Storage Facility & Terminal

EQUIPMENT
STORAGE FACILITIES AND TERMINALS
TRAINING MANUAL
COURSE EXP-PR-EQ220
Revision 0.1
Exploration & Production
Equipment
Storage Facilities and Terminals
EQUIPMENT
STORAGE FACILITIES AND TERMINALS
CONTENTS
1. OBJECTIVES ..................................................................................................................4
2. FUNCTIONS OF AN OIL TERMINAL ..............................................................................5
2.1. THE OIL TERMINAL .................................................................................................5
2.2. PRINCIPAL FUNCTIONS .........................................................................................8
2.2.1. Receiving crude.................................................................................................8
2.2.2. Crude processing ..............................................................................................8
2.2.2.1. Chemical Treatment .....................................................................................9
2.2.2.2. Mechanical treatment.................................................................................10
2.2.2.3. Treatment operating parameters................................................................13
2.2.3. Storage of crude..............................................................................................14
2.2.4. Shipment of crude ...........................................................................................15
2.2.4.1. Loading crude ............................................................................................15
2.2.4.2. Delivery to refinery by pipe-line ..................................................................16
2.2.5. Metering of crude at the terminal.....................................................................16
3. STORAGE .....................................................................................................................18
3.1. ONSHORE STORAGE TANKS...............................................................................18
3.1.1. Fixed-roof tanks...............................................................................................18
3.1.2. Floating-roof tanks...........................................................................................22
3.2. FPSO AND FSO......................................................................................................24
3.2.1. Tanks...............................................................................................................25
3.2.1.1. Tank functions............................................................................................25
3.2.1.2. Structure of tanks .......................................................................................26
3.2.1.3. Tank Closed Measurement system............................................................27
3.2.2. Transfer pumps ...............................................................................................28
3.2.3. Tank protection................................................................................................29
3.2.3.1. Inert gas .....................................................................................................29
3.2.3.2. Overpressure and negative pressure .........................................................32
3.2.3.3. Washing .....................................................................................................33
3.2.4. The turret.........................................................................................................33
3.3. LNG STORAGE ......................................................................................................35
3.4. MEASUREMENTS AND PARAMETERS FOR ONSHORE TANKS .......................36
3.4.1. Definitions........................................................................................................37
3.4.2. Level measurement .........................................................................................38
3.4.2.1. Equipment ..................................................................................................38
3.4.2.2. Procedures.................................................................................................39
3.4.2.3. Measurement of interface level with water detection weight if free water
height < 25 cm ........................................................................................................40
3.4.2.4. Measurement with normal tape and weight if free water height > 25 cm....40
3.4.2.5. Water detection compounds.......................................................................41
3.4.3. Measurement of temperature with sampling bottle..........................................41
3.4.3.1. Procedure...................................................................................................41
Training Manual EXP-PR-EQ220-EN

Last revision: 04/06/2007 Page 2 of 89
Equipment
3.4.3.2. Method of measurement using samples from tank:....................................42

3.5. SAMPLES ...............................................................................................................43
3.5.1. Definitions........................................................................................................43
3.5.2. Equipment .......................................................................................................44
3.5.3. Procedure........................................................................................................44
4. SHIPMENT ....................................................................................................................46
4.1. THE PLAYERS IN A SHIPMENT OF CRUDE ........................................................46
4.1.1. The Terminal Crew ..........................................................................................47
4.1.2. The Tanker Crew.............................................................................................48
4.1.2.1. The terminal pilot........................................................................................49
4.1.2.2. The loading master ....................................................................................49
4.1.2.3. Coasting pilots............................................................................................50
4.1.2.4. Inspectors...................................................................................................51
4.1.2.5. Customs and other authorities ...................................................................51
4.2. FPSO LOADING SYSTEM......................................................................................53
4.2.1. Buoys for deep waters.....................................................................................53
4.3. LNG TERMINAL......................................................................................................57
4.4. LOADING ARMS.....................................................................................................59
4.5. TANKERS ...............................................................................................................60
4.5.1. Different types of tanker ..................................................................................60
4.5.2. Methane carriers .............................................................................................61
4.6. LOADING ................................................................................................................63
4.6.1. Loading programme ........................................................................................63
4.6.2. Preparation before loading ..............................................................................63
4.6.2.1. Administrative procedures..........................................................................63
4.6.2.2. Other preparations .....................................................................................64
4.6.2.3. Offloading/loading Plan ..............................................................................64
4.6.3. Start of loading ................................................................................................64
4.6.4. End of loading .................................................................................................65
4.6.5. Lay time...........................................................................................................66
4.6.5.1. Definition ....................................................................................................66
4.6.5.2. Lay time and demurrage ............................................................................67
4.6.5.3. Increase in lay time ....................................................................................67
4.6.5.4. Time not counted .......................................................................................68
4.6.5.5. Time sheet .................................................................................................68
4.6.6. Oil documents .................................................................................................69
4.6.7. Closure of oil loading .......................................................................................69
5. METERING....................................................................................................................71
5.1. THE METERING STAND ........................................................................................73
5.1.1. Description of a typical metering stand............................................................73
5.1.2. Typical example of a metering stand ...............................................................74
6. EXERCISES ..................................................................................................................75
7. GLOSSARY ...................................................................................................................82
8. SUMMARY OF THE FIGURES .....................................................................................83
9. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES .........................................................................................85

Equipment
1. OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this course is to provide a better understanding of the working of oil & gas
storage facilities and terminals in terms of operations for receiving, processing and loading
crude.

Equipment
2. FUNCTIONS OF AN OIL TERMINAL
2.1. THE OIL TERMINAL
An oil terminal is the last component in the oil production chain.
Its presence is justified:
If their is no local consumption of crude.
If local consumption is insufficient.
When the operating sites are remote from the refining and consumption
locations.
If the forecast operation of an oil field or fields is limited in time.
If the capacity of the neighbouring system is insufficient (pipe, processing,

storage).
If a high fee is charged for passage through the system.
For commercial reasons, loss of product value
By oil incompatibilities
There are two types of terminal:
Onshore terminals, with loading at an oil pier (Cap-Lopez, Flotta, Teeside, etc.)
Figure 1: Example of
an onshore
terminal

Equipment
Floating marine terminals F(P)SO Floating (Production,) Storage and

Offloading
Floating marine terminals are:
A dedicated new barge with storage facilities (FPSO Girassol, FSO Palanca,
FSO Unity)
Figure 2: FPSO Girassol
Reconverted old tankers (Serepca 1, Nkossa 1, Odudu, Alba Marina, etc.)
Figure 3: FSO Serepca 1

Equipment
With loading buoy (Flotta-Djeno etc.)
Figure 4: Loading buoy
The principal functions of oil terminals are:
Receiving
Processing
Storage
Shipment
Metering of crude at the terminal
In some cases the functions are limited solely to: storage, shipment and metering of the
production (PALANCA, KOLE, NKOSSA1, etc.)

Equipment
2.2. PRINCIPAL FUNCTIONS
2.2.1. Receiving crude
Functions existing essentially at onshore terminals :
Receiving equipment comprises:
Scraper stations accommodating pipe cleaning scrapers and instrumented

scrapers
Production meters with samplers
Slug Catchers
Fixed-roof receiving drums or buffer drums with a capacity corresponding to 1 or

2 days of production:
Receiving drums provide:
primary separation of products (gas, oil and water) and absorption of major
water plugs which would interfere with the processing operation
metering of the production of oil and water from the fields
preventing production shutdowns caused by momentary stoppages of the

processing systems
preventing terminal treatment shutdown if field production stops
additional flexibility in terms of storage
2.2.2. Crude processing
Processing brings the crude up to commercial specifications:
Water content : 0.5 to 1 % by volume
Transport charges are calculated on the basis of the total quantities (oil + water)
carried. The purchaser must not therefore be penalised.
Salinity : 50 to 100 mg/l due to the salt present in the formation water

Equipment
Refineries have limited desalination capability and accept:
2 to 5 mg/l of salt at input to distillation
0.5 to 1 mg/l of salt at input to distillation with catalytic cracking
60% of refineries have only one desalination stage, with an efficiency of 95%. They can
accept a maximum salinity of approximately 100 mg/l upstream of desalination.
Some 40% of refineries have two-stage desalination with an efficiency of 99%.
Maximum salinity upstream of desalination for a refinery without cracking: 500

mg/l
Maximum salinity upstream of desalination for a refinery with cracking: 100 mg/l
Very few refineries are equipped with three-stage desalination, which is approximately
99.5% efficient.
Refineries have the ability to mix crude in order to reduce excessive salinity levels.
Example of salinity of crude before Rabi processing at Cap Lopez:
Formation water salinity: 300 g/l
Salinity of crude with BSW = 1%: 3000 mg/l
Specifications relating to commercial exports:
RVP = 10 to 12 psi at 37.8º C
BSW ≅ 0.5%
Salinity ≅ 60 mg/l
2.2.2.1. Chemical Treatment
Demulsifiers, injected upstream of equipment which is likely to create or stabilise

emulsions, accelerate aggregation and flocculation by lowering the surface tension at the
water/oil interface.
These demulsifier injections are very often performed on production sites and are not
under the control of the terminal operator. Incorrect injection causes processing problems
which are difficult and lengthy for the terminal to resolve.

Equipment
2.2.2.2. Mechanical treatment
This is based on Stokes' Law (settling speed of water droplets).
Three-phase separators and FWKO's are equipments fitted with a water drain. The
residence time is usually a few minutes. They are designed to eliminate free water (the
case of crudes containing more than 10% of water).
Figure 5: Triphasic separator
Figure 6: Free Water Knock Out

Equipment
Wash-tanks are simple settling tanks equipped with wash water injection, which serves
not only to dilute the salts contained in the formation water but also and primarily to
improve flocculation and aggregation by increasing the probability that water droplets will
meet.
Replaced by desalinators for reasons of space, in particular on platforms.
Contacts de LSHH
niveau LSH
Huile HUILE
Brut
EMULSION
hydraté CELLULE
EAU PDO
Eau
Figure 7: Wash tank
Treaters-heaters are equipments which have a heating section and a settling section.
Residence times in wash-tanks and treaters-heaters can vary from a fraction of an hour to
several hours.
Séparateur de gaz
Huile
Huile Huile
Section
Eau
Section Tube de flamme
Échangeur
Eau de Eau
coalesce libre Émulsion Brûleur
nce
Eau
Entrée
Figure 8: Treater-heater

Equipment
Electric desalinators have a set of electrodes which are brought to a high potential (1000
V/cm over 15 to 30 cm), placed within the emulsion to be treated. This high voltage has
the effect of accelerating flocculation and thus of reducing the residence time to a fraction
of an hour (20 to 30 minutes in general). They cannot operate in the presence of a vapour
phase.
Electric desalinators are the most effective treatment devices.
Figure 9: Electric desalinator
Among the other, marginal, treatment procedures for separating water and crude, we can
mention centrifuges, which are very compact but require significant maintenance.

Equipment
Figure 10: Typical treatment system
1 Demulsifier
2 Wash water (recycled from second stage)
3 1st stage mixing valve
4 Injected wash water (fresh water)
5 2nd stage mixing valve
N.B.: in an arrangement of this type the first stage is primarily used to dewater the crude
while the second reduces the salinity of the residual water contained in the crude
(washing).
2.2.2.3. Treatment operating parameters
The principal parameters are:
Temperature: the higher the temperature, the lower the residual water content.
In the case of paraffinic crudes, there is a minimum temperature below which
the water remains trapped in the crude, whatever the residence time.
Example: Mandji treatment temperature approximately 45 °C, Rabi

approximately 60 °C.

Equipment
Residence time: the residual water content decreases as residence time

increases. Below a certain value (usually of the order of 10 minutes) the water
does not have time to settle, regardless of the temperature.
Example: Residence time in Mandji desalinator: crude 10 minutes, water 45

minutes.
Wash water: in order for washing to be efficient, there must be a sufficient

probability of droplets of wash water meeting those of the formation water, which
requires a quantity of wash water of at least 5%. The recommended level is
generally 7 to 10%. The nature of the wash water is important: with sea water, it
is essential to achieve residual water levels of less than 0.2 or 0.3% in order to
meet salt content standards.
Pressure drops (PD) in the mixing valves: the PD conditions the washing
(contact between formation water and wash water) and dehydration: if the PD
increases, the wash efficiency increases, but the residual water level at the
output from the desalinator also rises. A compromise therefore needs to be
sought between outlet water level, salt content and PD. Optimisation can only be
done in the field.
Level of crude/water interface: by increasing this, we improve aggregation

(higher secondary electric field) and the quality of the separated water. On the
other hand, we reduce the residence time of the crude.
2.2.3. Storage of crude
The storage capacity allows:
accumulation of the volume of crude corresponding to the size of an "average"

tanker: 1,000,000 bbl (Gulf of Guinea)
a tanker with a terminal nomination date to wait for 2 or 3 days.
production to be received while the tanker is being loaded
Final separation of water
Preservation storage for equipment
Additional storage for inspection and maintenance
Product segregation
Shipment to the local refinery
Unusable dead stock

Equipment
Examples of onshore terminals:
Floating-roof tank up to 1,000,000 bbl - Flotta
Floating-roof tank up to 550,000 bbl - Cap-Lopez - Djeno. (2 tanks required to

load tankers of up to 1,000,000 bbl)
An onshore terminal has fewer tanks for a total storage volume greater than of a marine
terminal.
Example of marine terminals:
12 tanks of 190,000 bbl for Girassol
2.2.4. Shipment of crude
2.2.4.1. Loading crude
Shipment is the sales phase and includes several different operations:
Request for loading, administrative formalities
Approach and mooring of tanker
Verifications of the terminal and the tanker prior to loading, survey of tanks
Pumping and monitoring of loading
Verifications of the terminal and the tanker after loading, calculation of quantities
Production of oil documents
Submission of documents and samples
Casting off and tanker departure
Administrative closure of the oil dossier

Equipment
2.2.4.2. Delivery to refinery by pipe-line
Delivery is intermittent, depending on the pumping rate and refinery consumption, and
include various operations:
Verification of storage and metering before the commencement of pumping from

the selected tank
Pumping and dispatch monitoring
Verification of storage and metering immediately after the tank is emptied
Production of documents by fixed volume batches
2.2.5. Metering of crude at the terminal
Every day, the quantities received are calculated by gauging
Comparison with the quantities reported by the different fields.
Differences recorded due to degassing, inaccuracy in "non-commercial" ‘measurements

and sampling, losses, etc..
The official volume of oil to be taken into consideration is that of the terminal.
Calculation of the deviation and distribution of deviations over the quantities reported by
the fields
Daily production = (Stock day d - {Stock day d-1} + Shipments = D Stock day +
Shipments
Monthly production = (Stock end of month - {Stock beginning of month} +

Shipments = D Stock month + Shipments
Average daily production for the month = (D Stock month + Shipments)/number

of days and not (S Daily productions)/number of days

Equipment
Figure 11: Difference between reported and received production
Total of reported productions = 80 + 100 + 60 = 240
Difference = 226 - 240 = -14
Only fields A and C can incur deviation distribution.
Distribution coefficient = - 14 / (80 + 60) = - 0.1.
Hence the production achieved by field A = 80 + 80 x (- 0.1) = 72.
and the production achieved by field C = 60 + 60 x (- 0.1) = 54.
The reconciled balance becomes the following:
Figure 12: Reconciled balance

Equipment
3. STORAGE
3.1. ONSHORE STORAGE TANKS
Tanks are generally cylindrical and of two types i.e. fixed-roof tanks and floating-roof
tanks. In the latter case the roof floats, moving up and down as the level of product in the
tank rises and falls.
Figure 13: Storage tanks
3.1.1. Fixed-roof tanks
Fixed-roof tanks are used for hydrocarbons of low volatility such as degassed crude, fuel
oil or bitumen, which produce low emissions to the atmosphere (the internal pressure in
normal operation is virtually nil).
Their construction is of simple design with a slightly conical or hemispherical roof which is
self-supporting or on posts, with or without a framework.
They are the most economical to install.
The bottom of the tank is made from overlapping steel sheets welded together. It is
designed to empty as completely as possible. The slope to the drain point, which is in the
centre or at the periphery, is from 1 to 2 %.

Equipment
Figure 14: Example of tank foundations
The outer envelope of the tank is made from a vertical stack of welded steel sheets. It is
designed to withstand side forces (tank full of water) and wind and seismic loads.
Figure 15: Outer envelope of tank
The tank is also banded in order to maintain its cylindrical shape.

Equipment
A certain number of equipment on the roof of the tank contribute to operator checks and to
ensuring the safety of the facility:
Vents
Flame-proof breather valves
Gauging well
Sampling tubes
Access walkways
Lightning arrester
Figure 16: Fixed-roof tanks
The outer envelope of the tank also receives a ladder or stairway giving access to the roof,
as well as level monitoring or fire fighting equipment.
Drop lines and blowoff pipes
System delivering fire fighting foam to the interior
Water system for cooling the envelope
Instrumentation (levels, alarms, interface temperature, etc.)
Homogenisation equipment, agitators or circulation nozzles
Connections to the heating system
Earthing points
Manholes
Equipment
Figure 17: Fixed-roof tank

Equipment
3.1.2. Floating-roof tanks
Floating-roof tanks are used for storing the most volatile hydrocarbons.
The product stored must previously be degassed.
In the tank with no roof, a structure is placed which floats on the surface of the liquid in
order to prevent the formation of a gas overhead. This eliminates the vapour space at the
surface in order to reduce evaporation losses, fire risks and atmospheric pollution.
The very large capacity of these tanks can attain 1 million barrels.
Figure 18: Floating-roof tanks
In the same way as fixed-roof tanks, floating-roof tanks have special equipment due to
their technology.
Skids or supporting legs to hold the roof when the tank is empty, a roof ladder and
manholes allowing access to the buoyancy tanks and gauging and sampling tubes.
The roofs are fitted with automatic vacuum relief and foam barrier valves to avoid envelope
collapse and prevent fire inside the tank. Seals ensuring sealing between the roof and
envelope of the tank.
A main drain and a backup drain ensure the removal of rain water.

Equipment
Figure 19: Example of an annular pontoon type floating-roof tank
Equipment on the envelope:
Roof access stairways or ladders
Drop lines (common filling and emptying)
Pipe to remove rain water from roof
Pipe to empty drains at bottom of tank
Fire foam system to roof seal
Water system for cooling the envelope
Overflow windows (with grill to limit loss of foam)
Stiffeners
Instrumentation (levels, LSH alarms, interface, temperature, etc.)
Earthing points
Manholes
Homogenisation equipment, agitators or circulation nozzles

Equipment
3.2. FPSO AND FSO
An FPSO is a Floating Production Storage and Offloading facility. This definition covers a
wide variety of barges used for the offshore production of oil and gas.
More simply, we use the abbreviation FPSO to refer to a unit which includes storage as
well as production facilities.
The term FSO is used to refer to a unit without an additional deck to support a process or
facilities above the main deck. The letter O reports to an oil export function, including the
ability to load in tandem, export to a loading buoy or export to a pipe.
An FPU (Floating Production Unit) is an FPSO with no storage capability.
Figure 20: Principle of an FSO

Equipment
3.2.1. Tanks
3.2.1.1. Tank functions
Tanks are used for different purposes:
Settling tanks
Crude Oil Tanks for the storage of de-gassed crude
Ballast tanks (with forepeak and aft peak tanks)
Slop tanks
Methanol tanks
Utility tanks (diesel, fuel oil, fresh water, etc.)
Structural voids (cofferdams, voids, double walls, etc.)
Figure 21: FPSO tank

Equipment
3.2.1.2. Structure of tanks
The design of tanks is governed by:
The stability of the whole floating unit (e.g. number, size, symmetry,
arrangement, reinforcement)
The manner in which it is used (e.g. filling, protection)
Figure 22: Storage design
On the inside of the tank we find:
Intakes for loading and stripping pumps or submerged pumps
Surface and bottom washing guns
Figure 23: Washing gun
Access for inspection (stairs, walkways, manholes, safety

hoops, etc.) and evacuation (escape way).
Manifolds, drop lines and valves
Structural strengthening of the unit (keelsons, longitudinals,

stringers, etc.)
Instrumentation (TI temperatures, LI levels, PI pressure,

interface and L and P alarms, etc.)

Equipment
Gas atmosphere sampling point
Anodes and surface coatings
On the outside of the tank we find:
Pressure/vacuum (P/V) valves
Inert gas pipes (with isolating system)
Crude Oil Washing pipes (with isolating system)
Drop lines
Manholes and openings
Gauging and sampling points
LI and LAH instrumentation (e.g. radar).
Submerged pump manual control equipment
3.2.1.3. Tank Closed Measurement system
Equipment which permits the following to be done safely, without opening or degassing the
tank:
Measuring tank parameters: Ullage -

Temperature - Interface
Taking oil samples at various levels
Taking gas samples, in particular for

measuring the O2 level at various points
Figure 24: Three-function probe

Equipment
3.2.2. Transfer pumps
These are essential for

totally independent tanks
with no connections other
than those on the deck:
1 (100%) or 2
(50%) pump(s)
per tank
If there is a large
number of
pumps, they are
often hydraulic
rather than
electric
Motor and pump

fitted at the
bottom of the
tank
FRAMO type
hydraulic pumps
which can
receive (inverted)
product at a low
flow rate
Pump functions
include loading,
transfer, removal
of free water,
stripping, tank
washing, etc.
Figure 25: FRAMO type

submerged pump

Equipment
3.2.3. Tank protection
3.2.3.1. Inert gas
Inert gas is used to prevent HC gases and air from meeting
The inert gas system enables:
Storage facilities to be kept under pressure during offloading
An atmosphere with less than 8% of O2 to be maintained in the storage facility
Purging (degassing) of a tank to take place. Hydrocarbon gases are driven out
by the inert gas.
Forcing air out of a tank after working on it and before its return to service
(introduction of hydrocarbon gases).
The inert gas from boilers or from generators is a mixture of nitrogen (77%), CO2 (13%),
water vapour (5%), oxygen (% variable but at least 4%) and various gases in small
quantities.
It is used in all stages of handling in order to reduce the oxygen and hydrocarbon gas
content in the mixture occupying the free space in tanks. The minimum proportion of
oxygen required for combustion is 11.5%.
The flammability limits of a mixture of hydrocarbons depending on the oxygen content are
shown by the shaded area in the Figure.
The straight line A/B is known as the line of critical dilution with air due to the fact that if the
hydrocarbon gas and oxygen contents correspond to points situated under this line, there
is no possibility of an explosion in the event of a sudden inrush of air.
In order to be sure to obtain such a result, when the tanks are empty or ballasted, the
hydrocarbon gas content is kept below 2% and the oxygen content below 5%.

Equipment
% gaz
d'hydrocarbures
Teneur théorique
d'oxygène
dans un mélange
air/hydrocarbures 100 % lecture
explosimètre
20
Zone 18
d'explosivité
16
Trop de gaz 14
d'hydrocarbures
13
12
10
Pas assez
d'oxygène
8
Dillution critique
avec l'air 6
L.S.E. limite
4
supérieure
d'explosivité L.I.E. limite
inférieure
d'explosivité 2
12 1,5 10 8 6 4 2 1,3 0
environ environ
Figure 26: Flammability limits of a mixture of hydrocarbons

Equipment
In simple terms, the inert gas system is used in the following manner:
During offloading
Air must not enter the tanks. Inert gas is therefore introduced at a pressure
slightly above atmospheric (60 to 100 gr). After pump-out, the tanks are
occupied at the top by an inert gas containing approximately 5% of oxygen and
in the lower part by a mixture of inert gas and hydrocarbon vapours. The
hydrocarbon gas content at the bottom can reach 20%.
After offloading
After offloading, the purge

pipes are opened and inert
gas is introduced in order to
reduce the hydrocarbon gas
content to 2%.
Figure 27: Tank purging
During ballasting
The system is stopped, the

rear isolating valve is closed
and the front isolation
valve(s) opened in order to
allow the gas to escape from the tanks.
When sailing in ballast
The empty tanks are purged in order to bring the level of hydrocarbon gases to
below 2% and thus prevent an accidental inrush of air from being able to create
an explosive atmosphere. These operations ?may take ??days?, since only a
few tanks can be purged simultaneously and each purge requires several hours.
The side tanks are purged first. The inert gas injected into the tanks under high
pressure forces the gases towards the mouth of the purge pipe like a piston.
When purging ballasted tanks, the deck orifices used for inserting portable
washing apparatus are opened.
During loading
There is little oxygen in the tanks and in order prevent air from entering the
pressure in tanks is maintained at slightly above atmospheric for the whole
duration of deballasting, after which the system can be stopped. The gases
leaving the tanks do not contain enough oxygen to be flammable, but they mix

Equipment
with the ambient air on leaving the discharge stacks so that before dissipation
into the atmosphere combustible mixtures may form in certain areas.
During loaded sailing
The tanks are kept at a slight pressure of inert gas (not less than 10 gr) and the
oxygen level, which remains in the vicinity of 5%, is monitored.
3.2.3.2. Overpressure and negative pressure
Pressure Valve N° 1
Inert Gas network

IG
generators
Pressure Vacuum
Valve N° 2
Pressure Vacuum
Breaker N° 3
S t o r a g e
Figure 28: Protection against overpressure and negative pressure
There are three ways of protecting storage tanks against overpressure and negative
pressure (not all of them are always installed):
Pressure valve on the degassing mast of the storage facility (all tanks
communicate with the degassing mast)
Pressure Vacuum valve of a tank (not always fitted)
Pressure Vacuum breaker on the inert gas manifold (the manifold communicates
with the degassing mast)

Equipment
3.2.3.3. Washing
Storage tanks are washed with oil or water (sea water, production water or fresh water)
These are cargo, ballast and stripping pumps and pumping ejectors.
Cargo and ballast pumps are of the centrifugal type. They are not self-starting and
therefore must always be filled before being started.
The purpose of tank washing is to:
Correct tank watering (volume too great)
Remove hydrocarbons adhering to walls and stiffeners (initial washing with oil)
Remove sediment from the tank
Remove oil runoff and oil deposits (washing with water)
Minimise inerting time (for degassing) by removing as much oil as possible
3.2.4. The turret
The turret system ensures:
"Weather vaning" anchoring ‘of the F(P)SO.
Receiving production
Transfer of the product to a loading buoy (option)
Receiving gas for Fuel-Gas (option)
Receiving electrical power supply (option)
Hydraulic control of PLEM valves (option)
Position signal for PLEM valves (option)

Equipment
Figure 29: FSO Turret Mooring System

Equipment
3.3. LNG STORAGE
The total storage volume of a methane terminal corresponds to the physical volume of the
LNG storage tanks at the terminal.
Figure 30: LNG storage
The usable volume of storage of a methane terminal is obtained from the difference
between the total volume and the heel volume (the volume which can not be taken out
under normal operating circumstances) and the dead volume which can not be filled under
normal operating circumstances (volume above the alarm levels and volume which can not
be used in order to retain the ability for the LNG to circulate between the different LNG
storage tanks).
The usable storage volume of a methane terminal is obtained by the difference between
the useful storage volume and the storage volume for operational requirements.
The available volume at a given time is the unallocated usable volume which is still
available for users of the methane terminal.

Equipment
3.4. MEASUREMENTS AND PARAMETERS FOR ONSHORE TANKS
Official measurements must be made by experienced personnel using the same method at
the same positions (level and interface). Before taking official measurements, check the
isolation of transfer lines
Measurements must be taken twice and logged (agreement between parties).
Take great care when opening measurement orifices (gas escapes)
Measurement equipment must be carried in a basket in order to allow the

operator to move easily
Do not leave rags lying around, and clean up any oil spillages
Empty drip vessels (level, sampling)
Check the condition of the roof seal
Pocket lamps and torches must be of an approved type
Precautions : For measurements of crude containing H2S and when the operator has to
access the roof, a second operator must stay on the walkway and observe him. Operators
wear breathing apparatus.
The purpose of the specified operating procedures is to obtain samples in order to

determine:
The quality of the liquid or the hydrocarbons.
BSW
Water content
Presence of other impurities which are not normally a part of the liquid
transferred. Sediment content.
Note: If BSW is requested, only the centrifugation method gives this result

Equipment
3.4.1. Definitions
Gauging: operation covering the various measurements taken in a tank in order to

determine the quantity of liquid which it contains
Gauge Chart, Volume Table, Gauge Table: table giving the capacities of a tank or the
volumes contained in a tank corresponding to the different liquid levels noted at the datum
plate and/or the upper reference point.
Innage gage: height of liquid in a tank above the datum plate
Reference height, total reference height: height of the gauging reference point above
the origin point of filling heights
Ullage height: tank capacity not occupied by the liquid
Weighted steel tape : graduated steel tape used for measuring the level of product or
water in the tank, either directly from the innage or indirectly from the ullage
Weight : weight attached to a graduated steel tape, of sufficient weight to keep the tape
under tension and with a shape which facilitates its penetration into the deposits that may
be present at the bottom of the tank
Gauging well: opening at the top of the tank where gauging measurements are taken,
from the innage or the ullage
Stilling Tube: vertical cylindrical tube built into a tank for the purpose of reducing gauging
errors caused by turbulence or stirring of the liquid
Gauging reference point Upper reference point: a clear mark on the gauging well or on
the trap or on a plate situated either above or below the gauging well, indicating the
position (and upper reference point) from which measurements of innage or ullage height
are taken
Lower reference point: a point at the bottom of the tank which the weight touches when
the innage height is measured, and from which measurements were taken. It corresponds
to the datum plate
Free water: water in the tank which is neither in solution nor in suspension in the product
and forms a distinct layer in the tank
Bottom water, water height: height of residual water at the bottom of the tank
Water detection compound: paste containing a chemical substance which changes

colour on contact with water

Equipment
3.4.2. Level measurement
After the transfer of a product, do not start gauging operations until surface movements of
the product have stopped
Check that the roof is not resting on the skids. Roof floating.
Check that the roof is not rubbing against the envelope.
Check the free movement of the roof ladder.
Check that there is no wind that might apply pressure to the roof.
Gauging must not take place during electrical storm activity.
The operator must touch a part of the tank before gauging, in order to earth any static
electricity charges.
3.4.2.1. Equipment
Weighted graduated tapes must be used with a weight. It is advisable to remove the
weight from the tape prior to transport or storage, since the tape may break if constantly
bent at the point of attachment.
The Accuracy (or Maximum Tolerated Error) at any point between the origin mark of the
weighted tape and the 30 m graduation must not deviate by more than 1.5 mm when a
new weighted tape is used and compared with a reference measuring instrument. The
MTE for a weighted tape which has already been used must not deviate by 2.0 mm over
30 m.
The reeling system and weight must be in non-sparking material (bronze).
The tape and reeling system must be connected to earth during use.
Each graduated tape must carry the following information at its lower end:
The number of the present Standard i.e. ISO 4512
The manufacturer's name or brand name
The reference conditions for calibration: temperature and tension
Any other official compliance marking necessary

Equipment
Figure 31: Weighted graduated

tape
Each weight must carry the following markings:
The number of the present international Standard i.e. ISO 4512
Any other official compliance marking necessary
Weight should have a weight of at least 0.6 kg in order that the graduated tape remains
taut with good repetitivity during use. These gauging instruments must be verified
periodically and remain free of any deposits, rust and legible marking.
3.4.2.2. Procedures
Use a standard weighted gauging tape.
Be aware of the reference height in order to anticipate contact with the weight.
Lower the tape carefully through the gauging orifice and keep it against the wall to avoid
swinging.
If the tape becomes slack or the weight deviates from the vertical, wipe an appropriate
length and start again.
Check the tape graduations and the height of the upper reference.
Raise the tape and read the depth at which it is wetted with the product, to the nearest
graduation.
Wipe the tape over a short distance below the value read.
Repeat the measurement.

Equipment
If the second measurement does not agree with the first, take further measurements until
two consecutive measurements give the same result.
Record the results.
3.4.2.3. Measurement of interface level with water detection weight if free

water height < 25 cm
The weight is coated with water detection compound.
swinging. Allow light contact between the weight and the datum plate.
The tape must be kept taut and the weight in a vertical position.
Wait for a sufficient period of time (10 to 30 seconds for change in colour of the
compound).
Raise the tape, withdraw the weight, measure and record the upper limit of the water mark.
If the reading is not clear, remove the compound and repeat the measurement.
If necessary, use a solvent to remove traces of crude before reading.
3.4.2.4. Measurement with normal tape and weight if free water height > 25 cm
Coat the tape with detecting compound at the expected location.
swinging. Allow light contact between the weight and the datum plate.
The tape must be kept taut and the weight in a vertical position.
Wait for a sufficient period of time (10 to 30 seconds for change in colour of the
compound).
Raise the tape, measure and record the upper limit of the water mark.
If the reading is not clear, remove the paste and repeat the measurement.
Equipment
If necessary, use a solvent to remove traces of crude before reading.
3.4.2.5. Water detection compounds
If spread in a thin layer on weights and tapes used for water height measurements, water
detection compounds can be used for measuring the residual water height under a
quantity of an oil product stored in vessels and tanks.
Water detection compounds should indicate the level of product by a clear and precise
change of colour. They should not induce a tendency to show a higher level i.e. indicate a
higher level than the true level.
3.4.3. Measurement of temperature with sampling bottle
Measurement equipment must be carried in a basket in order to allow the operator to

move easily Temperature measurements must be taken immediately after level
measurements. (total height needed to find ‘"high", ‘middle" and ‘low")
3.4.3.1. Procedure
Temperature measurements are taken at more than 500 mm from the walls of the tank.
The rope used for lowering equipment must be in natural fibre: synthetics must never be
used in order to avoid static electricity.
Each thermometer must be marked with a serial number which is recorded in the
calibration certificate.
The thermometer must be checked at regular intervals or at any time if there is doubt as to
its readings.
Scrap any thermometer which is damaged, has a broken liquid column, bubbles of gas in
the bulb, etc.
The use of a metal-reinforced case is recommended for the proper protection of the
thermometer. Do not use an aluminium or aluminium alloy case.
The scale range must be such that the expected temperature of the liquid is more than 1º
C from the extreme (min and max) graduations.
For a correct reading the axis of vision must be at a right angle to the shaft of the
thermometer. The bulb must remain submerged.

Equipment
The sampling bottle should have at least a certain volume in order to prevent rapid
temperature changes. Recommended volume > 500 ml.
The thermometer is lowered in the stoppered bottle.
When the required level is reached, tug the cord to open the bottle.
Allow the bottle to fill and to reach temperature (wait 10 minutes).
Raise the bottle.
3.4.3.2. Method of measurement using samples from tank:
Take the thermometer out of the sample.
If possible, keep the bottle in the well during the reading, away from the ambient
conditions.
Read the temperature to within one half of the smallest graduation of the thermometer.
Calculate the average of the temperatures measured, rounding the result to the nearest
0.1º C.

Equipment
3.5. SAMPLES
Safe access must be provided to the sampling points, with appropriate lighting.
Access ladders, stairways, platforms and hand rails must be in good condition.
Sampling equipment used in a flammable atmosphere must be made from a material

which does not produce sparks. The sampling device must be permanently connected to
earth, either by direct earthing to the structure of the tank or by efficient contact between
the rope and the access trap.
It is advisable not to take samples during periods of electrical storm activity
Do not start sampling until the contents of the tank are still.
Check that equipment is clean before using it. Carefully inspect all the sampling
equipment, including closures, in order to check that the equipment is clean and dry.
Cork stoppers must be of good quality and free from debris and dust. Do not use natural
rubber stoppers.
Cork stoppers should not be re-used for different types of product, since they are difficult
to clean and hydrocarbon contamination into the cork can contaminate subsequent
samples (quality of product).
In the case of floating-roof tanks, sampling from the top platform is recommended, as
flammable and toxic vapours may accumulate above the roof. The nature and known
dangers of the product to be sampled must be taken into careful consideration and the
specified precautions complied with.
Personnel who undertake sampling must receive full training.
3.5.1. Definitions
Low sample: Individual sample taken at a level situated relative to the surface at five
sixths of the depth of the liquid.
Middle sample, average sample: Individual sample taken at the middle of the depth of
liquid.
High sample: Individual sample taken at a level situated relative to the surface at one
sixth of the depth of the liquid.
Bottom sample: Individual sample taken from the bottom or near the bottom of the tank.
Bottom water sample: Individual sample of free water taken from under the layer of oil
product in the tank.

Equipment
Surface sample: Individual sample taken at the surface of the liquid.
Floating roof sample: individual sample taken from under the surface for the purpose of
determining the density of the liquid on which the floating roof is resting.
Sample representative of tank: Sample whose physical and chemical characteristics are
identical to the average characteristics of the total volume sampled (mixture of 3 high,
middle and low samples or of 2 high and low samples)
Composite tank sample: Sample obtained by combining several representative samples

in defined proportions (proportional to the volumes pumped from the tanks) in order to
result in a ‘representative" sample of all of the product, referred to as composite.
Water in suspension: Water finely dispersed in the form small droplets within the oil
product.
Total water: Total of all dissolved, free and water in suspension in a cargo or a batch of oil
product.
3.5.2. Equipment
In an onshore oil terminal individual sampling is

done in the open air. The sampler is designed to
be filled to any level. The sampling bottle or can
is lowered in a basket or weighted so that it
settles easily into the liquid being sampled.
Figure 32: Taking samples
3.5.3. Procedure
Lower the vessel to the desired depth and open

it in the appropriate manner.
Wait a few seconds for complete filling.
Then raise the vessel:
Throw part of its contents back into the tank in order to allow space for the liquid
to expand.
Or carefully transfer all of the sample into a secondary vessel.
When taking samples at different levels, proceed from high to low in order to avoid
disturbing the lower levels.
Equipment
Label the sample vessels legibly, prefer using labels attached with string or steel wire. Use
indelible marking.
Samples must then be sealed, stored and conserved by the terminal.
The recommended markings are:
sampling location
date
initials or identification mark of operator
description of product
quantity represented by the sample
name of tank, of packaging (and type), name of ship
type of sample
the sampling system or sampler used
any additional sampling information

Equipment
4. SHIPMENT
4.1. THE PLAYERS IN A SHIPMENT OF CRUDE
Several entities are involved in the operation of a terminal:
Production and Production Methods.
Permanent contact for adjusting production flow rate, events (modification of

flow, quality, etc.) in fields and on terminal
Trading
Participates in producing the liftings schedule and changes to schedule

(quantity, date of liftings, change of ship, etc.)
HSE
Provides support and assistance for loading at the jetty and in tandem, in
particular
Laboratory
For determining product quality before loading and dispatch and for official
product analyses
Marine Logistics
For mobilising maritime assistance and tugs
Tugs
Assists the tanker during approach, berthing and departure Up to 3 in tandem +

1 standby at FPSO (spread moored)
Pilot
Assists the Captain, as for any entry into port
Coasting pilots
Terminal personnel for preparing the station for loading (pier, tandem or buoy)
Take part in passing hawsers, flexible hoses, and connections Similarly for
operations on completion of loading: disconnecting flexible pipes and hawsers
etc.

Equipment
Air logistics
Provides transport for the authorities and loading personnel
Transit
Initiates the oil dossier with the authorities Makes official liftings clearance
applications to the authorities
Partnership Representative
Involved when liftings are done on behalf of a partner
Refinery
Coordinates crude shipment and pumping operations
Shipping Agent
Represents the vessel ashore, provides logistics if required, supplies, mail, crew
relief Invites the authorities for loading
Immigration and Health
Checks the crew of a tanker entering the country
Customs and Department of Transport
Inspect the vessel and its provisions, issue loading clearances and check the
products exported
Port and Harbourmaster's Office
Gives clearance for tanker entry and loading
Cargo Surveyor
Cargo inspectors (1 at terminal and 1 on tanker) who check the quantities

dispatched from the terminal and loaded on the tanker Nominated by the
Purchaser and Trading
4.1.1. The Terminal Crew
The loading crew generally includes:
a representative of the operating organisation

Equipment
a safety agent
security
a laboratory operator
the Authorities (National Company inspector)
a cargo inspector who undertakes the following activities in close collaboration

with the Terminal Crew:
recording of mechanical meters
monitoring of sampling
monitoring the various calibrations
analysis, labelling and sealing of samples
signature of sampling report
various checks between the metering stand, the mechanical meters and
gauging figures
approval of figures
The presence of cargo inspectors at all the above-mentioned operations and their
certificate of attendance with signatures on inspection, calculation and analysis documents
is a safeguard in the event of a dispute.
4.1.2. The Tanker Crew
This crew is generally composed of:
a pilot
a loading master (or assistant pilot)
Authorities (National Company inspector)
1 cargo inspector
customs officers
coasting pilots

Equipment
4.1.2.1. The terminal pilot
He assists the captain with controlling the vessel at the entrance to and exit from the
piloting zone and for all movements inside the zone. During the vessel's period at the
loading berth, he remains aboard on permanent standby. It is clear that the pilot is simply a
maritime adviser and the captain remains fully responsible for any damage or accidents
resulting from the control or movements of his vessel.
Orders a towing hawser to be attached to the stern of the tanker for safe tug.
Asks the captain to order his crew to keep watch at the bow of the tanker and the manifold
and to be informed of the slightest problem.
Checks that safety precautions are taken (portholes closed, fire hoses installed and
connected, fire circuit under pressure, scuppers closed, .) in accordance with the safety
check-list.
Watches deballasting and patrols the vessel frequently to check that there is no pollution.
If pollution occurs, takes the necessary measures to stop and combat it and issues a
pollution reservations letter to the captain.
After deballasting, attends tank inspections with the inspectors and the first officer and only
accepts what can be verified.
Asks the terminal, with the permission of the customs inspector, to unseal and open the
customs valves in the terminal.
Checks with the tanker captain that the circuits on the vessel are correctly arranged.
After having informed the Captain and the Terminal, gives the OK for pumping to begin.
4.1.2.2. The loading master
When piloting is carried by a pilot from the port, the loading master is the company's
representative aboard the tanker. His role is more important than when piloting is provided
by the ‘terminal. As terminal's representative aboard the tanker, he ensures, with the help
of the pilot, that all operations are conducted in accordance with the safety rules.
He is in constant radio contact with the Terminal Supervisor.
As soon as he boards the tanker, he checks the following in the company of the pilot, the
first officer and the boatage chief:
the mooring system
the operational state of lifting equipment, otherwise mooring is refused

Equipment
He chooses the fairleads used for the mooring lines and the bollards round to which the
stoppers are attached.
Checks that the rigging equipment is in good condition: if in doubt, asks for the derrick or
crane inspection certificate.
Checks the proper inerting of tanks and if in doubt orders testing with an explosimeter in
the tanks.
Hands to the captain the following forms to be completed and signed:
safety measures
vessel information
port and safety rules (vessel visiting for the first time)
safety check list
the captain's declaration certifying that he has received the port and safety rules
and that he accepts them without reservation
The loading master obtains the following information from the captain:
the quantity requested by the vessel in accordance with the charterer's

instructions
the ballast and duration of deballasting
on slops for on top loading
Checks the correction operation of transmitter-receivers. Hands a transmitter-receiver to

the pilot (port pilot)
Assists the pilot for mooring, from the bow of the ship, telling the pilot the approach
distances and the position of the buoy.
4.1.2.3. Coasting pilots
(when connection of flexible pipes is done by coasting pilots)
Before mooring:
they position the stoppers on the tanker, tripping lines at the forecastle and
tackles on the manifold

Equipment
they position hawsers as the vessel approaches
they assist the crew in handling hawsers and in operating windlasses,
they set out chains
After mooring, they connect flexible pipes to the vessel manifold.
Coasting pilots remain on the ship throughout loading in order to intervene rapidly for
emergency casting off or in the event of leakage at the manifold. When loading is
complete, they disconnect the flexible pipes.
They are responsible for informing the Loading Master of any difficulties encountered
during the operation.
4.1.2.4. Inspectors
The inspectors are responsible for:
inspecting the tanks of the ship before and after loading
inspecting the bunkering tanks
calculating On Board Quantity (OBQ)
recording trim and list
inspecting the cargo bunkers
they close the sea cocks after deballasting and take samples from the tanks
Tank inspections take place in the presence of the Loading Master (or terminal pilot).
4.1.2.5. Customs and other authorities
They carry out health boarding and verify:
the maritime declaration of health
crew and passenger vaccination certificates
and passports
They also verify:
accuracy of the manifest (document issued by the Shipping Agent)

Equipment
stores of equipment, supplies, etc.
When loading is complete they sign:
the manifest
The Certificate of Origin

Equipment
4.2. FPSO LOADING SYSTEM
4.2.1. Buoys for deep waters
A floating loading buoy comprises a surface unit, risers which link the surface unit to a
submerged pontoon and a mooring system which fixes the buoy to the sea bed at
approximately 1.5 km from the FPSO.
Figure 33: FPSO and loading buoy
A polyester cable is connected by chains to suction anchors, each line comprising a 1.5
km polyester line with a diameter of 145 mm and two 300 metre lengths of chain at the
bottom and 150 metre lengths at the top, at least one attaching point for transfer pipelines
from the production unit to the buoy, with transfer and mooring systems for transferring the
fluid from the buoy to a tanker.

Equipment
The proportion of the volume of the

pontoon section divided by the zone of the
flotation line of the surface unit is situated
between 4 and 7 m, and preferably
approximately 6 m, and the submerged
part of the surface unit divided by the
submerged part of the pontoon section is
equivalent to approximately 0.31 to 0.43.
The vertical mooring stiffness of the loading buoy is more than 50% of the stiffness of the
flotation line of the loading buoy.
Once the buoy is in position, the way is free to install the loading pipelines leaving from the
FPSO. In order to avoid having to lay them on the sea bed and then raising them up to the
buoy, a system of floating lines is preferred.
Two 16-inch steel lines in the shape of a

W float one above the other, the higher
one being 2400 metres long and the
deeper one 2750 metres.
Figure 35: Connection lines between

FPSO and buoy
A series of 29 flotation modules fixed at the centre section of these pipelines gives them
this particular shape. In normal operations, the highest part of the W for the upper line is at
a depth of 340 metres, while the most deeply submerged part of the lower line is at 690
metres.
Figure 36: Floating pipe
The pipes under the buoys must be designed so as to form in all conditions a profiled
curve between the bottom manifold and the underside of the buoy, without touching the
sea bed. The pipes under the buoy must be provided with electrical discontinuity. All pipes
and ancillary equipment, including flange bolts and seals, must comply with "Buoy Mooring
Forum Hose Guide".
Equipment
The floating pipes must be connected to the buoy pipework such that the loads on the
pipes are below the manufacturer's tolerances. Particular attention must be paid to the
effects of icing on the floatability of the pipes.
The maximum load on a mooring line connecting a ship to a buoy must not exceed forty
per cent (40%) of the breaking strength of the line. This line must be the weakest link in
the system.
Flexible pipes must be fitted with Marine Breakaway Couplings.

Equipment
HOSE SPRING SLEEVE CAPILLARIES HOSE SECTION

SECTION PLUG RETAINING RING
CANTILEVER ESCAPING
SPRINGS SLEEVE
CONTROL FLUID
SO12812/MMM99002.009-B/0
Figure 38: Breakaway couplings with automatic shut-off

Equipment
4.3. LNG TERMINAL
Considered independently of the storage volume and regasification facilities, the receiving
capacity of a methane terminal is characterised by the maximum theoretical arrival
frequency of tankers and the size of those tankers:
The maximum theoretical arrival frequency of tankers at the pier is one vessel every 3
tides. This maximum theoretical frequency takes account of the maritime conditions of
access to the port and the time required for mooring and offloading the ship. It is a peak
capability which cannot be sustained under operational conditions.
The capacities of a methane terminal are:
The receiving capacity
The LNG storage capacity
The LNG regasification capacity
Figure 39: LNG Terminal

Equipment
The total regasification capacity of the methane terminal is determined by the technical
characteristics of the LNG regasification equipment, taking account of the technical
reserve capacities designed to increase the continuity of service of regasification.
The usable regasification capacity is obtained by the difference between the total
regasification capacity and the regasification capacities for operational requirements.
Figure 40: Regasification capacity of the methane terminal
The available regasification capacity of a methane terminal at a given moment is obtained

by the difference between the usable regasification capacity of the methane terminal and
the regasification capacity of the terminal already allocated to terminal users.
The theoretical maximum number of slots which a pier can receive per year depends on
the receiving frequency that the pier can achieve under operational conditions according to
the following table:
Receiving frequency under operational conditions > Theoretical maximum number of slots
per year
1 vessel every 4 tides > 176

Equipment
4.4. LOADING ARMS
"Marine" arms are one of the key elements in port facilities for loading and offloading oil,
chemical and liquefied gas products.
A loading arm is an assembly of articulated pipes fitted with

Quick Connect/Disconnect Couplers, Quikcon manual
couplers, microprocessor-based PMS (Position Monitoring
System), Emergency Release System, vapour return lines,
etc. This equipment reinforces the safety of the facility.
Figure 41: Loading arm
The different models available, in manual or hydraulic

versions, meet the specific requirements of particular
applications: vessel tonnage, tidal variations, wind conditions,
seismic risks, type of product transferred (temperature and
pressure), etc.
In type "S" (supported)

marine arms for LNG, the
product line is part of the
outer section of the arm and
is separated from the inner
pipe, which enables the
structure to absorb
mechanical loads and thus
limits the forces created by
the product transfer line.
Figure 42: “S” type marine

arm

Equipment
4.5. TANKERS
4.5.1. Different types of tanker
Tankers are classified according to their carrying capacity measured in tonnes of crude.
1000 tonnes of crude corresponds to the quantity carried by 40 tanker lorries.
Figure 43: Tankers
The smallest have a capacity of less than 30,000 tonnes and in some cases the capacity is
only a few hundred tonnes. They are mainly used for carrying finished (refined) products
such as gasoline along coasts (coaster ships).
Aframax vessels can carry approximately 80,000 tonnes of crude. They are usually
employed in regional traffic.
Suezmax ships go up to 180,000 tonnes. Their name refers to the maximum capacity of
ships which can use the Suez Canal, the quickest maritime route between the Arabian
Peninsula and Europe.
VLCC's (Very Large Crude Carriers) have capacities that can reach 250,000 to 300,000
tonnes.
ULCC's (Ultra Large Crude Carriers) have a capacity in excess of 300,000 tonnes and up
to 500,000 tonnes. The largest ever built has a capacity of 550,000 tonnes, which
represents 2 days of French crude consumption!
VLCC's and ULCC's are ocean-going carriers. These supertankers were built in order to
reduce the cost of transporting crude.

Equipment
Figure 44: Supertankers
We should note however that the use of ULCC's is limited, partly due to their size: it is
sometimes difficult for them to enter port or tie up for offloading.
The crude is carried inside the hull of the ship, which is divided into compartments forming
separate tanks in order in particular to be able to carry different products. These tanks are
coated with special paint to prevent corrosion or cargo contamination. Tankers also have
tanks dedicated to carrying ballast water. Ballast tanks never carry cargo. They allow
water to be carried so that the vessel remains stable when empty.
Historically, tankers were initially single-hulled. All vessels built at present have tanks
surrounded by a second layer of steel plate separated from the outer hull of the ship by a
sufficient gap (double hull).
Thus if an accident makes a hole in the outer hull, the "second hull" is not affected and any
pollution is prevented. In the event of a collision at high speed, however, the system may
unfortunately not suffice to be sure of avoiding an oil spill. The downside of this extra
safety is that inspections of the vessel structure between the hulls, in order to verify that
they are in good condition, are made more difficult.
4.5.2. Methane carriers
LNG vessels have double hulls in

steel which is almost 20 mm thick.
The gap between the inner and outer
hulls is approximately three metres.
As an additional precaution, the
cargo tanks are never placed close to
the hull of the ship.
Figure 45: Methane carriers

Equipment
The product is transported by ships known as methane carriers, which store the liquid in
adiabatic tanks. Since the insulation is not perfect, the liquid methane evaporates during
the voyage and is recovered by a small compressor and used in the ship's propulsion
system, which generally consists of steam boilers burning a mixture of this gas and fuel oil.
Most methane carriers have a capacity of

approximately 140,000 cubic metres of
LNG (about 70,000 tonnes), corresponding
to 87 million cubic metres of gas under
standard conditions.
Figure 46: Carrying LNG
Regasification terminals receive methane

carriers and transfer their cargoes into onshore tanks. The liquid methane is regasified
according to the demand from the natural gas system in the consumer country. In addition
to importing gas, these terminals also regulate the gas system of the receiving country.

Equipment
4.6. LOADING
4.6.1. Loading programme
The programme for a month depends on production forecasts, inventory level and the
availability of the production facilities. These parameters are communicated to Trading and
the partners in order to programme a vessel and estimate the fees to be charged to the
partners.
The proposed choice of ship is communicated to Trading at least two weeks before
loading. The terminal is asked for its opinion on the selection.
The following instructions must be given at least 5 days prior to liftings:
Name and characteristics
Date of acceptance and date of arrival
Quantity to be loaded
+/- 5 % decided by the vessel in general or by the terminal if it does

not have the quantity requested.
Or Q max. not to be exceeded (bank letter of credit)
Consignor - Consignee - Cargo destination

Number of batches
List of documents and consignees
Nomination of cargo inspectors
Shipping Agent
4.6.2. Preparation before loading
4.6.2.1. Administrative procedures
The Transit Department : receives from the Terminal information for producing the
loading clearance under customs supervision and the provisional export application to be
submitted to Customs (name, date, provisional quantity).
The Customs Department: signs applications for supervision and provisional export.
These documents give permission for loading.

Equipment
The Immigration, Health and Harbourmaster's Department: for vessel clearance.
The Shipping and Forwarding Agent:
Contact with the Terminal gives ETA of vessel at 72h, 48h and 24h
Contact with the ship, carries out administrative formalities for the vessel and its
crew (mail, reliefs, supplies, health care, etc.).
Issues notifications to: the authorities, cargo inspectors, etc.
The Cargo Inspectors (at least 2: for terminal and ship).
4.6.2.2. Other preparations
The Marine Logistics Department: for provision of assistance, coasting pilot, pilot, tug,
help boat, etc.
The Laboratory: cargo quality control prior to loading, official analysis of samples.
Safety: installation and inspection of safety equipment, particularly for docking and loading
in tandem.
Maintenance: checks electrical consumption, inspects pumping systems
The works: appropriateness of works. Stops hot works, inspects facility.
4.6.2.3. Offloading/loading Plan
A loading plan is then given to the ship, including terminal parameters (flow rate,
temperature, density, quantity, quality, etc. The captain in turn issues technical documents
concerning loading: (flow, deadweight, number and diameter of lines, quantity requested,
mooring system, etc.) in order to predict the duration of loading
4.6.3. Start of loading
At a reduced flow rate, after checking that there is no leakage from the loading lines or the
manifold, the terminal can increase the loading flow rate.
Aboard the tanker the loading master (or terminal pilot) and coasting pilots (or assistant
pilot) carry out frequent patrols by day and by night, in order to ensure that instructions in
the safety check-list are followed and that the crew keeps a look-out at the bow and the
manifold.

Equipment
Any shortcoming or violation will result in a verbal warning to the captain. If the violation is
repeated and the conduct of operations under normal conditions is threatened, loading can
be suspended and a letter of reservations issued to the captain.
Tank loading is an operation which can

give rise to delicate situations with
abnormally high pressures and risks of
pumping shut-down. The loading master
is present when tanks are changed or
valves actuated.
Particular attention must be given to tank

surveillance: (normal roof descent,
absence of friction with envelope, no
accumulation of water on the roof, normal
ladder movement, etc.).
Figure 47: Loading a tanker
Periodic checks of quantities loaded compared with those on the ship (avoid full vessel
tanks, unexplained losses of quantity, etc.).
Similarly, from the ship, sailors shall watch the quality of simultaneous deballasting,
mooring line(s) tight, sea state, weather, behaviour of the buoy, flexible pipes and tug, etc.
4.6.4. End of loading
The terminal will start to reduce the loading flow rate (note: reduced number of tanks on
board) before finally stopping the transfer with the agreement of the vessel:
If Q to be loaded +/- 5 % in principle: stop in general by vessel unless previous

agreement.
If Q max. not to be exceeded (bank letter of credit): shut-down by the terminal.
Operations for recovery of parameters will commence by:
The metering/sampling stand with the inspectors and other authorities.
Gauging, temperature, bottom water with the inspectors and other authorities.
From the vessel, with the disconnection of the flexible loading pipes, operations to check
the tanks and the trim and list of the ship.
Equipment
Operations for getting under way will take place as rapidly as possible, as soon as loading
pipes/arms have been disconnected for safety reasons.
The pilot orders:
closure of valves at the terminal
availability of crew for disconnecting flexible pipes
4.6.5. Lay time
4.6.5.1. Definition
When the ship has arrived in the normal waiting area of the Terminal, is in compliance with
Terminal regulations, and is in all respects ready to carry out commercial operations, the
captain of the vessel issues a Notice of Readiness, whether the loading berth is free or
not.
The lay time starts to run:
If the Notice of Readiness is issued before the loading period commences, at

the earliest of the following times: - at 0600 hours local time on the first day of
the loading period, or when loading begins.
The Terminal is not obliged to load before the start of the loading period unless
this suits the Terminal for stock or operational reasons. The lay time will in this
case start at 0600 hours local time on the first day of the period, or when loading
starts if this occurs beforehand.
If the Notice is presented between the limiting dates of the loading period: 6
(SIX) hours after the Notice is issued, or at the start of loading if this has started
before expiry of the period of six hours.
If the Notice is presented after the last day of the loading period, the vendor is
no longer obliged to supply the crude which was to be loaded unless he accepts
this, in which case the lay time commences at the start of loading.
The lay time ends in all cases when the flexible loading pipes are disconnected. (if the
flexible pipes remain connected during the on-board inspection after loading, this results in
continuation of the lay time).
Detailed knowledge of the port regulations and the lifting agreement is required, since not
all regulations are the same and some can be more restrictive for ships requiring loading.
The port is considered to be closed outside these hours. If the NOR is presented outside
this period, it is deemed to have been presented at 0600 hours local time on the following
day.
Equipment
Any vessel which presents its NOR after 1600 hours local time on the last day of the
agreed loading period will be deemed to have arrived after the agreed loading period.
4.6.5.2. Lay time and demurrage
Conventional conditions specify that the lay time allocated to the Terminal operator is
equal to half of the total lay time i.e. 36 hours, including Sundays, public holidays and
nights, unless loading is prohibited on Sundays and public holidays or during the night by
the laws and regulations in force at the Loading Terminal.
Laytime is said not to be reversible; the time is allocated for each port and there is no
cumulative effect.
If lay times are reversible, the times effectively spent in each port for loading and
offloading operations are cumulative. If there is a claim for payment of penalties because
of the time being exceeded, Trading must be contacted in order to determine what clause
figures in the charter party.
This case may be advantageous if offloading operations take less than 36 hours because
it allows the payment of less or no demurrage. Note that this information must always be
asked for, since it is not systematically given.
4.6.5.3. Increase in lay time
It is interesting to note (and this is not always known or taken into account) that the lay
time can be increased in the following two cases:
The purchaser must ensure that the terminal is informed by letter, radio or
telegram of the expected date and time of arrival of the ship at least 72, 48 and
24 hours in advance, or in any other manner specified in the rules and
regulations applicable at the Loading Terminal.
Failure to send one or the specified notifications will increase the lay time
allowed to the Terminal by a number of hours equal to the difference between
the time at which the vessel should have sent the notification(s) and the effective
time of sending, although the total increase in lay time can not exceed 24 hours.
By 4 additional hours for each different quality of crude loaded by the vendor
onto the vessel at the same loading berth, subject to other provisions in force at
the Loading Terminal.

Equipment
4.6.5.4. Time not counted
Any time elapsing because of one of the events listed below will not be taken into account
as lay time, or as demurrage if the vessel is already in demurrage:
Delay by the ship in arriving at or leaving its loading berth for reasons which are
beyond the control of the Operator (vendor): (engine fault, problem with raising
anchor or any technical or other problem which is inherent to the collector and
where the responsibility of the terminal is not incurred)
Waiting for tugs, a pilot or dawn.
Any loss of time due to the ship, in particular any delay by the ship in the loading
operations, including delay caused by unsuitable equipment which does not
allow the agreed cargo to be loaded within the time allotted
Loading ban applied at any time by the purchaser, owner, charterer or ship's
captain or by the Loading Terminal authorities
Delay caused by poor weather or sea conditions
Deballasting if this does not take place simultaneously with loading operations. If
it takes place simultaneously but necessitates a reduced rate of loading, account
will be taken of this pro rata temporis
Offloading ballast or slops
Waiting for clearance from Customs or Immigration, or for a Clean Bill of Health,
or waiting at the request of other local Authorities
Delay caused by priority given to another vessel for the needs of the local
market.
4.6.5.5. Time sheet
What we have said above illustrates the importance of a document which is vital in cases
of demurrage: the TIME SHEET.
The demurrage calculation is based on this document, which is issued on completion of

loading and sometimes in a hurry.
The Time Sheet, signed by the captain and the Terminal representative, requires great
care.
It is common for each party to produce its own Time Sheet for signature by the other.

Equipment
It is not uncommon to see Time Sheets signed by the same people but showing different
times.
When demurrage is paid, each party will produce the most advantageous Time Sheet,
which is a source of disputes.
Remember to note the time taken for deballasting at a reduced loading flow rate ordered
by the collector, together with any waiting or stoppages and the reasons.
4.6.6. Oil documents
The Loading Master (or terminal pilot) is responsible for having the documents signed by:
the captain
the Customs inspector (manifests and certificates of origin)
the authorities
He distributes the documents and samples in accordance with documentary procedures.

Receives and issues letters of reservations.
He hands the documents in an envelope to the captain.
He is in constant radio contact with the Terminal throughout the duration of the operations.
4.6.7. Closure of oil loading
After loading, a loading telex is sent
Presentation of dossier, verification, preparation and dispatch by express courier to the

persons concerned no later than 48 hours after loading.
The Loading Master:
produces a brief report indicating the events which occurred during loading
calculates demurrage
issues the re-invoicing order so that the vessel owner is invoiced for the
assistance of the service boat and any other costs charged to the vessel (port
charges)
completes statistical forms, buoy occupation, Vessel/Shore difference, tanker

form and miscellaneous observations on the vessel.

Equipment
On receiving the final invoice, the Loading Master verifies the customs dossier, which
means attaching the following documents to the declaration:
4 export domiciles
1 final invoice
1 copy of the ministerial clearance
1 copy of bill of lading
1 certificate of quality and quantity
1 time sheet
1 ullage report
1 document distribution list
1 receipt for sample
1 loading manifest
1 certificate of origin
1 certificate of exemption
After entering the provisional declaration, the Loading Master checks and signs the D6
Declaration and delivers it to the office of the head of computer links for transmission to
Customs for signature and to the Hydrocarbons Inspection Department for registration and
verification.
The Hydrocarbons Inspection Department sends one copy of the licence back to the
exporter.

Equipment
5. METERING
Metering can be divided into two aspects:
The commercial domain, which includes contracts, purchases, sale and

transport.
This domain is also called: allocation metering and transaction metering.
They measure the liquid and gas quantities which are allocated to each partner
or sold. The metering systems and their methods of use must be approved by
the parties involved: partner, vendor, purchaser, carrier, official bodies, etc.
The technical domain is an activity conducted by the operating organisation

which supplies information to various users (deposit, operations) for:
Monitoring of fields and wells
Production reports: effluents produced, discharged, dispatched,

injected and consumed. These reports can be produced by well, by
platform and by field.
The operation and inspection of facilities
This domain is also called: internal metering.
It only fulfils a technical requirement.
Example : in order to undertake Reservoir-Deposit studies, we need to know the

water and oil production of each well.
When we talk about metering, we often think of the metering stands which meter the oil
before it is exported.
The following diagram shows the routing of the fluid, which passes successively from
storage to the metering stand then, after a pressure increase applied by pumps, goes
finally to the loading buoy to which the tanker is connected.

Equipment
Figure 48: Routing of oil stored on the Girassol FPSO to the metering stand

Equipment
5.1. THE METERING STAND
The design and/or operation of the metering facilities (measurements and calculation of
quantities) requires account to be taken of the physical characteristics and properties of
the fluids metered.
Insofar as technical metering is concerned with quantities and metering conditions, but
also with the quantities obtained under different conditions, the variations in properties
depending on treatment conditions, or simply on the pressure and temperature, also have
to be understood.
5.1.1. Description of a typical metering stand
A liquid metering stand comprises:
an inlet manifold
parallel metering lines with volumetric or turbine meter and a flow conditioner (for
turbines), measurements of pressure and temperature, isolating and flow control
valves
an output manifold,
a calibration loop with a calibration tube section of known volume delimited by one
or two pairs of sphere detectors and a sphere launching trap. The fluid is directed
by one or more valves. (4-way for a bi-directional loop)
one or more metering computers
Figure 49: Calibration loop

Equipment
5.1.2. Typical example of a metering stand
Figure 50: Metering stand on Girassol
The metering stand shown above comprises:
3 lines to carry the flow of oil dispatched, each line being composed of:
1 filter
1 flow straightener
1 turbine meter
1 calibration stand
1 by-pass
Equipment
6. EXERCISES
1. What are the principal functions of oil terminals?
2. What equipment is essentially present on onshore terminals?
3. What are the 2 most important treatments applied to the crude on the terminal?
4. Who are the main players in the terminal?

Equipment
5. What is the role of the pilot?
6. What is the purpose of a fixed-roof tank?
7. What are the main components of a fixed-roof tank?
8. What is the purpose of floating-roof tanks?

Equipment
9. Give a graphical representation of a floating-roof tank
10. In terms of measurement, what do we mean by "gauging"?

Equipment
11. Describe the procedure for measuring the level in a floating-roof tank
12. At what minimum distance from the walls should the temperature in a tank be
measured?
13. What is the purpose of analysing samples from a tank?
14. What precautions should be taken when sampling?

Equipment
15. What does FPSO mean?
16. What are the functions of the Turret on a floating barge?
17. What is the purpose of inert gas injection on a barge?
18. What are the different types of tank on barges?

Equipment
19. What is the function of loading buoys?
20. What safety system is responsible for avoiding marine pollution in the event of rupture
of flexible loading pipes?
21. What is a VLCC and a ULCC?
22. From how many sections is an LNG terminal constructed?
23. What does lay time mean?

Equipment
24. What is the purpose of metering on a terminal?

Equipment
7. GLOSSARY

Equipment
8. SUMMARY OF THE FIGURES

Figure 1: Example of an onshore terminal ...........................................................................5
Figure 2: FPSO Girassol......................................................................................................6
Figure 3: FSO Serepca 1 .....................................................................................................6
Figure 4: Loading buoy ........................................................................................................7
Figure 5: Triphasic separator .............................................................................................10
Figure 6: Free Water Knock Out ........................................................................................10
Figure 7: Wash tank...........................................................................................................11
Figure 8: Treater-heater.....................................................................................................11
Figure 9: Electric desalinator .............................................................................................12
Figure 10: Typical treatment system ..................................................................................13
Figure 11: Difference between reported and received production .....................................17
Figure 12: Reconciled balance ..........................................................................................17
Figure 13: Storage tanks....................................................................................................18
Figure 14: Example of tank foundations ............................................................................19
Figure 15: Outer envelope of tank .....................................................................................19
Figure 16: Fixed-roof tanks ................................................................................................20
Figure 17: Fixed-roof tank..................................................................................................21
Figure 18: Floating-roof tanks ............................................................................................22
Figure 19: Example of an annular pontoon type floating-roof tank.....................................23
Figure 20: Principle of an FSO...........................................................................................24
Figure 21: FPSO tank ........................................................................................................25
Figure 22: Storage design..................................................................................................26
Figure 23: Washing gun.....................................................................................................26
Figure 24: Three-function probe ........................................................................................27
Figure 25: FRAMO type submerged pump ........................................................................28
Figure 26: Flammability limits of a mixture of hydrocarbons ..............................................30
Figure 27: Tank purging.....................................................................................................31
Figure 28: Protection against overpressure and negative pressure...................................32
Figure 29: FSO Turret Mooring System .............................................................................34
Figure 30: LNG storage .....................................................................................................35
Figure 31: Weighted graduated tape .................................................................................39
Figure 32: Taking samples.................................................................................................44
Figure 33: FPSO and loading buoy....................................................................................53
Figure 34: Loading buoy ....................................................................................................54
Figure 35: Connection lines between FPSO and buoy ......................................................54
Figure 36: Floating pipe .....................................................................................................54
Figure 37: Loading buoy ....................................................................................................55
Figure 38: Breakaway couplings with automatic shut-off ...................................................56
Figure 39: LNG Terminal ...................................................................................................57
Figure 40: Regasification capacity of the methane terminal...............................................58
Figure 41: Loading arm......................................................................................................59
Figure 42: “S” type marine arm ..........................................................................................59
Figure 43: Tankers.............................................................................................................60
Figure 44: Supertankers ....................................................................................................61
Figure 45: Methane carriers...............................................................................................61
Equipment
Figure 46: Carrying LNG....................................................................................................62

Figure 47: Loading a tanker ...............................................................................................65
Figure 48: Routing of oil stored on the Girassol FPSO to the metering stand....................72
Figure 49: Calibration loop.................................................................................................73
Figure 50: Metering stand on Girassol ...............................................................................74

Equipment
9. ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
1. What are the principal functions of oil terminals?
Receiving
Processing
Storage
Shipment
Metering of crude at the terminal
In some cases the functions are limited solely to: storage, shipment and metering of
the production (PALANCA, KOLE, NKOSSA1, etc.)
2. What equipment is essentially present on onshore terminals?
Scraper stations
Production meters with samplers
Fixed-roof receiving or buffer tanks
3. What are the 2 most important treatments applied to the crude on the terminal?
Water content: Transport charges are calculated on the basis of the total quantities
(oil + water) carried. The purchaser must not therefore be penalised.
Salinity: Refineries have a limited desalination capability
4. Who are the main players in the terminal?
Trading
HSE
The Laboratory
Marine logistics
Tugs
The Pilot
Air logistics
The Association representative
The refinery
The Shipping Agent
The Transport and Customs Departments
The port and Harbourmaster's Office
The inspection company

Equipment
5. What is the role of the pilot?
He assists the captain with controlling the vessel at the entrance to and exit from
the piloting zone and for all movements inside the zone.
During the vessel's period at the loading berth, he remains aboard on permanent
standby.
Checks that safety precautions are taken (portholes closed, fire hoses installed and
connected, fire circuit under pressure, scuppers closed,ete.) in accordance with the
safety check-list.
Watches deballasting and patrols the vessel frequently to check that there is no
pollution.
6. What is the purpose of a fixed-roof tank?
Fixed-roof tanks are used for hydrocarbons of low volatility such as degassed
crude, fuel oil or bitumen, which produce low emissions to the atmosphere (the
internal pressure in normal operation is virtually nil).
7. What are the main components of a fixed-roof tank?
The bottom of the tank is made from overlapping steel sheets welded together.
The outer envelope of the tank is made from a vertical stack of welded steel sheets.
The tank is also banded in order to maintain its cylindrical shape.
8. What is the purpose of floating-roof tanks?
Floating-roof tanks are used for storing the most volatile hydrocarbons.
In the tank with no roof, a structure is placed which floats on the surface of the liquid
in order to prevent the formation of a gas overhead. This eliminates the vapour
space at the surface in order to reduce evaporation losses, fire risks and
atmospheric pollution.
9. Give a graphical representation of a floating-roof tank

Equipment
10. In terms of measurement, what do we mean by "gauging"?
Operation covering the various measurements taken in a tank in order to determine

the quantity of liquid which it contains.
11. Describe the procedure for measuring the level in a floating-roof tank
After the transfer of a product, do not start gauging operations until surface
movements of the product have stopped
Check that the roof is not resting on the skids. Roof floating.
Check that the roof is not rubbing against the envelope.
Check the free movement of the roof ladder.
Check that there is no wind that might apply pressure to the roof.
Gauging must not take place during electrical storm activity.
The operator must touch a part of the tank before gauging, in order to earth any
static electricity charges.
12. At what minimum distance from the walls should the temperature in a tank be
measured?
Temperature measurements are taken at more than 500 mm from the walls of the
tank.
13. What is the purpose of analysing samples from a tank?
The purpose is to obtain the following information from the samples:

The quality of the liquid or the hydrocarbons.
BSW
Water content
Presence of other impurities which are not normally a part of the liquid transferred.
Sediment content.
14. What precautions should be taken when sampling?
Personnel who undertake sampling must receive full training.

Sampling equipment used in a flammable atmosphere must be made from a
material which does not produce sparks.
The sampling device must be permanently connected to earth, either by direct
earthing to the structure of the tank
It is advisable not to take samples during periods of electrical storm activity
Do not start sampling until the contents of the tank are still.
Check that equipment is clean before using it.
Do not use natural rubber stoppers.

Equipment
15. What does FPSO mean?
An FPSO is a Floating Production Storage and Offloading facility. This definition

covers a wide variety of barges used for the offshore production of oil and gas.
More simply, we use the abbreviation FPSO to refer to a unit which includes
storage as well as production facilities.
16. What are the functions of the Turret on a floating barge?
System providing:
"Weather vaning" ‘anchoring of the F(P)SO.
Receiving production
Transfer of the product to a loading buoy (option)
Receiving gas for Fuel-Gas (option)
Receiving electrical power supply (option)
Hydraulic control of PLEM valves (option)
Position signal for PLEM valves (option)
17. What is the purpose of inert gas injection on a barge?
It is used to prevent HC gases and air from meeting.

Storage facilities to be kept under pressure during offloading
An atmosphere with less than 8% of O2 to be maintained in the storage
facility
Purging (degassing) of a tank to take place. The HC gases are driven out
by the inert gas
18. What are the different types of tank on barges?
Settling tanks
Crude Oil Tanks for the storage of de-gassed crude
Ballast tanks (with forepeak and aft peak tanks)
Slop tanks
Methanol tanks
Utility tanks (diesel, fuel oil, fresh water, etc.)
Structural voids (cofferdams, voids, double walls, etc.)
19. What is the function of loading buoys?
To serve as a link between the FPSO and the tanker.

The buoy is anchored to the sea bed at 1.5 km from the FPSO by two 16-inch steel
lines in the shape of a W floating one above the other, the higher one being 2400
metres long and the deeper one 2750 metres, linking the FPSO to the tanker.

Equipment
20. What safety system is responsible for avoiding marine pollution in the event of rupture
of flexible loading pipes?
Flexible pipes must be fitted with Marine Breakaway Couplings.
21. What is a VLCC and a ULCC?
VLCC's (Very Large Crude Carriers) have capacities that can reach 250,000 to
300,000 tonnes.
ULCC's (Ultra Large Crude Carriers) have a capacity in excess of 300,000 tonnes
and up to 500,000 tonnes.
22. From how many sections is an LNG terminal constructed?
3 sections:
Receiving > pier
Storage > LNG tanks
Regasification
23. What does lay time mean?
This is the period when the ship has arrived in the normal waiting area of the
Terminal, is in compliance with Terminal regulations, and is in all respects ready to
carry out commercial operations, the captain of the vessel issues a Notice of
Readiness, whether the loading berth is free or not.
24. What is the purpose of metering on a terminal?
They measure the liquid and gas quantities which are allocated to each partner or
sold. The metering systems and their methods of use must be approved by the
parties involved: partner, vendor, purchaser, carrier, official bodies, etc.


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EQUIPMENT

STORAGE FACILITIES AND TERMINALS

Training Manual EXP-PR-EQ220-EN

3.4.3.2. Method of measurement using samples from tank:....................................42

Training Manual EXP-PR-EQ220-EN

Training Manual EXP-PR-EQ220-EN

2. FUNCTIONS OF AN OIL TERMINAL

2.1. THE OIL TERMINAL

An oil terminal is the last component in the oil production chain.

Its presence is justified:

If their is no local consumption of crude.

If local consumption is insufficient.

If the forecast operation of an oil field or fields is limited in time.

If the capacity of the neighbouring system is insufficient (pipe, processing,

If a high fee is charged for passage through the system.

For commercial reasons, loss of product value

There are two types of terminal:

Training Manual EXP-PR-EQ220-EN

Floating marine terminals F(P)SO Floating (Production,) Storage and

Floating marine terminals are:

Figure 2: FPSO Girassol

Reconverted old tankers (Serepca 1, Nkossa 1, Odudu, Alba Marina, etc.)

Figure 3: FSO Serepca 1

Training Manual EXP-PR-EQ220-EN

With loading buoy (Flotta-Djeno etc.)

Figure 4: Loading buoy

The principal functions of oil terminals are:

Metering of crude at the terminal

Training Manual EXP-PR-EQ220-EN

2.2. PRINCIPAL FUNCTIONS

2.2.1. Receiving crude

Functions existing essentially at onshore terminals :

Receiving equipment comprises:

Scraper stations accommodating pipe cleaning scrapers and instrumented

Production meters with samplers

Fixed-roof receiving drums or buffer drums with a capacity corresponding to 1 or

Receiving drums provide:

metering of the production of oil and water from the fields

preventing production shutdowns caused by momentary stoppages of the

preventing terminal treatment shutdown if field production stops

additional flexibility in terms of storage

2.2.2. Crude processing

Processing brings the crude up to commercial specifications:

Water content : 0.5 to 1 % by volume

Training Manual EXP-PR-EQ220-EN

Refineries have limited desalination capability and accept:

2 to 5 mg/l of salt at input to distillation

0.5 to 1 mg/l of salt at input to distillation with catalytic cracking

Some 40% of refineries have two-stage desalination with an efficiency of 99%.

Maximum salinity upstream of desalination for a refinery without cracking: 500

Example of salinity of crude before Rabi processing at Cap Lopez:

Formation water salinity: 300 g/l

Salinity of crude with BSW = 1%: 3000 mg/l

Specifications relating to commercial exports:

RVP = 10 to 12 psi at 37.8º C

2.2.2.1. Chemical Treatment

Demulsifiers, injected upstream of equipment which is likely to create or stabilise

Training Manual EXP-PR-EQ220-EN

2.2.2.2. Mechanical treatment

This is based on Stokes' Law (settling speed of water droplets).

Figure 5: Triphasic separator

Figure 6: Free Water Knock Out

Training Manual EXP-PR-EQ220-EN

Storage Facility & Terminal

Storage Facility & Terminal