Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 312–320

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Strength and microstructure properties of spent coffee grounds

stabilized with rice husk ash and slag geopolymers
Cherdsak Suksiripattanapong a,⇑, Teck-Ang Kua b, Arul Arulrajah b, Farshid Maghool b,
Suksun Horpibulsuk c,⇑
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Rajamangala University of Technology Isan, 744 Suranarai Road, Muang District, Nakhon
Ratchasima 30000, Thailand
b
Department of Civil and Construction Engineering, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, VIC 3122, Australia
c
School of Civil Engineering, and Center of Excellence in Innovation for Sustainable Infrastructure Development, Suranaree University of Technology, 111 University Avenue,
Muang District, Nakhon Ratchasima 30000, Thailand

h i g h l i g h t s

 Possibility of using waste materials as recycled pavement construction materials.

 Explained role of curing time on compressive strength of coffee ground geopolymers.
 Long term microstructure development was examined via scanning electron microscope.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper investigates the strength and microstructure properties of spent coffee grounds stabilized
Received 7 January 2017 with rice husk ash and slag geopolymers to produce a green construction subgrade material. Spent coffee
Received in revised form 27 March 2017 grounds (CG) and rice husk ash (RHA) are organic wastes derived from agricultural products. CG is the
Accepted 12 April 2017
residue from ground coffee beans. RHA is a by-product from the burning rice husk used to generate elec-
Available online 21 April 2017
tricity. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (S) is a waste by-product derived from steel production. RHA
and S were used as geopolymeric precursors (P). This study provides an insight on the long-term strength
Keywords:
performance and microstructural formation of geopolymers synthesized from agricultural waste prod-
Strength
Microstructure
ucts. The influence factors studied were liquid alkaline activator content (L), RHA content, S content, tem-
Coffee grounds perature and curing time. By observing the strength development of CG-RHA geopolymers for up to
Rice husk ash 90 days, it was found that elevated temperature curing was needed for these CG:RHA geopolymers to
Slag develop long-term strengths. Test results show that an optimum mix of CG:RHA:S 70:20:10 cured at
Geopolymer 50 °C can achieve an Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) of 2 MPa after 90 days of curing. The out-
come of this research will enable CG, S and RHA waste products to be used as sustainable materials in
pavement applications.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction soil at a site may be too weak to support a structure. Therefore,

Current advancements in civil engineering technology has
enabled rapid global urbanization and the overall improvement
in lifestyles. However, many current construction technologies
and methods rely on extraction of natural and non-renewable
resources such as quarry materials for embankment construction.
An embankment structural fill material is a tested material used
to build a strong and stable road subgrade. However, the in-situ
⇑ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: Cherdsak.su@rmuti.ac.th (C. Suksiripattanapong), suksun@g.
sut.ac.th (S. Horpibulsuk).
the in-situ soil needs improvements to provide the required struc-
tural capacity. Conventional stabilization methods used Lime and
Portland cement. However, the use of Portland cement, a major
component used in contemporary construction, is alarmingly
energy intensive [1] and its manufacture creates a large carbon
footprint [2], which contributes to global warming. As a result,
the concept of sustainable development has been rapidly intro-
duced in the adoption of recycled materials in civil engineering
construction Fig. 2.
Research aimed at reuse of wastes in construction applications
stems from the need to reduce the quarrying of virgin construction
materials such as granite, limestone and rhyollite. The concept

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.04.103
0950-0618/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 C. Suksiripattanapong et al. / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 312–320
Fig. 1. Grain size distribution of CG, RHA and S.
behind reuse of recycled construction materials is to collect the
residue from the demolition of existing infrastructures, such as
buildings and road pavements, and then reprocess or reconstitute
these waste materials to form usable construction materials. Recy-
cled concrete aggregates [3,4], recycled glass [5–12], crushed brick
[13,14], and reclaimed asphalt pavement [15,16] are among the
many construction and demolition materials currently being stud-
ied as green construction materials. The successful utilization of
these materials would not only prove to be highly economical,
because waste materials with no value would be converted to con-
struction materials, but also highly environmental-friendly given
Fig. 2. SEM images of: (a) CG, (b) RHA and (c) S.
313
the minimization in the need for natural resources and landfill
space (see Fig. 1).
Geopolymeric binders are garnering attention in the construc-
tion industry because it possesses similar cementitious properties
to hydrated Portland cement. Geopolymers were originally devel-
oped as a fire retardant, but has since been applied in the construc-
tion industry due to its high compressive strength and virtually
carbon-neutral characteristic compared to Portland cement.
Geopolymers can be synthesized by introducing parent materials
containing high levels of alumino-silicate, termed as precursors,
to a highly-alkaline liquid. The mixture undergoes a process known
as alkaline activation in which the alumino-silicate compounds
break down and form calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) or calcium
aluminosilicate hydrate (CASH) and sodium aluminosilicate
hydrate (NASH) gels [17–19]. Precursors which have been studied
include fly ash, a waste material derived from coal-combustion and
slag, an industrial waste resulting from refining iron ores. Sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) is commonly used as the alkaline activator liq-
uid to produce geopolymers.
While the concept of geopolymerization has existed since the
late 1900s, many geopolymeric materials are highly experimental,
hence many contractors are still not confident in the performance
of geopolymers due to the organic nature of some precursors. Nev-
ertheless, studies have shown that geopolymer-stabilized soils
possesses improved strength and stiffness, which implies that
geopolymerization can be effective as an alternative soil-
stabilization method, hence reducing the reliance towards tradi-
tional stabilizers such as cement and lime. Novel studies have been
undertaken recently to stabilize highly organic wastes, such as
water treatment sludge [20–23], marginal lateritic soil [24,25]
and soft clay [26] to produce geopolymers with considerable
strength. In the future, the geopolymer may be applied to improve
traditional ground improvement methods, such as deep mixing,
314 C. Suksiripattanapong et al. / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 312–320

grouting and jet grouting [27–35] and typical geo-environmental RHA is a by-product from burning rice husk used in the generation of electricity.
Table1 summarizes the chemical composition of RHA using X-ray fluorescence
engineering problems, such as contaminated soil treatment [36–
(XRF). The SiO2 content of RHA was 86.55%. The median particle size of RHA was
38]. 0.073 mm.
Ground granulated blast furnace slag (S) is an industrial by pro- Commercial S was used in this study. Table1 shows the major chemical compo-
duct from the production of iron in a blast furnace composed sition of S using X-ray fluorescence (XRF), which comprises 40% of CaO. The specific
mainly of calcium, silica and alumina. Islam et al. [39] reported gravity of S was 3.2 [57]. The liquid alkaline activator (L) used was NaOH with a
concentration of 8 molars.
that the manufacture of 1 ton of steel produces 340–421 kg of blast
The composition of CG-RHA-S geopolymer sample was CG, precursor (P) (RHA
furnace slag. The use of S as a cement replacement material in and S) and liquid alkaline activator (NaOH). The CG:P ratio was fixed at 70:30
geopolymer concrete furthermore reduces CO2 emissions. because a precursor composition of 30% was previously recommended for
Bakharev et al. [40,41] reported that alkali-activated slag concrete researches on water treatment sludge-fly ash geopolymers [20–23] and lateritic
soil-fly ash geopolymers [24]. The RHA:S ratios were 0:30, 10:20, 20:10 and 30:0.
had lower resistance to carbonation and alkali-aggregate than that
The L/P content was varied from 1.6 to 2.6. The P and L were mixed until an observ-
of Portland cement concrete of similar grade. Air cooled slag can be able consistency in coloration could be observed. The CG was added and mixed for
used as an aggregate in pavements [42], while grinding this mate- 5 min. Compaction was carried out immediately thereafter under modified Proctor
rial into fine particles enables it to be used as a stabilizing agent for energies to prevent liquid evaporation and hardening of the geopolymer. The L/P
soils [43–46]. The usage of alkali-activated binders made from content of 1.6–2.6 was added into the mix to obtain the optimum L content of all
mix proportions according to ASTM D1557-12 [58]. The mixture was then statically
metakaolin and granulated blast furnace slag (S) have been used
compressed in a cylindrical mold of 50 mm in diameter and 100 mm in height.
to protective coating for marine concrete and transportation Compression was performed at the optimum L content with a manual hydraulic
infrastructures [47–49]. Arulrajah et al. [50] studied stabilization jack to attain the maximum unit weight.
of recycled demolition aggregates by geopolymers comprising cal- The Unconfined Compressive strength (UCS) specimens were wrapped in clear
vinyl and then cured at 21 °C and 50 °C for 7, 28, 60 and 90 days. The room temper-
cium carbide residue (CCR), fly ash (FA) and S precursors to ascer-
ature (21 °C) used to study the effect of room temperature on strength development
tain their application in pavement bases/subbases. The in CG-RHA-S samples. The temperature of 50 °C was selected because it represents
construction and demolition samples stabilized with S show a con- extreme summer temperatures (about 50 °C in summer). Scanning electron micro-
siderably higher compressive strength followed by samples stabi- scopy (SEM) was used to observe the physical features of dried and sieved CG par-
lized with CCR and FA. ticles. The CG-RHA-S samples were carefully broken and small fragments were
taken from the center for microstructure test. The CG-RHA-S samples were frozen
The milling of rice in paddy field produces edible rice grains and
at 195 °C by immersion in liquid nitrogen for 5 min and evacuated at a pressure
results in rice husk, generally considered as a waste material. Rice of 0.5 Pa at 40 °C for 5 days [22,23]. All samples were coated with gold before
husk is combustible and is used as a fuel in boilers and power gen- SEM (JOEL JSM-6400) analysis. Particle size distribution analysis was undertaken
erator, due to its high calorific power (approximately 16,720 kJ/kg). on the dried CG in accordance with ASTM D442-63 [59].
The residue of this combustion process is rice husk ash (RHA). RHA
contains a high percentage of silica [51–53], hence is a suitable
3. Results and discussion
precursor for geopolymerization.
Recently, Kua et al. [54] investigated the strength of spent cof-
Table 2 shows summary of the compaction test result of CG-
fee grounds-geopolymer cement utilizing S and FA precursors. An
RHA-S geopolymer at different RHA and S contents. The maximum
analysis done in 2008 reports that the world produces 7.4 million
total unit weight (ctmax) values of samples increased with an
tons of CG annually due to coffee consumption. Production is pro-
increase in S content, due to the specific gravity of S being higher
jected to increase yearly, especially in developing nations, due to
than that of RHA (about 1.5 times). The optimum L/P ratios were
rising worldwide popularity of the beverage [54]. The popularity
2.4, 2.2, 2.0 and 1.8 for RHA contents of 30%, 20%, 10% and 0%
of coffee across the globe led to the conception of a spent coffee
respectively. The CG:S ratio of 70:30 gave the highest ctmax
grounds (CG) geopolymer mix, which, along with FA and S precur-
whereas the lowest ctmax was found at CG:RHA ratio of 70:30.
sors, was used to produce a material which meets the strength
The optimum water content (OWC) of samples increased as the
requirements to be used as a road subgrade material. The optimum
RHA content increased. This increase in OWC was due to RHA,
mixture of sample was reported to be CG:S:FA of 70:30:0, Na2SiO3:
which has high amounts of micro-porosity and pore fluid resulting
NaOH of 70:30 and L of 55%, as it produced a relatively high UCS
in a high water absorption [20,53].
with a relatively low L content.
Fig. 3 shows the 7-day strength of CG-RHA-S geopolymer at var-
The strength and microstructure of CG stabilized with agricul-
ious RHA and S contents and heat temperatures of 21 and 50 °C.
tural precursor have not been investigated to date and it is the
The test result showed that for CG:RHA:S ratio of 70:30:0, the 7-
focus of this research. This paper aims to study the strength and
day UCS of CG-RHA geopolymer decreased as L/P increased. This
microstructure properties of CG stabilized with RHA and S
could be because the excessive NaOH content leached high
geopolymers to produce a green geopolymer binder. This study
amounts of SiO2 from RHA, hindering the reorganization of Si
aims to create a novel methodology to divert CG and RHA, both
and Al [52]. The 7-day UCS of the CG:RHA:S geopolymer increased
which are organic wastes derived from agricultural products, to
the construction industry as recycled construction materials. The
stabilization of CG using RHA is innovative and has not been Table 1
attempted previously. The influence factors studied were liquid Physical properties and chemical composition of CG, RHA and S.
alkaline activator content (L), RHA content, S content, temperature
Chemical composition (%) CG RHA S
and curing time. The outcome of this research will enable CG, S and
SiO2 N.D. 96.03 35.21
RHA, which are all waste products, to be used sustainably in road
Al2O3 N.D. N.D. 13.09
subgrade applications. Fe2O3 3.61 0.13 0.45
CaO 33.99 0.53 43.55
MgO N.D. N.D. 5.93
2. Materials and methods
SO3 N.D. 0.2 0.85
Na2O N.D. N.D. N.D.
CG is an organic waste derived from agricultural products and can be abun-
K2O 43.10 1.67 0.92
dantly found in many countries across the world. CG was collected from a cafe in
TiO2 16.51 N.D. N.D.
Melbourne, Australia. CG was oven-dried at a temperature of 50 °C and the dried
LOI 2.79 1.44 –
CG was passed through a 2 mm sieve to sieve out the contaminants. The physical
D50 (mm) 0.349 0.06 0.021
properties of CG is shown in Table 1. The median particle size [55] and specific grav-
Specific gravity 1.37 2.05 3.2
ity [56] of CG was 0.349 mm and 1.37, respectively [57].
 C. Suksiripattanapong et al. / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 312–320 315

Table 2
Summary of the compaction test result of CG-RHA-S geopolymer.

CG:RHA:S ctmax (kN/m3) L/P cdmax (kN/m3) Water content (%)

DS Opt. WS DS Opt. WS DS Opt. WS DS Opt. WS
70:30:0 10.5 10.9 10.6 2.2 2.4 2.6 7.4 7.6 7.3 42.2 44.4 45.9
70:20:10 11.1 11.6 11.1 2.0 2.2 2.4 7.9 8.1 7.6 39.9 43.5 46.8
70:10:20 11.4 11.9 11.8 1.8 2.0 2.2 8.3 8.4 8.1 38.0 42.0 44.9
70:0:30 12.1 12.6 12.2 1.6 1.8 2.0 9.3 9.5 8.9 30.7 33.0 37.1

DS = Dry side.
Opt. = Optimum.
WS = Wet side.

Fig. 3. The strength of CG -RHA-S with various ingredients and heat temperatures.

with increasing L/P ratios up to an optimum L/P value. The NaOH in 294.2 kPa (DH-S 102/2532) [60]. From Fig. 4, the 7-day UCS of sam-
optimum L/P was significant for leaching SiO2 and Al2O3 from RHA ples at all CG:RHA:S ratios and heat temperature of 21 °C and sam-
and S in order to react with CaO, which formed calcium silicate ple at CG:RHA:S ratio of 70:30:0 and heat temperature of 50 °C
hydrate (CSH) [54] or calcium aluminosilicate hydrate (CASH) gel does not meet the requirement to be subgrade material.
and sodium aluminosilicate hydrate (NASH) gel in geopolymer.
Beyond this optimum value, the 7-day UCS of the CG-RHA-S
geopolymer decreased with increasing L/P values. The maximum
UCS values of CG-RHA-S geopolymer are at optimum L/P ratios of
2.2, 2.0 and 1.8 for CG:RHA:S ratios of 70:20:10, 70:10:20 and
70:0:30. According to the Department of Highways, Thailand, the
strength of stabilized subgrade material should be greater than

Fig. 4. The effect of slag content on 7-day strength of CG-RHA-S at various heat Fig. 5. The strength development in CG-RHA-S with various ingredients and heat
temperatures. temperatures.
316 C. Suksiripattanapong et al. / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 312–320

Fig. 6. SEM images of 7 days cured CG-RHA-S samples with various temperatures and S contents.

The effect of heat temperature on 7-day UCS of the CG-RHA-S
geopolymer at heat temperature of 21 and 50 °C was studied.
The 7-day UCS of the CG-RHA-S geopolymer cured at 50 °C was
higher than that of the CG-RHA-S geopolymer cured at 21 °C,
which could be because the higher heat temperature accelerated
the geopolymerization reaction [20,61]. The 7-day UCS of CG-S
samples mixed with water and cured at 21 °C is shown in Fig. 3
as dash lines for comparison. The 7-day UCSs of CG-RHA-S
geopolymer samples were higher than those of CG-S samples
mixed with water. The higher 7-day UCS is because the NaOH dis-
solves SiO2 and Al2O3 from S for the geopolymerization reaction.
Fig. 4 indicates the effect of slag content on 7-day UCS of CG:
RHA:S geopolymer with different heat temperatures. The 7-day
UCS of GC:RHA:S geopolymer increased from 68.6 kPa to
265.4 kPa and from 220.5 kPa to 407.6 kPa for heat temperatures
of 21 and 50 °C, respectively. It was previously reported that the
compressive strength was improved by adding S, which contains
a large amount of CaO, into the mixture [61]. This is because the
 C. Suksiripattanapong et al. / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 312–320 317

Fig. 7. SEM images of CG-RHA-S samples at different curing times.

presence of CaO improved the strength of the geopolymer by
forming an amorphously structured Ca–Al–Si gel [49]. Beyond
the optimum ratio, the UCS decreased when the S content was
greater than 10% because the excessive S contents prevented the
geopolymer gel binder and the SiO2 was insufficient to react with
the excessive CaO for CSH formation [62]. Therefore, the addition
of S contents beyond the fixation point of 10% is not practical.
The optimum ingredient of the CG-RHA-S geopolymer was CG:
RHA:S of 70:20:10 at optimum L/P.
Fig. 5 shows the UCS development in CG-RHA-S geopolymers at
various heat temperatures. The UCS of CG-RHA-S samples cured at
21 °C was almost constant with varying curing times for all ingre-
dients whereas the UCS of CG-RHA-S samples cured at 50 °C
increased up to 60 days after which the UCS remained constant
with curing time bar the combination of CG:RHA:S of 70:20:10 in
which the UCS increased for up to 90 days, indicating that the heat
temperature (50 °C) of CG-RHA-S samples can stimulate the
geopolymerization reaction, resulting in a dense matrix [20]. The
previous research studies [20–23] also reported that NaOH could
leach SiO and Al2O3 from amorphous material for the geopolymer-
ization reaction.
Fig. 6 shows 3000-magnified SEM images of CG-RHA-S
geopolymers with different S contents, cured at different tempera-
tures for 7 days. Fig. 6(a) shows 70%CG + 30%RHA samples cured at
21 °C and 50 °C. The formation of geopolymeric material could be
observed in both specimens. However, at 21 °C, RHA particles were
found to be intact within the sample, meaning the RHA was not
dissolved completely to form a geopolymeric material under this
318 C. Suksiripattanapong et al. / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 312–320
Fig. 8. SEM of 70CG:10RHA:20S and 70CG:0RHA:30S specimens cured at 50 °C for 60 and 90 days.
curing condition. On the other hand, elevated temperature curing
catalyzed the dissociation of RHA particles to form a consistent
matrix. With the introduction of S in Fig. 6(b)–(d), under the same
curing conditions of 21 °C and 7 days, the development of denser
geopolymeric matrices compared to Fig. 6(a) is observable. Side-
by-side comparisons made with samples cured at 50 °C indicated
that at 21 °C, partially reacted S could still be observed. Also sam-
ples cured at 50 °C developed denser geopolymeric matrices com-
pared to their 21 °C counterparts. This phenomenon is very
obvious in Fig. 6(d), for the 70%CG + 30%S mix, in which the sample
cured at 21 °C exhibited higher porosity compared to a separate
specimen cured at 50 °C.
Fig. 7 shows 1000-magnified SEM images of CG-RHA-S
geopolymers and compares with the mixtures which achieve the
lowest and highest UCS at 90 days respectively: 70CG:30RHA:0S
(21 °C) and 70CG:20RHA:10S (50 °C). Fig. 7(a) shows the surface
of 70CG:30RHA:0S samples with different curing times. RHA parti-
cles could be abundantly found throughout the samples regardless
of curing duration, indicating inefficient alkaline activation. A
geopolymeric matrix could be seen from 60 days onwards which
developed into a denser formation at 90 days, indicating an ongo-
ing but slow geopolymerization process. The geopolymeric mate-
rial was also unable to fully coat the CG particle. On the other
hand, in Fig. 7(b), the strength development of 70CG:20RHA:10S
as shown in Fig. 5 was clearly reflected in the evolution of the
geopolymeric formations captured throughout the designated cur-
ing durations. The amount of voids evidently diminished, and com-
paring the SEM images taken at 7 days and 90 days showed almost
complete reduction of loose RHA and S particles to form a dense
geopolymeric matrix. This highlights the importance of elevated
temperature curing in promoting geopolymerization in CG:RHA
geopolymers by effectively dissociating the RHA particles.
70CG:10RHA:20S and 70CG:0RHA:30S samples showed slight
drops in their UCS values from 60 days to 90 days. However, SEM
images presented in Fig. 8 showed that there were no significant
differences between the geopolymeric matrices of both mixtures
at 60 days and 90 days. As S was the dominant precursor in these
mixtures, it was highly likely that S had fully dissociated hence
any significant reactions cease to occur after 60 days. Therefore
the geopolymers displayed a near constant UCS value from 60 to
90 days.
4. Conclusions
The outcome of this study provides insight on the long-term
strength performance and microstructural formation of geopoly-
mers synthesized from agricultural waste products. The following
conclusions can be drawn:
1. The maximum total unit weight of samples (ctmax) values
increased with increases in the S content, due to the specific
gravity of S being higher than that of RHA (about 1.5 times).
The optimum L/P ratios were 2.4, 2.2, 2.0 and 1.8 for RHA con-
tents of 30%, 20%, 10% and 0%, respectively.
2. The maximum UCS values of CG-RHA-S geopolymer were at
optimum L/P ratios of 2.2, 2.0 and 1.8 for CG:RHA:S ratios of
70:20:10, 70:10:20 and 70:0:30 whereas the maximum UCS
of CG-RHA-S geopolymer at CG:RHA:S ratio of 70:30:0
decreased as the L/P ratio was increased. This can be attributed
to the CG-RHA-S geopolymer being micro-porous and the inter-
action between pore fluids.
3. The UCS of the CG-RHA-S geopolymers cured at 50 °C was
higher than that of the corresponding UCS of the geopolymers
cured at 21 °C. The optimum mixture ratio was determined to
 C. Suksiripattanapong et al. / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 312–320 319

be 70CG:20RHA:10S. RHA geopolymers require a high curing manufactured from water treatment sludge, Constr Build Mater 82 (2015)
20–30.
temperature of 50 °C for optimum geopolymeric reactions to
[21] S. Horpibulsuk, C. Suksiripattanapong, W. Samingthong, R. Rachan, A.
occur. Arulrajah, Durability against wetting-drying cycles of water treatment
4. The comparing the SEM images taken at 7 days and 90 days sludge-fly ash geopolymer and water treatment sludge-cement and silty
showed almost complete reduction of loose RHA and S particles clay-cement systems, J Mater Civ Eng 28 (1) (2015) 04015078.
[22] C. Suksiripattanapong, T. Srijumpa, S. Horpibulsuk, P. Sukmak, A. Arulrajah, Y.J.
to form a dense geopolymeric matrix. This highlights the impor- Du, Compressive strengths of water treatment sludge-fly ash geopolymer at
tance of elevated temperature curing in promoting geopolymer- various compression energies, Lowland Technol Int 17 (3) (2015) 147–156.
ization in CG + RHA geopolymers by effectively dissociating the [23] C. Suksiripattanapong, S. Horpibulsuk, S. Boongrasan, A. Udomchai, A.
Chinkulkijniwat, A. Arulrajah, Unit weight, strength and microstructure of
RHA particles. water treatment sludge-fly ash lightweight cellular geopolymer, Constr Build
Mater 94 (2015) 807–816.
[24] I. Phummiphan, S. Horpibulsuk, P. Sukmak, A. Chinkulkijniwat, A. Arulrajah, S.
L. Shen, Stabilisation of marginal lateritic soil using high calcium fly ash based
geopolymer, Road Mater Pavement Des (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
Acknowledgements
14680629.2015.1132632.
[25] I. Phummiphan, S. Horpibulsuk, T. Phoo-ngernkham, A. Arulrajah, S.L. Shen,
The first author acknowledges the financial support from Raja- Marginal lateritic soil stabilized with calcium carbide residue and fly ash
geopolymers as a sustainable pavement base material, J Mater Civ Eng (2016).
mangala University of Technology Isan. The first and fifth authors
[26] C. Phetchuay, S. Horpibulsuk, A. Arulrajah, C. Suksiripattanapong, A. Udomchai,
are grateful to the Thailand Research Fund under the TRF Senior Strength development in soft marine clay stabilized by fly ash and calcium
Research Scholar program Grant No. RTA5980005, Suranaree carbide residue based geopolymer, Appl Clay Sci 127–128 (2016) 134–142.
University of Technology and the Office of Higher Education Com- [27] G. Modoni, J. Bzòwka, Analysis of foundation reinforced with jet grouting, J
Geotech Geoenviron Eng 138 (12) (2012) 1442–1454.
mission under NRU project of Thailand. [28] G. Modoni, A. Flora, S. Lirer, M. Ochmański, P. Croce, Design of jet grouted
excavation bottom plugs, J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 142 (7) (2016).
[29] J.C. Ni, W.C. Cheng, Shield machine disassembly in grouted soils outside the
References ventilation shaft: a case history in Taipei Rapid Transit System (TRTS), Tunn
Undergr Space Technol 26 (2011) 435–443.
[30] J.C. Ni, W.C. Cheng, Quality control of double fluid jet grouting below
[1] M. Liska, A. Al-Tabbaa, Performance of magnesia cements in pressed masonry
groundwater table: case history, Soils Found 54 (6) (2014) 1039–1053.
units with natural aggregates: production parameters optimisation, Constr
[31] Shen SL, Wang ZF, Cheng WC. Estimation of lateral displacement induced by
Build Mater 22 (2008) 1789–1797.
jet grouting in clayey soils. Geotechnique, ICE; 2017, doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.
[2] C. Pade, M. Guimaraes, The CO2 uptake of concrete in a 100 year perspective,
1680/geot./16-P-159.
Cem Concr Res 37 (2007) 1348–1356.
[32] S.L. Shen, Z.F. Wang, J. Yang, E.C. Ho, Generalized approach for prediction of jet
[3] H. Katkhuda, N. Shatarat, Shear behavior of reinforced concrete beams using
grout column diameter, J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 139 (12) (2013) 2060–2069.
treated recycled concrete aggregate, Constr Build Mater 125 (2016) 63–71.
[33] S.L. Shen, Z.F. Wang, S. Horpibulsuk, Y.H. Kim, Jet-grouting with a newly
[4] J. Andal, M. Shehata, P. Zacarias, Properties of concrete containing recycled
developed technology: the twin-jet method, Eng Geol 152 (1) (2013) 87–95.
concrete aggregate of preserved quality, Constr Build Mater 125 (2016) 842–
[34] S.L. Shen, Z.F. Wang, W.J. Sun, L.B. Wang, S. Horpibulsuk, A field trial of
855.
horizontal jet grouting using the composite-pipe method in the soft deposit of
[5] A. Arulrajah, T.A. Kua, S. Horpibulsuk, C. Phetchuay, C. Suksiripattanapong, Y.J.
Shanghai, Tunnel Underground Space Technol 35 (2013) 142–151.
Du, Strength and microstructure evaluation of recycled glass-fly ash
[35] Z.F. Wang, S.L. Shen, E.C. Ho, Y.H. Kim, Investigation of field installation effects
geopolymer as low-carbon masonry units, Constr Build Mater 114 (2016)
of horizontal Twin-Jet grouting in Shanghai soft soil deposits, Can Geotech J 50
400–406.
(3) (2013) 288–297.
[6] A. Al-Sibahy, R. Edwards, Mechanical and thermal properties of novel
[36] Y.J. Du, N.J. Jiang, S.Y. Liu, F. Jin, D.N. Singh, A. Pulppara, Engineering properties
lightweight concrete mixtures containing recycled glass and metakaolin,
and microstructural characteristics of cement solidified zinc-contaminated
Constr Build Mater 31 (2012) 157–167.
kaolin clay, Can Geotech J 51 (2014) 289–302.
[7] E.E. Ali, S.H. Al-Tersawy, Recycled glass as a partial replacement for fine
[37] Y.J. Du, M.L. Wei, K.R. Reddy, Z.P. Liu, F. Jin, Effect of acid rain pH on leaching
aggregate in self compacting concrete, Constr Build Mater 35 (2012) 785–791.
behavior of cement stabilized lead-contaminated soil, J Hazard Mater 271
[8] A. Arulrajah, M. Ali, M. Disfani, S. Horpibulsuk, Recycled-glass blends in
(2014) 131–140.
pavement base/subbase applications: laboratory and field evaluation, J Mater
[38] Y.J. Du, S. Horpibulsuk, M.L. Wei, C. Suksiripattanapong, L. Martin, Modeling
Civ Eng 26 (7) (2013).
compression behavior of cement treated zinc contaminated clayey soils, Soils
[9] D. Grubb, P. Gallagher, J. Wartman, Y. Liu, M. Carnivale, Laboratory evaluation
Found. 54 (5) (2014) 1018–1026.
of crushed glass-dredged material blends, J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 132 (5)
[39] A. Islam, U.J. Alengaram, M.Z. Jumaat, I.I. Bashar, The development of
(2006) 562–576.
compressive strength of ground granulated blast furnace slag-palm oil fuel
[10] P. Ooi, M. Li, M. Sagario, Y. Song, Shear strength characteristics of recycled
ash-fly ash based geopolymer mortar, Mater Des 56 (2014) 833–841.
glass, Transp Res Rec J Transp Res Board 2059 (2008) 52–62.
[40] T. Bakharev, J.G. Sanjayan, Y.B. Cheng, Resistance of alkali-activated slag
[11] M.A. Imteaz, M.Y. Ali, A. Arulrajah, Possible environmental impacts of recycled
concrete to alkali–aggregate reaction, Cem Concr Res 31 (2001) 331–334.
glass used as a pavement base material, Waste Manage Res 30 (9) (2012) 917–
[41] T. Bakharev, J.G. Sanjayan, Y.B. Cheng, Resistance of alkali-activated slag
921.
concrete to carbonation, Cem Concr Res 31 (2001) 1277–1283.
[12] A. Arulrajah, M. Ali, M. Disfani, J. Piratheepan, M. Bo, Geotechnical
[42] P. Ahmedzade, B. Sengoz, Evaluation of steel slag coarse aggregate in hot mix
performance of recycled glass-waste rock blends in footpath bases, J Mater
asphalt concrete, J Hazard Mater 165 (1–3) (2009) 300–305.
Civ Eng 25 (5) (2012) 653–661.
[43] Y. Yi, M. Liska, A. Al-Tabbaa, Initial investigation into the use of GGBS-MgO in
[13] T. Vieira, A. Alves, J. de Brito, J.R. Correia, R.V. Silva, Durability-related
soil stabilisation. Grouting and deep mixing 2012, Am Soc Civ Eng (2012) 444–
performance of concrete containing fine recycled aggregates from crushed
453.
bricks and sanitary ware, Mater Des 90 (2016) 767–776.
[44] Y.J. Du, Y.L. Bo, F. Jin, C.Y. Liu, Durability of reactive magnesia-activated slag
[14] A. Mohammadinia, A. Arulrajah, S. Horpibulsuk, A. Chinkulkijniwat, Effect of
stabilized low plasticity clay subjected to drying-wetting cycle, Eur J Environ
fly ash on properties of crushed brick and reclaimed asphalt in pavement
Civ Eng 20 (2) (2015) 215–230.
base/subbase applications, J Hazard Mater 321 (2017) 547–556.
[45] Yu BW, Du YJ, Jin F, Liu CY. Multi-scale study of sodium sulfate-soaking
[15] M.L. Hoy, S. Horpibulsuk, A. Arulrajah, Strength development of recycled
durability of low plastic clay stabilized by reactive magnesia-activated ground
asphalt pavement – fly ash geopolymer as a road construction material, Constr
granulated blast-furnace slag. ASCE J Mater Civ Eng; 2016.
Build Mater 117 (2016) 209–219.
[46] Y.J. Du, B.W. Yu, K. Liu, N.J. Jiang, Physical, hydraulic, and mechanical
[16] M.L. Hoy, S. Horpibulsuk, R. Rachan, A. Chinkulkijniwat, A. Arulrajah, Recycled
properties of clayey soil stabilized by lightweight alkali-activated slag
asphalt pavement – fly ash geopolymers as a sustainable pavement base
geopolymer, ASCE J Mater Civ Eng 29 (2) (2017).
material: strength and toxic leaching investigations, Sci Total Environ 573
[47] Z. Zhang, X. Yao, H. Wang, Potential application of geopolymers as protection
(2016) 19–26.
coatings for marine concrete III. Field experiment, Appl Clay Sci 67–68 (2012)
´ nez-Ramı́rez, S. Alonso, T. Vázquez, Alkali-activated fly ash/
[17] F. Puertas, S. Martı
57–60.
slag cements: Strength behaviour and hydration products, Cem Concr Res 30
[48] Z. Zhang, X. Yao, H. Zhu, Potential application of geopolymers as protection
(10) (2000) 1625–1632.
coatings for marine concrete: I. Basic properties, Appl Clay Sci 49 (1–2) (2010)
[18] A.M. Rashad, Properties of alkali-activated fly ash concrete blended with slag,
1–6.
Iran J Mater Sci Eng 10 (1) (2013) 57–64.
[49] Z. Zhang, X. Yao, H. Zhu, Potential application of geopolymers as protection
[19] I. Ismail, S.A. Bernal, J.L. Provis, R. San Nicolas, S. Hamdan, J.S.J. van Deventer,
coatings for marine concrete: II. Microstructure and anticorrosion mechanism,
Modification of phase evolution in alkali-activated blast furnace slag by the
Appl Clay Sci 49 (1–2) (2010) 7–12.
incorporation of fly ash, Cem Concr Compos 45 (2014) 125–135.
[50] A. Arulrajah, A. Mohammadinia, I. Phummiphan, S. Horpibulsuk, W.
[20] C. Suksiripattanapong, S. Horpibulsuk, P. Chanprasert, P. Sukmak, A. Arulrajah,
Samingthong, Stabilization of recycled demolition aggregates by
Compressive strength development in geopolymer masonsy units
320 C. Suksiripattanapong et al. / Construction and Building Materials 146 (2017) 312–320
geopolymers comprising calcium carbide residue, fly Ash and slag precursors,
Constr Build Mater 114 (2016) 864–873.
[51] N. Billong, U.C. Melo, E. Kamseu, J.M. Kinuthia, D. Njopwouo,
Improvinghydraulic properties of limeerice husk ash (RHA) binders with
metakaolin(MK), Constr Build Mater 25 (2011) 2157–2161.
[52] L.A.T. Bui, C.l. Hwang, C.T. Chen, K.L. Lin, M.Y. Hsieh, Manufacture and
performance of cold bonded lightweight aggregate using alkaline activators
for high performance concrete, Constr Build Mater 35 (2012) 1056–1062.
[53] S.M.S. Kazmi, S. Abbas, M.A. Saleem, M.J. Munir, A. Khitab, Manufacturing of
sustainable clay bricks: utilization of waste sugarcane bagasse and rice husk
ashes, Constr Build Mater 120 (2016) 29–41.
[54] T.-A. Kua, A. Arulrajah, S. Horpibulsuk, Y.-J. Duc, S.-L. Shen, Strength
assessment of spent coffee grounds-geopolymer cement utilizing slag and
fly ash precursors, Constr Build Mater 115 (2016) 565–575.
[55] AS, 1996. Methods for Sampling and Testing Aggregates Method 11: Particle
Size Distribution by Sieving, Australian Standards AS-1141.11. Standards
Australia, NSW, Australia.
[56] AS 2000. Particle Density and Water Absorption of Fine Aggregate. Australian
Standard 1141.5. Australian Standard, Sydney, Australia.
[57] T-A. Kua, A. Arulrajah, S. Horpibulsuk, Y.-J. Duc, C. Suksiripattanapong,
Engineering and environmental evaluation of spent coffee grounds stabilized
with industrial by-products as a road subgrade material, Clean Technol
Environ Policy (2016) 1–13.
[58] ASTM, D1557-12: Standard Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction
Characteristics of Soil Using Modified Effort, ASTM International, West
Conshohocken, PA, USA; 2012.
[59] ASTM, D442-63: Standard Test Method for Particle-size Analysis of Soils. West
Conshohocken (PA, USA): ASTM International; 2007.
[60] C. Teerawattanasuk, P. Voottipruex, S. Horpibulsuk, Mix design charts for
lightweight cellular cemented Bangkok clay, Appl Clay Sci 104 (2015) 318–
323.
[61] S. Kumar, R. Kumar, S.P. Mehrotra, Influence of granulated blast furnace slag on
the reaction, structure and properties of fly ash based geopolymer, J Mater Sci
45 (3) (2010) 607–615.
[62] T. Phoo-ngernkham, V. Sata, S. Hanjitsuwan, C. Ridtirud, S. Hatanaka, P.
Chindaprasirt, High calcium fly ash geopolymer mortar containing Portland
cement for use as repair material, Constr Build Mater 98 (2015) 482–488.