Heaters & Furnace

EQUIPMENT
HEATERS AND FURNACES
TRAINING MANUAL
COURSE EXP-PR-EQ110
Revision 0.2
Exploration and Production
Équipement
Heaters and Furnaces
EQUIPMENT
HEATERS AND FURNACES
CONTENT
1. OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................5
2. PURPOSE OF HEATERS ...............................................................................................6
2.1. REBOILERS..............................................................................................................6
2.2. FIRED HEATERS......................................................................................................7
2.2.1. Direct fired heaters .............................................................................................8
2.2.2. Indirect fired heaters ...........................................................................................9
3. DIFFERENT TYPES ......................................................................................................11
3.1. REBOILERS............................................................................................................11
3.1.1. Kettle-type reboiler............................................................................................11
3.1.2. Thermosiphon reboiler......................................................................................12
3.1.3. Assisted thermosiphon reboiler.........................................................................12
3.1.4. Stab-in reboiler .................................................................................................13
3.1.5. Forced circulation reboiler by pump..................................................................13
3.1.6. Direct fired heater reboiler ................................................................................14
3.2. FIRED HEATERS....................................................................................................14
3.2.1. Direct Fired Heaters..........................................................................................14
3.2.1.1. Vertical cylindrical furnaces:.......................................................................15
3.2.1.2. Vertical tube "box" furnaces .......................................................................17
3.2.1.3. Horizontal tube "cabin" furnaces ................................................................18
3.2.1.4. Radiant wall furnaces .................................................................................20
3.2.1.5. Double-fired furnaces .................................................................................21
3.2.2. Indirect Fired Heater .........................................................................................22
3.3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES................................................................24
4. DATA AND REPRESENTATION...................................................................................25
4.1. REPRESENTATION ...............................................................................................25
4.1.1. PFD ..................................................................................................................25
4.1.2. PID....................................................................................................................25
4.2. EXAMPLES .............................................................................................................26
4.2.1. Typical process data sheet for a heat exchanger .............................................26
5. FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION ......................................................................................27
5.1. PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TRANSFER ......................................................................27
5.1.1. General.............................................................................................................27
5.1.2. Modes of heat transfer......................................................................................27
5.1.2.1. Conduction .................................................................................................27
5.1.2.2. Convection .................................................................................................28
5.1.2.3. Radiation ....................................................................................................28
5.2. REBOILERS............................................................................................................29
5.2.1. Process Flow ....................................................................................................29
5.2.2. Kettle reboiler....................................................................................................29
5.2.3. Thermal siphon reboiler ....................................................................................31
Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ110-EN

Last Revision: 08/06/2007 Page 2 of 86
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5.2.4. Assisted thermal siphon reboiler.......................................................................32

5.2.5. Stab-in reboiler .................................................................................................32
5.2.6. Forced circulation reboiler ................................................................................32
5.2.7. Direct fired heater reboiler ................................................................................33
5.2.8. Indirect fired heater reboiler ..............................................................................33
5.3. DIRECT FIRED HEATERS .....................................................................................34
5.3.1. Rectangular furnace .........................................................................................34
5.3.2. Cylindrical furnace ............................................................................................35
5.3.3. Singe and multi-pass flow .................................................................................35
6. FURNACE COMPONENTS...........................................................................................37
6.1. INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................37
6.2. FURNACE TUBES ..................................................................................................39
6.3. DRAFT SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................40
6.3.1. Natural draft ......................................................................................................41
6.3.2. Forced Draft......................................................................................................41
6.3.3. Induced Draft ....................................................................................................41
6.3.4. Balanced Draft ..................................................................................................41
6.4. AIR PREHEATERS .................................................................................................42
6.4.1. Heat medium preheater ....................................................................................42
6.4.2. Process fluid preheater.....................................................................................42
6.4.2. Process fluid preheater.....................................................................................43
6.5. BURNERS...............................................................................................................43
6.6. HEAT INDICATORS................................................................................................46
7. HEATER APPLICATIONS .............................................................................................48
7.1. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS REBOILERS.................................................................48
7.1.1. Condensate stabilisation...................................................................................48
7.1.2. Gas sweetening ................................................................................................50
7.2. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS DIRECT FIRED HEATERS ..........................................53
7.3. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS INDIRECT FIRED HEATERS.......................................53
8. OPERATING PARAMETERS ........................................................................................54
8.1. DIRECT FIRED HEATERS .....................................................................................54
8.1.1. Operation ..........................................................................................................54
8.1.2. Operating Variables ..........................................................................................55
8.1.2.1. Excess oxygen ...........................................................................................55
8.1.2.2. Draft ...........................................................................................................57
8.1.2.3. Product outlet temperature.........................................................................59
8.1.2.4. Stack Temperature.....................................................................................59
8.1.3. Fuel and Flow Variables ...................................................................................59
8.1.3.1. Process flow rates......................................................................................59
8.1.3.2. Fuel flow.....................................................................................................60
8.1.3.3. Header boxes.............................................................................................61
8.1.3.4. Pilots ..........................................................................................................61
8.1.3.5. Burners and flame patterns ........................................................................61
8.2. INDIRECT FIRED HEATERS..................................................................................63
8.2.1. Inspection and cleaning ....................................................................................63
8.2.2. Corrosion control ..............................................................................................63
8.2.3. Temperature control .........................................................................................63
9. OPERATION..................................................................................................................64

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9.1. REBOILER START-UP ...........................................................................................64

9.2. DIRECT FIRED HEATERS START-UP ..................................................................65
9.2.1.1. Checking burners .......................................................................................66
9.2.1.2. Purging a Natural Draft Furnace ................................................................67
9.2.1.3. Removing Blinds ........................................................................................68
9.2.1.4. Lighting burners .........................................................................................69
9.2.2. Furnace operation.............................................................................................71
9.2.2.1. Normal operation........................................................................................71
9.2.2.2. Emergency operation .................................................................................71
9.2.3. Furnace shutdown ............................................................................................73
9.2.3.1. Normal shutdown .......................................................................................73
9.2.3.2. Emergency shutdown.................................................................................74
9.3. INDIRECT FIRED HEATERS START-UP...............................................................75
9.4. SUMMARY OF HIGH RISK SCENARIOS...............................................................76
10. TROUBLESHOOTING.................................................................................................77
10.1. DIRECT FIRED HEATERS ...................................................................................77
10.1.1. Flame impingement and hot spots..................................................................77
10.1.1.1. Flame Impingement .................................................................................77
10.1.1.2. Hot Spots .................................................................................................78
10.1.2. Coking and decoking ......................................................................................78
10.1.3. Sootblowing ....................................................................................................79
10.1.4. Equipment Failure...........................................................................................80
10.1.4.1. Burner failure............................................................................................80
10.1.4.2. Flame out .................................................................................................80
10.2. INDIRECT FIRED HEATERS................................................................................82
11. GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................83
12. LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................84
13. LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................86

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1. OBJECTIVES
The aim of this module is to provide a better understanding of Heaters:
the purpose of heaters
their different types
the advantages and disadvantages of different types
their representations
their functions
their applications
their operating parameters
their normal operation and
their troubleshooting methods
Although there are several other types of heaters used in the oil and gas industry, only the
following Heaters will be discussed in this module:
Reboilers
Direct fired heaters
Indirect fired heaters
Any of the above mentioned heater types can be used as a reboiler.

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2. PURPOSE OF HEATERS
2.1. REBOILERS
The principal purpose of reboilers, which are special types of heat exchangers, is simply to
affect an exchange of heat between a hot fluid and a cold fluid which are separated by a
surface. In most instances the heat exchange in a reboiler takes place by conduction and
convection. The main characteristic of the reboiler is that it is used to vaporise the cold
fluid (often partially), hence its name.
A reboiler is a heat exchanger connected to the lower part of fractionating or distillation

towers to supply the required stripping vapours. It is the "heat engine" part of the process
providing the required energy to separate the overhead from the bottoms.
The reboiler receives the liquids from the bottom

tray and most often the bottom of the column
and after boiling, the vapours return back to the
tower by difference in density. The reboiler
serves as another tray with the liquid to the
reboiler being divided into bottom and vapours.
Most reboilers are shell-and-tube heat

exchangers. T
he Kettle is a particular type of tube and shell

heat exchanger.
Figure 1: Typical kettle-type reboiler
The glycol and amine regenerator reboiler supplies the necessary heat to strip the H2S or
CO2 from the rich amine, using steam as the heating medium, or the absorbed water
moisture from the glycol solution, using steam, hot oil, heat carrying fluid, electricity or fuel
gas as the heating medium (fuel).

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2.2. FIRED HEATERS
Fired heaters are often used in oil and gas production and there are many applications
such as heating gas and oil, glycol regeneration, reboilers, steam generation etc.
The heat is produced in a "Flame tube".
It is a tube made from rolled welded plate, assembled in the form of hairpin (U). One end is
equipped with the burner, the other the chimney.
The fuel most frequently used is gas since it is often available from production. The gas
burners are generally simple and use natural draft.
They can be equipped with an air suction flame trap. In this case, electric ignition is used
(coil, magneto, piezoelectric).
Some heaters are classified as "H2S service". In this case, the flame tube allows
combustion of the gas containing H2S.
Temperature control is generally provided by a thermostatic valve regulating the gas flow,
operated by expansion of a liquid enclosed in a bulb. A pilot flame ensures that the flame
remains lit permanently.
Modern heaters are equipped with "flame safety" devices designed to switch off the main
fuel-gas supply if the flame goes out. Several principles are used: optical observation cells,
bimetallic probe powering a solenoid, differential expansion probe.
Fuel burners are far less popular, due to their operating cost, their complexity and the
need for an electricity supply.
Heaters represent a potential hazard on an installation. This is their major disadvantage.
Two types of fired heaters are used in the field:
Direct fired heaters
Indirect fired heaters

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2.2.1. Direct fired heaters
A direct fired heater is an enclosure in which energy in a non-thermal form is converted to

heat (fuel-gas is burnt), especially such an enclosure in which heat is generated by the
combustion of a suitable fuel.
Direct fired process heaters provide heat energy directly to an industrial process without
the use of steam or a heat exchanger.
In these devices, the flame tube is immersed in the product. These are the simplest and
cheapest.
Figure 2: Direct fired heater
The flame tube is subjected directly to the corrosive action of the hydrated and often saline
product. In addition the skin temperature of the tube is high, favouring oil distillation at the
hot spots.
This results in a concentration of heavy products and, due to a combination of several

phenomena, a vicious circle starts leading to the formation of coke. As the exchanges
decrease, the tube temperature increases; it becomes red hot, malleable and deforms
under the pressure.
Obviously, any leak from the flame tube due to corrosion or bursting under stress,
represents a serious accident.

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Figure 3: Vertical cylindrical furnaces
2.2.2. Indirect fired heaters
The hazards described below explain the preference for indirect heaters. These are "fluid
baths" using an intermediate fluid. The flame tube is inside the bath which protects it and
which, in addition, removes the possibility of any serious hazard in the event of a leak .
Figure 4: Indirect fired heaters
The product to be heated flows in a coil immersed in the intermediate fluid.
The intermediate fluid is generally water. In this case, the maximum practical bath
temperature is 90 °C.
In practice, the product temperature is limited to 70 °C.

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When higher processing temperatures are required, low pressure steam heaters can be
used (e.g. 115 °C with steam at 1 bar).
"Salt bath" or "molten salt" heaters also exist. We are unaware of any applications using
these devices in production.
Figure 5: Indirect fired heater

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3. DIFFERENT TYPES
3.1. REBOILERS
3.1.1. Kettle-type reboiler
The kettle reboiler consists usually of a horizontal U-bundle placed at the bottom of an
oversized shell. The space above the baffle liquid level is used to disengage the vapour
from the splash and spray above the bundle. The liquid returns to the bundle in the
eccentric annular space between the shell and the tube bundle.
The heating medium flows through the tubes while the process liquids pass around the
external surface issuing into the vapour release space above the tube bundle. Excess
liquids that are not vaporized overflow from a weir plate and pass to storage or another
process.
One or more vapour nozzles are used to

remove the vapours.
Figure 6: Kettle reboiler details
They may require pumping of the column

bottoms liquid into the kettle, or there may
be sufficient liquid head to deliver the liquid
into the reboiler.
Traditional
configuration with
liquid entering from the
bottom and level
control by weir. In
blue: cold fluid which
evaporates, in red: hot
heat carrier fluid.
Figure 7: Kettle-type reboiler

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3.1.2. Thermosiphon reboiler
When steam is supplied to the unit, the generated vapours are mixed with the liquid and
the resulting column of fluid becomes lighter.
Figure 8: Thermosiphon reboiler
Since the corresponding column

of liquids in the bottom of the
fractionator is heavier, the hot
fluid rises and returns to the
tower supplying the heat
required. Convection currents
create this natural circulation.
3.1.3. Assisted thermosiphon reboiler
The assisted thermal siphon reboiler receives all the flow from the bottom tray of the tower.
The flow through the reboiler is produced by the difference in the static head of the liquid
to the reboiler and the head of the liquid vapour mixture in the tower.
Figure 9: Assisted thermosiphon

reboiler

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3.1.4. Stab-in reboiler
The stab-in reboiler is made of a U-tube

bundle inserted into the side of a column. It
acts the same as the Kettle reboiler but
doesn’t have its shell and connecting piping.
Figure 10: Stab-in reboiler with steam

generator
3.1.5. Forced circulation reboiler by pump
A forced circulation reboiler can be either a vertical or horizontal exchanger and can be of
multi-pass construction. Very little vaporization occurs in these tubes especially before the
last pass.
Figure 11: Forced circulation

reboiler

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3.1.6. Direct fired heater reboiler
Fuel-fired direct fired heaters

or furnaces are generally used
as bottoms reboilers on
stabilization towers.
Figure 12: Direct fired heater

reboiler
3.2. FIRED HEATERS
3.2.1. Direct Fired Heaters
A direct fired heater consists of the following:
A combustion chamber lined with refractory and burners
Tubes which are located within the combustion chamber and where heat is
transferred to the process fluid by radiation
Tubes which are located external to the combustion chamber in a convection

zone which is also lined with refractory
Stack for dispersal by fan or induced draft
Instruments and controls

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The choice of furnace type depends mainly on the following factors:
Type of fluid heated and operating conditions (flow rate, temperature, pressure);
Drainability of the tubular bundles;
Presence or not of catalysts in the tubes;
Fuel;
Size;
Ease of construction or transport;
Cost for a given application.
Numerous tube arrangements are possible in the radiation and convection zones, and
from one zone to another. Consequently, there are numerous types of furnace.
We can nevertheless identify the following categories:
3.2.1.1. Vertical cylindrical furnaces:
The radiation zone consists of a cylinder with its axis

vertical. The burners are positioned on the hearth at
the bottom of the cylinder.
Figure 13: Vertical cylindrical furnace

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Figure 14: Vertical cylindrical furnaces
Cylindrical furnaces are commonly used as bottoms reboilers for crude oil stabilization
columns.

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3.2.1.2. Vertical tube "box" furnaces
The overall shape of the radiation zone in these furnaces is parallelepipedic. The burners
are located on the hearth, the exchange surface covers the lateral vertical walls.
Figure 15: Vertical tube "box" furnaces

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3.2.1.3. Horizontal tube "cabin" furnaces
The overall shape of the radiation zone in these furnaces is parallelepipedic, with the
longest side horizontal. The tubes are placed horizontally along the longest side walls.
Figure 16: Horizontal tube "cabin" furnaces

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Figure 17: Horizontal tube cabin furnace

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3.2.1.4. Radiant wall furnaces
The exchange surface is placed in the central plane of the combustion chamber. The
burners are distributed on the longitudinal side walls.
Figure 18: Radiant wall furnaces

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3.2.1.5. Double-fired furnaces
In these furnaces, the plane of the tubes forming the exchange surface is in the centre
plane of the rows of burners.
Figure 19: Double-fired furnaces

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3.2.2. Indirect Fired Heater
Figure 20: Principle of the indirect fired heater
The basic principle of the indirect fired heater is to circulate water at low temperature
(secondary) in tubes fitted inside the heat exchanger.
These tubes are immersed in the primary boiler water contained in a closed system. The
primary boiler water is heated in the furnace, thereby raising the temperature of the
secondary water by heat transfer. The colder secondary water does not come into contact
with the high furnace temperatures.
These eliminates the gas condensation possibilities. External corrosion of the Boiler
Structure and the tubes is virtually eliminated.
The furnace remains at a stable uniform temperature, resulting in high combustion

efficiency and lower fuel consumption. Compared with a direct system, this principle is
more efficient and extends the lifetime of the heating system.

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Indirect fired heaters using a salt bath are used as

bottoms reboilers. They can also be used as glycol
regenerators in gas dehydration units.
Figure 21: Indirect fired heater reboiler

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3.3. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Type Advantage Disadvantage
All the dirt collects in the reboiler and

Insensitive to hydro-dynamics,
non-volatiles accumulate, unless an
therefore reliable; high heat
adequate draw-off is maintained; shell
fluxes are possible; can operate
Kettle side is difficult to clean; difficult to
at low differential temperatures;
Reboiler determine the degree of mixing and,
can handle high vaporization up
thus, determine the correct differential
to 80 %; simple piping;
temperatures for wide boiling range
unlimited area.
liquids; the oversize shell is expensive.
Horizontal Higher circulation rate can give

Fouling on shell side, baffling and tube
and vertical a better differential temperature
supports may create vapour blankets
Thermal than a kettle reboiler; column
and localized dry-out, multiple nozzles
Siphon skirt height is less than for a
and complicated piping is required.
Reboiler vertical thermo-siphon reboiler.
There are fewer hydraulic Limited amount of surface area that can
problems as improper locations be installed. Require a large flange and
Stab-in and improper sizing of the feed internal supports; tubes are short hence
Reboiler and vapour lines in a kettle a costly bundle, and the column must be
reboiler can cause operating shut down in order to clean as no
problems. alternate operation is possible.
High velocity and no

vaporization reduces fouling;
high heat transfer rates; can be
Forced used for very low absolute
The cost of pumps and power for their
Circulation pressures as hydrostatic head
operation.
Reboiler effects on boiling points is
avoided; mandatory for viscous
bottoms; can use standard
exchangers; piping is smaller.
Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of different types of heaters

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4. DATA AND REPRESENTATION
4.1. REPRESENTATION
This chapter describes how a heater is represented in the main documents available to the
user.
4.1.1. PFD
PFD stands for Process Flow Diagram: this document, produced during the project phase,
presents the main process lines and capacities together with their main operating
parameters in a simplified format.
4.1.2. PID
Piping & Instrumentation Diagram (PID): this document, produced during the project
phase, shows in a much more complex format than the PFD all lines and process
capacities and all their operating parameters.

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4.2. EXAMPLES
4.2.1. Typical process data sheet for a heat exchanger
The following is given as example an approximate sizing calculation for a propane

condenser for which the process information is given on the data sheet (for ref only as not
directly related to boilers).
Figure 22: 4.2.1. Typical process data sheet for a heat exchanger

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5. FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION
5.1. PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TRANSFER
5.1.1. General
Heat transfer is a one-way process which involves the transfer of energy from a fluid at a
high temperature level to another fluid which is at a lower temperature level.
This difference in temperature between the two fluids is the fundamental driving force
behind the energy transfer. No heat is transferred if there is no temperature difference.
The amount of energy transferred depends on the energy levels which exist in the hot fluid
before and after the heat transfer. The energy level in a fluid is a function of its
temperature and pressure and is called enthalpy. Every fluid is different and there are
tables and Mollier diagrams which allow the enthalpy of a fluid to be found.
5.1.2. Modes of heat transfer
Heat is transferred by conduction, convection and radiation. The importance of each mode
varies and normally in the oil and gas industry the radiation component is neglected
(except in furnaces and flare design).
5.1.2.1. Conduction
Heat is transferred by conduction in a still fluid or solid at a molecular level. Those

molecules with a higher energy level because they are hotter lose some of their energy to
their neighbours. The rate at which heat is transferred depends on the temperature
difference between the hot and cold sides and on the thermal conductivity (k) of the
substance.
Every substance has a difference conductivity which changes slightly according to the
temperature. If we want to transfer heat, use a material with a high thermal conductivity.
Conversely if it is required to prevent heat loss, use a material with a low thermal
conductivity.
The equation used to determine the heat transferred by conduction is:
T1 − T2
Q = k A( )
x

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Thus one can see that the most important variables are the temperature difference and
area. Once the material has been selected the thermal conductivity can be found from
tables and the thickness is matter of mechanical design.
5.1.2.2. Convection
Convection is the term used to denote the transfer of heat from a surface to a moving fluid,
or the reverse. In this case the heat and the fluid are both moving in the same direction.
Natural convection happens in a still fluid because that part of the fluid in contact with the
hot surface becomes less dense and due to gravity drifts away taking the heat with it.
If we want to increase the heat removal rate then we must do some work to move the fluid
away from the hot surface a lot faster so that it can be replaced by colder material. This is
forced convection and is the dominant mode of convective heat transfer. When fluid is
flowing past a still surface it is not all moving at the same velocity. At the surface itself
there is zero velocity but further away the velocity rapidly increases. At the surface the
energy is transferred by random molecular motion (diffusion) but the bulk motion of the
fluid takes over and transfers the heat and the fluid in discrete parcels towards the region
of lower temperature.
All the properties of the fluid have a part to play. Density, viscosity, thermal conductivity
are used to calculate the value of the convection heat transfer coefficient h used in the
basic rate equation:
Q = h A (TS − T2 )
When there is a phase change at the surface such as boiling or condensation, the latent
heat becomes important and allows a much higher rate transfer of heat.
5.1.2.3. Radiation
At high temperatures, radiation becomes the dominant method of transferring energy.

Unlike conduction and convection which require a substance to transfer energy, radiation
occurs without the need for material between the source and the receiver, indeed it is
more efficient in a vacuum.
All bodies emit radiation according to their temperature but the net transfer of energy is
always from the hotter surface to the colder surface.
Radiation is the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves and the surface emitting the
radiation cools down as a result unless the energy is replaced. The inside of a boiler
furnace radiates heat to the tubes around the walls. Heat is supplied by burning fuel. The
temperature inside the furnace is about 2000 °C.

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At lower temperatures, the amount of heat transferred by radiation becomes low and is not
important in the design and operation of heat exchange equipment.
The basic equation used to calculate heat transfer by radiation is:
Q = A ε σ (TS4 − TSur
4
)
5.2. REBOILERS
5.2.1. Process Flow
In any stabilisation, rectifying or regeneration column using a reboiler, the liquid is stripped
of the light ends as it flows downwards to the bottom of the tower. It overflows from the
bottom tray and runs into a seal chamber in the enlarged lower section of the tower. This
section is the reservoir for either a thermo-siphon reboiler or the reboiler circulating pump.
In the reboiler the bottoms fluid is physically separated from the heating medium by the
thickness of a metal tube. The required surface heating area is attained by grouping
together a large number of tubes called a tube bundle, which is located inside the reboiler
shell.
In the reboiler, part of the liquid is vaporized. The vapour-liquid mixture from the reboiler
returns to the column above the seal chamber in the bottom of the tower. The reboiled
liquid falls into the seal chamber while the ascending vapour is mixed with the descending
feed in the tower.
The flow of fluids inside the reboiler, varies according to requirements and can be single or
multi-pass on either tube or shell side.
Shell and tube exchangers can be used for

high temperatures and pressures provided
appropriate materials and exchanger types
are selected.
5.2.2. Kettle reboiler
The reboiler, also commonly called the

"kettle", is a heat exchanger connected to the
bottom of the regenerator; its purpose is to
heat the solution by means of steam
condensing inside its tube bundles.
Figure 23: Kettle-type reboiler

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The heated solution then gives off the vapours essential to the stripping process in the
regenerator. The tubes can be designed on a V-shaped principle or may be straight tubes
expanded in two floating tube sheets.
The kettle-type reboiler is

perhaps the most predominant,
providing flexibility and ease of
control. It has a large liquid
volume in the bottom and is
easily accessible for
maintenance.
Figure 24: Typical arrangement

for using a kettle-type reboiler
This type of reboiler depends on gravity for circulation of the liquid through the unit.
In the kettle-type reboiler, steam flows through the tube bundle and exits as condensate.
The liquid from the bottom of the tower, commonly called the bottoms, flows through the
shell side.
There is a retaining wall or

overflow weir separating the tube
bundle from the reboiler section
where the residual reboiled liquid
(called the bottoms product) is
withdrawn, so that the tube bundle
is kept covered with liquid.
Figure 25: Column with bubble

trays
The liquid level over the bundle is

controlled by means of a baffle.
Excess liquid (bottoms or blow-down) overflows the baffle into the end section, where the
level is controlled by means of a level controller.
The level control on the reboiler serves to control the tower bottoms level. The reboiler
also serves as another stage of fractionation for the bottom product.

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Figure 26: Typical kettle reboiler on amine system
5.2.3. Thermal siphon reboiler
Thermosiphon reboilers are installed at an elevation a little lower than that of the stripper.
This ensures that the level in the bottom of the stripper is always above the top of the
tubes in the reboiler.
The steam heat supplied in the reboilers off a portion of the incoming solution from the
downcomers and the hot mixture, being lighter, is returned to the lower section of the
regenerator.
A control valve is usually installed in the steam condensate line to control the required heat
input to the still. Steam flooding of the reboiler should be avoided at all times as it may
result in severe corrosion over a period of time.
The thermal siphon reboiler does

not require pumping of the column
bottoms liquid into the reboiler
Natural circulation is obtained by
using the density difference
between the reboiler inlet column
bottoms liquid and the reboiler
outlet liquid-vapour mixture to
provide sufficient liquid head to
deliver the tower bottoms into the
reboiler.
Figure 27: Horizontal thermo-

siphon reboiler
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Fluid flows from high to low pressure.

Therefore, a thermal siphon flow is
produced.
The bottom product enters the reboiler by

gravity. The addition of heat causes some
of the liquid in the reboiler to vaporize and
the remaining heated liquid expands.
Figure 28: Operation of a horizontal

thermo-siphon reboiler
The mixture of vapour and hot liquid in the reboiler has a much lower relative density than
the bottom liquid and a thermal siphon flow is produced.
The vertical thermosiphon reboiler works on the same principles as the horizontal. The
location of the unit, however, is not as important as a stable liquid level of up to midpoint of
the vertical tubes can be tolerated.
5.2.4. Assisted thermal siphon reboiler
Also in this reboiler the driving force for circulation is established by the density difference
between the liquid in the column and the two-phase mixture in the reboiler exit piping. The
only difference between the siphon reboiler and the assisted siphon reboiler is that the
bottoms liquid originates from the last tray in the tower.
5.2.5. Stab-in reboiler
It consists of a U-tube bundle inserted into the side of a column. It acts the same as the
Kettle reboiler but doesn’t have the shell and connecting piping.
5.2.6. Forced circulation reboiler
This type of reboiler uses a pump to circulate the column bottoms through the reboilers.
Essentially these units are treated as a heater and the liquid is flashed after passing
through a restriction and then the separated liquid is returned to the pump suction.

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5.2.7. Direct fired heater reboiler
Large fractionation towers use fired heater

reboilers (or furnaces) as distillation column
reboilers. A pump is required to circulate the
column bottoms through the heat transfer
tubes in the furnace. The heat source for the
fired heater reboiler may be either fuel gas,
fuel oil or both.
The flow through the fired heater type reboiler

must be constant to prevent overheating of
the tubes in the heater.
A constant flow through all passes of the

reboiler is very critical and controls must be
interlocked to shut down the heater on flow
failure.
Figure 29: Direct fired heater reboiler
The direct fired heater is a vertical or

horizontal unit employing coils of radiant design. It is constructed with one or more passes
and may be equipped with a convection section for more heat absorption. The heat is
supplied to the tower by heating the specific charge rate to a temperature most suitable for
the product desired. This unit is generally more efficient than a steam reboiler and is
therefore widely used.
5.2.8. Indirect fired heater reboiler
The principal parts of a typical

indirect gas heater are the shell,
the flow coil and the fire tube and
burner assembly.
The heater is called "indirect"

because the heat transferred to the
gas is transmitted through the
surrounding water.
Figure 30: Indirect fired heater with

water bath

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The fire tube is installed inside the flow coil and both fire tube and coil are immersed in
water or salt with which the shell is filled.
The burner assembly is located in one end of the fire tube, and the stack on the other end.
In situations where dehydration is

not required in the field, indirect fired
heaters are also used for the
treatment of gas. Field treatment of
gas usually means heating to
prevent the formation of hydrates
throughout the gathering lines and
the removal of water and/or oil
produced with the gas from the
reservoir.
Figure 31: Indirect fired heater as

gas line heater
5.3. DIRECT FIRED HEATERS
5.3.1. Rectangular furnace
By definition this is a rectangular furnace and

contains tubes which can be horizontal or vertical.
The burners are situated in the walls or floor, and

the convection zone is located above the furnace.
Flue gases discharge to a stack either directly or

are driven by an induced fan.
The furnace operates under a very small negative

pressure so the hot gases do not leak out.
Burners are normally arranged in rows on two walls

and are spaced so as to provide a radiation zone of
constant temperature and avoid flame impingement
on the tubes.
Figure 32: Rectangular furnace

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An alternative arrangement of burners located in the floor of the furnace is possible.
The convection bank contains rows of tubes which the flue gas leaving the furnace is
obliged to pass across. The tubes contain cold process fluid and occasionally water for
stream generation (cracking furnaces).
There is a pressure loss in the flue gas system and this has to be made up either by use of
a fan discharging to a short stack or by natural buoyancy creating draft in a tall stack.
5.3.2. Cylindrical furnace
These furnaces are vertical and contain radiation and

convection zones or solely a radiation zone.
The burners are located in the bottom and the radiation

zone tubes can be vertical or helicoidal.
The convection bank is located above the radiation zone

and contains rows of horizontal tubes.
Generally the stack is vertically above the convection bank

and there is no fan.
Figure 33: Cylindrical furnace
5.3.3. Singe and multi-pass flow
Inside the stack is a damper which controls the flow of flue gases out of the furnace. By
adjusting the damper, we can control the furnace draft. There are two different ways that
process flow can be sent through the furnace:
Single-pass flow.
Multi-pass flow.

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Single-Pass Flow
In single-pass flow, the charge or feedstock is

normally fed into the convection tubes and drawn off
at the radiant tubes.
With this furnace design, the charge flows through

every tube(s) in the furnace. When the total charge
flows through every tube in the furnace, it is a single-
pass flow.
Figure 34: Single pass flow
Multi-Pass Flow
In this design, the feed to the furnace is

divided into separate tube coils or passes.
Each pass represents 1/2 of the tubes in
the furnace.
When the charge is split into two more

streams, and the separate streams flow
through the furnace, it is a multi-pass flow.
As the heated feedstock leaves the
furnace, it is rejoined at the outlet.
Figure 35: Multi-pass flow

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6. FURNACE COMPONENTS
6.1. INTRODUCTION
Furnace designs vary as to its function, heating duty, type of fuel and method of
introducing combustion air. However, all furnaces have some common features.
Fuel flows into the burner and is burnt with air provided from an air blower. There can be
more than one burner in a particular furnace which can be arranged in cells which heat a
particular set of tubes. Burners can also be floor mounted as in the picture, wall mounted
or roof mounted depending on design.
The flames heat up the tubes, which in turn heat the fluid inside the radiant section. In the
chamber where combustion takes place, known as the firebox, the heat is transferred
mainly by radiation to tubes around the fire in the chamber. The heating fluid passes
through the tubes and is thus heated to the desired temperature.
The combustion gasses are known as flue gas. After the flue gas leaves the firebox, it,
usually, enters a convection section, where more heat is recovered before it is vented to
the atmosphere through the flue gas stack.
Fired heaters are normally custom designed for a particular

application. As a result, there are many different furnace designs.
Look at this common design.
This is a cabin or A-frame furnace, named for its rectangular shape.

Since the tubes run horizontally through the radiant section of the
furnace, it has a horizontal design.
Figure 36: Cabin or A-frame furnace
This cylindrical furnace is another common design.

The tubes in the cylindrical furnace run up and down,
therefore it is classified as a vertical design.
Although there are many differences in furnace design, the basic operating
principles are the same. And, some furnaces are made up of many
individual sections called zones or cells.
Figure 37: Cylindrical furnace

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Notice the components of a typical furnace. The burners are located on the floor of the
furnace. Heat is produced by fuel combustion at the burners. The open area above the
burners is called the "firebox." The tubes along the walls of the firebox receive direct rays
of radiant heat, so these are called "radiant tubes."
The hot gases formed by burning fuel and air are called "fuel gases." These gases move
up the furnace and are funnelled through the arch into the stack. The tubes at the top of
the furnace absorb heat from the hot flue gases passing over them. These are called
"convection tubes."
The section of tubes located between the radiant section and the convection section is
called the shock bank. The shock bank receives both convection and radiant heat.
The furnace walls, floor, and ceiling are lined with refractory lining. This material reduces
heat losses and reflects heat back to the tubes.
Figure 38: Furnace components

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6.2. FURNACE TUBES
The furnace tubes carry the process fluid through the furnace. The fluid ordinarily comes
to the furnace from other sources that have already raised its temperature to some extent.
It leaves the furnace at a higher temperature.
The furnace tubes are made of metal. The heat passes

through the tube walls by conduction. The tube ends must
be joined together to allow for continuous flow through the
tubes.
One way to join the tube ends is with a rolled header. The
headers are attached to the tube by expanding the tube
ends against the header openings.
Figure 39: Rolled header
To provide access for tube inspection and mechanical

cleaning, the headers have removable plugs.
This is how the headers are mounted in the furnace. Notice

that the headers are enclosed in the header box. The
header box helps to cut down on heat losses from the
headers and tube ends.
Figure 40: Mounting of headers
Leaking tubes create a fire hazard. If leaks occur in the headers or tubes, it can contact
hot surfaces and can ignite and burn. The header box isolates and contains any leaks or
fires. In fact, most header boxes are equipped with a steam line for smothering fires.
Tubes can also be connected with a return bend.
Figure 41: Return bend
Return bends are normally used where heat levels are low and no
coking or corrosion problems are likely. Since there are no
removable plugs, return bends are less likely to leak than rolled headers.

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6.3. DRAFT SYSTEMS
Draft is the buoyant energy created by hot gases as they rise through a furnace. Hot air
rises because it is less dense than cool air.
Figure 42: Draft systems

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These are the four types of draft systems:
Natural draft
Forced draft
Induced draft
Balanced draft
6.3.1. Natural draft
In a natural draft furnace, draft is maintained by the natural, upward flow of hot gases.
Cool air is drawn in at the burners to replace the flue gases leaving the stack. The draft is
controlled by adjusting the position of the damper in the stack.
6.3.2. Forced Draft
In a forced draft operation, the fan supplies combustion air to the burners. Forced draft
permits steady control of the air at the burners.
6.3.3. Induced Draft
Induced draft is produced by discharging the flue gas out of the furnace with a fan located
between the convection section and the stack.
6.3.4. Balanced Draft
A balanced draft furnace uses two fans. One fan supplies air to the burners while the
other discharges flue gas from the furnace. Using two fans allows greater control over the
factors that affect complete and efficient combustion.
As the flue gases move up through the furnace and around the tube banks, they lose
energy due to friction. The draft must supply enough energy to overcome this friction and
maintain the flow of the flue gases. When this flow is adequate, safe and efficient firing
conditions will be maintained in the furnace.

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6.4. AIR PREHEATERS
An air preheater is a device which uses some of the heat in the flue gas to raise the
temperature of the air supply to the burners.
So, by recovering heat that would otherwise be lost out the stack, an air preheater saves
energy.
There are four types of air preheaters:
Recuperative preheater.
Regenerative preheater.
Heat medium preheater.
Process fluid preheater.
Figure 43: Air preheater
We will only describe the last two types which are those most frequently encountered on
sites.
6.4.1. Heat medium preheater
This type of preheater uses an intermediate fluid to transfer heat from the flue gas to the
incoming combustion air. In this example, the intermediate fluid is water.
The water is heated by pumping it through tubes in the convection section of the furnace.
The heated water circulates through tubes in the preheat coil. Air for combustion is
passed over these tubes and absorbs heat from the hot water.
The water is then pumped back through the

convection section for reheating. In this type of
system, there is continuous circulation and heat
transfer between the water, the flue gas, and air.
Figure 44: Heat medium preheater
6.4.2.
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Process fluid preheater
In this system, a portion of the heated process fluid

is diverted through the preheat coil. The
combustion air absorbs heat from the fluid as it
passes over the coil tubes.
The cooled process fluid returns to the convection

section where it is reheated. Then, the reheated
process fluid rejoins with the main process stream.
Figure 45: Process fluid preheater
6.5. BURNERS
Combustion takes place when fuel is mixed with oxygen and ignited. The burners are
designed to mix the fuel with the oxygen in the air and maintain smooth and continuous
combustion.
Refinery furnaces may burn fuel gas, fuel oil, or both fuel oil and fuel gas at the same time.
A fuel gas burner is designed to mix the gas evenly with the air so that the mixture burns
steadily.
A fuel oil burner breaks the liquid oil into a mist and mixes it evenly in a quantity of air.
Steam or air pressure is used to break the liquid oil into a fine mist.
Different burner designs have been worked out to produce the proper mixture for steady
combustion.
A simple fuel gas burner is called a raw gas burner. In the raw gas burner, the air and gas
join and burn at a group of holes in the spider or burner ring. The next figure shows the
parts of a typical raw gas burner.
The gas is piped into the burner at the gas inlet. The air is let into the burner at the air
door, which is moved back and forth by two handles.

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In the pre-mix burner:
The thimble is closed with a solid front plate.
Gas enters at the gas inlet.
The air enters the burner aspiration

at the air door.
The jet of gas pulls air into the

burner aspiration.
Figure 46: Typical pre-mix burner
The mixture of gas and air leaves the spider or burner ring holes.
This drawing shows a combination

burner that uses the mixing
principles of both the raw gas
burner and the aspirator burner.
In a combination burner, the

proportion of air and gas mixed
remains the same, but the air is
drawn into the burner at two places.
Figure 47: Combination burner
Primary air is drawn into the aspirator by the force of the gas jet. This air is mixed with the
gas before it reaches the burner spider.
Secondary air is drawn into the thimble and meets the primary air and gas mixture at the
spider. This mixture burns at the spider holes.
When oil is used as fuel, it must be

changed from a liquid to a fine mist before
being mixed with air.
An oil burner, or gun, uses steam to break

up the oil. The steam meets the oil with
great force at the throat and atomizes it
into a fine mist.
Figure 48: Oil burner

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As the oil is forced out of the throat

through the tip, the particles of oil
mix with air and burn.
Figure 49: Oil gun
In a combination oil and gas burner,

the oil gun is set in a tube down the
centre of an aspirating fuel gas burner.
The oil gun can be slipped back and
forth in this space. When the oil gun is
not in use, it is pulled back from the
spider or ring, to protect it from heat.
When oil is being burned, the tip of the

oil gun is set just in front of the gas
spider.
Figure 50: Combination burner
When a burner is in operation, you control the amount of air in relation to the amount of
fuel. You must admit enough air to achieve complete fuel combustion.
To make sure that there is enough oxygen to burn all the fuel, a little more than enough air
is let in. This extra air is known as excess air.
To protect the spider (or ring) from heat and provide a constant source of ignition for the
flame, the burner is set so that the flame edge barely touches the refractory around the
housing and keeps the refractory white-hot. Welding rods are inserted in the last holes at
the ends of the spider arms, and the spider is set so that the rods touch the refractory
lightly. Then, the burner is locked in place and the rods are removed.
Some burners are built so that you can change the direction of the flame to some extent.
With a directional burner, you can change the heat distribution pattern in the firebox.

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6.6. HEAT INDICATORS
Control of your furnace depends, in part, on knowing heat conditions. Thermocouples are
heat-sensing devices placed in different parts of the furnace where the temperature must
be known.
A thermocouple consists of two wires made of different metals connected in an electrical

circuit and installed in a thermowell. These metals create a current that changes as the
metals grow hotter or colder. Each thermocouple is designed and installed to record a
specific range of temperatures in a specific part of the furnace.
Some "couples" are installed inside the

tubes to measure the temperature of the
charge. "Skin" couples are generally
installed, outside the tube, on the tube walls
at the hottest locations to check the metal
temperature.
For long tube life, you should not exceed

the maximum operating temperature of the
tube wall.
Figure 51: Heat indicators
An increase in the difference between the charge temperature and the tube metal
temperature may indicate the formation of coke.
Thermocouples are also used to measure the temperature of the flue gases. Couples in
the firebox warn of high temperatures, which may cause damage. The refractory,
brickwork, tube hangers, and tube supports cannot be damaged by excess heat. The most
critical point being the bridgewall temperature.
A stack thermocouple measures the temperature of flue gases that have passed all heat
absorbing surfaces. Temperatures of flue gases in the stack may be used to calculate
heat loss and figure out how much heat may be saved by heat recovery.
Look at the drawing. The temperature recorder controller (TRC) is installed in the charge
outlet stream. It automatically resets the main fuel control valve and controls the amount
of fuel going to the burners. A thermocouple inside the outlet tube measures the transfer
temperature of the charge.
A couple in this location is normally used to control the fuel flow to the burners. When the
transfer temperature goes too high, the fuel supply is reduced. When the transfer
temperature goes too low, the fuel supply is increased.

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A large amount of heat must be absorbed before the charge reaches the transfer
temperature. Millions of BTUs per hour must be released to permit this amount of heat to
be absorbed.
The difference between BTUs released and BTUs absorbed by the charge is determined
by the efficiency of furnace operation. Less heat released to reach the transfer
temperature means less fuel burned.
Heat may be lost because of:
Formation of carbon monoxide instead of carbon dioxide.
Either too little or too much excess air.
Coke formation inside the tubes.
Stack temperatures too high.
These heat losses are reduced by efficient operation of the furnace.

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7. HEATER APPLICATIONS
7.1. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS REBOILERS
7.1.1. Condensate stabilisation
Stabilization by fractionation is a detailed process, very popular in the industry and precise
enough to produce liquids of suitable vapour pressure. During the operation, the methane-
ethane-propane and most of the butanes are removed and recovered.
The finished product from the bottom of the column is composed mainly of pentanes and
heavier hydrocarbons, with small amounts of butane. The process actually makes a cut
between the lightest liquid component (pentanes) and the heaviest gas (butanes).
The bottom product is thus generally a liquid free of all gaseous components able to be
stored safely at atmospheric pressure.
Figure 52: Direct fired heater as stabiliser bottoms reboiler

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Large condensate stabilisation systems

preferably use direct fired heaters as bottoms
reboilers.
Figure 53: Steam reboiler
A stabilizer reboiler, which supplies heat to the

stabilizer tower, can be a steam reboiler, a
direct fired heater or an indirect fired unit using
a salt-bath.
The liquid at the bottom of the tower can also be

heated by means of steam coils located inside
the tower.
The conventional shell and tube type of reboiler

uses high-temperature steam to provide the
required heat to the tower.
Figure 54: Indirect fired heater with steam coils in

bottom of stabilizer
The fired heater is a vertical or horizontal unit

employing coils of radiant design. It is
constructed with one or more passes and may
be equipped with a convection section for more
heat absorption.
The heat is supplied to the tower by heating the

specific charge rate to a temperature most
suitable for the product desired. A fired heater is
generally more efficient than steam reboiler and
therefore is widely used.
Figure 55: Direct fired reboiler

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7.1.2. Gas sweetening
The process which prepares raw natural gas for the market by removing the acidic
components is called "gas sweetening". Gas sweetening or amine plants remove acid
contaminants from sour gas. The legal requirements that residue gas must meet before it
reaches the fuel market specify a maximum H2S content in the range of 0.25 to 1 grain per
100 SCF and a total sulphur content no more than 30 grains per 100 SCF (7000 grains = 1
lb, 635 grains per 100 SCF = 1 percent by volume).
Necessity for sour gas treatment
There are several reasons for removing these contaminants from the feed gas. Acid gas
(H2S) is extremely poisonous and very harmful to humans. Their pungent odour makes
their presence very undesirable. Their removal is further justified by the corrosive effects
they have on pipelines and equipment. Moreover, it is beneficial to remove the hydrogen
sulphide, as it can be converted to elemental sulphur for sales.
It is apparent then that the extraction of the acidic components from the feed stream is not
only an important requirement but also a sound investment.
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
Natural gas that is transported to the fuel market usually carries a total sulphur content
below one grain per 100 SCF. Specifications, such as the above, are fully justified, since
hydrogen sulphide is a toxic gas and produces sulphur dioxide as a combustion by-
product.
Figure 56: Amine treating process for CO2 and H2S removal

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Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon dioxide is also present in natural gas in various amounts. In small quantities CO2 is
not harmful to the distribution system. However, it is considered undesirable as it reduces
the heating value of the gas and has acidic characteristics causing corrosion when free
water is present.
Gas sweetening process
In amine plants, gas and liquid hydrocarbon streams containing carbon dioxide and/or
hydrogen sulphide are charged to a gas absorption tower or liquid contactor where the
acid contaminants are absorbed by counter-flowing amine solutions (i.e., MEA, DEA,
MDEA). The stripped gas or liquid is removed overhead, and the amine is sent to a
regenerator. In the regenerator, the acidic components are stripped by heat and re-boiling
action and disposed of, and the amine is recycled.
Figure 57: Amine solution regeneration system
Regenerators
Gas sweetening process regenerators, also called "stills" or "strippers", are vertical
columns designed to strip the rich solution of its acid gas load, so that the active solution
can be reused. They are 10 to 20 m in height and contain a number of valve or sieve trays
in the shell (about 25 in single stage processes and 30 to 32 in double stage), all
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preferably made from stainless steel, especially if the CO2 to H2S ratio in the stream is
excessively high.
Amine solution reboiler
Regenerators require several pieces of auxiliary equipment. Reboilers, re-claimers, reflux

equipment and others are designed to assist the stripper, so that the hot active solution
leaving the bottom of the still does not carry with it more than 0.25 ppm of acid gas. In
addition, the regeneration should yield hydrogen sulphide of suitable quality so that the
sulphur from the downstream sulphur plant is not of inferior grade.
Since the effective scrubbing of the acid gas in the contactor is proportional to the
solution's reactivation in the still. It is the stripping efficiency of the regenerator and the
proper solution treatment that will finally control the H2S content in the sales gas.
This is accomplished, for example, by maintaining the correct temperature and amount of
stripping vapour admitted to the bottom tray.

Équipement
7.2. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS DIRECT FIRED HEATERS
The oil and gas industry uses direct fired heaters to heat liquids. Direct fired process
heaters exist in a variety of forms to serve a variety of functions:
Cokers
Vacuum heaters
Crude heaters
Reboilers
Visbreakers
Fractionators
Hot oil heaters
Isomerization heaters
7.3. TYPICAL APPLICATIONS INDIRECT FIRED HEATERS
The shell side normally operates at atmospheric pressure, but the tube coil can operate at
pressures up to 100 bar, which allows the following uses.
Heating wellhead gas before it enters the transmission piping
Heating gas periodically as it travels along pipeline to avoid hydrate formation
Heating wellhead gas to avoid the formation of hydrates after let down across the
choke valve
Heating crude oil
Vaporizing propane or LPG
Reboiler of stabiliser, regenerator and still column

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8. OPERATING PARAMETERS
8.1.1. Operation
The operating conditions of a direct fired heater are principally to be watched closely to
avoid flame impingement on the tubes.
Excessive concentrations of heat at the

tube may cause internal coking and weak
spots resulting in tube bursting.
Adjustment of the air dampers below the

burners is required occasionally to direct
the flames and to provide the correct
amount of excess air.
The fuel gas to the heater is controlled by a

pressure-balanced valve (Pressure Control
Valve). This valve is activated by a
temperature controller to hold the stabilizer
bottom temperature constant.
Figure 58: Fired stabilizer heater complete

with some of safety and controlling
devices
The circulation rate through the heater may sometimes be impaired by vapour locking or
other pump troubles.
The liquid flow through the heater is controlled by a control valve on the pump discharge
line.
In case a heater tube ruptures, a safety valve on the same line closes to prevent the
stabilizer from pumping bottoms product to the heater.
Any variations in the fuel gas header pressure are taken care of automatically by the
pressure-balanced control valve, thus maintaining the correct firing rate at all times.
Pilot gas is supplied from upstream of the emergency shut down valve.

Équipement
The emergency shut down valve provided in the fuel gas line and the pilot may be
activated to shut down the heater by the following abnormal conditions:
Low flow through the heater
Low fuel gas pressure to pilot
High stack temperature
High heater outlet temperature
Loss of flame
The emergency shut down and pilot valves may be solenoid operated valves and closure
is effected by de-energization or by tripping the power off.
The potential hazard of a direct fired heater is recognized at the time of plant layout, and
such equipment as a high pressure steam line may be provided to supply steam for
snuffing purposes in emergency situations.
Remote control of the steam valve from a central location in the plant is common. Steam
may also be used, when purging the furnace is desired prior to system start-up.
The following control room board alarms may be provided in conjunction with the fired
heater operation, for example:
High stack temperature
Flame failure
Low reboiler circulation
Corrosion in fired heaters due to the presence of acidic materials in the liquid and high
operating temperatures is considered to be critical. Regular inspections, however, such as
removal of pitted tubes, will ensure a reliable and efficient operation of the unit.
8.1.2. Operating Variables
8.1.2.1. Excess oxygen
Operating a fired heater is a complex process. There are many different variables on both
the combustion and process side of the furnace that must be monitored and controlled.
You need to know what these variables are and how they affect one another. For
example, when you increase the process flow, more fuel must be burned to maintain the

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desired outlet temperature. And, when you burn more fuel, more air is needed to complete
the combustion process.
If you understand how changes in one furnace variable affect other furnace variables, you
are in a much better position to monitor the operation. And, better control usually means
safer and more efficient furnace operations.
A key variable for safe and efficient furnace operations is the amount of air or oxygen in
the furnace. Excess oxygen is the amount of oxygen admitted in addition to the oxygen
needed for complete combustion.
While some excess oxygen is needed to operate the furnace safely, too much excess
oxygen wastes fuel.
The oxygen for combustion is supplied by

air. And, the chemical makeup of air is
21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen,
approximately. When more air enters the
furnace than is needed, the excess
oxygen and nitrogen absorb heat that
would otherwise be transferred to the
process flow in the tubes. The heated air
becomes part of the flue gas that is
discharged out of the stack.
Figure 59Chart comparing excess oxygen with excess air.
At any point along the chart, the percentage of excess oxygen is much less than the
percentage of excess air. Most fired heaters are operated with excess oxygen between 1-
5% in the flue gas. This is equal to about 5-30% excess air.
You can monitor the excess oxygen by analyzing a sample of the flue gas. This is done
with an oxygen analyzer. When the excess oxygen is above 5%, fuel is probably being
wasted. A reading below 1% indicates that you are nearing a point where not enough
oxygen will be able to support complete combustion.
Some analyzers can measure the amount of carbon monoxide in the flue gas. Other
analyzers detect carbon dioxide, the product of complete combustion.
The amount of air entering the furnace is controlled by adjusting the air registers. The
registers at each burner should be adjusted to distribute the air correctly to the various
burners.
On most burners, it is best to use as much primary air as possible and minimize secondary
air. This is because the primary air is thoroughly mixed with the fuel before combustion.
And, better mixing means better combustion.

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Air can also enter the furnace through open peep doors or open air registers on out-of-
service burners. Instead, it absorbs heat that should be transferred to the process flow.
This is not a normal situation, however.
The flue gas is normally analyzed in both the radiant and convection sections of the
furnace. A high excess oxygen reading in the radiant section usually means that too much
air is entering through the registers. If a high reading only occurs in the convection section,
air is probably leaking into this part of the furnace. Once air registers are adjusted for
proper combustion, the damper should be adjusted for proper draft.
If the excess oxygen in each section of the furnace is not the same, one group of burners
may be starved while another has too much excess oxygen.
Excess oxygen can be made equal for all sections of the furnace by adjusting the air
registers on each burner and then analyzing the flue gas for that section. If the flue gas is
not analyzed section by section, it is possible to show the right amount of air at the stack
while some burners are starved for air.
8.1.2.2. Draft
Draft is negative air pressure generated by the buoyancy of hot gases inside the furnace.
The pressure inside the furnace is negative because the hot gases are less dense than the
outside air.
These hot gases weigh less than the cooler air so they are buoyant inside the furnace.
This buoyancy causes the hot gases to rise upward out of the stack, creating a slight
vacuum inside the furnace. The vacuum causes the outside air to flow into the air
registers.
This is called "negative pressure." The difference between the outside pressure and this
negative pressure is what creates the draft.
Examine the draft measurements for a typical fired heater.
Draft is usually measured in three places:
At the firebox floor.
Below the convection section.
Below the stack damper.
Figure 60: Draft measurement

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The negative pressure is smallest below the convection section. This is because the tubes
in the convection section obstruct the flow of the upward moving gases. So, this
resistance to flow can cause the pressure in the convection section to shift from slightly
negative to slightly positive.
Once the pressure shifts positive, there is a loss of draft. With no draft, heat builds up just
under the furnace arch and roof, which can damage the structure of the furnace. A loss of
draft also means that no air is pulled into the furnace, so burners will eventually go out.
The furnace draft is usually controlled by positioning a damper in the stack. Opening the
damper allows more flue gas to flow out the stack. This increases the draft throughout the
entire furnace.
When the damper is closed, the draft decreases. And, this is measured as a decrease in
negative pressure.
It is very important to maintain the correct furnace draft. Too little draft can damage the
metal structure and snuff out the burners.

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8.1.2.3. Product outlet temperature
The product outlet temperature is the temperature of the process fluid as it leaves the
furnace. The desired temperature is used to monitor the temperature of each pass.
If the pass flows are equal and the

furnace is firing evenly, the pass
temperatures should be basically the
same. But, avoid overheating any of
the passes because this increases
the formation of coke.
The flows to the passes can usually

be adjusted so that each one is
heated to nearly the same
temperature.
Figure 61: Temperature

measurement
8.1.2.4. Stack Temperature
Stack temperature is the temperature of the flue gas as it leaves the furnace.
A high stack temperature may be an indication that the furnace is overfiring.
When the furnace is over-firing, BTUs are being wasted out the stack.
8.1.3. Fuel and Flow Variables
8.1.3.1. Process flow rates
The process flow rates tell you how much feed is

being heated over a given period of time.
Each of the passes is equipped with a flow controller

that controls the flow rate. For balanced flow through
the passes, each of these valves should be
positioned equally.
Figure 62: Controlling flow

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Equal valve positions are attained by setting the controllers for equal flows. If it becomes
necessary to change the total flow through the furnace, each controller must be readjusted
to maintain equal pass flows.
Some furnaces are equipped with a ratio or bias flow controller that automatically keeps
the passes balanced when there is a change in process load.
With a ratio flow controller, you do not have

to adjust individual pass flows when there is
a process load change. Sometimes, an
uneven heat distribution in the furnace will
cause one of the passes to overheat even
when the pass flows are equal. This will
carry away some of the heat.
Figure 63: Ratio flow controller
8.1.3.2. Fuel flow
The flow of fuel to the burners is usually controlled by the product outlet temperature.
Look at this control scheme. The

product outlet temperature is
monitored with a temperature
recording controller.
This allows more fuel to flow to the

burners which raises the product
outlet temperature. If the outlet
temperature rises above the desired
range, the controller decreases the
flow of fuel.
Figure 64: Control of fuel flow
When the supply of fuel to the burners changes significantly, the supply of air must also be
adjusted to ensure safe and efficient combustion. To ensure there is enough oxygen to
support combustion, the air supply should be increased before the fuel is increased.
If you increase the fuel first, there may not be enough oxygen present to burn the
additional fuel. When the fuel to the burners is decreased, you need to decrease the air
supply.
Remember, when you increase fuel, you should increase the air first. And, when you
decrease fuel, you should decrease the fuel first.
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Some furnaces are equipped with automatic control systems called "cross-limiting" or
"lead-lag" controllers. These systems automatically adjust the air registers when there is a
fuel flow change to keep the right amount of air in the furnace. So, if the furnace is not
equipped with a cross-limiting controller, you must make the adjustment.
8.1.3.3. Header boxes
A header box is an enclosure for the tube-end fittings outside the main furnace casing.
Smoke coming from a header box may indicate a leak and fire.
A smoky stack or unusual rises in the stack temperature are other common symptoms for
a header box fire. If you notice these symptoms, you need to locate the leaking header
and extinguish the fire.
The header boxes are usually equipped with smothering steam connections. These allow
you to extinguish fires by adding steam to the header box. It is dangerous to open a
leaking header box while the furnace is operating.
You should never open a leaking header box while the furnace is operating. This could
result in a flash fire and injury to yourself and others.
8.1.3.4. Pilots
To prevent gas from accumulating inside the furnace, the pilots should be lit while the
burners are firing.
The pilots can be visually checked from outside the furnace, and you should regularly
check the pilots.
If a pilot is not burning, it should be checked out and repaired. The problem is often
caused by plugging in the fuel supply lines.
8.1.3.5. Burners and flame patterns
You can determine if burners are firing properly by visually checking the burner flame
patterns. The flames should never be allowed to "impinge" on the tubes. Flame
impingement is caused by the flames touching and overheating the tubes.
Flame impingement causes coking, and if it is not corrected, could rupture the tube.
The normal and abnormal flame patterns for oil and gas burners:
The proper flame for a gas burner is compact and blue.

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A long, smoky oil flame is caused by insufficient combustion or insufficient steam

atomizing. The smoke is a sign of incomplete combustion and a waste of fuel.
A reddish dusty flame over part of the pattern indicates that there is not enough
air to burn all the fuel. A dazzling white short flame is caused by too much excess
oxygen or too much atomizing steam.
A thin, fluttery flame may also be caused by too much atomizing steam. Sparks in
the flame may be caused by a dirty burner tip, wet steam, solids in the fuel, or
water in the fuel.
A long gas flame is often caused by poor distribution of combustion air. The flame
can usually be shortened by increasing primary air and/or decreasing the
secondary air.
A short gas flame is also caused by poor distribution of combustion air. But, the
solution to this problem is to decrease primary air and/or increase the secondary
air.
Some abnormal flame patterns are common to both oil and gas burners. An uneven oil or
gas flame is usually an indication of a dirty burner tip. And, a pulsating flame and a puffing
sound from the furnace are usually caused by a loss of oxygen and a serious shortage of
oxygen. To correct this situation, you can need to adjust the air registers and stack
damper.
In some cases, the puffing and pulsating is caused by flame instability due to burner
damage. It is important for you to monitor and correct abnormal flame patterns because
they create an irregular release of heat in the firebox. This results in an uneven
distribution of heat to the process flow.

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8.2. INDIRECT FIRED HEATERS
The efficiency of operation and length of service obtained from heaters is dependent upon
the care taken in their operation and maintenance. A few major points are discussed
below.
8.2.1. Inspection and cleaning
Fire tubes should be inspected at regular intervals to prevent the accumulation of scale,
rust and corrosive material. The conditions under which the heater is operated are the
determining factors for the frequency of inspection.
When such deposits are noticed, the fire tube should be removed and cleaned or replaced,
depending upon its condition. At the appropriate intervals for inspection and cleaning, as
determined by observation, heaters should be taken out of service and thoroughly
cleaned, adjusted and repaired before being returned to service.
8.2.2. Corrosion control
Corrosion in the indirect heaters results from the action of water and oxygen on the gas
and fire tubes causing rusting and pitting of the metal. To reduce this attack, the heaters
are filled with steam condensate which has been treated in the plant to remove oxygen.
The bath is inhibited with 500 to 1000 ppm of sodium dichromate and made alkaline by the
addition of sodium hydroxide. The alkalinity is controlled at a pH of 7.5 to 9.5. Monthly
checks of the water in each heater should be made and caustic added as required.
8.2.3. Temperature control
Heater fuel gas flow is controlled by a thermostat to maintain a set temperature of the gas
leaving the low pressure coil.
The thermostats are an important part of any heater. Should they fail to function properly,
the burner will usually remain off all the time or on all the time, either of which is
undesirable. In general, field repairs of temperature controllers are not recommended, but
some types may be satisfactorily repaired under field conditions.

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9. OPERATION
9.1. REBOILER START-UP
When sufficient liquid collects in the bottom of the stabilizer, the reboiler circulation should
be slowly established and the steam turned on.
In the case of a fired heater, the burners should be ignited in accordance with the regular
operating procedures.
Initially, firing should be controlled manually. At this time, all emergency shut down
controls on the heater should be checked for proper operation before proceeding further
with the start-up. Also, the reboiler pump should be observed for proper operation.
Until the stabilizer has been heated to near design operating temperature, bottom product
is not allowed to flow to storage.
The feed to the column should be restricted to that amount necessary to maintain a safe
operating level in the base of the fractionator. Feed to the stabilizer should initially be
controlled manually.
As the temperature of the bottom increases, the column pressure will start to rise and the
overhead condenser fans should be started.
Continue heating the stabilizer bottoms by manual firing until design bottom temperature is
approached. At approximately 175ºC, the bottom's temperature controller may be switched
to automatic.
As the bottom temperature rises to 205ºC, place the bottom liquid level controller in
service to permit the flow of bottom product to storage.
Operate and shut down the reboiler according to the regular operating procedure.

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9.2. DIRECT FIRED HEATERS START-UP
Few aspects of operation are more sensitive or more potentially hazardous than start-up
and shutdown of furnaces.
Emergency shutdown of a furnace is the rapid removal of furnace heat and the process
charge to protect personnel and maintain the reliability of the equipment.
Having a deep understanding of combustion as it relates to furnace shutdown applies to

other refinery operations where these elements are present.
A furnace is safest when it is functioning properly.

Your main job is to control the air supply by
checking the draft and keeping the flue gas in the
proper excess air range.
In a properly operating furnace, combustion is
controlled.
Combustion occurs when fuel and oxygen meet a

source of ignition. If any one of these three
elements is missing, combustion cannot take place
Figure 65: Conditions for combustion
Combustion can occur in an idle furnace if fuel, oxygen, and a source of ignition come
together.
During shutdown, flammable vapours may seep into the firebox. Anything that can burn is
flammable. Explosions occur when air and fuel mix and come in contact with a source of
ignition. A furnace is a confined space that is open only at the air doors and the stack.
Even though a furnace is idle, you must assume that there may be fuel in the firebox.
Over the years, more than half of all furnace explosions have occurred during start-up.
Most explosions happened because fuel, which the operator didn't know was there, mixed
with air and was ignited.
A furnace is most dangerous at start-up. So, start-up procedures are designed to make
furnace start-up as safe as possible. Precautions in start-up procedures have been
developed from studying the causes of past explosions. If something has caused an
explosion before, it is likely to cause an explosion again.

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9.2.1.1. Checking burners
You must check burners before you light them. This includes:
Ensuring the furnace and the area around it is clean.

Clearing platforms, ladders, and walkways.
Removing any debris, tools, or oil-soaked rags from on or around the furnace.
Removing flammable materials from the firebox before lighting the burners.
Closing peepholes and header box doors so that no air can get in.
Checking valves in the fuel gas and fuel oil systems and all burner valves to see
that they have been serviced and properly set.
One leaking burner valve can

let fuel enter the firebox. Be
sure to check that the burner
gas valve and the pilot valve
are closed. On an oil burner,
you normally have two oil
valves and three steam valves,
which must all be closed.
Figure 66: Burner valves
Test the stack damper mechanism to make sure that it works freely. After the damper
mechanism has been checked, open the stack damper completely. Also, set the
secondary air doors on all burners to the fully open position.
To purge the furnace properly later on, the purging steam or air (if it’s present) must be
able to flow freely through the furnace. So, the stack damper and all secondary air doors
must be open to provide this flow.
At this point, your furnace should be ready for lining up the fuel system to the burners.
Make sure the area around the furnace and the furnace itself are free of any objects that
can ignite or cause trouble. Peepholes and header box doors must be closed and there
should be no leaks to let in air. All secondary air doors and the stack damper are open.

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9.2.1.2. Purging a Natural Draft Furnace
Danger!
At any time, there may be flammable vapours mixed with air in the firebox.
It is dangerous to light any burner without purging the furnace first.
Purging is used to create a draft and remove all flammable vapours from the
furnace.
Purging makes sure that you have the three elements of combustion (fuel, air, and
heat) under control when you light the burners.
Steam purge
Purging with steam stirs up the air in the firebox, which may be mixed with
flammable vapours, and it provides heat for a draft to move fresh air through the
aspirators.
Steam is put into a gas-fired furnace by permanent steam lines in the firebox, or
by sliding steam lances in through the burner air opening.
Steam is put into an oil-fired furnace by turning on the steam valve of the oil gun,
without letting in any oil.
Purging must be thorough so that no flammable vapours remain in the furnace.
A steam purge provides heat to start the draft.
Enough steam must be used to create a movement of fresh air and move out all
the air in the furnace and any flammable gas or vapours that may be mixed with
the air.
At first, some of the steam condenses on the cold metal and refractory.
And, purging steam may be mixed with air and flammable gas or vapours, and yet
appear to be steam.
Your unit operating instructions tell you how long to purge the furnace with steam,
and may specify a minimum draft during the purge.

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Air purge
In a forced draft furnace, the forced air establishes a draft:
The volume of forced air must be maintained long enough to move out all air and
flammable vapours.
Heat is not needed for a forced air purge.
The draft is created mechanically instead of by heat.
9.2.1.3. Removing Blinds
Once the furnace has been purged, you are ready to let the fuel into the fuel system. From
this point, you follow:
General start-up instructions that apply to all furnaces.
Operating instructions that apply to your furnace.
Remove the blinds in the main fuel lines to the furnace according to unit operating
instructions. If either fuel system has been worked on while the furnace was down, purge
this system according to operating instructions.
Open the main valve in the line to the gas header on the furnace. All burner valves remain
closed.
"Knock out" (eliminate) any liquid hydrocarbon in the fuel gas before letting gas into the
furnace fuel lines.
Drain all liquid from the knockout drum nearest the furnace as soon as fuel gas is let into
the main gas line. Any liquid left in the fuel gas can burn uncontrolled at the aspirator and
in the firebox.
If the knockout drum drains into a closed drain, fuel gas allowed to follow the liquid may
enter the drain system. Keep checking for liquid or gas by cracking the bleeder valve
(opening it a little bit) between the drain valve and the bottom of the drum.
Open the main valve in the fuel oil system.
Drain valves in the fuel oil line should be cracked open to check for water in the line.
If water comes out of the drain, the drain valve should be opened and kept open until oil
shows, then tightly closed and plugged.

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9.2.1.4. Lighting burners
On a furnace with a gas pilot, light the pilot before you light the burner. Once the pilot is lit,
it is a steady source of ignition for the burner.
In cold weather, pilots may be lit to warm the furnace before the charge is started through
the tubes. Flow of the charge should be established before the first burner is lit.
Begin lighting the burners immediately after you have finished purging the furnace. When
you are ready to light the burners, only the necessary people should be near the furnace.
Establish pressure on the main gas header up to each burner valve. Close the primary air
doors as needed to prevent flashbacks in the burner tubes. Leave the secondary air doors
wide open. Maintaining proper burner pressure will also prevent flashbacks.
Lighting may be done with a properly constructed torch made of a steel rod three to six
feet long, with a ten inch covering of insulation at one end.
The torch is soaked with a fuel such as kerosene, so that it will burn steadily. Do not use
gasoline. It ignites too easily and is hazardous.
The fuel gas line to the furnace may be tied into a gas torch by a flexible tube long enough
to reach all the burners. If your furnace is equipped with a gas torch, use it.
Test the direction of the wind and prepare to light the burner farthest upwind. The
strongest draft occurs at the upwind burner.
On a natural draft furnace, cut off the steam purge. Hold a light rag close to the secondary
air opening. If the rag is pulled toward the opening, there is a draft.
Light the torch and stand to one side of the upwind burner. Slide the lighted torch through
the secondary air opening. Hold the torch in front of the burner.
Hold the torch in place while you crack the burner gas valve slightly. When the fuel
ignites, keep the torch in place. Steady the burner flame pattern by adjusting the air doors.
Now you know that there is unburned fuel and air mixed in the firebox.
If the fuel does not ignite at the first burner, you must purge again. If you have to purge
again, repeat the whole purging procedure. When the fuel has ignited and you have
adjusted the air doors to steady the flame, move to the next burner to be lit. Light as many
burners as needed the same way:
Stand to one side of the burner.
Slide and hold the torch in through the secondary air opening.
Hold the torch in front of the burner spider or ring.

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Open the burner valve slowly until the fuel ignites.
Keep the torch in place while you steady the burner flame by adjusting the air
doors.
Never light one burner from another burner. This is a dangerous practice.
Only a pilot or a properly constructed torch can provide a steady and reliable source of
ignition.
As you light more burners, maintain a satisfactory gas header pressure. If the fuel gas
pressure decreases, the burner flame may flash back or go out.
Wear your face mask and continue to check the burners by looking through the peepholes.
When the firebox is relatively cold, the flames may go out easily.
The furnace is on manual control when you are setting fuel gas valves by hand. Keep the
furnace on manual control until the flow rate of the charge is well established.
After switching to instrument control, be sure that all gas header and burner valves are
fully opened, unless there is some reason for pinching down (for example, flame
impingement). When the temperature is within the control range of the instrument, switch
to fully-automatic control.
When you are firing two fuels, one is normally "base loaded" and you control temperature
with the other. In other words, one fuel is manually set at a steady base rate and the other
is automatically controlled.
Do not try to light the oil gun of a combination burner until the gas burners maintain a
stable flame pattern. To bring in the oil, first push the gun forward. Then, open the steam
regulating valve fully to blow out any condensate and heat up the oil gun barrel.
After all condensate has been blown out of the steam line, gradually open the oil regulating
valve until the oil spray ignites from the gas flame.
During start-up, frequently check the individual burner flames and the flame pattern in the
firebox. Wear a face mask whenever you look into the firebox.
A cherry red spot on a radiant tube is a hot spot
Watch for irregular burning patterns
Flame impingement causes hot spots
Watch the radiant tubes for hot spots and adjust the flame pattern to eliminate
them

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Tubes should be checked from shift to shift to detect hot spots and to observe
how much the spots are changing, and how fast.
Once the burners are lit and the furnace is operating steadily, gradually increase the
transfer temperature of the charge. The rate of the increase is specified in the unit
operating instructions. After the furnace is on stream and lined out, check the entire
operation for draft and excess air control.
9.2.2. Furnace operation
9.2.2.1. Normal operation
Following modifications on manual or automatic operating sequences during the

last furnace shutdown, special care is to be taken to start, operate and shut down
the furnace according to the new operating sequences and procedures.
Once the burners are lit and the furnace operation is stable, you can begin increasing the
temperature and flow of the process stream. To avoid heat stressing the equipment, this
should be done very gradually.
You will also need to check the balance through the passes and check that the pass outlet
temperatures are equal.
During start-up, you will be making most adjustments. When the temperature and flow
becomes within the control range of the automatic instruments, you can switch to
automatic control. Once on automatic, the furnace is in normal operation.
9.2.2.2. Emergency operation
You know that fuel enters the furnace through the fuel oil and fuel gas lines. You can
usually keep fuel out of the firebox by closing the burner valves. In some situations, you
may have to go back to the fuel header valves. These valves stop the fuel flow to all
burners.
But, if a tube ruptures, this stream enters the firebox and can burn. Since the process
stream is under pressure, a tube rupture may dump large amounts of flammables into the
firebox.
Shutting off the process flow and dumping it from the furnace does not get rid of what is
already in the firebox. This fluid is best disposed of by burning it where it is, since the
firebox is designed to support the heat of burning.
To keep the temperatures from running too high, you need to control the air supply or use
snuffing steam. If more air is needed, carefully open the air registers. And, you can restrict
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air entering the furnace by closing off the stack damper. As the damper is closed, air
entering the furnace is decreased, combustion is reduced, and the heat release is limited.
A continuous flow of snuffing steam restricts air by pushing it out. A header box fire can
usually be snuffed out with steam from the header box steam line. You can put more
steam in with a steam lance if the regular snuffing lines do not provide enough steam. In
addition to removing air, steam reduces the furnace temperature.
If you lose your feed to the furnace, there is no flow to carry the heat away. If you cannot
get the flow started immediately, you need to stop the input of heat by closing the fuel
valves.
There may still be enough heat retained in the furnace to damage the tubes and other
metal structures. If so, block off the furnace and dump the process stream. Then, cool the
tubes and firebox by purging with steam.
A tube rupture may suddenly admit a large amount of fuel into the firebox. How you
handle this situation depends on how serious the situation is and how well you can control
temperatures.
If burning continues and temperatures are excessive, restrict the input of air by adjusting
the stack damper. The furnace must be isolated and depressurized if the rupture is large.
You must shut off the burner fires. Dump the process flow and cool the tubes with steam.
Then, purge the firebox with steam.
Improper operation of oil burners can lead to large amounts of oil burning on the floor of
the furnace. You must correct the burner operation. If temperatures become excessive,
restrict the input of air by adjusting the stack damper. Flammable liquid in the fuel gas line
may fill the firebox with uncontrolled flames. Drain the fuel gas knockout drum.
Trouble in the fuel system may cut off the fuel entirely and the burners will go out. But,
there is enough heat left to ignite any fuel with explosive forces. So, shut off the fuel
immediately. Then, purge the firebox with steam.
Remember, the key to dealing with any furnace emergency is a thorough understanding of
the combustion process and equipment limitations. This knowledge allows you to control
combustion and minimize equipment damage.
The pressure drop takes place in that part of the inlet coil immersed in the hot water bath.
The bath temperature is controlled by a temperature sensing device in the heater.
The indirect heater shell is a horizontal cylindrical vessel made with flanged openings at
each end to receive the flow coil and the firetube. The flow coil is contoured to a hollow
cylinder form to fit inside the shell. This flow coil is removable if a changing field problem
requires different coils. The firebox is installed in the opposite end of the shell from the flow
coil.

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9.2.3. Furnace shutdown
9.2.3.1. Normal shutdown
Shutting down a furnace is ordinarily part of the shutdown of an entire unit for inspection
and repairs. Occasionally a furnace is shut down for repairs while the rest of the unit is put
on standby. The flow rate of the charge and heat of the furnace are reduced together.
The charge rate and temperature are gradually reduced over a period of several hours.
When the charge rate and temperature have been reduced to a fraction of normal, all
furnace burners are shut off.
The entire unit is "circulated down". The oil left in the unit is circulated within the unit oil
system, including the furnace tubes.
Circulation is continued through most equipment for several hours to cool the unit. When
the unit is cool enough not to vaporize the oil anywhere in it, circulation is stopped.
If furnace tubes are to be opened, oil is dumped out and the tubes are purged with steam.
Unit shutdown is a gradual reduction of the oil flow and the heat until the entire unit is cool
enough to be purged.
The control point on the temperature recorder controller (TRC) is reset by hand. The TRC
automatically feeds the fuel at a lower rate. As the temperature drops below the TRC
range, manual operation becomes necessary.
As the fuel is cut back, shut off some burners to maintain an adequate gas header
pressure, which prevents flashbacks or flameouts. When the charge rate and temperature
are down to the desired level, shut off all burners by closing each burner fuel valve
individually.
Steam is used to purge the oil gun, so it is left on as the oil regulating valve is closed. To
purge the gun, close the oil block valve and open the oil regulating valve again.
Close the steam regulating valve and open the steam bypass valve to flush all oil out of
the burner. Then, close the steam bypass valve and the oil regulating valve. Finally, close
the steam block valve.
After all burner gas valves are closed, close the gas header valve. Then, close all block
valves and bypass valves.
The flow of cooling air through the furnace is increased by opening the air doors, access
doors, and the stack damper. If the furnace is to be out of service for some time, install
blinds in the fuel lines.

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If anybody must enter the furnace to inspect or repair it, blinds should be installed in the
fuel lines.
9.2.3.2. Emergency shutdown
Emergency shutdown is required when furnace operation becomes seriously abnormal.

Abnormal conditions in the unit or the furnace may demand the rapid removal of both the
fuel and the charge from the furnace.
In any furnace emergency, you must act to protect yourself and other workers from injury.
You must act cautiously, minimize danger, and maintain the equipment in good working
order. You must also limit the effect of the emergency on the whole refinery operation.
To deal effectively with a furnace emergency, you must plan your actions in advance and
be ready to carry them out. And, you must study your equipment and the unit operating
instructions.
You must also know the maximum allowable temperature for the firebox, breeching, and
the stack.
You must be ready to stop combustion by removing one or more of the fire triangle's three
elements.
You must know in advance that emergency block and blow-down valves are in working
order and how to reach them in an emergency.
These emergency controls are located in a protected area where they can be reached with
minimal risk.

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9.3. INDIRECT FIRED HEATERS START-UP
In firing-up a gas line heater at a gas gathering station there are many different procedures
used. The following steps are considered to be proper:
Turn off all gas and allow five minutes for heater to clear gas from fire tube.
See that fluid level is above fire tube and thermostat levels.
Light oil soaked rag, stand to one side upwind and hold near pilot
Ensure pilot burner lights.
Set thermostat to desired temperature.
Turn on burner gas supply. If heater has been off for a lengthy period and the
water bath temperature is much below normal, temperature should not be raised
too rapidly.
Operators should also check that the burner is properly aimed along the fire tube
so that the flame does not impinge on the fire tube which may cause localized
overheating.
Improper firing-up may injure personnel, damage equipment or cause other losses which
would increase the cost of the operation.
The wellhead pressure controllers sense the gathering system pressure changes and
reposition the diaphragm chokes to maintain line pressures at the set points. The
proportional band of the pressure controller at the wells is set so that the wells closest to
the plant will take most of the variation in flow.
That is, the controller at the well furthest from the plant will be set for a wider proportional
band than the closer wells. If all controllers were set for the same proportional band, there
would be a danger of freezing off the line downstream of the furthest well if the overall field
flow rate were decreased.

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9.4. SUMMARY OF HIGH RISK SCENARIOS
ENABLING
INITIATING
CONSEQUENCE SAFEGUARDS CONDITIONS /
EVENT
EVENTS
Potential tube rupture

and subsequent
Operator blocks in explosion after feed
Feed flow controls
feed flow to furnace stock pours into fire
the gas flow and the
tubes by box (burners would
system will block in None
inadvertently giving normally be open)
fuel supply on loss of
wrong instruction to and possible
feed flow.
the control room. exposure of furnace
operator to
explosion.
Potential (partially
confined) explosion / Procedure requires
detonation if large testing (LEL and O2)
Operator does not vapour cloud in fire of fire box after Ignition source /
perform LEL check. box is ignited and purging and prior to pilots lit
possible exposure of establishing fuel gas
furnace operator to flow to burners.
explosion.
Fire box fills with fuel

and presents a
potential for fire or Flame detector on
Operator explosion when fuel pilot will
establishes fuel flow finds an ignition automatically shut of Ignition source
without lighting pilot. source<; <possible fuel flow if no flame
exposure of furnace is detected.
operator to fire or
explosion.
These risks represent only a very small proportion of the risks related to furnace operation.

Équipement
10. TROUBLESHOOTING
10.1.1. Flame impingement and hot spots
Some furnace problems require shutdown. Other problems can be corrected if they are
detected early. To detect problems, you must know the signs and symptoms of abnormal
operations. And, you need to know what these signs and symbols mean. This means that
you must have troubleshooting skills.
Once you have identified the problem, you must take action to solve it. The action you
take will depend on the severity of the problem.
If a minor adjustment will keep the unit running and not compromise safety, you would
normally make that adjustment. But, if there is immediate danger to people or equipment,
you would normally shutdown the furnace.
By understanding the operation of the furnace and knowing the limitations of this
equipment, you will be able to diagnose the problem and take appropriate action.
10.1.1.1. Flame Impingement
Flame impingement occurs when a flame touches

equipment inside the furnace, usually a tube.
This contact causes overheating, which promotes
the formation of coke inside the tubes.
Figure 67: Coke formation
If the problem is not corrected, the metal will weaken and eventually
rupture.
Figure 68: Example of coke build-up
If these adjustments will not correct the problem, it may be

necessary to remove the burner for cleaning or repair.

Équipement
10.1.1.2. Hot Spots
A hot spot is an area of the furnace that has become overheated. The overheating may be
caused by flame impingement or by the improper heat distribution throughout the furnace.
Hot spots are a problem because they form coke deposits inside the tubes and can
weaken metal structures.
Since they appear as a glowing red spot on the metal, hot spots can sometimes be
detected by visual inspection. Another way to detect hot spots is with a special optical
thermometer. This device is called a "pyrometer." The pyrometer can measure the
temperature of the metal.
10.1.2. Coking and decoking
Coking is the build-up of deposits inside the tubes. The coke acts as an insulator that
reduces the heat transfer to the process flow.
It also reduces the rate of flow so less heat is carried away by the process stream.
Since less heat is transferred to and carried away by the process flow, there is a build up
of heat in the tube metal. This heat build up can often be seen as a hot spot.
Another way to detect coking is to monitor the tubeskin temperatures. If nothing is done to
correct a coking problem, the tube may eventually rupture.
A furnace can be decoked by injecting superheated steam and air into the tubes. This
burns off the coke and cleans it out of the tubes. Before you can decoke the tubes, the
process flow must be remove.
In some furnaces, different sections of the heater can be decoked without interrupting the
flows through other sections.
In other furnaces, all flows must be stopped which means the processing operation must
be shutdown.

Équipement
10.1.3. Sootblowing
The fuel oil burned in furnaces leaves a layer of ash on the outside of the tubes which may
reduce heat transfer. To remove these deposits, oil burning furnaces are usually equipped
with sootblowers.
The sootblower uses steam to remove the ash deposit.
Sootblowing does not interfere with the process or fuel flows, so the operation can be
performed without a furnace shutdown.
The sootblower consists of a number of long tubes

that run through the convection section of the
furnace. The sootblower tubes are filled with holes
for discharging steam. During the sootblowing
operation, the tubes rotate for better steam
dispersement. The jets of steam clean the ash off
the tubes.
Figure 69: Rotating element sootblower.
It is motor driven so that it can be moved in and out of the convection section. Since it can
move back and forth across the length of the furnace tubes, it is equipped with a cleaning
nozzle only at the end.
During the cleaning operation, the sootblower

moves between the furnace tubes, discharging
high pressure steam to remove the ash.
Figure 70: Retractable lance sootblower
The frequency of sootblowing will depend on the

furnace and type of fuel. But, if the ash deposits
are allowed to build up, there will be a decrease
in heat transfer efficiency. This may be indicated
by an increase in stack temperature.

Équipement
10.1.4. Equipment Failure
10.1.4.1. Burner failure
A burner failure causes the flames to extinguish. The most common cause of burner
failure is plugging in the burner tip. If this happens, it is necessary to remove the burner
for cleaning.
10.1.4.2. Flame out
A very dangerous situation exists when the burner flames go out and fuel is still entering
the burner. A "flame out" results in an accumulation of uncombusted fuel inside the
furnace.
While automatic safety systems can often prevent a flame out, you should be ready to
identify and correct the problem when it occurs.
The shortage of oxygen results in incomplete combustion and the release of less heat. As
the furnace temperature decreases, the automatic controls send more fuel to the burners.
But, since there is not enough oxygen to burn the fuel, the furnace temperature continues
to drop. The controller, in turn, keeps sending more and more fuel in a useless attempt to
raise the temperature.
If the process is allowed to continue unchecked, the burner flames will eventually be
snuffed out, leaving a supply of raw fuel entering the furnace. If air is then admitted into
the hot furnace with raw, unburned fuel in it, the mixture may ignite.
If you notice these symptoms early enough, it may be possible to correct the problem
before a flame out occurs. First, reduce the flow of fuel to the burners. Next, open stack
damper and air registers to increase the draft and the amount of oxygen entering the
furnace.
If you are uncertain how much un-combusted fuel is in the furnace, shut down and purge
the furnace.

Équipement
Gas Burners
Blue compact flame. Proper flame for gas burner.
Long flame. Too much secondary air and/or not enough primary air.
Short flame. Too much primary air and/or not enough secondary air.
Blow back of flame Low gas pressure or lighter fuel gas (such as hydrogen)
into burner. in the fuel.
Flame lifts off burner. High gas pressure.
Table 2: Flame quality chart for gas burners
Oil Burners
Clean, yellow flame

Proper flame for oil burner.
with no smoke.
Long, smoky flame. Insufficient combustion air, or insufficient steam.
Reddish, dusty flame

with smoke over part Insufficient oxygen for complete combustion.
of the flame.
Dazzling, white short
Too much excess oxygen or too much atomizing steam.
flame.
Too much atomizing steam, insufficient oil flow, or low
Thin, fluttery flame.
fuel oil pressure.
Dirty oil burner tip, wet steam, solids in fuel, or water in
Sparks in flame.
fuel.
Table 3: Flame quality chart for oil burners
Oil and Gas Burners
Uneven flame. Dirty burner tip.
Pulsating flame or
Loss of draft and insufficient oxygen. May also be
puffing or woofing
caused by burner damage or high fuel pressure.
noise.
Table 4: Flame quality chart for oil and gas burners

Équipement
10.2. INDIRECT FIRED HEATERS
Heaters sometimes fail to stay lit.
The pilot light may be blown out by high winds or it may be extinguished as the result of
improper adjustment in the fuel system.
As a general rule, the pilot light should be checked first:
If the pilot light fails to bum at all, the orifice is probably plugged and can be
cleaned with a small, stiff wire.
The burner may blow out the pilot light if there is an incorrect air-gas adjustment
on the pilot or if the pilot is not located properly in relation to the burner.
The air supply to the pilot should be so regulated that the body of the flame is blue
and the tip slightly yellow and the pilot should be placed about 1 to 2 cm ahead of
the burner.
An improper air-gas adjustment of the burner may extinguish the burner flame.
Too great a pressure on the inlet gas to the burner will cause the same problem,
so it should usually be adjusted to between 0.35 and 0.70 bar.
Should inspection and adjustment of the pilot and the burner fail to give
satisfactory results, the trouble may be in the inlet gas regulator.
Care should be taken to see that the regulator does not freeze.
It may be necessary, where gas system pressures are very high, to install two
regulators in order to lower the pressure differential across each in series to
prevent freezing.
Well flow rates are indirectly controlled by the plant inlet flow control valve.
Adjustments in plant intake change the pressure drop across the plant inlet valve
and affect the gathering line pressure.
Reducing plant intake increases gathering system pressures and vice versa.

Équipement
11. GLOSSARY

Équipement
12. LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Typical kettle-type reboiler ....................................................................................6
Figure 2: Direct fired heater .................................................................................................8
Figure 3: Vertical cylindrical furnaces ..................................................................................9
Figure 4: Indirect fired heaters .............................................................................................9
Figure 5: Indirect fired heater.............................................................................................10
Figure 6: Kettle reboiler details ..........................................................................................11
Figure 7: Kettle-type reboiler..............................................................................................11
Figure 8: Thermosiphon reboiler........................................................................................12
Figure 9: Assisted thermosiphon reboiler...........................................................................12
Figure 10: Stab-in reboiler with steam generator ...............................................................13
Figure 11: Forced circulation reboiler ................................................................................13
Figure 12: Direct fired heater reboiler ................................................................................14
Figure 13: Vertical cylindrical furnace ................................................................................15
Figure 14: Vertical cylindrical furnaces ..............................................................................16
Figure 15: Vertical tube "box" furnaces..............................................................................17
Figure 16: Horizontal tube "cabin" furnaces.......................................................................18
Figure 17: Horizontal tube cabin furnace ...........................................................................19
Figure 18: Radiant wall furnaces .......................................................................................20
Figure 19: Double-fired furnaces .......................................................................................21
Figure 20: Principle of the indirect fired heater ..................................................................22
Figure 21: Indirect fired heater reboiler ..............................................................................23
Figure 22: 4.2.1. Typical process data sheet for a heat exchanger ...................................26
Figure 23: Kettle-type reboiler............................................................................................29
Figure 24: Typical arrangement for using a kettle-type reboiler .........................................30
Figure 25: Column with bubble trays .................................................................................30
Figure 26: Typical kettle reboiler on amine system............................................................31
Figure 27: Horizontal thermo-siphon reboiler.....................................................................31
Figure 28: Operation of a horizontal thermo-siphon reboiler..............................................32
Figure 29: Direct fired heater reboiler ................................................................................33
Figure 30: Indirect fired heater with water bath..................................................................33
Figure 31: Indirect fired heater as gas line heater..............................................................34
Figure 32: Rectangular furnace .........................................................................................34
Figure 33: Cylindrical furnace ............................................................................................35
Figure 34: Single pass flow................................................................................................36
Figure 35: Multi-pass flow ..................................................................................................36
Figure 36: Cabin or A-frame furnace .................................................................................37
Figure 37: Cylindrical furnace ............................................................................................37
Figure 38: Furnace components ........................................................................................38
Figure 39: Rolled header ...................................................................................................39
Figure 40: Mounting of headers .........................................................................................39
Figure 41: Return bend ......................................................................................................39
Figure 42: Draft systems....................................................................................................40
Figure 43: Air preheater .....................................................................................................42
Figure 44: Heat medium preheater ....................................................................................42
Figure 45: Process fluid preheater.....................................................................................43
Équipement
Figure 46: Typical pre-mix burner ......................................................................................44

Figure 47: Combination burner ..........................................................................................44
Figure 48: Oil burner ..........................................................................................................44
Figure 49: Oil gun ..............................................................................................................45
Figure 50: Combination burner ..........................................................................................45
Figure 51: Heat indicators..................................................................................................46
Figure 52: Direct fired heater as stabiliser bottoms reboiler...............................................48
Figure 53: Steam reboiler ..................................................................................................49
Figure 54: Indirect fired heater with steam coils in bottom of stabilizer..............................49
Figure 55: Direct fired reboiler ...........................................................................................49
Figure 56: Amine treating process for CO2 and H2S removal ............................................50
Figure 57: Amine solution regeneration system.................................................................51
Figure 58: Fired stabilizer heater complete with some of safety and controlling devices ...54
Figure 59Chart comparing excess oxygen with excess air. ...............................................56
Figure 60: Draft measurement ...........................................................................................57
Figure 61: Temperature measurement ..............................................................................59
Figure 62: Controlling flow .................................................................................................59
Figure 63: Ratio flow controller ..........................................................................................60
Figure 64: Control of fuel flow ............................................................................................60
Figure 65: Conditions for combustion ................................................................................65
Figure 66: Burner valves....................................................................................................66
Figure 67: Coke formation .................................................................................................77
Figure 68: Example of coke build-up .................................................................................77
Figure 69: Rotating element sootblower. ...........................................................................79
Figure 70: Retractable lance sootblower............................................................................79

Équipement
13. LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of different types of heaters...............................24
Table 2: Flame quality chart for gas burners......................................................................81
Table 3: Flame quality chart for oil burners........................................................................81
Table 4: Flame quality chart for oil and gas burners ..........................................................81


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EQUIPMENT

HEATERS AND FURNACES

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ110-EN

5.2.4. Assisted thermal siphon reboiler.......................................................................32

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ110-EN

9.1. REBOILER START-UP ...........................................................................................64

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ110-EN

the purpose of heaters

their different types

the advantages and disadvantages of different types

their operating parameters

their normal operation and

their troubleshooting methods

Direct fired heaters

Indirect fired heaters

Any of the above mentioned heater types can be used as a reboiler.

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ110-EN

A reboiler is a heat exchanger connected to the lower part of fractionating or distillation

The reboiler receives the liquids from the bottom

Most reboilers are shell-and-tube heat

he Kettle is a particular type of tube and shell

Figure 1: Typical kettle-type reboiler

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ110-EN

2.2. FIRED HEATERS

The heat is produced in a "Flame tube".

Heaters represent a potential hazard on an installation. This is their major disadvantage.

Two types of fired heaters are used in the field:

Direct fired heaters

Indirect fired heaters

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ110-EN

2.2.1. Direct fired heaters

A direct fired heater is an enclosure in which energy in a non-thermal form is converted to

Figure 2: Direct fired heater

This results in a concentration of heavy products and, due to a combination of several

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ110-EN

Figure 3: Vertical cylindrical furnaces

2.2.2. Indirect fired heaters

Figure 4: Indirect fired heaters

The product to be heated flows in a coil immersed in the intermediate fluid.

In practice, the product temperature is limited to 70 °C.

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ110-EN

Figure 5: Indirect fired heater

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ110-EN

One or more vapour nozzles are used to

Figure 6: Kettle reboiler details

They may require pumping of the column

Figure 7: Kettle-type reboiler

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ110-EN

3.1.2. Thermosiphon reboiler

Figure 8: Thermosiphon reboiler

Since the corresponding column

3.1.3. Assisted thermosiphon reboiler

Figure 9: Assisted thermosiphon

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ110-EN

3.1.4. Stab-in reboiler

The stab-in reboiler is made of a U-tube

Figure 10: Stab-in reboiler with steam

3.1.5. Forced circulation reboiler by pump

Figure 11: Forced circulation

Training Manual: EXP-PR-EQ110-EN

3.1.6. Direct fired heater reboiler

Fuel-fired direct fired heaters

Figure 12: Direct fired heater

Heaters & Furnace

Heaters & Furnace