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Barsky, V. (1996) - Chromaticism (1st Ed.) - Routledge.
Barsky, V. (1996) - Chromaticism (1st Ed.) - Routledge.
Vladimir Barsky
I~ ~~o~1~~n~~~up
LONDON AND NEW YORK
First published 1996 by Harwood Academ ic Publishers
No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, elec-
tronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Introduction IX
Conclusion 199
References 203
Index 210
INTRODUCTION
advance, and the fast succession of mutually exclusive trends and schools
have brought about a certain confusion in the musical world and a feel-
ing of impending crisis. As for today's analyst, he has the advantages
of hindsight concerning the recent past and can try to identify the true
motivating forces in musical history.
From this viewpoint an analysis of current realities in musical
creativity cannot fail to acknowledge the fact of their indisputable
evolution, both as artistic phenomena within their purely professional
framework and as socio-cultural phenomena. And in this context the
set of concepts and terms worked out by the musical science of the past
not infrequently fails to provide descriptive tools that are universally
valid, in the way that music theory in the Classical period managed to
embrace the full range of current musical possibilities.
The alarm signal about the alleged "disappearance of matter",
which rang out early in this century in the fields of philosophy and
natural science, proved invalid: cognition of qualitative matter tran-
scended the boundaries of the microworld. The transformation that has
taken place in the nature of musical material, the effects of which are
now becoming increasingly clear, and the disappearance of generally
accepted stereotypes of musical matter have a direct bearing on the
aesthetic and specifically analytic perception of the very phenomenon
of musical art. Perhaps for this reason theoretical musicology, tradition-
ally a stable, highly conventional and self-contained field of aesthetic
consciousness, emerges today as not so completely autonomous and
carries an Aufhebung of the rapid evolution of 20th-century musical art.
Current musical practice in all of its multiform manifestations,
changeable yet retaining at the same time its principal properties,
constantly calls for pertinent efforts on the part of music theory to
apprehend its most significant and symptomatic features. The very phe-
nomenon of contemporary musical culture, with its incessant retreats
into the past and its fundamental pluralism, places a researcher, figura-
tively speaking, in a situation like that of the notorious ancient paradox
about Achilles and the turtle. In this context prime importance is
attached to comprehending the idioms of 20th-century music and
streamlining the language of their description.
The study of the concepts and terms employed in music theory
and the elucidation of the complicated and subtle links between these
concepts and terms, on the one hand, and the phenomena they define,
on the other, is in the final analysis not a formal task but a means of
penetrating the essence of artistic phenomena, the laws of their forma-
tion and development, and their social function.
Introduction Xl
Musical practices in the 20th century pose new and rather com-
plex problems in the study of fundamental principles of pitch organisa-
tion. Therefore the analysis of basic harmonic categories, one of which
is chromaticism, acquires particular importance as a means of restoring
time which has gone "out of joint" and identifying the logical princi-
ples in the historical process of musical development.
Chromaticism is a major problem in the science of harmony. To
a certain extent it is related to all the principal branches of this science.
However, despite the intensive research into this problem in modern
musicology, it can hardly be considered to be completely solved. This is
evidenced from a lack of unanimity as regards the essence of concepts
and phenomena involved in diatonicism and chromaticism. The study
of current views reveals that most divergences arise from making an
absolute of the concepts accepted during the period of harmonic tonal-
ity and their extrapolation onto the music of preceding and subsequent
periods, whereas harmonic tonality constitutes merely a stage (albeit
an extremely important one) in the process of musical development.
While paying prime attention to this phase, one should at the same time
take into consideration a wider range of phenomena. Such an approach
is imperative in the current musical context.
At this point it would be apt to be reminded of the statement
made by the Russian music critic Hermann Laroche: "No style can have
absolute significance in art theory; each one is rooted in its own time
and locality and bound by conditions above which it is incapable of
elevating itself no matter how great the content it carries" (see Refer-
ences, No. 101, p. 259).
The importance and complexity of the problem are obvious and
the doubts as regards its possible resolution seem quite valid since the
concept of chromaticism is often treated as a master-key for interpret-
ing all the phenomena arising in new music which are difficult to ex-
plain. It is hardly possible to find such universal tools applicable to all
national cultures, times and styles, for the range of modal principles for
which strict and unequivocal terms retain their value is rather
narrow.
The way out of the current situation will be found not in adding
several more formulations and terms to the existing ones but in clearly
apprehending the sources which led to the confusion of these concepts.
A flexible solution with due consideration for the historical evolution
of music, the genesis of a phenomenon, often proves more valid than a
mere 'label' which sometimes effaces the individual and unique char-
acteristics of the phenomenon concerned.
Introduction Xlll
All the above outlines the main purpose of this book which is to
trace the progress of the concept of chromaticism throughout musical
history, to make a specific study of the problem, to recreate a more or
less integrated logical and historical perspective and identify the
dynamics of changing historical types of chromaticism. And last but
not least, to relate these theories to musical practices and apply them to
the analysis of current pitch systems. In other words, to come nearer to
comprehending the idioms of 20th-century music.
1
EVOLUTION OF THE CONCEPT
OF CHROMATICISM
Concepts have their own history, and their real meaning may quite
often differ from their original one. The differences in interpretations of
the concepts of diatonicism and chromaticism appear to reflect differ-
ent historical stages in their development.
As a phenomenon, chromaticism belongs to the field of inter-
vallic systems and in this sense it could have existed long before it was
defined in music theory (and irrespective of such definition).
The concept of chromaticism emerged from prolonged studies
into the essence of musical processes, coming down to us from ancient
Greek music theory. In the course of centuries of musical development
it has changed its meaning several times. As a result, anyone term may
have been used to denote different phenomena. The identification of
the essence of these different interpretations and their systematisation
constitutes a major prerequisite for solving the problem under consid-
eration.
The word 'chromatic' is derived from the Greek word chroma meaning
colour. In ancient Greek music theory it was used to define one of the
three musical genera: liThe genera are three: diatonic, chromatic and
enharmonic. The diatonic is sung in descending by tone, tone, and semi-
tone, but in ascending by semitone, tone, and tone. The chromatic is
sung in descending by trihemitone, semi tone, and semi tone, but in
ascending by semitone, semitone and trihemitone. The enharmonic is
sung in descending by ditone, diesis, and diesis, but in ascending by
diesis, diesis, and ditone" (7, p. 11; 157, p. 35). A genus was thereby
defined as a certain division of the four notes of a tetrachord", or to be
II
* One of the first to use the concept of genus as a scientific term was Aristotle
who defined it as "a manifestation of the essence of many things
of varying quality" (90, p. 325).
** We should point out that this proposition, indisputable as regards the music
of the 17th-19th centuries, could hardly be fully applied to a large number of
musical phenomena that have emerged in the 20th century.
Evolution of The Concept of Chromaticism 3
they deny any effect on the senses of the enharmonic diese and discard
it altogether from a melody ... Such connoisseurs put forward their
own insensitiveness as the strongest argument in their favour, as if
everything slipping away from them should therefore be considered
non-existent and unacceptable" (6, pp. 288-289). The opposite view-
point, as is known, was developed in Plato's treatises on the basis of
more general distinctions in the philosophical method of apprehending
the world and the means of cognising its laws. In particular, Plato
accused the Pythagoreans of the fact that while they talk about a
Ii • • •
certain thickening of tones and prick up their ears they extract a tone
from what seem like the closest pitches. Some of them profess to hear a
certain echo in-between as well and, therefore, they claim to apprehend
the smallest distance between pitches in order to measure tones. The
others argue that the similarity between sounds is paramount in
questions of identity, but both parties place ears above reason"
(6, p. 131).
The explanation of this phenomenon should be sought in the
dual position of Greek culture: it had still to become a 'Western' culture
and had not as yet discarded its 'Oriental' flavour. Curt Sachs explained
the exotic intervals of less than a semitone by the fact that Greek melo-
dies were indeed 'Oriental', and their next of kin have lived in the Mid-
dle East to this day, not in the West" (144, p. 214). It remains to add that
they survive not only in the Middle East but in Bulgaria as well, as
reflected in the theory of Bulgarian folk music which retains the con-
cept of musical genera in the ancient Greek sense and employs them in
the theory of Bulgarian folklore (42).
The genealogical tree of ancient Greek music (according to Curt
Sachs) could be represented in the following scheme (144, p. 221):
Scheme 1
diatonic chromatic
chromatic enharmonic
tions of any given letters that will produce a syllable" - 157, p. 29). Later
on, this proposition was further elaborated by other ancient Greek
musicians: "The things considered under quality of voice are these. It
has two sorts of movements: one is called continuous and belongs to
speech, the other is diastematic and belongs to melody. In continuous
movement, tensions and relaxations occur imperceptibly and the voice
is never at rest until it becomes silent. In diastematic movement, the
opposite takes place; the voice dwells on certain points and passes over
the distances between them, proceeding first in the one way, then in the
other. The points on which it dwells we call pitches, the passages from
pitch to pitch we call intervals" (7, p. 9; 157, p. 35). Aristoxenus regarded
dies is as the smallest value for measuring all the intervals encountered
in music, making no distinction between the so-called major (8:9) and
minor (9 :10) whole tones.
In his treatise Aristoxenus provided information on the origins
of the enharmonic genus. He believed that Olympus had only given an
impetus to the development of the enharmonic genus while remaining
oblivious of its essence since he knew nothing about the so called
enharmonic pyknon. According to Aristoxenus, the three tones of pyknon
had the following designations:
pyknon
* The following notation system has been used in the musical example
~=1/4;~=1/2;f=3/4;~=1/8;%=1/3;1;=1/6 - in parts ofa whole tone. The
use of modern notation in such cases calls for a major reservation: ancient Greek
theory did not conceive a notation of absolute pitches.
Ex. la. The Aristoxenian system of chroai (the size of intervals also
indicated in dieses)
3. Metabole
Dorian one and the Mixolydian was a step higher than the Lydian mode,
an observation which was valid only for transposition scales.
Scheme 2
Hypodorian Hypodorian
Hypophrygian Hypophrygian
Hypolydian Hypolydian
Dorian Dorian
Phrygian Phrygian
Lydian Lydian
Mixolydian Mixolydian
6. Musica ticta?
The concept of musica ficta (falsa) was generally used to embrace a whole
group of non-diatonic phenomena in medieval music commonly based
on the successive employment of the tones band q. This phenomenon
played the role of 'the Trojan horse' and led to the subsequent disinte-
gration of the modal system. The emergence of this term was founded
on the theoretical notion that the structure of the hexachordal system
admitted the 'duality' of a step exclusively on b (b rotundum, qquadrum).
As a result, the augmentation or diminution of another step by a semi-
tone was viewed (32, Vol. 4, p. 376) as an extra manum phenomenon
transcending the boundaries of the Guidonian hand and defined as
musica falsa (fictitious) or ficta (artificial). This negative definition is in-
variably encountered in the theoretical treatises written from approxi-
mately the middle of the 13th century onwards, with both terms used,
as a rule, as synonyms. The attempt made by Rudolf Ficker (47) to
differentiate between them (by suggesting that in the one case the chro-
matic tones result from the division of a whole tone, whereas in the
other case they arise from the transposition of a hexachord onto any
step) was based on a misinterpretation of the following citation from a
15th-century treatise: "Musica falsa turns a tone into a semi tone and vice
versa. Any tone can be divided into two semitones." As Carl Dahlhaus
proved, the point here is not the division of each tone into two semi-
tones but the inversion of the tone-semi tone intervallic progression
c-bq-a instead of c' -b~-a) "when a tone becomes a semi tone" (37, p. 175).
We should underscore the special significance the 'b~' tone had
in the system of hexachords and its role as an independent step (the
'bq' tone was not a chromatic version of the 'b' tone). Its introduction
violated the close nature of modal diatonic, which had far-reaching
implications. Carl Dahlhaus offers the following three possible inter-
pretations of the functional significance of this tone (37, p. 171): (1) the
splitting of a step ("bV' and "bf' represent one and the same step: nona
prima, nona secunda); (2) expansion of the pitch system (from seven to
eight tones); (3) a change of system (a transfer from the original register
of the scale to a transposition down a fifth).
Major evidence of the independent nature of the "W' tone is the
fact that it was included in the Guidonian hand but only in the middle
of the system. The Guidonian hand did not contain in the bottom part
of its gamut the b~/ bqdual step (for this reason a hexachord from F was
impossible and only the one starting on f was valid). The transference
of the principle nona prima - nona secunda onto other steps was also
viewed by medieval theorists as non-standard and defined as coniuncta
Evolution of The Concept of Chromaticism 13
* The anonymous medieval treatise (32, Vol. 3, p. 426) describes three types of
"mi-fa" progressions obtained as a result of transpositions (a) in conventional
locations bq-c (e-f; h-c); (b) "mi" from 0, F, d (c) "fa" from E, a, e. The two latter
types are considered among coniuncta.
14 Chromaticism
Scheme 3
T T S T T S T T S ill S T T S T T S ill S T
r A B C 0 E F G a b ~ c d e f g a ~ qq X ~
A B m 0 E m G a ~ c m d e m g a qq X m ~
ch
C 0 E F G a b c d ill e f g a ~ X ~
0 E m G a ~ c d e f m g a qq X ~
G a ~ c d e f g a ~ qq X .:l
* Because in this case (according to the author of the treatise) progressions (he
calls them dissonantia) arise which, even if "satisfactorily explained by teach-
ers" are faulty (53, Vol. 1, p. 272).
** The structure of the musical system based on the tone-tone-semitone princi-
ple follows the tradition initiated by ado of Cluny: "A semitone is necessary
after two successive whole steps; it allays the monotony of a too frequent re-
petition of whole tones and prevents the disharmony of wide skips. But two
semitones running one after another are impermissible: they exist to soften
and enrich a melody and if you overdo it you get the same bitterness as from
oversalted food" (119, p. 183).
*** "Faulty, extremely lascivious and too delicate music sometimes strives to
employ a greater number of semitones than we have indicated. One must avoid
this practice, rather than imitate it. Beware that something similar arises from
a singer's carelessness when he starts and ends a melody in a manner other
than the way it has been composed. We indicate five semitones of this kind, for
one cannot avoid an imperfection unless one knows of it ... Out of these semi-
tones we accept the one lying an octave higher; as for the rest, we would ask
you to stay away from them, rather than make use of them ... " (119, pp. 188-
189, Vol. 1, p. 272).
Evolution of The Concept of Chromaticism 15
The expansion of the gamut of pitches and in the Middle Ages was also
cultivated through the transposition of hexachords in the process of
mutation and the ensuing introduction of subsemitonium modi. Though
for a long time musical practice had been exclusively confined to the
nearest transposition, by the 15th century the limit of possible transpo-
sitions of a hexachord had obviously been reached. This was recorded
in the treatise Calliopea legale by John Hothby (141, p. 300) which dis-
cussed the transpositions of a hexachord on F# = ut and Db = ut. In his
treatise Practica musicae written in 1496, Franchinus Gafurius (141,
p. 338) pointed to the gradual expansion of mutations and the frequent
solmisation of semitonal progressions not as mi-fa but bearing the names
of the fixed steps (a-g#-a as la-sol-Ia). Johannes de Garlandia writes
about the introduction of a lower semitone (F#) to avoid a tritone (causa
tritoni) in the gradual descent fromqquadrum: "The note before the final
is coloured, separated from the final by either a whole tone or a semi-
tone" (32, Vol. I, p. 115). At the same time the consequences of
banning any departure from the rigid framework of the diatonic
system still prevailed for a long time, being faithfully transferred from
one treatise to another. The church authorities censured chromatic
music as "unruly and ugly" (119, p. 30) and therefore a semitone as a
chromatic potentiality was condemned in certain treatises of orthodox
medieval theorists. According to a 13th-century anonymous author,
"A semi tone is not used at all or else only on very rare occasions"
(32, Vol. I, p. 354). This was in apparent contradiction to the musical
practice of the period. Comparison of the three main types of hexachords
was inevitably to lead to the appearance of a subsemitonium in the
hexachord starting on G and, with the further development of muta-
tion, in other hexachords as well.
Thus chromaticism during the medieval period developed in
two directions:
(1) Realisation of the dual bb/bq step on other steps.* This was
further aggravated by the development of polyphony (b rotundum in
cantus firmus gave rise to eb, while ~ quadrum led to f# to avoid mi contra
fa. Vertical considerations also called for the alteration of a fifth, an
octave and a twelfth in cases where they turned out to be imperfect
(augmented or diminished) as a result of counterpoint. The same fac-
tors account for the emergence of the notorious Regola delle terze-seste
(see below).
(2) The assertion of a subsemitonium (leading tone) as a result of
distant transpositions of a hexachord.
The total employment of all intermediate steps does not involve chro-
maticism in our contemporary understanding of the term. Nonethe-
less, as early as in the 14th century in his treatise Lucidarium in arte musicae
planae Marchetto da Padua dwelt upon the chromatic (semitonal)
motion of a voice which he defined as permutatio: "Permutatio is a vari-
ation in the name of a note which takes place on the same line or in the
same space and has a different sound" (53, Vol. 3, p. 89; 143, p. 113).
Marchetto also introduced a different term for extraneous
pitches: colorati instead of falsi.** It is hard to say how great Marchetto's
influence was on musical practice. At any rate, theorists of later periods
fail to mention permutatio altogether or rule out 'uttering' one and the
same tone both as mi and as fa (47, p. 16). The permutation procedure
(according to Marchetto) presupposed the division of a tone into a
diatonic and an enharmonic semitone or into a chromatic semitone and
a diese*** (Ex. 2a).
unusual" (119, p. 289). According to Walter Odington, 'variation' of the 'b' step
in due time led to the 'variation' of the steps 'f', 'e', and 'e' - and all this to
obtain consonances wherever they could not be naturally derived (this treatise
on consonance was written in the 14th century). The natural lagging of theory
behind musical practice should be also taken into consideration (142 Vol. 2,
p. 181).
** Marchetto argued against the term musiea falsa: "It would be better and more
valid to call such music eolorata than falsa, for by this term we attribute to it a
faulty deficiency" (53, Vol. 3, p. 135). Prosdocimus also stresses the need to
color sonorities as the necessity arises (32, Vol. 3, p. 198a, 251b).
*** According to Marchetto's theory, the enharmonic semitone contains two
dieses, the diatonic three, and the chromatic four, the whole tone consists of five
dieses. It should be taken into consideration that during the periods of An-
tiquity and the Middle Ages, "following the designation of the diatonic semi-
tone as the remainder of the fourth after deduction from it of two whole-tones
of the ratio 9/8, the diatonic semitone [was regarded] as smaller than the
18 Chromaticism
10:
8e bS q~ .e-
C)
o(}
I a
~o
')
bS00
II oojS ,g I,g jB 00
II
Ex. 2b. Consonances obtained through permutation
some cases the inexperienced singers, tired by the monotony, lower what ought
to be raised, but more often, in their urge to take the challenge, they illegiti-
mately raise the voice where they ought to sing lower" (119, p. 209).
20 Chromaticism
* Intervals smaller than a semi tone (dieses) were mentioned in the treatises of
Regina of Prum, Guido d' Arezzo, Engelbert of Admont, Marchetta da Padua
and Simon Tunstede (117, Vol. 3, p. 411). One should bear in mind that musical
theory and practice did not necessarily fully coincide at the time.
Evolution of The Concept of Chromaticism 21
17-tone system was the maximum possible (under the Pythagorean sys-
tem of tuning), the further expansion of a scale involved a change in the
structure of the tuning system as well. The difference between modal
and tonal-harmonic contexts is reflected not only by changes in the tonal
material but also by the changed relationships between intervallic and
tuning systems. The change of the tonal system made possible by the
"chromatic explosion" in 16th-century music proceeded hand in hand
with the transition from the Pythagorean system of tuning to just into-
nation (approximately from the first half of the century onwards -
Lodovico Fogliani). In contrast to the Pythagorean minor semitone which
did not allow division of the diatonic semitone (e-for bq-c), in just into-
nation a major semitone called for it (37, p. 183). This idea manifested
itself in the 19-tone system evolved by Francisco Salinas by dividing
the diatonic semitones of the 12-tone scale (c, c#, d~, d, d#, e~, e, e#, f, f#,
g~, g, g#, a~, a, a#, b~, b, b# *.
The fundamental change in music which took place early in the 16th
century was not unexpected. Chordal harmony, a fundamentally new
category of musical thinking, had been taking shape for a long time
within the framework of the old system. It is no wonder, therefore, that
the music theory of the 16th-17th centuries failed to explain the new
phenomena in contemporary musical practice. As before, musicians
turned for assistance to the three Greek genera (on the other hand, the
expression cantus fictus was still being used in the 18th century). Pietro
Aaron, for instance, provides direct evidence of this, writing about "the
Greek chroma which in Latin signifies colore" (1, Vol. 2, p. 11). And even
such a daring innovator as Nicola Vicentino while asserting that he could
name the genus of the music written by his contemporaries meant the
same chromatic genus as that of the ancient Greeks (167). His contem-
poraries failed to believe him and, as a result, Vicentino spectacularly
lost in 'the debate of the century' which cost him two golden ducats in
a bet he had made in the presence of two judges (the judgement was
announced before the whole of the Papal Cappella Choir, Cardinal
* Salinas writes: "The essence of the chromatic genus lies in dividing a tone
into two semitones". In Chapter 7 of his treatise De musica (1577) he structures
an octave in the chromatic genus by dividing each tone of the diatonic genus
into a major semi tone and a minor semi tone (39, p. 40).
Evolution of The Concept of Chromaticism 23
Q
;::
("")
~,..,..
-Q.,
n
;::-
d
~
;;::,
,..,..
n'
(j;'
~
N
CJl
26 Chromaticism
diatonic system; (b) in thirds, the basis of the chromatic system; and
(c) a mixed fundamental bass (combination of fifths and thirds in a
chord-progression) producing the enharmonic system (136, pp. 93-95),
which (according to Rameau) could exist in diatonic and chromatic
genera (Ex. 4a). Rameau explained enharmonic replacement (in our mod-
ern sense) in a similar way (Ex. 4b).
However, Rameau made a reservation on this matter, pointing
out that such intervals were indiscernible by the ear and, therefore, had
no aesthetic value (136, pp. 95-96). He drew here on his idea of a melody
as a consequence of harmonic progressions: "Not even the most edu-
cated musician, no matter how flexible his voice, can accurately distin-
guish a quarter-tone, for it is unnatural for the voice and it would be
impossible to imagine a progression of two fundamental tones whose
harmony presents this quarter-tone to us" (138, X, p. 53). Rameau re-
mained consistent in following this principle and believed that it made
the tonal system strict and well-balanced: "If we discarded this princi-
ple it would be too easy to imagine any type of interval and introduce
these intervals into harmony, its progressions, and even into the voice.
If we discarded this principle, everything would be acceptable: the
enharmonic diese which divides a semitone, the comma which divides a
diese, the semi-comma which divides this comma - in fact, anything that
presents itself would be equally acceptable" (138, IX, p. 52).
In his reconstruction of the diatonic system Rameau drew on a
belief in the complex nature of a musical tone, which made it necessary
to consider it always from the viewpoint of harmony presented by him:
b-c-d-e-g, as the only natural steps that could be obtained from the
fundamental progression in fifths G-c. The expansion of the scale was
made possible only by adding a new tone to the fundamental bass (by
means of triple progression of the fundamental bass 1:3:9; Ex. 4c).
24 27 30 32 36 40 56 46 48
- 3 9 3 i 3 ! 3 9 .3
Evolution of The Concept of Chromaticism 27
* In this respect Friedrich Wilhelm Marpurg was his predecessor (154, p. 309)
who treated the chromatic scale as a result of the combination of the scales of a
central key and the five keys most closely related to it. The same idea was
advanced by Simon Sechter. In his strictly diatonic system chromatic tones are
explained as 'borrowed' from kindred tonalities (in the most expressive way):
"The diatonic degrees, both major and minor, the Mother of all simple and
sound melodies, represent the picture of a family each member of which occu-
pies its own proper place and appears in due time ... The chromatic degrees
represent the picture of a great number of kindred families united by the com-
mon head" (164, p. 185).
** One should make a distinction between Schenker's term Our-moll and simi-
lar terms used by Hauptmann and Riemann. Schenker himself insisted on this
distinction pointing out that the latter meant an actual mixture of scales whereas
he was referring to the sum of all possible versions national of mixtures (147,
p.87)
*** Schenker differentiated between non-modulatory and modulatory chro-
maticism on the basis of the following principle: if the chromatic tones are
followed by a return to the preceding diatonic system, chromaticism "func-
tions in the diatonic sense" (to use Schenker's own expression), otherwise,
beginning from this chromatic change one should accept the new diatonic
system and view this chromaticism as a means of modulation (147, p. 330).
Schenker did not reject the phenomenon of modulation but narrowed down
its sphere of action (e.g., confining it to the development sections of large-scale
compositions). According to this theory, a tonal composition is invariably
monotonal.
Evolution of The Concept of Chromaticism 31
* The very idea of alteration early in this century was perceived as insufficient
to explain many harmonic phenomena. In his work Die organische Harmoniclehre
Robert Mayrhofer expressed this attitude in a most categorical way: "Altera-
tion is non-existent" (110, p. 210). In his other treatise the same author writes:
"The idea of alteration is a bulwark to hamper any investigation into the
essence of the matter (109, p. 134).
32 Chromaticism
Bartok: "The study of peasant music ... led me ... to an absolutely free
treatment of each separate tone in our chromatic twelve-tone system."
found their way into music theory. An interesting idea has been put
forward in Gheorghe Firca's research study Modal Bases of Diatonic Chro-
maticism (48). The author believes that in contrast to chromaticism in
harmonic tonality (and dodecaphony as the ne plus ultra of chromati-
cism of the tonal type), in 20th-century music chromaticism of a new
type asserts itself, which he defines as "diatonic chromaticism". Of
course, this term is far from being very original (see above) and accu-
rate, but its essence is most important: "This is the first structural type
of chromaticism to be based not on the alteration of diatonic elements
in a particular manner but on a kind of transposition of the elements of
a given diatonic system to a certain chromatic system" (48, p. 134). In
contrast to the conventional explanation of chromaticism by means of
diatonicism, in this case diatonicism is explained by chromaticism as it
were. According to the author, diatonic chromaticism is a self-contained
system which has arisen in the course of the evolution of modal sys-
tems, as a result of a structural and historical synthesis (a 'resume of the
entire history of modality'). From the above discussion it would appear
that 20th-century music theory has gradually developed the concept of
an integral chromaticism which, transcending the notion of alteration,
is in principle unrelated to diatonicism and has no need for it to explain
its inner relationships. Moreover, the genesis of various structural types
of integral chromaticism can be traced in sufficient detail for its stages
to be reconstructed. However, at a certain moment a substantive change
occurs and, for example, 'Webern's dense system of pure chromaticism'
arises (90, p. 331), in which the texture is divided into harmonic fields,
each of them containing at least one chromatic (i.e., semitone-based)
relationship, the number of such relationships growing with the thick-
ening of the harmonic fabric ('organic chromaticism', to use Henri
Pousseur's term; see 132, p. 54). And music theory not only has to recre-
ate this picture of the historical development of such phenomena but
also to describe their characteristic features in adequate terms.
2
CHROMATICISM AS A CATEGORY
OF MUSICAL THINKING
* Each of the twelve semitones in the musical system of ancient China was
'individual', not identical with any another, and associated with the calendar,
ceremonial procedures, corresponding to one of the twelve months, the posi-
tion of stars in the skies, etc. (176, pp. 353-357).
38 Chromaticism
As was mentioned above, one of the first to use the word 'genus' as a
scientific term was Aristotle, though Plato had also employed it (to
define his 'ideas'), and it can be encountered in the teaching of the
Stoics to denote a combination of many indivisible mental subjects
(41, p. 287). But in his treatises Aristotle made systematic use of this
concept, treating it on a par with other categories and as part of the
following hierarchy of judgements about the essence of a phenomenon:
definition - property - genus - attendant.
Chromaticism as a Category of Musical Thinking 39
-c;;; -- e n
;::;-
C{h u iou-hI - (£ - J.U( - e rlL Ti5o- 11_ _ d
) ,~ I ~
~H J ~H:~r :::.
.......
;::;.
[j)'
~
through this approach. One should duly take into account the compound
character of this type of modal system ('mixodiatonicism', the term
coined by Yuri Kholopov) in which these cross-relations constitute an
inalienable component (a similar situation arose in medieval music with
the dual character of the 9th step).
The increase in generic categories allows us to take a more flex-
ible approach to the correlation of diatonic and chromatic elements. In
fact, European chromaticism occupies an intermediary position be-
tween the two 'pure' states of pitched texture (diatonic and hemitonic,
the latter representing the ultimate state of chromaticism), being a con-
sequence of their interaction, their waxing and waning to various de-
grees (let us recall the idea propounded by Aristides Quintilianus who
defined the chromatic genus as the spectrum of colour lying immutably
between black and white).
Scheme 4
Scheme 5
Each genus of the intervallic system constitutes the unity of the indi-
vidually characteristic scale and a definite principle of tonal relation-
ships, i.e. a mode, in the corresponding system of tuning. The
substitution of one concept for another (instead of an in-depth study of
the issues) is one of the reasons for the current divergent interpreta-
tions of diatonicism and chromaticism. But the concept of scale is wider
than the concept of mode (the 7-step diatonic scale incorporates seven
diatonic modes: the Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian,
Aeolian and Locrian)*. It predetermines the advantages of the scale-
oriented approach (as a more general one) for defining the genus of the
intervallic system. Nevertheless, the diatonic/chromatic problem can
be solved only in relation to a mode, and not in an abstract way. The
facts of its historical evolution should not be overlooked, for the change
in the technique of presentation (polyphonic instead of monodic) was
likely to change the concept of mode as well. The generic categories of
the monodic modal system also traversed the path from monody to
polyphony, from intervallic-melodic to homophonic composition, from
modality to tonality. The change in the category of genus has been closely
linked with the evolution of the modal system.
A mode in the context of harmonic tonality fundamentally dif-
fers from a mode in monodic music. A chord in polyphony is not just a
form of statement but also a form of existence. The succession of chords
forms an organic part of tonality and reveals its structure. The differ-
ence between modal and tonal systems, the latter functional in its
* The correlation between the intervallic system and the mode represents the
relationship between the material basis and its interpretation.
Chromaticism as a Category of Musical Thinking 45
lation, which was brought to the fore, entailed the differentiation of chro-
matic phenomena into non-modulatory and modulatory ones. This dif-
ferentiation could be actualised provided the boundaries of tonality had
been defined (this appears to have been the most important point within
the framework of this type of musical thinking).
Chromatic harmony is a particular, albeit very important, stage
and a major component in the developmental process of tonality. But
tonality is an equivocal phenomenon which requires historical differ-
entiation. The difference between the earlier and later stages in its de-
velopment had been reflected in the varying approaches to harmonic
tonality in the "theory of fundamental progressions" (thoroughbass)
and the "theory of functions".
According to the theory of fundamental progressions which
views a scale as the basis of tonality, the chords on the seven diatonic
steps form a closed system (strict diatonicism ensures the closed nature
of tonality). The key chord (tonic) asserts itself as a result of the domi-
nant effect of the seventh chord on the 5th step (the sole step on which
a chord containing a major third and minor seventh is possible within
the diatonic scale).
The theory of functions treats a scale (which forms the basis for
chord progressions - the vertical projection of a mode) not as giving
rise to tonality but as a phenomenon of second order, arising from the
combination of functional chords (the operation of a function allows
for a certain freedom in the selection of a chordal 'representative'). There-
fore the theory of functions reflects a later stage in the progress of har-
monic tonality at which it "presents itself not as a closed cycle of scale
degrees but as, in principle, an infinitely extendable embodiment of
relationships directed to one center, the tonic" (37, p. 158). By the 19th
century the diatonic nature of the system had ceased to be taken for
granted. The functional mechanism of harmonic tonality (where a cer-
tain function may be performed by chords which vary in their tone-
structure) caused "an expansion from the outside". The use of contiguous
elements of different tonalities* and the extension of vertical relation-
------ - - - - - - - - -
* Boris Asafyev describes this process (as applied to the music of Glinka and
Mendelssohn, in the following manner: "Both marches - Glinka's Tchernomor's
March and Mendelssohn's Wedding March - in their own way solve the prob-
lem of the romantic C major absorbing its 'neighbouring' tonalities achieving
the fullest possible synthesis and unifying them so that melodically their
sonority is perceived by the ear as C major" (12, p. 224). Though the tonality
which unifies Tchernomor's March is E major, rather than C major, the observa-
tion itself is incontrovertible.
Chromaticism as a Category of Musical Thinking 47
ships expanded the concept of tonal harmony: in the 20th century it has
become quite possible to place any interval or chord on any step of a
tonality*. In this way the transformation of diatonic tonality into chro-
matic tonality may be viewed as an evolutionary pro-cess consisting of
several stages: the compound chromaticism of classical tonality (its ini-
tial element being the 7-step diatonic scale) based on the principle of
"from the particular to the general"; major/minor tonality (the inter-
mediate stage); modern chromatic tonality covering the former's modu-
latory space without modulation as such (compound chromaticism at
the level of the stepwise structure of tonality perceived through the
relationship of roots of chords within tonality and the contrast between
their tone-structures.
Textbooks on harmony, as a rule, treat diatonicism in its own
right (not for instance, as modified pentatonicism) and chromaticism
exclusively as a combination of diatonic elements, a modification of
the diatonic basis. Hence chromaticism is viewed as 'displaced
diatonicism', in other words contextually. This tradition was initiated
by Fran<;ois Gevaert who in his treatment of the chromatic mode as con-
sisting of twelve harmonic steps distinguished intervals and chords
chromatic in their essence and composition (29, p. 153). Georgy Catoire
who based his own theory on Gevaert's system (28, pp. 69-70) identi-
fied three spheres in the chain of fifths: diatonic, chromatic and ultra-
chromatic (Gevaert considered only the first two). Each sphere is diatonic
in itself but chromatically related with the other two (it should be noted
that Catoire's 17-tone chromatic system, strictly speaking, does not in-
volve 17 steps, having arisen from equal temperament and being, as
Alexei Ogolevets pointed out, merely of orthographic nature).
Such an approach calls for the justification of the concept of chro-
maticism through diatonicism and can be explained by the fact that
diatonic elements potentially give rise to chromaticism (European
chromaticism may be regarded as having originated from an "increased
density of diatonic elements").
* Widely known are the statements made on this matter by Sergei Taneyev and
Bela Bartok (see above). Alois Haba's idea is also noteworthy: "Any tone can
be unified with another tone of any tonal system. Any chord of two or more
tones can be unified with any other chord of two or more tones of any tonal
system" (62, p. VI). The free disposal of each separate tone of the chromatic
system entailed a change in the concept of chromaticism which appears in
such a context not as the sum total of certain elements but as the consequence
of thinking in an integral system in which each tone is essential.
48 Chromaticism
Scheme 6 (a)
Mixture
Scheme 6 (b)
1. Antiquity
Just a few specimens of ancient Greek musical art have been preserved
to date in the form of papyrus fragments and inscriptions engraved in
stone or recorded in medieval treatises. Most of them date from late
Antiquity, providing merely progressions of tones in Greek alphabeti-
cal notation (without indicating the specifics of instrumental accompa-
niment if any, the nature of sound production, and performance
details). Therefore in the reconstruction of these fragments, in addition
to the problem of writing them down in the modern system of notation
alien to ancient musical art, there arises the additional problem of the
proper interpretation of that specific soundworld, a question which
could hardly be solved at the present stage.
Out of those preserved to date we have selected for our analysis
three examples in three different genera of ancient Greek music to give
an idea of their ethos and mode of organization.
Scalia, the epitaph of a certain Seikilos, engraved on a tombstone,
a small round marble column, dating from circa 1st century A.D., be-
longs to the lyric genre. Its characteristic feature is the simplicity of its
musical structure. In its intonation Scalia follows the melodic model,
apparently widespread in ancient times, which amounts to a successive
unfolding of the underlying mode (Phrygian in ancient Greek termi-
nology). The actualisation of this idea is fully manifest in its form whose
facets make up hestates. The line of the principal tones represents a full
scale of the Phrygian mode. Owing to the specific character of Scalia its
diatonic coloration is sustained throughout. Its diatonicism is structured
through the combination of two tetrachords, an organisation which is
reflected in the structure of fourths and fifths underlying its melodic
line (Ex. 6).
The Delphic Hymn ta Apalla I has a more intricate structure
belonging to mixed melos in Greek terminology. Moreover, this frag-
ment reveals a mixture within one system of the unified (synemmenon)
and divisible (diezeugmenan) tetrachords. This explains the occasional
immediate succession of three 0) semitones, which was not generally a
feature of ancient Greek music, being more in the vein of our under-
standing of chromaticism (Ex. 7).
56 Chromaticism
""\
.... .~
....
.'~"
~
l;: I
• I
~
~
......
I
~
~
"
I
~
\
~
.t-I ~
I, .~
"
-....;:
~
~
1
.....
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.-.!.. :!Ii('"
~
~ ~
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1i
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:::: ....
on
l::
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:E
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Q
t---:
>< 00
~ 00
58 Chromaticism
1821 reforms). The octuple hierarchy of the four authentic and four plagal
modes, characteristic of Byzantine modal system, took shape during
the Hagia Polis period.
The problems arising in comparison of the Byzantine and West-
European musical systems can be explained, on the one hand, by the
difficulties involved in deciphering the written records of Byzantine
musical art and, on the other, by the nature of the evolution of musical
practices in Byzantium and Europe, the influence of local musical tradi-
tions and the ensuing changes, which were quite substantial in most
cases. The fact that such interrelationship is indisputable has been con-
firmed by relevant research studies (see, for instance, 171, pp. 3,202). In
addition to the influence exerted by Byzantine musical practice on West-
ern-European music, one should also take into consideration the com-
mon sources of these musical cultures which were rooted, according to
expert opinion, in early Christian church chants, borrowed partly from
the Judaic divine service, Syrian hymns (translated subsequently into
the Greek language), and their affinity as a result of the common ori-
gins in the Middle East and the Mediterranean region. The influence of
Byzantine church music, because of the orthodox nature of church art
in general, extended even over to Finnish church music (through the
Slavic tradition; 152, p. 6) whose melodies have retained close links with
the Byzantine musical tradition.
The study of the characteristic features of the Byzantine modal
system calls for a clear-cut differentiation of the historical stages in its
evolution. Some 19th-century music scholars used to describe this sys-
tem drawing on the theoretical treatises written within their own cen-
tury, a practice which should be recognised as invalid.
The music played in the Greek church today is based mostly on
the principles and notational techniques worked out early in the 19th
century by Chrysanthos of Madytos (and his disciples and followers-
Gregory the Protopsalt and Chourmouzios the Archivist). According to
Chrysanthos, his musical system was founded on the musical practice
of the ancient classical period. His reform amounted to inventing a new
solmisation system, a new interpretation of the traditional Byzantine
chants and their transcription into the new notational system.
Chrysanthos is also accredited with systematisating the Greek modes
and defining their precise interrelationship (115, p. 87). Gregory the
Protopsalt contributed by clarifying the rules of modulation from one
mode to another and specifying the signs designating such modula-
tions (phthorai) which were divided into three genera: diatonic, chro-
matic and enharmonic (with the corresponding notational symbols).
Chourmouzios was also engaged in studies of musical orthography,
62 Chromaticism
this respect Yevgeny Gertzman writes: " . .. the later changes in the
traditional neumes of the earlier manuscripts should be regarded not
as accidental and isolated phenomena but as representing a definite
tendency in the evolution of musical thinking" (54, p. 247; Ex. 10). More-
over, one should bear in mind the notorious conservatism on the part of
the Eastern Orthodox Church as regards its music. On the other hand,
the absence of indications in the theoretical sources regarding the use of
chromatic and enharmonic tones (and the precise signs noted down
and employed for these purposes) does not necessarily imply the non-
existence of the phenomenon as it were. The reason may be either the
insufficient differentiation between the modes of the various genera
during that period or the fact that oral tradition was followed in the
practical study of such matters (for details, see 3, p. 7).
The standpoint on the presence of non-diatonic elements in
Byzantine music expressed in the theoretical literature is grounded not
only on the corresponding extracts from the treatises (which strictly fol-
lowed the Greek tradition and remained 'aloof' from current musical
~
Vi·
,..,..
Ex. 10. Various interpretations of traditional neumes at different Q
-..;
historical stages r=;.
;;:,
~
-
"'1:3
~
~
n
~
d
;:i
;;:,
,..,..
r=;
Vi·
;:i
0\
V1
66 Chromaticism
Scheme 7
d
f e
d
g
c
.u.-.
(j)
;::l
S
<l)
......::::.-.
::::
til
N
>,
co
.S
::::
0
......
.-.
..-.
(j)
0
P-.
(j)
::::
til
~
N
,....,
><
~
70 Chromaticism
Deuteros, Nenano; enharmonic - Mode III, Plagal III) existed in the Mid-
dle Ages (something which is still hard to assert today), the possibility
arises of varied interpretations of identical sequences of neumes
('formulas') in different modes which do not belong to the same genus
(depending on the intervallic structure of these modes). Such varied
readings may also create quite a different musical effect (Ex. 13).
.~
ul ......
~
~ ~ ~
I ~
~ (
I
~ ~
'E
a
~
c:
~
~, ~ ~
"'~
~
Q ";::)
cc::! 1\
~
~
\.\,I
~ 'N
Q
>.
'"d I
0
8
........
l! ....
...IOi
til
(fJ I .sr
P-.
Q)
~,
,:::::
......
..... ~
,:::::
til
N
>.
~
o::l
........
i
0
.....,:::::
Q)
I
8b.O ~
~
'-'
~ ~
til
~
!-<
........
,~
'b ~
-< ~
~
......
~
x
72 Chromaticism
:(
I
--
~
~
I
3 I
t
,I::i
~
~ ~
~
.,.
~
~
,
~ ~
~ Q
""I
,
... I»
c:p> ~
.
~
:s' ~
.r.:.
(~ ~
~
U· I
:>-, ~
'"d I ~
0 ~
~
0
E
~ v ..> ~
.....te :t: I.Q
I
(/J
(/J ~
;::::s :s ~
0::: 4- I
.....
~ ~
~(/J
.....te w
c.J
c;::: ">I..
a;
bfJ ~
~
~
te
.....'"'
~
CJ)
~
u
,.o~ -.c:
te~
l!)
,.....
~
<t:
UJ
,
~
><
~ ~ ./ ~
74 Chromaticism
I:
:s
~
:s
"-l:s
!
:s
~
..,J
()
-.s:
v ~
d
)Co
~
::::c
~
~
....
~
.-t I
Q)
co,.)
u
'00 c:..,l
0
;:J
E £
.......
ro
> f
.....
(]J
::t
"d -e:r
(]J
lo.
E Q
.....::: -S:
-.)
::: cS
.....
0
..... )(.
0
ro QJ
.....
;:J ::r: @
~
\0
......
>< 00
~
Historical Types of Chromaticism 77
* Knud Jeppesen, for instance, believes that the entire history of music might
justifiably be considered a "history of the leading tone" - from its emergence
in Gregorian chants and its initial careful avoidance, through its fully acknow-
ledged role to its introduction in the modes in which it was 'alien' - and then,
with the transition of polyphony, its establishment in cadences, which eventu-
ally led to all Wagnerian and post-Wagnerian chromaticism (72, p. 69).
Similar ideas were expressed by Ernst Kurth and Boris Asafyev.
'-J
Ex. 17. One of the ways used to disguise extraneous pitches in medieval music 00
9
d
~
:;:,
.....
n'
c;;'
~
Historical Types of Chromaticism 79
is:: "-VI
I...
~ po
,
.., ( ~~~
..«
~
]~
~1Q." ~ ~l
Ex. 21. Le me qui doie (motet)
~
:-
~I '"'. I
Bele
.~
~ I-
~
I'
82 Chromaticism
* Among other things, we can judge the extent of such practice from state-
ments made by contemporaries: "It is not false but genuine and necessary, for
no motet or rondel can be sung without it" (32, Vol. 3, p. 18).
Ex. 22. Le serviteur (chanson, 15th century)
C-
Historical Types of Chromaticism
83
00
~
n
~
d
;::
;::,
f:f.
11)'
;::
Historical Types of Chromaticism 85
)(
'""
:>-, ::s
I-<
.....;::::s ~
~
Q)
£
u
~
.....
"'i'
,.....
'-'
~
;::::
<ow
::::
;::::
~
a.i
bJ:J
til
K
.........
0
Cfl
..f
N
><
~
Ex. 25. Guillaume Legrant. Credo (15th century)
. \ t~oeoJ t'":\
LChClttl}]
~
(ii'
...,..
a
....,
~'
;;:,
~
-
~
Vl
""
-Q..
9
d
~
;;:,
...,..
~'
(ii'
~
00
'-l
88 Chromaticism
4. The Renaissance
* After the use of this technique in Josquin's Absalom [iii mi, it remained in
vogue among 16th-century composers (Rare, Marenzio et al). Despite the seem-
ingly 'tonal' association of triads, with their fundamental tones related by
fourths and fifths, such progressions were used primarily for coloristic effects
(in particular, the effect of 'color thickening' and a departure from the 'tonal'
centre).
90 Chromaticism
VOl
I
-k I c VOl cltt ¥ - ~pl - W - VOl -k I c VOl cltt ¥ -
.\
~pl - W -
~
- Yv\ 1-
~~L \1A) -
I
C~ \~ - \~t - t~ - i.e {':1 - ,u.O' 1(0 - l'~ li. '>«
\!)
tv
Ex. 26. Romano Micheli. Madrigale a sei voci in Canone 0 voi che
sospirate (Continued)
9
Cl
~
:;::,
,..,..
;::).
Vi'
~
71t. - gA.. - it. "0" 1t1; 1i~ p'L~ {Q'tdIX K.jo'l.- tt, ~Ofl mi -t it pi If 1CuLa. ~- 't..t I &01. - f:c tit.. u 11/;-J( - -- 'U.£.
Historical Types of Chromaticism 93
..
Ex. 28. Nicola Vicentino. jerusalem
I
,-
o~
I
.....
0.-<
,.
~
OJ
u
:>ro I
..-
ou QI
Z
-
\0
0\
n
;:s-<
2l
3i
i=:l
.......
n'
c;;'
3i
Historical Types of Chromaticism 97
to the enharmonic genus so that a student singing these two ordini to-
gether could appreciate all the diversity inherent in one and the same
piece of music ... To test this, such com-positions could be sung in three
ways" (167, p. 67): (a) without any accidental signs, i.e. without b
*
rotundum and quadrum, the chromatic or enharmonic dieses (= the dia-
*'
tonic genus); (b) with the signs band the chromatic diese, but without
the enharmonic diese (= the chromatic genus); and (c) with all the signs
as notated (= the mixed chromatic/ enharmonic genus).
Let us conduct the experiment offered by Vicentino: bringing all
the voices of the madrigal together and notating it in the three versions
(Exs. 30a, b and c).
In this case the chromatic and the enharmonic versions present
themselves as accidental alterations of the musical fabric whose sub-
stance remains unchanged despite the modifications chosen by the
singer. On the other hand, the ancient genera transferred by Vicentino
onto his contemporary method of counterpoint represent the essential
categories which largely determine the concrete musical ethos.
Vicentino's striving to attain 'miraculous effects' through these genera
can hardly be wondered at. According to some music scholars, here we
observe a discrepancy between aesthetics and compositional technique:
the accidental aspect of the compositional technique (the chosen genus)
turns out to be essential in aesthetic terms and, vice versa, the essence
of the compositional technique (the contrapuntal structure) appears
accidental from an aesthetic point of view (35, p. 123). Besides, the mad-
rigal Soav' e dole' ardore in its three possible realizations illustrates the
conventional practice of contemporary musicians of differentiating
between abstract counterpoint and its concrete harmonic elaboration.
The latter was considered as the secondary, 'upper' layer in the
music's realisation, often left at the performers' discretion (and in most
cases not stipulated in the notation). As a result, such compositions were
based, like Vicentino's, on the abstract contrapuntal framework, identi-
cal in its diatonic, chromatic and enharmonic versions, whose intervals
within the boundaries of their intervallic class remained undefined,
allowing for modifications and changes (Dahlhaus views such para-
doxes in Vicentino's music as a manifestation of his "manneristic think-
ing"; 35, pp. 123, 125).
teristic of the stile moderno (for example, the triad conceived as an entity,
rather than merely as a sum of intervallic relationships, a conception
which had been established as early as in Zarlino's theory), but not as
yet taking the form it was to have in music between the 17th and 19th
centuries, primarily as regards functional relationships. His term
'atonality' used in this context must be accepted with great reservations
as one which describes the principles of transitional musical style in
view of the current state of musical evolution (between modality and
tonality) and indicates the lack of any classical type of major / minor
tonality* which, strictly speaking, could not have been in existence -
simply because such phenomena historically preceded, rather than
followed tonality. Each phenomenon of this kind would appear to call
for a historical approach and analytical comprehension according to its
own laws. The more so here as the chromaticism of the late 16th to early
17th centuries signifies the initial stage in the transition to harmonic
tonality, on the one hand, and the culmination of the development of
medieval modality, on the other. It is this factor which should predeter-
mine the method of research: one has to bear in mind that the phenom-
ena which created a system during the period of harmonic tonality had,
at the end of the 16th century, merely an incidental function within this
system, and can be related to their subsequent manifestations only with
hindsight.
One of the main features characteristic of compositional tech-
nique of the 16th to early 17th centuries (and of the earlier period as
well) is its static character (in contrast to the 'dynamic' functional mecha-
nism of harmonic tonality), which can be explained by a different type
of musical thinking based not on the subordination of certain chords to
others (as in the functional tonal system) but on their coordination with
each other in a modal system lacking the concept of a tonal centre**.
Thus, for instance, the tonic-dominant relationship of the chords in
Gesualdo's madrigal Merce! is founded not on the principle of subordi-
nation inherent in the tonal system, but constitutes merely a local
device for combining two separate chords, which neither extends to the
following chords nor ensues as a consequence from the previous one.
In this way chromaticism manifests itself through the combination of
transposed diatonic elements. According to the classification offered
* In this case, though, the direction of the chords changes and their intervals
turn into a minor third.
108 Chromaticism
'"""'
ct
r.fJ
0
~
~
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-
0
'"d
ct
;:::i
r.fJ
Q)
C)
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r.fJ
Q)
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on
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ct
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Q)
~
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-on
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ct
ct
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tr:i
rfJ
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Historical Types of Chromaticism 109
......
......
o
n
;::;.0
d
~
l::l
......
n'
<no
~
Historical Types of Chromaticism 111
J:.r..
~
o
te
[fJ
.-
,..Q
.,....;
"d
Ex. 39a. Fresccobaldi. Ricercare dopo di Credo (Fiori musicali)
l-
D B ES E f fis G
Historical Types of Chromaticism
Es (mi)
113
114 Chromaticism
.~
t:::: 4J
......
t::::
E
2
u
t::::
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lJ..I
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Cf)
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u
co
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rf)
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Historical Types of Chromaticism 115
1....U
~ I
.,. .....
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~ tf
r~ .:r:J
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116 Chromaticism
a
[
~
""1:3
iJl
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b
n
~
d
;:1
l::l
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r;
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c
;:1
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118 Chromaticism
B
T
A
Ex. 41a. Bach. Cantata No. 12
S
120 Chromaticism
Tesus
P
chi da la vi - ta
Andante (; : 92)
L a prima parte 8eDZa replica ,
J\ 6 4 6 ~ I I i i •
3.
2
~
a !
128 Chromaticism
V)
a
;..;
~
~
<:::
<::u
::::
'\::i
·21
;,...
""t::
rio
rJl
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ro
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.... [
ro
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~
.D
ro'
\0
-::t< J ~
><
~
Historical Types of Chromaticism 131
nb] minor .s T 1) ,
mQjur tlV
fl
Alle~ro CO~O ~~
Passionato
sf
sf sf
Historical Types of Chromaticism 133
direction which, having used up all the twelve harmonic steps, contin-
ues the process of expanding chordal tonality into the enharmonic sphere
(Ex. 48).
Mixture of modes and the development of subsidiary key areas
in a chromatic relationship to the tonic centre are the key devices with
which chromaticism penetrates tonality. The imitation of definite, em-
pirically discovered, types of chordal progression and functional rela-
tionship at different levels of the tonal system and the increasingly free
disposition of tonal resources in creating an integrated harmonic struc-
ture paved the way for the new concept of 20th-century tonality. In its
initial stages the phenomenon of surface chromaticism as a succession
of semitones had lesser implications, being confined in most cases to
the melodic level. Chromaticism was becoming predominantly com-
pound in character as a result of the chromatic relationship between
fundamental tones and the harmonic steps of tonality.
However the above should not imply an underestimation of the
role of alteration and leading tones in the development of modern chro-
matic systems. The attendant difficulty in solving the diatonic/ chro-
matic problem arises from the aforementioned extension of the concept
of tonality and due consideration for the factors of tonality and tonics.
In the Prelude to Wagner's Tristan und Isolde (Ex. 49) the tonic in the key
tonality of A minor is almost invariably a logically inferred rather than
an actual tonic centre (though the cellos' phrase in the first two bars
outlines a fifth on the tonic). The actual tonic centre is represented by
the 'Tristan-chord', which is non-diatonic in its relation to the key to-
nality. This chord constitutes a micro mode which attracts other harmo-
nies to itself. And any explanation of its relationship with the following
chord simply on the basis of leading tones as the prime cause of the
resulting chromatic effect can hardly be considered definitive. Leading
tones reveal the genesis of the chord (a stepwise alteration of a Phrygian
cadence, according to Arnold Schering) but this does not describe the
function of this chord in a new context as an independent (integral),
rather than altered chord. While analysing the 'intensive alteration' style
of harmony in Tristan (the term coined by Ernst Kurth), at this stage in
the evolution of the tonal system one should take into account the com-
pound character of tonality, the dialectics of vertical and horizontal re-
lationships and the possible changes in the functional vectors of tonal-
ity. But even a differentiation between melodic and chordal steps may
serve here a premise for solving the problem under consideration. For
the 'dense' chromaticism of the first 17 bars of the Prelude is melodic in
its nature, and though it affects the chordal structure of the tonality, it
fails to alter its basis in diatonic stepwise progressions.
134 Chromaticism
,.....
-----
,.....
,.....
I
N
0
,.....
s
s
.....,
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s
0,)
0,)
:>
0
S
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~
N
00'
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til
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00
~ ~
><
~
Historical Types of Chromaticism 135
FINALE
Prestissimo (J .12) t I. I I •
••
3
~t
LD
><
~
4
CHROMATIC SYSTEMS IN
20TH-CENTURY MUSIC
1. Expanded tonality
1 2 3 5
4
-
7 8 9 10
6
146 Chromaticism
al Fine
briose
8 >- :
I
,
11032
148 Chromaticism
rf")
o
Z
.....rtrt
o~
rJl
o
~
rt
i:S
~
.9::
'0
~
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P-.
t-..:
LD
><
I:.LI
Ex. 58. Sofia Gubaidulina. In croce Chromatic Systems in 20th-Century Music 151
~
~
~-
Is
152 Chromaticism
n
~
d
;1
;::,
,..,..
r;'
en
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CIl
,..,..
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CIl
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N
a,..,..
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I
n
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r;'
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(Jl
C;J
154 Chromaticism
Mabige Vlertel .
IlIleilltl FIMu .
.. ,.01. Plote •.
101»0...
I.D ia B.
a KleriDetteD.
mia D.
BdlllariDette
ia B.
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a PAlott•.
m.
KODtnl.,ott.
LD.
• HO.lleT In P.
mly.
J. D.
a TrompeleA Ia B.
m.
LD .
• Po.........
ULIV.
B.lIt......
Harle.
C.laata.
L
VloIiDaD.
D.
Viola.
VioloDceU.
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Ex. 60. Schoenberg. Fiillf Orchesterstiicke Op. 16 (Farben) (Continued)
u
XL n u.
LGl r.\Ql
Or.n.1 II
I.
O~.
m.
&~I JI.
L. Ia.
IU.
II Ia D.
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I.D.
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m
It~.
1.1.
lit. ia ,.
Il'.
I. II.
-rr,.1a •.
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....LD.
D!.
~
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I.
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Or. PI. J. U.
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m.
lei.•.
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.,.... III
I. II
III IV
I. II
Trp is B.
III
poor
III
am.
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YI.1.11
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n.
Edition Patane Sole Km. 3 ""
Ex. 60. Schoenberg. Fun! Orchesterstiicke Op. 16 (Farben) (Continued)
I.III
I.III
II
XI
I.III
XI
I.III
I.III
IV
Viol I.
Viol I.
Viol I.
Viol I.
D.
Jede Note soon so lang sushalten wie vorgezaichnet, aber auch nicht lhnger!!!
Edition paters
Ex. 60. Schoenberg. Flint OrclzL'stcrstiickL' Op. 16 (FnrbL'l1) (ContilluL'd)
#
86
II.Fl.I.D
Or.nl.D
LD
011.
m.
1.D.IaB.
II.
m.iaD
1kJ.1a I.
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he·
m.
In
H.... '.
mlv
I.D.
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m
I.D. i
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LD
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(runls.it.,
E.lIUon
Ex. 60. Schoenberg. Fiillf Orchesterstiicke Op. 16 (Farben) (Contillued)
.1
ID.I'I.LD.
Or.n.I.D.
IJI
~.
m
~I.H.
111. ....
KJ.
IILIaD
au.....
.... I.IL
m.
II~
LIL
1h.1a P.
lILlY
.lD.
Ttf.1a •. ~
m.
v..... I.
YloI.U.
160 Chromaticism
20th-century music (for analysis of this problem in its general form and
its concrete manifestations in some composers' work, see References
Nos 80, 82, 83 and 87).
The notion of creating tonality using any chords and the possi-
bility of their construction on any tone of the chromatic scale arises from
the twelve-step nature of modern music. The possibility in principle of
using any tonal element within a system expands the range of tonal
harmonies, but at the same time blurs the limits of the very concept of
tonality. The sensation of a certain centre which could be implied through
harmony, rhythm or timbre (Ex. 62) may serve as the most general crite-
rion of classifying a tonal system.
The key tonality of Rodion Shchedrin's prelude is explicitly clear,
for this composition is part of his cycle of preludes and fugues in all the
major and minor keys within a circle of fifths. It is characterised by the
statistical predominance of the tone b and chords based on this tone at
the principal junctures of the form and their emphasis in the metre and
rhythm. Moreover, the upper voice does not depart from the diatonic
scale in B minor. But the abundance of sharply dissonant chords in the
harmony, inherent in Shchedrin's starkly-colored music, is disorient-
ing, blurring the functional relationships in this type of tonality. The
logic of the tonal development is realised through the articulation of
structural chords, and prolongation chords linear in their origin, which
follow the complementation principle and strive for the twelve-tone
aggregate as their ultimate goal. The additional structural interval - a
seventh (major and minor) lends the chords a uniform character and
ensures a singularly bold tonal character.
The gradual change in techniques of employing the harmonic
material of tonality and the transformation of 'triadic' tonality into
merely one possible means of creating a harmonic language entail sub-
stantial changes in the structural procedures of chromaticism. Every so
often the principles of complementation and symmetry are used as an
additional structural device. But the principle of transposition gains
greater importance, in contrast to its role in the classical type of tonality
where its 'life' was perceived only in the process of consecutive modu-
lations. This can be explained by the following considerations. Since
the entire harmonic material (generated through twelve-tone com-
position in European music) is directly and immediately at hand, inde-
pendently of modulation, the latter seems to be redundant, and the
'modulatory' space is often exhausted as early as in the exposition of
the tonal space whose articulation now calls for different devices. The
more so as modern tonal systems have little in common with their
Chromatic Systems in 20th-Century Music 161
.
......
.
Ex. 61. Prokofiev. Peter and the Wolf
N
¢
162
- "..
~
-..J
Chromaticism
Chromatic Systems in 20th-Century Music 163
major and minor prototypes, and virtually any chord can become a tonic.
Thus, the concepts of tonality and chromaticism in modern pitch sys-
tems in most cases turn out to be inseparably linked and inconceivable
without each other.
2. Modal systems
Lento J ca 54
XI
Canon Pespressivo
Chromatic Systems in 20th-Century Music 165
5
1 Violoncello I
2
88
3
solo
1 Violoncello I
solo
3 5 1 Val II
sola
5
1 Vc.l
1010
1 Vc.II
11010
t VI.. I
3 5 10
sola
1 Val II
sola
1 Ve.!
solo
lVe.l
I Ve. D
8010
p RI p RI
- ~1l.l. - - - - -
~ ,.....;;-, -=i=I
Chromatic Systems in 20th-Century Music 173
pp :::::=-- rrr
Chromatic Systems in 20th-Century Music 175
"
[I
Vni
Vni
Vie
I
VI.
Ve.
Ve.
Ch.
Ch.
~ f' ..
< e: tTJ
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t=l
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r'
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o
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c.n
Chromatic Systems in 20th-Century Music 179
century, are fraught with a lack of stability, the need each time, even
within the scope of one musical piece, to select or even invent anew a
compositional technique. This primarily concerns the so-called free 12-
tone systems characterised by a great diversity of concrete methods in
pitch organisation. In a small piece, Down the Scale, from Rodion
Shchedrin's Concertino for mixed a cappella chorus, the idea behind
the pitch structure is realized through the etymological implications of
its title (stairs=scala=scale, in this case the chromatic scale). Both at the
level of the entire pitch structure and in its separate sections the compo-
sition represents the movement down the chromatic scale in the differ-
ent voices (in different 'stair-wells') - sometimes by 'steps' uneven in
their size, now 'jumping over more than one stair at a time' or 'shifting
from one foot to the other' (the chords at the junctures of the form are
not structural in the strict meaning of the word but merely the pauses
in this motion, the braking points on the 'steps of the stairs'). The com-
pletion of the twelve-note aggregate is realised within the first five meas-
ures, but the vertical relationships (the chords of quasi-structural and
prolongation significance) arise here from combination of lines, as a con-
sequence of chromatic linearity. Moreover, the idea of the 'scale' is borne
out in several parameters: (a) at the level of pitches; (b) rhythm ('brak-
ing' at the close, the augmentation of metre in the development sec-
tion); (c) dynamics (fff-dim.-ppp; see Ex. 69).
Ex. 69. Rodion Shchedrin. Concertino for mixed chorus (Down the
Scale)
Ex. 69. Rodion Shchedrin. Concertino for mixed chrus (Down the Scale) (Continued)
~
~
~
IS
3
~
Q..
Q..
.~
Chromaticism
Chromatic Systems in 20th-Century Music 181
.·····8······.
:ffr-r-, .
V' p pp- pp
~.' :JI:
r--- a-----, ,----- 3-----.
I { _.. "..--.:. f I
~ ~ .ff ft-.. f
~
V
p v
I L....L
4
L
6 4
8 r'TI 32 r-
1 8 JJ~ fJ ~
Y.::.
mj~
:r II
pp-
':£W.'
P-:-P - - J
pp 111/ IJ'
1'p~
q l :t r 'prt~'
Il
~
t)2
8
f L...L....J 5 ,--....... .(;:5 .. ______"
16 . I 3 I •
g 1IIf
-7"':" 3
8
p If!: p J7
pp
qf'pn ~~ f
~pp
·'..:r;1
It:
~ • .. ·3
[j 41~~ 83 f
2
8 F""'r- ff", 8
r---::---" f""3'
, pp 3 mf.
~iC~/,...
~
, PP.1-
3
Il ~ 5 i •.-.... 3
I
PJ
Iv 2
8
P f f 4
8 I
I
1tif~
..:II
lmf
raj
f
1\3{
P
I
]'
g
mf pp -
':£W•• -.-.-•• ----.---- •• _........ "-$
Ex. 70. Stockhausen. Klavierstiick No.2 (Continued)
.---7: 5---,
4
8
1I1f f.f mf
!.
~$ ,,!/,f.f
~
v 5 1 3
() I 8
... l!~ p
b=1 It,
~
f pp f 'f.f
f
3
8
1 2 1 1 1 2
1 1
184 Chromaticism
MiifJig J=120
4 2 I
3 "
'I
sfP ,A.
a tempo
10
12 13 14
15
15 15
15
14
18
15 16 17
186 Chromaticism
chords are then repeated with inverted interval structure, with the un-
derlying series in RI form transposed a fourth up. The subsequent har-
monic development is based wholly on the repetition and transposition
of this initial set, which involves none other than the assertion of the
complementation principle. The musical fabric is divided into clearly
discernible harmonic field-layers, with each succeeding development
being in principle predictable. Hence the contemplative and inwardly-
balanced character of the musical imagery, for the musical palette of the
composition is based on a combination of blocks of color, as in certain
formalised techniques of abstract painting. Its harmony is rather static,
the required dynamism being achieved through other expressive means
(rhythm, gradations of volume, articulation).
A more complicated case, based on the interaction of the prin-
ciples of chromatic connection and of complementation, is presented in
the third movement of the Piano Sonata No.3 by Boris Tishchenko
(Ex. 72). The exposition section consists of a type of variations based on
a cantus firmus. The musical material is organised in free voices in full
conformity with the principle of chromatic connection. The intervallic
group of 1.1 structure predominates, its transpositions forming 12-tone
fields. Their logical succession creates the dynamics of harmonic devel-
opment. The structure of the cantus firmus carries the imprint of
dodecaphonic technique: its four sections are organised as P-I-RI-R of
the initial microseries, representing a kind of model theme.
The structure of the entity is based on the complementation prin-
ciple. The prime form of the microseries and its inversion forms a se-
quence of ten tones, whose pitch-content (except for two remaining
tones) is repeated in symmetrical arrangement by the corresponding
retrograde inversion and retrograde forms of the microseries. Another
statement in retrograde of the entire cantus finnus (as a higher-order
retrograde form) closes up the structure and completes the realisation
of the chosen musical idea. The additional structural principle behind
the construction of the microsets is the fact that the initial tones of all
the statements are located along the steps of the symmetrical dimin-
ished mode (2.1.2.1.2.1.2.1). The interaction of the semi tonal and
complementation principles is determined by the structure of the
micro series (the group of intervals 1.5.1) which completes the twelve
tone aggregate in three transpositions.
The analysis of the above mentioned principles makes it possi-
ble to identify structural forms of chromaticism in modern music in
relation to various types of compositional procedures. At the same time
such analysis reveals that these principles are rarely employed in artis-
tic practice in their pure form, more often becoming part of the entire
Ex. 72. Boris Tishchenko. Sonata No.3 (3rd movement)
.I::: fJjp
o T RI R o I RI
188 Chromaticism
integrity and stability, without at the same time going beyond his own
long-established harmonic style (see Ex. 59).
The twelve-tone serial technique is often used alongside other
devices of pitch organisation, and is more suited in its nature to short,
less extended musical forms. Special semantic weight is attached in such
forms to additional means of musical expression to lend color to the
intervallic model which remains unvaried in the course of repetition.
Maximal integrity of harmonic structure is achieved by its establish-
ment on a definite pitch (following the analogy to tonality) and the use
of characteristic intervallic groupings in the episodes that are freer in
their structure. Despite the differences in their internal organisation, all
set-forms have one property in common - the prevalence of intervallic
groups of definite structure in the process of harmonic development.
These groups govern the vertical relationships and determine the
nature of the key motivic formulas, the dynamics in the formation of
such motives.
The technique of tropes turned out to be rather a one-off in 20th-
century music owing to the fact that Hauer's compositional method
occupies a far more modest place in the history of European music than
the technique evolved by Arnold Schoenberg, his contemporary (leav-
ing aside the relative aesthetic value of their compositions). Besides in
actual artistic practice the technique of tropes, especially in its non-
orthodox form, often amounts merely to a branch of dodecaphony, a
version of twelve-tone serial structure. Thus, the structure of the series
in the first movement of Alfred Schnittke's Sonata for Violin and Piano
No.1 is divided into two hexachords, the second of which represents
the retrograde inversion of the first. The composer's relatively free treat-
ment of dodecaphonic principles, particularly in building up vertical
relationships from the serial segments brings these two compositional
techniques closer to each other, leading to "the birth of tropes from the
spirit of a series" (Ex. 73).
Ex. 73. Alfred Schnittke. Sonata for Violin and Piano (1st movement,
scheme)
190 Chromaticism
~ klUfo di valse
Chromatic Systems in 20th-Century Music 193
The principle of equal temperament that has been used as the basis of
the European musical system for nearly three centuries, determining
the character of its inner tonal relationships, seems to impose a natural
limit on chromatic expansion. Any thirteenth step in fifths, taking us
into the domains of 'ultra-chromaticism', constitutes, within the given
system, almost a step towards 'diatonicism in an irregular location'. The
outward proliferation of the tonal system has proved impossible. Does
this natural limitation of the material basis mean that there might exist
a certain borderline in musical thinking provided by nature itself?
The history of musical development and current musical prac-
tice show that, along with the known potentialities (still far from ex-
hausted) inherent in the inner restructuring of the 12-step chromatic
system itself and the discovery of new principles underlying the rela-
tionship of its constituent elements, musical consciousness is ever look-
ing for ways to penetrate other domains of tonal relationship. One such
promising path is the introduction of microintervals. The Eurocentric
bias (involuntary in most cases) of 20th-century music theory is to a
large measure countered by the artistic phenomena now arising in mu-
sical practice, the current extensive exchange of cultural values, and
integration of artistic principles. From an evolutionary standpoint these
trends are manifested in the synthesis of certain singular features char-
acteristic of musical thinking in Western and Eastern musical cultures.
Microintervals as an essential trait of Asian traditional music are nowa-
days providing a major impetus for the further development of Euro-
pean music. At the same time rapid technological progress in the
second half of the 20th century and the current widespread use of elec-
tronic synthesisers in musical practice are producing a counter-trend in
European musical culture which is penetrating the microscopic dimen-
sion of sounds and passing into another system of coordinates, onto
other levels in apprehending the phenomenon of musical sound.
Microchromaticism as a special intervallic genus whose assimi-
lation by Western culture actually began more than two thousand years
ago (the ancient Greek enharmonic genus) is becoming in many mod-
ern compositions a major device of dramatic contrast, highlighting the
Chromatic Systems in 20th-Century Music 195
-
.s
U
( j)
0
"0
rJl
;.,
0
'-H
(j)
~
~
.....
u
....,
m
6
0;.,
,..c
u
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(/J
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ill
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tri
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Cl.l
Ex. 76. Edison Denisov. Concerto for Cello and Orchestra
: ::::pp
01
mf l.!l.
a.mp~
pp l.l!.
PI!
l..v.
"'mL.
ppl
p
fl
c. solo
01
10-'11
=
con sam.
PPEP
~ °
~
01
01
PPl! dolciss.
3
flU::
'1
II~
8
10
11
Ex. 76. Edison Denisov. Concerto for Cello and Orchestra (Continued)
;2.38
camp:'
6ang
Taml.
Vc. sol 0
~II~
1
2..
~
3
Ul.I
1l~
CONCLUSION
when the matter involved the ancient tetra chord used in a modern tonal
context.
(4) One of the first to offer a truly harmonic (rather than me-
lodic) explanation of chromaticism was Rameau who believed that chro-
maticism arose from the relationship of chords by thirds, i.e. directly,
not as an enrichment of the diatonicism. This idea was developed fur-
ther by Ernst Kurth who called the Romantic period in music 'the
epoch of thirds', which was for him synonymous to chromaticism
(according to Kurth, the use of a major third as a leading tone produced
a moment of tension and therefore forced out the tone inherent in the
diatonic scale).
(5) The study of chromatic phenomena in the music of the stile
moderno has revealed their dependence on the general processes of ex-
panding tonality, which in some cases was due to the development and
differentiation of such types of chromaticism as alteration, leading tones,
subsidiary key areas, and mixtures of modes. The evolution of all of
these phenomena in their various forms seems to span the entire his-
tory of the expansion of the boundaries of tonality and the change in
the concept of chromaticism in 20th-century music - when it becomes
integral, i.e. not a combination of separate elements, but a principle of
thinking in a unified system in which each sound has its own intrinsic
significance.
Drawing on current theories and interpretations of the problem
under consideration, this book offers a summary account of chromati-
cism, which defines its place as an intervallic genus within a system of
other genera - ekmelic, anhemitonic, diatonic, mixodiatonic, hemiolic,
and microchromatic. The natural relationship of chromatic phenomena
to tonal functions and form-building is also taken into account. The prin-
ciples underlying the classification of chromaticism have reflected the
need to specify criteria and provide clearer distinctions between me-
lodic and chordal chromaticism, alteration and leading tones, altera-
tion and chromaticism, diatonicism and integral chromaticism, modal-
ity and tonality. The number of chromatic types has increased, and the
way they are distinguished has changed somewhat and become more
precise. The differentiation of these concepts at the most detailed level
has called for a new systematisation of chromatic types to take into ac-
count the dynamics in the growth of their specific degree of 'density' of
harmonic tonal relationships - from modulatory chromaticism on the
one pole (when a limited proportion of chromatic elements added to
diatonic tonalities are most rarefied) to integral (hemitonic) chromati-
cism which symbolises that domain of the chromatic genus in which
the diatonic substratum is no longer perceptible and chromaticism is at
Conclusion 201
its densest. Numerous case studies have proved that this classification
helps in some instances to clarify certain intricate phenomena involved
in the interaction of non-diatonic and diatonic elements in tonal rela-
tionships.
This survey of historical types of chromaticism elucidates theo-
retical propositions and demonstrates the possibilities of their practical
application. This section furnishes information about little-known phe-
nomena, in particular, drawing on historical documents, theoretical
sources and surviving musical fragments, a specific study has been
made of the modal principles which characterized Byzantine music in
view of the evolution of chromaticism as a phenomenon. The final solu-
tion of the problem pertaining to the use of chromaticism in Byzantine
music (mainly it would appear in its ancient Greek sense) calls for fur-
ther clarification of a whole number of relevant circumstances. Such
clarification would rely on the study of Byzantine theoretical sources
and especially the principles of Byzantine notation. It would also in-
volve an explanation, in as consistent a manner as possible, of the prin-
ciples of transcribing the existing specimens of the musical practice of
the time. Another matter, still open to discussion, concerns the struc-
ture of modal scales, chromatic scales in particular, and the principles
of building up an integral tonal system. Generally speaking, one should
admit that the complete disappearance of chromaticism (even in its an-
cient Greek sense) from musical practice would have seemed illogical,
to say the least. There have never been periods of purely diatonic or
purely chromatic music. In some form or another chromaticism has al-
ways been in existence.
A broad panorama of chromaticism - from its inception in an-
cient times to our century - provides a basis for a study of the principles
underlying chromatic pitch systems in 20th-century music. For it is pre-
cisely this property of the present-day harmonic language that makes
it unique and singular.
A diversity of musical trends and compositional styles is a char-
acteristic feature of modern music. At the same time the current musi-
cal situation suggests that it can be perceived as an artistic phenom-
enon unified in its principal manifestations. This is mainly due to the
new tonal vocabulary that is now gradually emerging. Any concrete
inferences and generalisations have called, however, for a number of
qualifications and have prompted a study of the determinants of such
unity.
Theoretical explanation of the laws governing musical develop-
ment during recent decades, as especially regards precise details of its
pitch organisation, is a challenging task primarily due to the fact that
202 Chromaticism
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INDEX
Rameau, Jean-Philippe 24-29, 38, 40, 45, Wagner, Richard, 77 (f.), 133, 135
103,200 Webern, Anton 34, 43,173-174,181,193
Reese, Gustave 13, 19 Wellesz, Egon 63, 70
Regino of Prum 20 (f.) Werckmeister, Andreas 38
Riemann, Hugo 2, 9-10,19-20,29-30 (f.), West, M.L. 58 (f.)
52 Willaert, Adrian 89
Rimsky-Karsakov, Nikolay 169
Rare, Cipriano de 23, 89 (f.) Yarkho, V. 58 (f.)
Yavorsky, Boleslav 148, 169
Sachs, Curt 3, 37
Saint-Exupery, Antoine de 40 Zarlino, Gioseffo 23, 38-39, 99-100, 118