of Bacteria & other foreign

particles by W.B.C.
BRADYCARDIA : Slowing of the heart rate below 50 beats per minute.
TACHYCARDIA : Increase of the Heart rate above normal.
ANTIGEN : A foreign protein which when introduced into the blood
stream stimulates antibody production.
ANTIBODY : Substance in the blood or body fluid which exerts a destructive
or inhibitory action on bacteria or neutralizes their toxin .
ANTISEPTIC : A substance destructive to micro-organisms or
preventing sepsis.

CARREOGRAPH
HAEMOPOIETIC : Relating to formation of blood.
IMMUNITY : The body's ability to resist infection , afforded by the
presence of circulating antibodies and W.B.C.
OEDEMA : Presence of excessive amounts of fluid in tissues.
ARRHYTHMIA : Departure from normal regular heart rhythm.
EMBOLISM : Obstruction of blood vessel by a clot.
HYPERTENSION : Blood pressure above normal levels.
HYPOTENSION : Blood pressure below normal levels.
LEUKAEMIA : Pathological abnormality and increase in W.B.C number
INFARCTION : Area of dead tissue produced by obstruction of artery.
PALPITATION : Irregular heart beat.
STENOSIS : Narrowing of vein or artery
ANAEMIA : A reduction in the quantity of the oxygen-carrying pigment
"haemoglobin" in the blood.
ATHEROSCLEROSIS: Hardening ,narrowing of inner layer of blood vessels
due to deposition of cholesterol and loss of elasticity.
THROMBUS : Clot fixed to vessel wall produced by coagulation of blood/lipid.
HYPERSENSITIVITY`: Abnormal reaction of body tissue to certain products
( ALLERGY)
HEART ATTACK : Sudden severe chest pain following interruption of blood
supply in coronary arteries.
THALASSAEMIA : A hereditary blood disease , in which there is an abnormality
in the protein part of haemoglobin molecule affecting R.B.C.
Followed by anemia.
35

NOTE
 36

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Brief idea about the Respiratory System?

Respiratory System consists of nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs and provides facility
for inspiration of atmospheric air for oxygen and expiration of carbon dioxide.
What is Cycle of Respiration?
Respiration consists of 1) Inspiration 2) Pause 3) Expiration. Usual rate of respiration is 12-15
times/ minute in humans.
What is the composition of atmospheric air?
Atmospheric air consists of Oxygen (O2) around 21%, Carbon di oxide (CO2) 0.04%, Nitrogen
around 78% and traces of other gases.
What are the Muscles & Bones involved in Respiration?
Two muscles of our body play very important role in respiration. They are Diaphragm and

CARREOGRAPH
Intercostal Muscles and two bones involved in respiration - Ribs and Sternum.
Major Organs of Respiration:
NOSE and NASAL CAVITY Nose is a structure made
up of cartilage with openings called nostrils which allow
the air to flow in or out. Nasal Cavities are the spaces
in bones of face which are filled with air.
EPIGLOTTIS A flap of cartilaginous structure in the
throat that keeps food from entering the respiratory
Air
tract.
LARYNX an organ serving as an air passage
conveying air to trachea and also responsible for Epiglottis
production of vocal sounds.
TRACHEA part of air passage between larynx and bronchi,
composed of smooth muscle with fixed incomplete cartilage.
Trachea bifurcates into right and left Bronchi.
LUNG a pair of organs of respiration, situated in the chest cavity on either
side of heart and enclosed by a double serous membrane called Pleura.
Inflammation of the Pleura is called Pleuritis or Pleurisy.
ALVEOLI a single alveolus is a microscopic single layer air sac covered with pulmonary
capillaries where oxygen and carbon dioxide can be readily exchanged.
What is Cough?
Cough is a protective reflex of the body, often Sudden and repetitive to clear out irritants, dust,
food particles, microbes etc from the respiratory passages. It can be voluntary or involuntary in
nature.
IMMUNITY AND VACCINE
VACCINES are suspensions of dead or attenuated but live microorganisms or products obtained
from them used as antigens when administered develop one or more types of specific antibodies
in the body. Vaccines are employed prophylactically and are of no value during incubation period
or in the active stage of disease.
IMMUNITY can be defined as the ability of the body to neutralize and eliminate the pathogenic
microorganisms and their toxic products, thus affording prevention of diseases.
37

Medical terms in use related to

Respiratory System in particular

SYMPTOM : Body change indicating disease as noted by the patient.

SINUSITIS : Inflammation of Para nasal sinuses.

OTITIS MEDIA : Inflammation of middle ear.

BRONCHITIS : Inflammation of bronchi.

PNEUMONIA : Inflammation of lung.

DYSPNOEA : Difficulty in breathing.

LARYNGITIS : Inflammation of larynx and vocal cords.

CARREOGRAPH
EMPYEMA : Pus in the pleural cavity.

DECONGESTANT : An agent that reduces or relieves nasal congestion.

HYPOXIA : A condition in which the tissues of the body receive

inadequate oxygen.

ASTHMA : A common lung disorder due to constriction of bronchi

and bronchioles of the lungs causing difficulty in
breathing. It is Usually connected to allergic reactions.

EMPHYSEMA : A type of COPD involving damage to the alveoli in the

lungs.

C.O.P.D : Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease.

 38

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Nose & Nasal

Cavity
Nasopharynx
Epiglottis
Larynx

CARREOGRAPH
Trachea

Rib Cage
Pleural
Bronchus Membranes

Right Lung Left Lung

Alveoli
Diaphragm Position of
Pleural
Heart
Cavity
39

NOTE
 40

BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PATHOGENIC MICRO-ORGANISMS

1) Chlamydiae 2) Fungi
3) Protozoa (Entamoeba histolytica) 4) Rickettsiae
5) Mycoplasmatales 6) Viruses
7) Bacteria

CLASSIFICATION OF BACTERIA

A) According to Gram's Stain:

GRAM +ve GRAM -ve

e.g. Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Haemophilus influenzae

CARREOGRAPH
Bacillus anthracis Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Clostridium tetani Bordetella pertusis
Staphylococcus aureus Neisseria meningitidis

B) According to Oxygen Requirement :

AEROBES ANAEROBES
(Can live & grow in oxygen) (Can live & Grow without oxygen)

e.g. Pseudomonas aeruginosa Peptostreptococcus spp.

Enterococcus faecalis Actinomyces spp.

C) According to Morphology

1) Cocci (Spherical Diplo , Strepto , staphylo )

e.g., Diplococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes
staphylococcus aureus
2) Baccilli (rod shaped ) e.g. salmonella typhi, shigella dysenteriae

3) Spirilla (helical or coil shaped ) e.g. spirilla minus

4) Vibrio (comma-shaped ) e.g. vibrio cholerae

5) Spirochaete (spiral-shaped ) e.g. treponema pallidum

6) Actinomyces (fungus-like ) e.g. actinomyces spp.

41

BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PATHOGENIC MICRO-ORGANISMS

CARREOGRAPH
 42

CLASSIFICATION OF ANTIMICROBIAL DRUGS

1) Aminoglycosides (Bactericidal) - end with “mycin”.

e.g. : Neomycin , Kanamycin , Tobramycin , Streptomycin , Gentamycin, Netilmicin and also Amikacin

2) Azole Derivatives ( Bacteriostatic) - with azole ring and end in “azole”

e.g. Metronidazole, Tinidazole & Ornidazole (antibacterial and antiprotozoal)
Fluconazole, Miconazole, Econazole , Ketoconazole (anti-Fungal)
Albendazole, Isoconazole, Mebendazole , Thiabendazole (anthelmintic)

3) Beta Lactams ( Bactericidal) - Penicillin , end with “cillin” or start with “ceph” / “cef”.
e.g. Ampicillin, Cloxacillin, Amoxycillin , Oxacillin, Methicillin
Cephalosporins : -
1st Generation : Cefazolin, Cefadroxil, Cephalexin

CARREOGRAPH
2nd Generation : Cefaclor, Cefoxitin, Cefuroxime, Cefprozil
rd
3 Generation : Cefixime, Cefoperazone, Cefotaxime,
Ceftazidime, Ceftizoxime, Ceftriaxone
th
4 Generation : Cefepime, Cefeperome
5th Generation : Ceftobiprole , Ceftaroline, Ceftolozane
4) Beta Lactamase Inhibitors - i) CLAVULANIC ACID ii) SULBACTAM

5) Macrolides (Bacteriostatic) - end with “thromycin”-

e.g. Erythromycin , Roxythromycin, Azithromycin, Clarithromycin etc.
6) Quinolones (Bactericidal) - Structurally related to Nalidixic Acid .End with “Oxacin”
e.g. ciprofloxacin, Ofloxacin, Norfloxacin, Pefloxacin, cinoxacin, sparfloxacin, Levofloxacin,
Gatifloxacin, Lomefloxacin, Moxifloxacin.
7) Tetracyclines (Bacteriostatic) - Four ringed structure , end in “cycline”
e.g. Doxycycline , Chlortetracycline , Oxytetracycline etc.

8) Sulphonamides ( Bacteriostatic) - Contain “ Sulfa” or “ Sulpha”

* Anti T.B Drugs :- Isoniazid ,Rifampicin ,Pyrazinamide , Streptomycin, Ethambutol ,Thiacetazone)

43

PHARMACOLOGY

PHARMACOLOGY - The science of the properties of drugs in detail and particularly their
effects on the body is Pharmacology.
PLASMA HALF LIFE or t ½ - It is the time taken by the drug in the plasma to reduce to 50%
from its peak concentration at a particular dosage.
PHARMACODYNAMICS - The interaction of the drugs with cells. Simply, what drug does to the body.
PHARMACOKINETICS - What the body does to the drug, which includes its absorption,
distribution, metabolism, and excretion.
ANTIBIOTIC - A chemical substance derived from a particular group of microorganisms that,
kills or inhibits the growth of other type of microorganisms. Nowadays most of the antibiotics
are manufactured either synthetically or semisynthetically. Antibiotics are used to treat
infections caused by organisms that are sensitive to them.

CARREOGRAPH
DRUG - A drug is any substance used for the purpose of DIAGNOSIS, PREVENTION,
RELIEF or CURE of a disease in MEN or ANIMALS.
AUC [Area Under Curve] - Plasma concentration of drug versus time.
TMAX - Time for peak plasma conc.
CMAX - The peak serum concentration of a drug.

Therapeutic Index (T.I) - is used to compare the therapeutically effective dose to the toxic
dose of a drug.
Toxic Dose / Lethal Dose
T.I =
Effective Dose

Pharmacopoeia - An official book containing a selected list of established drugs with details of
their formulae, physical properties ,tests for their identity ,purity and potency .Few well known
pharmacopoeias are:I.P,B.P and U.S.P.
 44

NERVOUS SYSTEM

A brief idea about Nervous System :

Nervous System is subdivided into three main parts
i) Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of Brain and Spinal Cord

ii) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consists of Nerves which are sensory and
motor nerves.

iii) Autonomic Nervous system (ANS) consists of Sympathetic Nerves and

Parasympathetic Nerves.
Nervous System means the vast network of cells specialized to carry information in
the form of nerve impulses to and from all parts of the body to bring about all bodily
activities.

CARREOGRAPH
What do you know about Central Nervous
System (CNS)?
PARIETAL
Central Nervous System consists of Brain FRONTAL LOBE LOBE
LIMBIC LOBE
and Spinal cord. Brain and Spinal cord
controls and coordinates all nervous activities
of our body. Nerves originate from the
OCCIPITAL
Brain and Spinal Cord and spreads LOBE
HYPOTHALAMUS
across the body. PITUITARY GLAND
PONS
What is Neuron?
MEDULLA OBLONGATA
CEREBELLUM
Neuron is the smallest structural and
SPINAL CORD
functional unit of nervous system. Many
neurons together, form a nerve fiber. Brain
and Spinal cord are formed by millions of neurons. A neuron has three parts
a) Dendrites b) Cell body c) Axon.

What are the types of Nerves?

Nerves are of three types.
I) Sensory Nerve Which carry nervous impulse from other parts of
body to Brain and Spinal cord
II) Motor Nerve Which carry nervous impulse from Brain and Spinal cord to other
parts of body
III) Mixed Nerve This can carry sensory and motor both impulses.
45

NERVOUS SYSTEM

What is a Nerve? What is Nerve Impulse?

A nerve is a collection of nerve fibres which carry electrical impulses between a part of
Central Nervous System and other body regions.

Nerve impulses are electricity generated in the neurons of central nervous system and it is
conducted along the nerve fibres.

What is synapse?
A synapse is a junction between two or more neurons.

What is Neurotransmitter?
Neurotransmitters are chemical substances which are stored in the end of the neurons and
they help they carry nerve impulses from one neuron to other.

CARREOGRAPH
Name some neurotransmitters?
Name of some neurotransmitters are acetylcholine, serotonin, Nor adrenaline, GABA etc.

What is the position of our Brain in the body?

The Brain lies within the Cranial Cavity of the Skull.

What are Major Parts of Brain?

a) Cerebrum b) Midbrain c) Pons d) Medulla Oblongata e) Cerebellum

What are Cranial and Spinal Nerves?

Nerves originated from brain are called cranial nerves and nerves originated from
spinal cord form spinal nerves. We have 12 pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of
spinal nerves. Transmission of impulses either to the brain to periphery or vice-versa.

What is Meninges? What is CSF?

Meninges is a three- layered membrane that covers Brain and Spinal cord.

Parts of Meninges (Layers) :

1. Dura mater - The outer layer
2. Arachnoid mater - The middle layer
3. Piamater - The inner layer

CSF or Cerebrospinal Fluid is a fluid that is available in between Arachnoid Mater and Pia
Mater of Meninges of Brain and Spinal Cord .It works as a shock absorber, provides
nutrients & eliminates waste products.

What is reflex Action?

Reflex actions are rapid involuntary and automatic movements of body parts like closure
of Eyelids when irritated by dust. They are controlled mostly by spinal cord, not by brain.
 46

NOTE
47

URINARY SYSTEM

What are the Anatomical parts of urinary System?

Urinary system is made up of Right and left Kidney, two ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.

What is the structure of Kidney?

Kidneys are bean shaped structure weighing approx. 150 gms each situated in the lumber
region of the body.
What are the functions of urinary system / Kidney?

1. Filtration
2. Reabsorbtion of water and other dissolved substances with the help of ADH.
3. Excretion

CARREOGRAPH
4. Maintaining acid base balance
How filtration happens in kidney? Give a brief idea.
Blood is constantly purified in kidney .Blood coming to Glomerulus is filtered and water,
urea, creatinine and salts etc come to Bowmann's capsule .From there it travels through
the entire length of renal tubules and get collected to collecting duct. In the passage,
majority of water and salts are reabsorbed to blood with the help of ADH and aldosterone
respectively. The rest amount is excreted as urine.

Name few diseases of Urinary system and their meaning?

Cystitis- Inflammation of urinary bladder
Pyelonephritis Inflammation of the kidney
Ureteritis Inflammation of the ureter
Urethritis Inflammation of the urethra
Nephrolithiasis stone formation in kidney

URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS (UTI)

Urethritis
Cystitis
Ureteritis
Pyelonephritis
Renal Abscess
 48

URINARY SYSTEM

What is Nephron?
Nephron is the microscopic structural and functional unit of kidney. It is made up of
glomerulus, bowmann's capsule and renal tubules and collecting duct.
Structure of Nephron?
1. Bowman’s Capsule & Glomerulus
2. Renal Tubule - Proximal, Henle’s Loop, Distal,
3. Collecting Duct / Tubule
Bowman’s Capsule is surrounded by a tuft of capillary vessels, known as glomerulus.
Together, Bowman’s capsule & glomerulus constitute the Malpighian corpuscle.
What is diabetes mellitus? How many types of Diabetes we have in humans?
It is a metabolic disorder where there is impaired glucose metabolism in the body with
excessive thirst and hunger. Patient feels excessive urge to urinate. In severe cases,

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sugar may excrete through urine. Lack of production of insulin or impaired insulin
utilization are common causes of Diabetes mellitus.
In humans, two types of Diabetes have been confirmed to exist.
1. Diabetes Mellitus- occurs as a results of lack of insulin
2. Diabetes Insipidus- Occurs as a result of lack of ADH
What is diuresis? Name one diuretic medication.
Increased production and excretion of urine is called Diuresis. Frusemide and
Torsemide are diuretics.
THE NEPHRON

Proximal Convoluted
Tubule
Bowman’s
Capsule

Glomerulus

Distal
Convoluted
Tubule
Arteriole from
Collecting renal artery
Tubule

Branch of renal
vein

Loop of Henle
49

NOTE
 50

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

The endocrine system consists

. of a number of ductless glands which manufacture
certain chemical substances that take an essential part in the life process of the body.
These substances are known as HORMONE. Most hormones are synthesized from
amino acids, polypeptides, proteins or steroids which are cholesterol based lipids.
The major endocrine glands are :
1 Pituitary gland the Pancreatic Islets (Islets of Langerhans)
1 Thyroid gland ( 2 lobes) 2 Ovaries in the female
4 Parathyroid glands 2 Testes in the male
2 Adrenal (Suprarenal) glands
Although the Hypothalamus is classified as a part of the brain and not as an endocrine

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gland, it controls the Pituitary, the master gland for its secretion of different hormones to
influence the secretions of other endocrine glands. Pituitary has two lobes - Anterior
and Posterior.
Summary of the hormones secreted by the ANTERIOR PITUITARY gland and their functions

Hormone Function
Growth hormone (GH) Regulates metabolism, promotes tissue
growth especially of bones and muscles.
Thyroid Gland stimulating
Stimulates growth and activity of thyroid
hormone (TSH)
gland and secretion of T3 and T4.

Adrenocorticotrophic hormone
Stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete
(ACTH) glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoid, sexsteroids.

Prolactin (PRL) Stimulates milk production in the breasts.

Stimulates production of sperm in the 2 testes,

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)
stimulates secretion of oestrogen by the 2 ovaries
(Ovarian follicle), maturation of ovarian follicles.

Stimulates secretion of testosterone by the

Luteinising hormone (LH) 2 testes, stimulates secretion of progesterone by
the corpus luteum, ovulation.

POSTERIOR PITUITARY secretes (1) Oxytocin for forceful uterine contractions for smooth
delivery. Posterior Pituitary also releases (2) Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) effecting
reabsorption of water & selective substances from urinary tubules.
51

ENDOCRINES

Hormone : Hormones are chemical substances produced by endocrine glands, directly

pass into the bloodstream and play in various life processes of the body.

GLANDS WITH DEFINITE ENDOCRINE FUNCTIONS:

Glands Hormones released

1. Thyroid (one pair) - Thyroxine

2. Parathyroid (Two pairs) - Parathyroid Hormone
3. Adrenal Gland (one pair) - Glucocorticoids, Mineralocorticoids,
Sexsteroids, Epinephrine,
Norepinephrine.

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4. Islets of Langerhans (Endocrine pancreas) - Insulin, Glucagon
5. Ovary - Oestrogen, Progesterone.
6. Testis - Testosterone
7. Placenta (during pregnancy) - Progesterone & Oestrogen
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (HCG)

In addition to the above, there are glands with probable endocrine functions:
a) Thymus b) Pineal body

The endocrine system

The system consists of a number of ductless glands which release chemical substance known as
hormones that take essential roles in life processes, e.g. growth, metabolism, reproduction etc.

Pituitary Gland
The master endocrine gland, a pea-sized body attached beneath the hypothalamus in the brain
that releases many hormones which in turn regulate the secretions of other endocrine Glands.
 52

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

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53

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive organs consists of Testes, Epididymis, Vas Deferens, Seminal Vesicles,
Prostate, Bulbo-urethral Gland, Prostatic Urethra, Penile Urethra and Penis.
The female organs include Ovaries, Fallopian Tubes, Uterus, Bartholin's Glands, Vagina.
Puberty - The onset of reproductive life is called puberty. It is the time when the gonads (testes
and ovaries) develop endocrine and gametogenic functions.
In the female, the Uterus is a thick-walled pear-shaped muscular hollow organ. It is suspended in
the pelvic cavity. The upper part is connected to the two Fallopian tubes, one on each side and
the lower part joins the vagina at the cervix-Vagina internal & vagina external.
Two ovaries, one on each side of the uterus contain numerous follicles, within which the ova
develop. Ovulation is the process by which an ovum is released from a mature follicle. The
released ovum starts to travel through the Fallopian tube to the uterus, The fusion of a
spermatozoon and an ovum is know as Fertilization. In absence of sperm, when fertilization does

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not take place, the endometrium breaks and the blood, mucus and uterine tissue are eliminated
through the vagina during 4 to 5 days in a cycle of 28 days is known as Menstruation. In the age
between 45 and 55, when the ovaries cease to produce an ovum, menstruation ceases and the
woman is no longer able to bear children. The stage is called Menopause.

Fallopian Tube

1. Age of puberty
2. Graffian Follicle
(Ovarian Follicle)
3. Ovulation
4. Female Gamete (Ovum)
5. Corpus Leteum
6. Menstruation (Menarche) Ovum
Ovary Fimbria
7. Male Gamete (Spermatozoa)
8. Fertilization Uterus Cervix
9. Zygote
10. Embryo Vagina
11. Placenta
Sperm
12. Foetus FSH LH
13. Gestation Period
14. Labour
Oestrogen Progesteron
15. Menopause
Oxytocin
Prolactin
 54

TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO FEMALE

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

AGE OF PUBERTY: It is the age when an adolescent reaches sexual maturity that is the boy or
girl is now capable of reproduction. This age usually ranges from 10 years to 14 years.
GRAAFIAN FOLLICLE: A mature ovarian follicle that ruptures to release the egg or ovum
during ovulation.
OVULATION: The release of the matured ovum from the ovary after the rupture of the Graafian
Follicle is called ovulation.
FEMALE GAMETE: A haploid cell containing 23 chromosomes produced from the Ovary is
called the female gamete or Ovum ( plural- Ova).
CORPUS LUTEUM: After the Graafian Follicle ruptures, in it's place a mass of yellow coloured
cells is formed. It is called Corpus Luteum which produces progesterone under the action of

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Luteinzing Hormone.
MENSTRUATION: The shedding of the functional endometrial layer after every cycle of 28 days
when there is no fertilization and therefore no embedding of the embryo on the wall of the uterus.
MALE GAMETE: A haploid cell containing 23 chromosomes produced from the Testes is
called the male gamete or Spermatozoa (singular- Spermatozoon).
FERTILIZATION: The fusion or union of the male gamete with the female gamete is called
fertilization.
ZYGOTE: The first diploid cell of 46 chromosomes formed just after fertilization of ovum with
sperm is called zygote.
PLACENTA: It is a vascular organ which remains in direct contact with the uterine endometrium
and provides nourishment and oxygen to the growing foetus and also helps in removal of waste
products. The placenta also acts as a barrier in preventing certain disease causing micro-
organisms from reaching the foetus.
EMBRYO: The zygote starts multiplying and undergoes development; from 2 weeks to 8 weeks
after fertilization it is called an embryo.
FOETUS: After 8 weeks of fertilization till birth, the embryo is now called the foetus.
GESTATION PERIOD: The entire period inside the female reproductive organs during which the
zygote becomes the fully matured foetus is called gestation. This is counted as 280 days or 40
weeks from the 1st day of last menstrual cycle.
LABOUR: Under the influence of the hormone oxytocin there is painful contractions of the
myometrium of the uterus at the end of the gestation period to aid in the expulsion of the fully
grown foetus, this is called labour.
MENOPAUSE: The Menstrual Cycle stops after a certain age (45 to 55 years) in women. Her
reproductive age is over , this is called Menopause.
55

NOTE
 56

THE SKIN
(STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN)

SKIN AN OVERVIEW :
Surface area of 1.2 to 2.2 square meters.
Weighs 4 to 5 kilograms.
Accounts for about 7% of total body weight in average adult.
A complex organ that protects its host from its environment, at the same time allowing
interaction with the environment.
A physical permeability barrier.

TYPES OF SKIN:

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Two main kinds of human skin: glabrous skin (non hairy skin) and hair bearing skin.
Glabrous skin is found on the palms and soles and has lines and ridges (fingerprints).

STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN:

The skin has three layers:

Outermost layer : EPIDERMIS
Middle Layer : DERMIS
Innermost Layer : HYPODERMIS (Also called SUBCUTIS
57

THE SKIN
(STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN)

LAYERS OF THE EPIDERMIS:

The Epidermis has five layers, from inner to outer they are
1) Stratum germinativum (Basale)
2) Stratum spinosum
3) Stratum granulosum
4) Stratum lucidum
5) Stratum corneum

CELLS OF THE EPIDERMIS:

The Epidermis is a Squamous epithelium with four distinct cell types:

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1) Keratinocytes-Cells of the epidermis which is filled with a protein called keratin.
2) Melanocytes-Produces dark brown to black pigment called Melanin, production
increases in presence of sunlight, it reflects skin colour.
3) Merkel cells-Sensory cells responsible for detecting touch, pain, pressure on the
skin.
4) Langerhan cells-Protective cells, responsible for protection from foreign particles
by phagocytosis.

DERMIS:
The Dermis is tough and elastic in nature and made up of fibrous tissue. It consists of a
dense network of blood and Lymph vessels, nerves, glands (sweat glands & Sebaceous
glands), hair roots.
The dermis is arranged in two major regions:

1) The Upper-Thin Papillary dermis - Contains Capillaries and nerve endings (Sensory)
& determines individual’s unique finger prints.
2) The Lower-Thick Reticular dermis - Contains sweat glands, larger blood vessels &
nerves.
HYPODERMIS OR SUBCUTIS:
The Hypodermis is a loose layer of Connective tissue with numerous blood vessels, it
connects the Epidermis and Dermis with the underlying tissue of muscles, bones and
cartilage. Almost 80% of the body fat is stored in the Hypodermis. It is responsible for
giving a cushioning effect against trauma and provides insulation and acts as a calorie
reserve. And also contains dense tracery of nerves.
 58

THE SKIN
(STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN)

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKIN:

1) PROTECTION- The skin protects the body from the external environment and from
the invasion of micro-organisms.
2) SENSATION-The Merkel cells of the skin can detect and caution against the
external environment.
3) EXCRETION - The skin removes some amount of excess water and waste materials
through sweat glands.
4) THERMOREGULATION - The sweat glands regulate body temperature through
adjustment of the amount of sweat.
5) LUBRICATION of the Skin-The Sebaceous glands produces Sebum which forms an

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oily covering on the skin causing a waterproofing effect and thus prevents the skin
from drying.
6) Subcutaneous fat provides cushioning effect against trauma.

SKIN LESIONS:
1) ABSCESS- A skin lesion characterised by collection of pus in a localised cavity.
2) DERMATITIS- Synonym Eczema, characterized by red inflamed epidermis with
itching.
3) URTICARIA- Allergic skin condition characterized by red swelled skin with wheals.
4) ACNE - A skin disease where sebaceous glands become inflamed, characterised
by oily skin.

Skin Infections-Skin infections are of different types and can be caused by Bacteria
(Leprosy), Fungi (Ringworm), Virus (Chicken pox, Herpes) and Parasites (Scabies, Lice).

Vitiligo-Also known as Leucoderma. In this condition the Melanocytes which produce

melanin to give the skin colour are destroyed and so the skin loses its colour to become
whitish.
59

THE SKIN

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 60

THE EYE

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61

TEETH

Teeth are two types, Deciduous or Temporary teeth which are 20 in numbers and
permanent teeth which are 32 in numbers comprising upper and lower jaws. Deciduous
teeth start erupting at 6 months and complete by 24 months. On the other hand
permanent teeth start replacing temporary teeth from 6 years and complete by 24 years

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 62

DETAILING STORY - MEMORIZATION

Scarfree Cream
Doctor,
For scarless healing of acne, prescribe Scarfree Cream.
Clindamycin in Scarfree Cream is a broad Spectrum antibiotic.
Whereas aloe allantoin reduces pain and regenerates new skin.
To keep the beauty of your patients, please prescribe Scarfree cream.

ONICO Tab
Doctor, Please prescribe Onico Tab, the oral fungicidal treatment for onychomycosis.
Onico is well absorbed upto 70 % and slowly eliminated, whereas longer half life makes it

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effective for long term treatment.
Onico is effective in fungal nail infection, tinea versicolor and tinea captis.
Prescribe ONICO for effective fungicidal treatment.

Cute Shampoo
Doctor, to control itching and flaking by dandruff, prescribe Cute shampoo with ketoconazole
2% & ZPTO 1%. Ketoconazole in Cute Shampoo treats dandruff, whereas aloe extract offers
antiseptic and moisturizer action.
Prescribe Cute shampoo to treat it from the Root.

Toximon
For the relief of the inflammatory and pruritic manifestations of steroid responsive dermatoses,
prescribe Toximon.
Toximon has fast action with high safety index.
Toximon is well tolerated and safe with once a day dosage convenience.
Please Prescribe Toximon for safer approach and long term treatment.

Coughtop
Infants suffer; it's an ordeal for their parents also.
Please Prescribe Orange CS drops with Phenylephrine & Chlorpheniramine Maleate.
In Cough, Cold symptoms like Coughing, runny nose and red eyes, prescribe Orange CS
drop to relieve nasal discomfort due to cold in Infants.
63

INGREDIENTS OF AYURVEDIC MEDICINES

Indian Name Latin Name Common Name Properties - Indications

Spastic bowel, flatulence, dyspepsia,

sluggish digestion, chronic hiccups,
Ajwan Carum Carom belching, sinus congestion, asthma,
menstrual cramping, renal calculi,
depression.
Hyperacidity, constipation, ulcers,
Amalaki Emblica Emblic hepatitis, colitis, high cholesterol,
officinalis myrobalan diabetes, anemia, radiotherapy and
chemotherapy.
Heart, lungs, skin, liver, reproductive
Arjuna Terminalia Arjuna tissues, anemia, tumors, asthma,
arjuna myrobalan

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cardiac and circulatory problems.

Bhringaraj Eclipta alba Bhringaraj Alopecia, premature greying, dizziness,

hepatitis, cirrhosis, insomnia, bronchitis,
asthma, skin.

Memory loss, debility, cystitis,headaches,

Brahmi Bacopa Bacopa epilepsy, ADHD, Asperger's syndrome,
depression, autism.

Datura Datura metel White thorn Joint pain, asthma, fevers, lung
apple congestion, dysmenorrhea.

Dhanyaka, Coriandrum Coriander, Bloating, flatulence, irritable bowel

Dhaniya sativum Cilantro syndrom, worms, allergies, cystitis,
dysuria, fevers, respiratory problems,
heavy metals.

Haridra, Curcuma Turmeric Infections, ulcers, dyspepsia, diabetes,

Haldi longa gallstones, skin diseases, conjunctivitis,
cysts, endometriosis, dysmenorrhea,
fevers, septicaemia, high cholesterol.

Hing, Ferula Asafoetida Flatulence, cough, constipation,

palpitations, aphrodisiac, whooping
cough, sciatica, convulsions, arthritis.

Isaphgul Plantago Psyllium husk Constipation, colitis, irritable bowel,

ovata cystitis

Jeeraka Cuminum Cumin seed Antiseptic, carminative, digestive,

cyminum diuretic, galactagogue, antispasmodic
 64

INGREDIENTS OF AYURVEDIC MEDICINES

Indian Name Latin Name Common Name Properties - Indications

Karpoor Cinnamomum Camphor Diarrhoea, nervousness, muscular pain,

fever.

Lasuna, Allium Garlic Gastric disturbances, food poisoning,

Rasona sativum candida albicans, catarrh, myalgia,
sluggishness, high cholesterol,
clotting, infections, blood pressure.

Maricha Piper nigrum Black pepper Dyspepsia, cough, pharyngitis,

headache, diarrhea

Fever, pharyngitis, skin disorders,

Narikela Cocos Cocos nucifera alterative
nucifera

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Neem, Nimba Azadirachta Neem, Margosa, Skin disease, antibacterial, antifungal,
indica Indian lilac blood purifier, antipyretic,
hepatoprotective, antiparasitic,
antiseptic, antiemetic

Sarpagandha Rauwolfia Rauwolfia, Indian Hypertension, anxiety, insomnia, colic

serpentina snake root

Demulcent, expectorant, anticatarrhal,

Tulsi, Tulasi Ocimum Holy basil antispasmodic, anthelminthic, nervine,
sanctum tonic, diaphoretic, digestive stimulant,
antiparasitic, antibacterial

Vasaka, Vasa Justicia Malabar nut Bronchitis, asthma, jaundice,

adhatoda antispasmodic

Wounds, sore throat, colds, coughs,

Yashti madhu, Glycyrrhiza Licorice root nervous exhaustion, liver, skin
Jethimadh glabra conditions, ulcers, cystitis, chronic
fatigue.
 www.carreograph.com

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