1

Semester -
Chapter 1

CELL STRUCTURE AND FuNCTIONS 2

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Chapter 2
MrCROORGANISMS: FRIEND AND FoB 22

Chapter 3
CROP PRoDUCTION AND MANAGEMENT 52
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Chapter 4
REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS 84

GLOSSARY 110

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Teacher Corner Student Corner

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 1 CELL-STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Tou have already learnt that

things
or
around us are either livingmay
non-living. Further, you
carry out
recall that all living organisms you list
certain basic functions. Can
these functions?
Different sets of organs perform the
In this
various functions you have listed.
chapter. you shall learn about the dasic
structural unit of an organ, which is the
cell. Cells may be compared to bricks.
Bricks are assembled to make a
building. Similarly, cells are assembled
to make the body of every organism.
1.1 Discovery of the Cell
Robert Hooke in 1665 observed slices
of cork under a simple magnifying
device. Cork is a part of the bark of a
tree. He took thin slices of cork and
observed them under a microscope. He
noticed partitioned bOxes or
compartments in the cork slice (Fig. 1.1).
hese boxes appeared
comb. He also noticed Ike a bov honey.
that one
Separated from the other
other by a
partition. Hooke coined the wall
eterm
term
for each box. What Hooke observed'
boxes or cells in the cork were
dead cells. ctually
Cells of living organisms
could be
ODserved only after the
improved microscopes. Very it# of
known about the cell for the was
next 150
years after Robert Hooke's
oDservations. Today, we know a lot
about cell structure and its functions
because of improved microscopes
having high magnification.
1.2 The Cell
Both, bricks in a building and cells
in
the living organisms, are basic
structural units |Fig. 1.2(a), (b)]. The
buildings, though built of similar bricks,
have different designs, shapes and sizes.
Similarly, in the living world, organisms
differ from one another but all are made
up of cells. Cells in the living organisms
are complex living structures unlike
non-living bricks.

A hen's egg can be seen

Flg. 1.1:Cork cells as easily. Is it a cell or a
observed by group of cells?
Robert Hooke
2 BiOLOGY
CELSRUCTURE AND FUNCTONS

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 (a) Brick wall b) Onion peel
Fg. 1.2: Brick wall and onion peel
The egg of a hen represents a single Organisms made of more
cell and is big enough to be seen by cell are called multicellularthan one
the unaided eye. many; cellular: cell) (multi
organisms. The
number of cells being less
1.3 Organisms show Variety organisms does not, in any way,in smaller
in Cell Number, Shape and the functioning of the organisms.affect
Size will be surprised to know You
How do scientists observe and study the organism with billions of cellsthat an
living cells? They use microscopes which e asa begins
single cell which is the fertilised
magnify objects. Stains (dyes) are used egg. The fertilised egg
to colour parts of the cell to study the cell multiplies
detailed structure. ndne number
development
of cells increase as
proceeds.
There are millions of living Look at Fig 1.3 (a) and (b).
organisms. They are of different shapes Both
and sizes. Their organs also vary Organsms are made up of a single cell.
in The single-celled organisms
shape, size and number of cells. are called
Let us unicelular (uni: one; cellular: cel)
study about some of them.
Number of Cells
Can you guess the nu
tall tree or in a huge ber of cells in a
animal like
the
elephant? The number
billions and trillions. runs int0
trillions of cells Human body has
which vary in
and sizes. Different groups shapes
perform a variety cells
of functions.
A billion is
a thousand
trillion is a million. A
thousand bilion. a)

BiOLOGY Fg. 1.3:(a) Amoeba (b) Paramecium

CELL-STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

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 single-celled organism The change in shape is due to
organisms. A necessary functions
all the formatlon of pseudopodia
performs
multicellular organisms perform. which factlitates movement
that organism, 1ike and help in capturing food.
A single-celled digests 1ood.
amocba, captures and
grows and
respires, excretes,
Similar functions Inn A white bloodexam
cell (WBC)
) in hum
hu
reproduces. are carried out
blood another example of a single ce
od is another
multcellular organisms cells forming which can change its shape. But whil
specialised
by groups of Tissues, in turn, formn WBC is a cell, amoeba is a full fledded
different tissues. organism capable of independent
organs. existence
What shape would you expect in
Activity 1.1 organisms with millions of cells? Fis
permanent 1.4 (a, b, c) shows different cells such
The teacher may show a
paramecium
slide of amoeba and Alternatively,
as blood, muscle and nerve of human
beings. The different shapes are related
under a microscope. water to their specific functions.
the teacher can collect pond by Generally, cells are round, spherical
and show these organisms or elongated [Fig. 1.4[)]. Some cells are
preparing the slides.
long and pointed at both ends. They
exhibit a spindle shape |ig. 1.4[b)].
Shape of Cells Cells sometimes are quite long. Some
Refer to Fig. 1.3 (a). How do you define are branched like the nerve cell or a
the shape of amoeba in the figure? neuron [Fig. 1.4{c)]. The nerve cell
You may say that the shape appears receives and transfers messages,
irregular. Infact, amoeba has no thereby
definite shape, unlike other
organisms. It keeps on changing its
shape. Observe the projections of
varying lengths protruding out of its
body. These are called pseudopodia
(pseudo: false; podia : feet), as
you
learnt in Class VII. These projections
appear and disappear as amoeba
moves or feeds.
(c)
(b)

What advantage does Plg. 1.4: (a) Spherical red blood cells
amoeba derive by of humans, (b) Spindle
changing shape? shaped muscle cells,
nerve cell R
Long branched
6 1BOLOa CEL-SRUCTURE AND
FUNCTIONS

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 coordinate the
helping to control and of the body
working of diflerent partspart of the cell
Can you guess,
which
of the cell
shape? Components
gives it membrane. This
are enclosed in a shape to the cells
membrane provides an
plants and animals. Cell wall is
of over the cell
additional covering cells. It gives shape
membrae in plant cells (Fig. 1.7).
and rigidity to these cell wall.
Bacterial cell also has a
Size of Cells
The size of cells in living
organisms may
a metre
be as small as a millionth of be as
(micrometre or micron) or may
However,
large as a few centimetres.
most of the cells are microscopic in size
eye.
and are not visible to the unaided
They need to be enlarged or magnified
0.1
by a microscope. The smallest cell is
to 0.5 micrometre in bacteria. The
largest cell measuring 170 mm 130
mm, is the egg of an ostrich.
Activity 1.2
Boila hen's egg. Remove the shel
What do you observe? A white
material surrounds the yellow part.
White material is albumin which
solidifies on boiling. The yellow part
is yolk. It is part of the single cell.
You can observe this single cell
without any magnifying device.
Are the cells in an
elephant larger than the
cells in a rat?
The size of the cells has no
with the size of the body of relation
the animal or
8 |BoLoa
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plant. It is not necessary that the.cells
the elephant be much bigger thanthos in
in a rat. The size ot the cell is relatase
its function. For example, nerveo
both in the elephant and rat, re long
and branched. They perform the same
function, that of transterring messages
1.4 Cell Structure and Functon
You have learnt that each livina
organism has many orgarns. You have
studied in Class VIl about the digestive
organs which together constitute the
digestive system. Each organ in the
system pertorms different functions
such as digestion, assimilation and
absorption. similarly, diferent organs
of a plant perform specific/specialised
functions. For example, roots help in
the absorption of water and minerals.
Leaves, as you have learnt in Class VII
are responsible for synthesis of food.
Each organ is further made up of
smaller parts called tissues. A tissue is
a group of similar cells performing a
specific function.
Paheli realised that an organ is made
up of tissues which in turn, are made
up of cells. The cell in a living organism
is the basic structural unit.
1.5 Parts of the Cell
Cell Membrane
The basic components of a cell are cell
membrane, cytoplasm and nucleus
(Fig. 1.7). The cytoplasm and nucleus
are enclosed within the cell membrane.
also called the plasma membrane. The
one
membrane separates cells from
another and also the cell from tne
Surrounding medium. The plasma
membrane is porous and allows the
CELL-STRUCTURE AND FUNCTMONS
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 substance betweenis the nucleus
or materias called cyton.
movement of substances the cell membrane plasm,
both inward and outward.
Acttvity 1.3
want to know why plant
observe the basic
I

In order to take an cells need cell walls?

components of the cell, dry pink
onlon bulb. Remove
the
(peels). You can easily
You have learnt earlier that thecell
coverings fleshy white membrane gives shape to the cell. In
separate these from the help of addition to the cel membrane, there
layers of the bulb with the
hand. You is an outer thick layer in cells of plants
Torceps or even with your and called cell wall. This additional layer
can also break the onion bulb a surrounding the cell membrane is
separate out thin layers. Place peel required by plants for protection. Plant
small plece of the thin oníonslide.
cells need protection against varlations
in a drop of water on a glass into
The thin layer can be cut of a in temperature, high wind speed,
smaller pieces with the help atmospheric moisture etc. They
blade or forceps. Add a drop of are exposed to these variations
methylene blue solution to the layer because they cannot move. Cells can
and place a coverslip on it. While be observed in the leaf peel of
placing the coverslip ensure that Tradescantia, Elodea or Rhoeo. You
there are no air bubbles under the can prepare a slide as in the case
coverslip. Observe the slide under of onion.
the microscope. Draw and label. Paheli asks Boojho if he can also
You may compare it with Fig. 1.5. observe animal cells.

The boundary of the onion cell is the Activity 1.4

cell membrane covered by another
thick covering called the cell wal. The Take a clean tooth pick, or a
central dense round body in the centre matchstick with the tip broken.
is called the nucleus. The jelly-like Scrape inside of your cheek without
hurting it. Place it ina drop of water
on a glass slide. Adda drop of iodine
and place a coverslip over it.
nucleus
Alternatively, add 1-2 drops of
methylene blue solution. Observe
it under the microscope. You may
notice several cells in the scraped
cytoplasm
material (Fig. 1.6). You can identify
the cell membrane, the cytoplasm
and nucleus. A cell wall is absent
FIg. 1.5: Cells observed
in an onlon peel in animal cells.
10 | BiOLOGOY
CELL-STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

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Bth Blology (TM) SEM-1 [F.No: 4]

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ytoplasm
nuclear
membrane
nucleus
cell mehn
brane
Fg. 1.6:Human cheek cells
Cytoplasm
It is the jelly-like substance
present
between the cell membrane and the
nucleus. Various other components, or
organelles, of cells are present in the
cytoplasm. These are mitochondria, wvill
golgi bodies, ribosomes, etc. You
learn about them in later classes.
Nucieus
It is an important component of the living
cell. It is generally spherical and located
in the centre of the cell. It can be stained
and seen easily with the help of a
microscope. Nucleus is separated from
the cytoplasm by a membrane called the
nuclear membrane. This membrane is
also porous and allows the movement of
materials between the cytoplasm and
the inside of the nucleus.
With a microscope of higher
magnilication, we can see a smaller
spherical body in the nucleus. It is called
the nucleolus. In addition, nucleus
contains thread-like structures called
chromosomes. These carry genes andd
help in inheritance or transfer of
characters from the parents to the
offspring. The chromosomes can be
seen only when the cell divides
12 BIOLOoY
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Gene
Gene is a unit of inherltance in lvir
organtsms. It controls the transfer
a hereditary characteristic from
parents to oflspring This means that
your parents pass some of thel
characteristics on to you. If your father
has brown eyes, you may also have
brown eyes. your
mother has curly
hair. you might also end up having
curly hair. However, the different
combination ol genes irom parents
result in different characteristics.
Nucleus, to its role in
in addition
inheritance, acts as control centre of the
activities of the cell. The entire content
of a living cell is known as protoplasm.
It includes the cytoplasm and the
nucleus. Protoplasm is called the living
substance of the cell.
Paheli wants to know if the
structure of the nucleus is
the same in cells of plants,
animals and bacteria.
The nucleus of the bacterial cell is
not well-organised like the cells of
multicellular organisms. There is no
nuclear membrane. The cells having
nuclear material without nuclear
membrane are termed prokaryotic
cells. The organisms with these kinds
prokaryotes (pro
of cells are called nucleus). Examples
primitive; karyon:
The
are bacteria and blue green algae. cellsS
cells, like onion cells and cheek a
having well-organised nucleus with as
nuclear membrane are designated other
eukaryotlc cells. All organisms algae
than bacteria and blue green
are called eukaryotes. (eu: true
karyon: nucleus).
FUNCTIONS
CELL-STRUCTURE AND
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 provide
cells called chloroplasts, They reeoen
While observing the onion notice colour to the leaves. You may
did you leat
under the mlcroscope, chlorophyll in the chloroplasts ofleaves,
any blank-looking structures in the is essential for photosynthesis.
cytoplasm? It is called vacuole. It could
cell.
be single and big as in a oníon 1.6 Comparlson of Plant and
vacuoles.
Cheek cells have smaller plant Animal Cells
Large vacuoles are common in
cells. Vacuoles in animal cells
are much
smaller.
Ifyou recall Activities 1.3 and 1.4, you
be able to compare plant
should and
You might have noticed several small animal cells. Observe the plant
coloured bodies in the cytoplasm of are
the
Fig. (a) and
animal cell carefully in 1.7 b).
cells of Tradescantia leaf. They Let us tabulate the similarities and
scattered in the cytoplasm of the leaf disinguishing Ieatures of plant
cells. These are called plastids. They are and
of different colours. Some of them
animal cells. Only a few features are
contain green pigment called mentioned. You may add more in
chlorophyll. Green coloured plastids are Table 1.1.

cell wall
-cell membrane

vacuole-

nucleu1s

cell membrane

chloroplast
cytoplaSm (b)
(a

Fg. 1.7: (a) Plant cell (b) Animal cel

Table 1.1: Comparison of Plant Cell and Animal Cell
SL. No.
Part Plant Cell Animal Cell
1 Cell membrane Presentt Present
Cell wall Presentt Absent
Nucleus
Nuclear membrane
5. Cytoplasm
Plastids
Vacuole

14BoLOG CELL-STRUCTURE AND FUNCTONS

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 WHAT YOU HAVE LEARNT
KEYWORDs
CELL All organlsms are made ol smaller parts called
organs.
CELL MEMBRANE are made of still smaller parts. The
Organs
CELL WALL smallest living part of an organism is a 'cell
Cells were fArst observed in cork by Robert
CHLOROPLAST
Hooke in 1665.
CHROMOSOME Cells exhibit a variety of shapes and sizes.

CYTOPLASM Number of cells also varies from organism to

organism.
EUKARYOTES Some cells are big enough to be seen with
the unaided eye. Hens egg is an example.
GENE
Some organisms are single-celled, while oth
MULTICELLULAR
ers contain large number of cells.
NUCLEAR MEMBRANE The single cell of unicelular organisms per-
forms all the basic functions performed by a
NUCLEOLUSs
variety of cells in multicellular organisms.
NUCLEUS The cell has three main parts: () the cell
membrane, (1i) cytoplasm which contains
ORGAN
smaller components called organelles, and
ORGANELLES (ii) the nucleus.
PLASMA MEMBRANE Nucleus is separated from cytoplasm by a
nuclear membrane.
PLASTID Cells without well-organised nucleus, 1.e.
PROKARYOTES lacking nuclear membrane, are called
prokaryotic cells.
PSEUDOPODIA Plant cells differ from animal cells in having
TISSUE an additional layer around the cell mem-
brane termed cell wall.
UNICELLULAR
Coloured bodies called plastids are found in
VACUOLE the plant cells only. Green plastids contain-
ing chlorophyll are called chloroplasts.
WHITE BLOOD CELL
Plant cell has a big central vacuole unlike a
(WBC)
number of small vacuoles in animal cells.

16|BIOLOOY CELLSRUCTURE AND FUNCIONS

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 Exercisecs

following statements are

True (1) or False (F).
1. Indicate whether the
(T/F)
organisms have one-celled body.
(a Unlcellular are branched. (T/F)
b) Muscle cells
Iiving unit of an organism is an organ. (T/F)
(c) The basic (T/F)
(d) Amoeba has irregular shape.
nerve cell. What function do nerve
2. Make a sketch of the human
cells perform?.
following.
3. Write short notes on the
(a) Cytoplasm
(b) Nucleus of a cell
4. Which part of the cell contains organelles?
5. Make sketches of animal and plant cells. State
three differences
between them.
6. State the difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes.
7. Where are chromosomes found in a cell? State their function.
8. Cells are the basic structural units of living organisms'. Explain.
9. Explain why chloroplasts are found only in plant cells?
10. Complete the crossword with the help of clues given below.
Across
1. This necessary
is for
photosynthesis.
3. Term for component present
in the cytoplasm.
6. The living substance in the
cell.
8. Units ofinheritance present
on the chromosomes.
Down
1. Green plastids.
Formed by collection of
tissues.
4. It separates the contents of
the cell from the surrTOunding
medium.
5. Empty structure in the cytoplasm.
7. Agroup of cells.

18 BIOLoaY CEL-SRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

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(TM) SEM-1-F.No: 5

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 Activities and Projects
Extended Learning secondary students in your school or
laboratory for senior functioning of a
.Visit aneighbouring school. Learn about the
in a Also observe how
a slide is observed
mlcroscope in the laboratory.
under the microscope neighbouring
biology teacher in your school or a
2. Talk to the senior which are passed on from
out if there are diseases
school. Find also if
out how these are carried and
parents to the offspring. Find a doctor.
For this you can also visit
these diseases can be treated.
centre in your area. Find out about
3. Visit an agriculture extension
genetically modified (GM) crops.
Prepare a short speech for your
class on this topic.
expert. Prepare a
4. Pind out about Bt cotton from an agriculture
short note on its
advantages/disadvantages.

Did You Know?

The cells in the outermost layer of our skin are dead. An average
adult carries around about 2 kg of dead skin. Billions of tiny
fragments of the skin are lost every day. Every time you run your
finger on a dusty table, you shed a lot of old skin.

20 |BIOLOGY CEL-STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

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