Dela Cruz, Regelle Margarette O.

BSIE 2A DAY

ADVANCED MATHEMATICS FOR IE FINAL EXAMINATION

COMPLEX NUMBERS

The study of mathematics is an ongoing process of growth. For instance, negative

integers occupy the space left by the set of positive numbers. In turn, the set of rational
numbers fills the space left open by the set of integers. A gap left by the set of rational
numbers is filled by the set of real numbers. There are also voids in the set of real
numbers. For example, we still have no solution to equations such as

x 2+ 4=0
Our best estimates might be +2 or –2. However, this equation does not hold true when
we try it with +2. When tested against -2, it fails. We need to go further than we have so
far if we want to find a solution to this problem. After all, we have thus far labeled the
square root of a negative integer as being undefinable. Fortunately, there is another
number system that offers answers to issues like these. We shall examine this number
system and its use in this part.
Any positive real number's square root may be calculated. We may calculate the square
root of a negative integer using a similar method. The distinction is that the root is
unreal. The root is referred to as an imaginary number if the value in the radicand is
negative.
A complex number is the sum of a real number and an imaginary number. Imaginary
numbers are distinguished from real numbers because a squared imaginary number
produces a negative real number. Recall, when a positive real number is squared, the
result is a positive real number and when a negative real number is squared, again, the
result is a positive real number. Complex numbers are a combination of real and
imaginary numbers.
A complex number is a number of the form a+ bi where
 a is the real part of the complex number.
 bi  is the imaginary part of the complex number.
If b=0, then a+ biis a real number. If a=0 and b  is not equal to 0, the complex number is
called an imaginary number. An imaginary number is an even root of a negative
number.

The square root of minus one is called an imaginary number. It is designated by i, in
some circles known as the j operator. To clarify:
j x j = -1
Also:
(-j) x (-j) = -1
And:
(-j) x (+j) = +1

Forms of Complex Numbers

Rectangular form

a+bi

The rectangular form of a complex number is a sum of two terms: the number's real part
and the number's imaginary part multiplied by i.

Polar form

r(cos(θ)+i⋅sin(θ))

Polar form emphasizes the graphical attributes of complex numbers:  absolute value

(the distance of the number from the origin in the complex plane) and angle (the angle
that the number forms with the positive Real axis). These are also
called modulus and argument.

Exponential form

r⋅eiθ

Exponential form uses the same attributes as polar form, absolute value and angle. It
only displays them in a different way that is more compact. 

Trigonometric form

z = a + bi is z = r(cos θ + isin θ),

where r = |a + bi| is the modulus of z, and tan θ = b a . θ is called the argument of z.

Normally, we will require 0 ≤ θ < 2π.
Operations with Complex Numbers

To add two complex numbers , add the real part to the real part and the imaginary part
to the imaginary part.

(a+bi)+(c+di)=(a+c)+(b+d)i

To subtract two complex numbers, subtract the real part from the real part and the
imaginary part from the imaginary part.

(a+bi)−(c+di)=(a−c)+(b−d)i

To multiply two complex numbers, use the FOIL method and combine like terms .

(a+bi)(c+di)=ac+adi+bci+bdi2
=ac+(ad+bc)i−bd   (Remember i2=−1)                                
=(ac−bd)+(ad+bc)i

To divide two complex numbers, multiply the numerator and denominator by the

complex conjugate , expand and simplify.  Then, write the final answer in standard form.

a+bi c−di (ac +bd )+(bc−ad)i

⋅
c +di c−di
=
c 2+ d 2

Conjugate of a Complex Number

The conjugate of a complex number is found in the same way that the conjugate of a number is
found. In order to take the conjugate of a complex number, all that is necessary is to flip the sign
of the imaginary part, which means to multiply the imaginary part by -1. So, if the complex
number is a + bi, then its conjugate is a – bi. The conjugate of a complex number x is written
as ¯¯¯xx¯. The bar represents that the conjugate of that number is taken. If a complex number
is entirely imaginary, say bi, then its conjugate is –bi.

DETERMINANTS AND MATRICES

Definition of a matrix:
Any 2-dimensional array of real or complex numbers.

Square matrix:
A matrix of type  .

Diagonal:
The entries of a square matrix in the i-th line and i-th column (same index i), for some i.

Identity matrix:
A square matrix with 1’s on the diagonal and 0’s off the diagonal.

Zero matrix:
Any matrix (of any type), with only zero entries.

Inverse of a Matrix

Inverse of a matrix is defined usually for square matrices. For every m × n square
matrix, there exists an inverse matrix. If A is the square matrix then A-1 is the inverse of
matrix A and satisfies the property:

AA-1 = A-1A = I, where I is the Identity matrix.

Also, the determinant of the square matrix here should not be equal to zero.

Transpose of Matrix

The transpose of a matrix can be determined by rows for the columns. If A is a matrix,
then the transpose of a matrix is represented by A T.

For example, let us assume a 3×3 matrix, Say A, then the transpose of A, i.e. A T is
given by

In case, if the given square matrix is a symmetric matrix, then the matrix A should be
equal to AT.

It means that A = AT.

Determinant

A Determinant is a unique number that can be ascertained from a square Matrix.

The Determinants of a Matrix say K is represented as det (K) or,  |K| or det K.

The Determinants and its properties are useful as they enable us to obtain the same
outcomes with distinct and simpler configurations of elements. The Determinant is
considered an important function as it satisfies some additional properties of
Determinants that are derived from the following conditions.

Important Properties of Determinants

There are 10 important properties of Determinants that are widely used. These
properties make calculations easier and also are helping in solving various kinds of
problems. The description of each of the 10 important properties of Determinants is
given below.

1. Reflection Property

-The reflection property of Determinants defines that Determinants do not change

if rows are transformed into columns and columns are transformed into rows. 

2. All- Zero Property

-The Determinants will be equivalent to zero if each term of rows and columns
are zero. 

3. Proportionality (Repetition Property)

-If each term of rows or columns is similar to the column of some other row (or
column) then the Determinant is equivalent to zero. 

4. Switching Property

-The interchanging of any two rows (or columns) of the Determinant changes its
signs.

5. Factor Property

-If a Determinant Δ becomes 0 while considering the value of x  = α, then (x -α) is

considered as a factor of Δ.

6. Scalar Multiple Property

-If all the elements of a row (or columns) of a Determinant are multiplied by a
non-zero constant, then the Determinant gets multiplied by a similar constant.
7. Sum

8. Triangle Property

-If each term of a Determinant above or below the main diagonal comprises
zeroes, then the Determinant is equivalent to the product of diagonal terms. That is

9. Determinant of Cofactor Matrix

In the above Determinants of the cofactor Matrix, Cij denotes the cofactor of the
elements aij in Δ.

10. Property of Invariance

It implies that Determinant remains unchanged under an operation of the term

Ci → Ci+αCj+ βCk , where, j and k is not equivalent to i, or a Mathematical operation of
the term Ri → Ri +αRj+ βRk , where, j and k is not equivalent to i.

Laplace Formula for Determinant

The Laplace expansion is a formula that allows us to express the determinant of

a matrix as a linear combination of determinants of smaller matrices, called minors.
The Laplace expansion also allows us to write the inverse of a matrix in terms of its
signed minors, called cofactors. The latter are usually collected in a matrix called adjoint
matrix.
Minors
  Let A  be a K × K matrix (with ≥ 2 ). Denote by A ijthe entry of  A  at the intersection
of the i -th row and  j -th column. The minor of  A ijis the determinant of the sub-matrix

obtained from  A  by deleting its i -th row and its  j -th column.

Cramer’s Rule

Cramer’s rule is one of the important methods applied to solve a system of equations. In
this method, the values of the variables in the system are to be calculated using the
determinants of matrices. Thus, Cramer’s rule is also known as the determinant
method.

Cramer’s Rule Formula

Consider a system of linear equations with n variables x₁, x₂, x₃, …, xₙ written in the
matrix form AX = B.

Here,

A = Coefficient matrix (must be a square matrix)

X = Column matrix with variables

B = Column matrix with the constants (which are on the right side of the equations)

Now, we have to find the determinants as:

D = |A|, Dx1, Dx2, Dx3,…, Dxn

Here, Dxi for i = 1, 2, 3,…, n is the same determinant as D such that the column is
replaced with B.

Thus,

x1 = Dx1/D; x2 = Dx2/D; x3 = Dx3/D; ….; xn = Dxn/D {where D is not equal to 0}

CRAMER’S RULE 2X2

Cramer’s Rule is a method that uses determinants to solve systems of equations that
have the same number of equations as variables.

Consider a system of two linear equations in two variables.

The solution using Cramer’s Rule is given as

If we are solving for x , the x column is replaced with the constant column. If we are
solving for y , the y column is replaced with the constant column.

CRAMER’S RULE 3X3

Finding the determinant of a 2×2 matrix is straightforward, but finding the determinant of
a 3×3 matrix is more complicated. One method is to augment the 3×3 matrix with a
repetition of the first two columns, giving a 3×5 matrix. Then we calculate the sum of the
products of entries down each of the three diagonals (upper left to lower right), and
subtract the products of entries up each of the three diagonals (lower left to upper
right). 

Cramer’s Rule Conditions

There are certain conditions to applying Cramer’s rule for solving the given system of
equations. Some of them include the following:

 Cramer’s rule fails for the system of equations in which D = 0 since for finding the
values of unknowns, D must be in the denominator and hence these values go
undefined.

 Also, when D = 0, there will be two possibilities for which:

The system may have no solution.

The system may have an infinite number of solutions.

From this, we can say that at least one of the numerator determinants is a 0 (that
means infinitely many solutions) or none of the numerator determinants is 0 (that means
no solution)

 If D ≠ 0, we say that the system AX = B has a unique solution.

Thus, Cramer’s rule helps us determine whether the given system has “no solution” or
“infinite number of solutions”, using the determinants we calculate to apply the rule.
GAUSS ELIMINATION METHOD

The process we employ to carry out the three different forms of matrix row operations
on an augmented matrix derived from a linear system of equations in order to locate the
solutions to such a system is known as gaussian elimination. In mathematics, the
Gaussian elimination method is known as the row reduction algorithm for solving linear
equations systems. It consists of a sequence of operations performed on the
corresponding matrix of coefficients. We can also use this method to estimate either of
the following:

 The rank of the given matrix

 The determinant of a square matrix

 The inverse of an invertible matrix

This technique is also called row reduction and it consists of two stages: Forward
elimination and back substitution. These two Gaussian elimination method steps are
differentiated not by the operations you can use through them, but by the result they
produce. The forward elimination step refers to the row reduction needed to simplify the
matrix in question into its echelon form. Such stage has the purpose to demonstrate if
the system of equations portrayed in the matrix have a unique possible solution,
infinitely many solutions or just no solution at all. If found that the system has no
solution, then there is no reason to continue row reducing the matrix through the next
stage.

If is possible to obtain solutions for the variables involved in the linear system, then the
Gaussian elimination with back substitution stage is carried through. This last step will
produce a reduced echelon form of the matrix which in turn provides the general
solution to the system of linear equations.

The Gaussian elimination rules are the same as the rules for the three elementary row
operations, in other words, you can algebraically operate on the rows of a matrix in the
next three ways (or combination of):

Interchanging two rows

Multiplying a row by a constant (any constant which is not zero)

Adding a row to another row

And so, solving a linear system with matrices using Gaussian elimination happens to be
a structured, organized and quite efficient method.

Gauss-Jordan reduction
Gauss-Jordan reduction is an extension of the Gaussian elimination algorithm. It
produces a matrix, called the reduced row echelon form in the following way: after
carrying out Gaussian elimination, continue by changing all nonzero entries above the
leading ones to a zero. The resulting matrix looks something like:

The matrix above gives an idea of what we want. Notice the staircase line drawn
through the matrix has all entries below it equal to zero. The entries marked with
a ∗∗ can take on any value.

Reduced row echelon form. 

A matrix is in reduced row echelon form if
 Every leading entry is a leading one.
 Every entry below and above a leading one is 0.0.
 As you go down the matrix, the leading ones move to the right.
 Any all zero rows are at the bottom.

For completeness, we'll describe Gauss-Jordan reduction algorithm in detail. As with

Gaussian elimination, the columns of the matrix are processed from left to right.
1. Start with the first column. If it has all entries equal to zero, move on to the next
column to the right.
2. If, to the contrary, the column has nonzero entries, interchange rows, if
necessary, to get a nonzero entry on top.
3. Multiply the top row by a constant to change the nonzero entry to a (leading) one.
4. If there are nonzero entries above or below this (leading) one, use an elementary
row operation on each one to change it to a zero.
 5. Now consider the part of the matrix below the top row and to the right of the
column under consideration: if there are no such rows or columns, stop and the
algorithm is finished. Otherwise, carry out the same procedure on the new matrix.

Difference Between Gaussian Elimination And Gauss Jordan Elimination

The difference between Gaussian elimination and the Gaussian Jordan elimination is
that one produces a matrix in row echelon form while the other produces a matrix in row
reduced echelon form. A row echelon form matrix has an upper triangular composition
where any zero rows are at the bottom and leading terms are all to the right of the
leading term from the row above. Reduced echelon form goes beyond by simplifying
much more (sometimes even reaching the shape of an identity matrix).